Lymphatic System

Learning Content:
 Primary Lymphatic Organs
 Secondary Lymphatic Organs
 Transport of Lymph Immunity
 Immune Responses

PRIMARY LYMPHATIC ORGANS

Bone Marrow
 soft and spongy tissue found inside our bones such ad pelvis and femus
 found inside the center of mossy bones
 it's like a factory producing blood cells, this includes red blood cells (which carry
oxygen), white blood cell (which fight infections) and platelets (which help blood
clot)
 Produces all the blood cells, including lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells). B-cells
mature in the bone marrow.
 there are two types of bone marrow
a. red bone marrow - contains stem cells that develop into these blood
cells.
b. yellow bone marrow - stores fat for energy production.

Thymus
 small organ located in the upper chest just behind the breastbone
 the thymus is an immune system organ where T-cells mature/

SECONDARY LYMPHATIC ORGANS

LYMPH NODES
 are located throughout the body, including in the neck, armpits, groin, and
abdomen. They act as filters for harmful substances.
 they act as filters for lymph fluid, trapping bacteria, viruses and other foreign
particles.

SPLEEN
 The spleen is located in the upper left side of the abdomen, just below the rib
cage, next to the stomach.
 helps to fight infections by producing immune responses and storing blood cell
that are ready to be developed in case of an emergency like an infection or injury.
TONSILS
• Tonsils are an integral part of the lymphatic system, playing a crucial role in immune
function. It is part of the secondary lymphatic organs.
• Tonsils are also located in the throat
• Tonsils contain lymphoid follicles, similar to lymph nodes.
• Tonsils are most active during childhood and adolescence.
• Tonsillectomy is one of the most common surgical procedures.

Three types of tonsils

1. Palatine tonsils (two): On either side of the back of the throat.
2. Pharyngeal tonsils or adenoids (one): In the nasopharynx, behind the nose or nasal
cavity
3. Lingual tonsils (one): On the base of the tongue.
Functions:
Filter pathogens
• Tonsils trap and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms entering
through the nose and mouth.
Activate immune response
• Tonsils contain immune cells (B cells and T cells) that recognize and respond to
pathogens.
Produce antibodies
• Tonsils produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens.
1. Aid in immune system development: Tonsils help develop and mature immune
cells.

Importance in Lymphatic System:

First line of defense
• Tonsils are among the first lymphoid tissues to encounter pathogens.
Part of MALT (Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue)
• Tonsils are part of the mucosal immune system, protecting mucous
membranes.
Communicate with other lymphoid tissues
• Tonsils interact with other lymphoid tissues, like lymph nodes and spleen.

Diseases:
Tonsillitis
• is an inflammation of the tonsils, which can be caused by either bacterial or viral
infections. The symptoms include swollen and inflamed tonsils, throat pain, fever,
and difficulty swallowing

Types of Tonsillitis
 Acute Tonsillitis
• Lasts around 10 days or less, commonly occurring in children
 Chronic Tonsillitis
• Long-term tonsil infection, often accompanied by bad breath and tonsil stones ¹.
 Recurrent Tonsillitis
• Repeated episodes of tonsillitis, often due to biofilms in the tonsils or poor
immunity against streptococcus
 Tonsil stones
• Accumulation of debris and bacteria
 Tonsil cancer
• Rare, but aggressive cancer affecting tonsils.

PEYERS PATCHES
• Peyer's patches are a crucial component of the lymphatic system, playing a key
role in immune function. Is also a part of secondary lymphatic organs.
• Peyer's patches are essential lymphoid tissues in the small intestine, monitoring
the gut and initiating immune responses against pathogens. Their dysfunction
can contribute to various diseases, highlighting their importance in maintaining
immune system
homeostasis.
Peyer's patches are located in the:
1. Walls of Small intestine (ileum)
Functions:
Surveillance
• Monitor intestinal contents for pathogens and antigens.
 Antigen presentation
• Present antigens to immune cells
Immune response initiation
• Activate immune response against pathogens.
Antibody production
• Produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens.
Tolerance induction
• Induce tolerance to harmless antigens (e.g., food, commensal bacteria).

