ME6703-COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

SEVENTH SEMESTER-MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-III (POSSIBLE Q&A)

PART-A

1.Define Group Technology (GT). (Nov/Dec-2013)?

Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing methodology in which identical or similar components
are grouped processed together during design, process planning and manufacturing so that a wide
variety of components can be manufactured, at the least expense of time, inventory, person-hours
and material handling. Group technology is an operations management philosophy based on the
recognition that similarities occur in the design and manufacture of discrete parts.
2. List out the stages in Group Technology.
1) Production planners to setup the GT database, Grouping the parts or components into part-
families with some similar characteristics,2)Re-design the shop-floor arrangement according to
common shape, function or manufacturing process and tooling.
3.List out the techniques available for formation of cell in GT. (May/June-2012)
Cell Formation Techniques can be broadly classified as a) Descriptive Procedures, b) Cluster
Analysis, c) Graph Partitioning, d) Artificial Intelligence, and e) Mathematical Programming
4. State the role of GT in CAD/CAM Integration. (Nov/Dec-2011)(Nov/Dec 2015)
1)Using coding and classification schemes of group technology (GT), models developed for part
family formation and plan retrieval and stored as manufacturing data in CAD/CAM systems used to
develop standard process plan.
2)The process of acquisition and documentation of manufacturing knowledge is a recurring
dynamic phenomenon.
5. What is part family (Nov/Dec-2010)
Part-family is defined as" collection of parts which are similar in terms of geometric shape, size,
and similar processing steps required in manufacturing, so flow of materials through the plant
improves". A part family is a collection of parts which are similar either because of geometry and
size or because similar processing steps are required in their manufacture. The parts within a
family are different, but their similarities are close enough to merit their identification as members .
.
6. Provide examples for classical grouping of parts.
In machine tool manufacturing industry, large part families can be grouped as: a) Heavy parts -
beds, columns etc; b) Shafts, characterized by large L/D ratios; c) Spindles (long shafts, screw
rods included); d) Non-rounds (small prismatic parts); e) Gears, disc type parts (whose L/D ratios
are small)
7. Explain the two categories of attributes of parts.
a)Design attributes (Basic-External/Internal shape; Axisymmetric/Prismatic/sheet metal;
Length/diameter ratio; Material; Major dimensions; Minor dimensions; Tolerances; Surface) b)
Manufacturing attributes (Major process of manufacture; Surface treatments/coatings; Machine
tool/processing equipment; Cutting tools; Operation sequence; Production time; Batch quantity
Production rate; Fixtures needed) which consider the sequence of processing steps required to
make a part.
8. What are the three basic code structures used in GT applications.
a)Hierarchical codes (or monocodes or tree structure); b) Attribute codes (or polycode or chain
 type structure) c) Decision-tree codes (or hybrid codes or mixed codes).

9. List out the premises for the development of DCLASS code.

a) A part may be best characterized bytes basic shape, usually is most apartment attribute; b)
Each basic shape may have several features, such as holes, slots, threads and grooves; c) A part
can be completely characterized by basic shape; size; precision and material type, from and
condition; d) Several short code segments can be linked to from classification code that is human
recognizable and adequate for human monitoring; e) Each of these code segments can point to
more detailed information.
10. What is the main difference between hierarchical codes and attribute codes? (May/June-2013)
Hierarchical Codes Attribute Codes
With the hierarchical structure, the Part classification and coding is concerned with identifying the similarities
interpretation of each succeeding and using these similarities to evolve a classification code. Similarities are of
symbol depends on the value of the two types: design attributes (such as geometric shape and size), and
preceding symbols. manufacturing attributes (the sequence of processing steps required to make
the part).
11. What is PFA?
Production flow analysis (PFA) is a technique for pre-planning the division of the whole factory
into groups or departmental groups. When the knowledge of division is available, then it is
possible to plan the layout and optimize the manufacturing cell to enhance productivity.
12. What are the applications of GT?
Design: In a firm, many components have similar shape. They can be grouped into design
families and a design canbe created by simply modifying an existing component design from the
same family.
Manufacturing: For this purpose, GT gives a great importance than simply a design philosophy.
Parts that are not similar in shape may still need similar manufacturing processes. Parts of this
type are called production family. (All parts may need same operation like drilling, milling thread
cutting etc.).
Process Planning: Process-planning work can be facilitated, as similar processes are needed
for all components of a particular family. This helps production planning and control much easier
because only similar parts are considered for each cell. Such a cell-oriented layout is called a
group technology layout or cellular layout.
13. What arc the benefits of Computer Aided Process Planning. (Nov/Dec-2010)(Nov/Dec 2015)
a)Process rationalization: Computer-automated preparation of operation routings is more likely to
be consistent, logical, and optimal than its manual counterpart. b) Increased productivity of
process planners: With computer-aided process planning, there is reduced clerical effort, fewer
errors arc made and the planners have immediate access to the process planning database. c)
Reduced turnaround time: This leads to an overall reduction in manufacturing lead time. d)
Improved legibility: The computer-prepared document is neater and easier to read than manually
written route sheets. f) Incorporation of other application programs
14. List down the factors to be considered for selecting coding system for components.
When selecting a coding system for a component’s representation, there are several factors to be
considered. They include: a) The geometry of components (i.e., rotational, prismatic, deep drawn,
sheet metal etc.); b) The code structure; c) The digital representation (i.e., binary, octal,
hexadecimal etc.); e) Material of manufacture - ferrous, non ferrous, plastics, composites etc.
 PART-B
1. Explain about parts classification and coding. (May/June 2012)
This is the most time consuming of the three methods. In parts classification and coding, similarities
among parts are identified, and these similarities are related in a coding system. Two categories of
part similarities can be distinguished: (1) design attributes, which arc concerned with part
characteristics such as geometry, size, and material