Importance in Lymphatic System:

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT
• Peyer's patches are part of GALT, protecting the gut mucosa.
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
• Peyer's patches are part of MALT, defending mucous membranes.
• Peyer's patches bridge the gap between innate and adaptive immune
responses.

Diseases and Disorders:

• Peyer's patches are lymphoid tissues in the small intestine, crucial for immune
function. Diseases affecting Peyer's patches can impact gut health and immunity.

Diseases:
1. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis
2. Celiac Disease: Autoimmune reaction to gluten
3. Gastrointestinal Infections: Bacterial (Salmonella, Shigella), viral (Rotavirus), and
parasitic
(Giardia)
4. Immunodeficiency Disorders: HIV/AIDS, primary immunodeficiency diseases
5. Lymphoma: Cancer of lymphoid tissues, including Peyer's patches
6. Gut-associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT) disorders

APPENDIX
• The appendix is a component of the lymphatic system, playing a role in immune
function. Contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before they breach
the intestinal wall during absorption.
• Appendix is a lymphoid organ supporting gut immunity, producing antibodies,
and contributing to immune system development. Its role in the lymphatic system
is essential, and research continues to uncover its significance.

Location and Structure:

1. Located near the junction of the small and large intestines
2. Small, finger-like pouch (average length: 5-10 cm)
3. Connected to the large intestine

Functions:
 Immune system function
Produces and harbors lymphocytes
 Antibody production
• Produces antibodies to neutralize pathogens
 Lymphoid tissue
• Contains lymphoid follicles and germinal centers
 Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
• Part of GALT, protecting the gut mucosa
 Reservoir for beneficial bacteria
 • Houses beneficial bacteria, supporting gut health

Importance in Lymphatic System:

1. Supports gut immunity
2. Contributes to immune system development
3. Aids in immune response initiation
Diseases:
• The appendix is a small, finger-like pouch connected to the large intestine.
Diseases affecting the appendix can cause severe abdominal pain and
potentially life-threatening complications.

1. Appendicitis: Inflammation of the appendix, often requiring surgical

removal.

LYMPHATIC VESSELS
• Transport lymph throughout the body, connecting all of the organs and tissues.
Lymphatic vessels play a crucial role in the lymphatic system, facilitating the
transport of lymph, immune cells, and waste removal.

Functions:
1. Fluid absorption: Absorb interstitial fluid, proteins, and waste
2. Immune cell recruitment: Recruit immune cells (lymphocytes) to lymphoid
organs
3. Antigen presentation: Present antigens to immune cells
4. Lymph formation: Form lymph by absorbing fluid and substances

Location:
1. Throughout body tissues
2. High concentration in;
- Skin
- Mucous membranes
- Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
- Lymphoid organs

How does lymph immunity transport throughout the body?

What is lymph?
 Lymph originates as interstitial fluid surrounding tissue cells.
 Lymph is formed as fluid in the interstitial space moves passively into the
lymphatic capillaries due to a hydrostatic pressure gradient.

What is lymph immunity?

 Lymph immunity, also known as lymphatic immunity, refers to the role of the
lymphatic system in supporting the body’s immune responses.

Characteristics of lymph
 Approximately 15% of the fluid that enters the interstitial space surrounding the
cells is not absorbed back into the blood capillaries during capillary exchange.
Thus, interstitial fluid amounts to about 3 liters daily and is normally absorbed
into the lymphatic capillaries.
 Once inside the lymph vessels, this fluid is called lymph. Lymph or lympha
means clear spring water.
 The components of lymph include water, dissolves solutes (ions), a small amount
of protein (approximately 100 to 200 grams that leaked into the interstitial space
 during capillary exchange), sometimes foreign material that includes both cell
debris and pathogens, and perhaps metastasized cancer cells.

Lymphatic Capillaries
 the smallest lymph vessels.
 absorbs interstitial fluid.
 they are interspersed throughout areolar connective tissue among capillary
networks, except those within the red bone marrow and avascular tissues (such
as epithelia).
 In addition, recent research has found lymph vessels associated with the dural
venous sinuses that drain blood away from the brain.
 A lymphatic capillary resembles the anatomic structure of a blood capillary in
that its wall is composed of an endothelium.
 However, lymphatic capillaries are typically larger in diameter than blood
capillaries, lack a basement membrane, and have overlapping endothelial cells.
 These overlapping endothelial cells act as one-way flaps to allow fluid to enter
the lymphatic capillary but prevent its release.

Movement of Lymph into Lymphatic Capillaries

 The driving force to move fluid into the lymphatic capillaries is an increase in
hydrostatic pressure within the interstitial space. Interstitial hydrostatic pressure
rises as additional fluid is filtered from the blood capillaries.
 This pressure exerted by interstitial fluid at the margins of the lymphatic capillary
endothelial cells "pushes" interstitial fluid into the lymphatic capillary lumen when
the interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure becomes greater than the lymph
hydrostatic pressure.
 The higher the interstitial fluid pressure, the greater the amount of fluid that
enters the lymphatic capillary. The anchoring filaments extending between
lymphatic capillary cells and the surrounding tissue prevent the collapse of the
lymphatic capillaries as pressure exerted by the interstitial fluid increases.
 The pressure exerted by lymph after it enters the lymphatic capillary forces the
endothelial cells of these vessels to close. Thus, lymph becomes "trapped" within
the lymphatic capillary and cannot move back into the interstitial space.
 Lymph is then transported through a network of increasingly larger vessels that
include (in order) lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic trunks, and
lymphatic ducts.

Lymphatic Vessels
 Lymphatic capillaries merge to form larger structures that are called lymphatic
vessels. Superficial lymphatic vessels are generally positioned adjacent to the
superficial veins of the body, in contrast, deep lymphatic vessels are next to deep
arteries and veins.
 Lymphatic vessels resemble small veins because both contain all three vessel
tunics (intima, media, and externa) and have valves within their lumen.
 Valves are required to prevent lymph from pooling in these vessels and help
prevent lymph backflow because the lymphatic vessel network is a low-pressure
system.
 These valves are important in areas where lymph flow is against the direction of
gravity, such as in the lower limb.
The lymphatic system lacks a pump and, thus, relies on other mechanisms to
move lymph through its vessels. These mechanisms to move lymph include:
 contraction of nearby skeletal muscles in the limbs and the respiratory pump in
the torso, which is similar to how blood movement is assisted through the venous
circulation
  rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle within the walls of larger lymph vessels
(trunks and ducts), which narrows the lumen and squeezes the lymph within the
lymph vessel; and
 pulsatile movement of blood in nearby arteries
Some lymphatic vessels connect directly to lymphoid organs called lymph nodes.

Lymphatic Trunks
 Lymphatic vessels drain into lymphatic trunks on both the right and left sides of
the body. Each lymphatic trunk removes lymph from a specific major body region:
 Jugular trunks - drain the lymph from both the head and neck.
 Subclavian trunks - remove lymph from the upper limbs, breasts, and
superficial thoracic wall.
 Bronchomediastal trunks - drain lymph from deep thoracic structures.
 Intestinal trunk - drains lymph from most abdominal structures.
 Lumbar trunks - drain lymph from the lower limbs, abdominopelvic wall,
and pelvic organs.

Lymphatic Ducts
 Lymphatic trunks drain into the largest lymph vessels called lymphatic ducts.
There are only two lymphatic ducts: the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic
duct. Both of these convey lymph back into the venous circulation.
Right Lymphatic Duct
 is located near the right clavicle. It receives lymph from the lymphatic trunks that
drain the following areas:
(a) the right side of the head and neck, (b) the right upper limb, and (c) the
right side of the thorax. It returns the lymph into the junction of the right
subclavian vein and the right internal jugular vein. Thus, the right
lymphatic duct drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body.

Thoracic Duct
 The larger of the two lymphatic ducts is the thoracic duct. It has a length of about
37.5 to 45 centimeters (15 to 18 inches) and extends from the diaphragm to the
junction of the left subclavian and left jugular veins.
 The thoracic duct drains lymph from the remaining areas of the body (left side of
the head and neck, left upper limb, left thorax, all of the abdomen, and both
lower limbs).

Immune Response
 the body's defense mechanism against pathogens, including bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and parasites.
 It comprises two main types:
1. Innate Immune Response
2. Adaptive Immune Response
I. Innate Immune Response
 the body's first line of defense, provides immediate but nonspecific protection.
 involves physical barriers, cellular defenses, and chemical mediators.
 is present from birth, hence termed "innate." This system does not require prior
exposure to a pathogen and responds rapidly to infections.

The Main Components of Innate Immune Response Can Be:

1. Physical and Chemical Barriers
 Physical barrier - Skin and Mucous Membranes: These act as the first physical
barriers to prevent pathogen entry.
  Chemical barrier - Secretions such as mucus, enzymes, and antimicrobial
peptides help neutralize pathogens

2. Cellular Defenses
 involve a variety of immune cells that recognize and respond to infections without
the need for prior exposure.
 Phagocytic Cells: Such as macrophages and neutrophils, these cells engulf and
digest pathogens through a process called phagocytosis.
 Natural Killer (NK) Cells: These cells detect and destroy infected or cancerous
cells by releasing cytotoxic substances.
 Dendritic Cells: They capture pathogens and present their antigens to initiate
the adaptive immune response.

3. Soluble Mediators
 involve a variety of immune cells that recognize and respond to infections without
the need for prior exposure.
 Cytokines - are proteins that act as messengers in the immune system
- secreted by immune cells
- play a role in modulating the immune response.

4. Inflammation
 occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other
cause.
 The classic signs include redness, heat, swelling (edema), pain, and loss of
function.
 types of inflammation
1. Acute Inflammation
2. Chronic Inflammation

II. Adaptive Immune Response

 the body’s second line of defense
 The slower but more specific and effective a response
 involves many cell types and soluble factors
 is primarily controlled by white blood cells (leukocytes) known as lymphocytes,
which help control immune responses
 There are three main types of lymphocytes involved: B cells, T cells, and
Natural Killer (NK) cells.

Overview of Lymphocytes

 are a type of white blood cell that is a part of your immune system.
 helps your body fight disease and infection.
 are the primary cells of the adaptive immune system, making up a significant part
of the body's immune defense.
 They originate from stem cells in the bone marrow and develop into three main
types:
1. B Lymphocytes (Cells)
2. T Lymphocytes (Cells)
3. Natural Killer (NK) Cells

1. B Lymphocytes (Cells)
  play a central role in humoral immunity, which response targeting extracellular
pathogens
 mature in the bone marrow and circulate throughout the body.
 activated when their B-cell receptor (BCR) binds to a specific antigen on a
pathogen.

Plasma Cells
 are specialized effector B cells
 produce large quantities of soluble antibodies.
 secrete antibodies into the bloodstream, which circulate and bind to specific
antigens on pathogens

2. T Lymphocytes (Cells)
 originate in the bone marrow
 but mature in the thymus.
 There are 2 types of T Lymphocytes:
o Helper T-Cells - recognize antigens presented by Antigen-Presenting
Cells (APCs) and release cytokines, which activate other immune cells like
B-cells and cytotoxic T-cells.
o Cytotoxic T-Cells - directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic
substances that induce apoptosis (cell death).

3. Natural Killer (NK) (Cells)

 a circulating blood cell that contains cytotoxic (cell-killing) granules in its
extensive cytoplasm.
 shares this mechanism with the cytotoxic T cells of the adaptive immune
response.
 NK cells are among the body’s first lines of defense against viruses and certain
types of cancer.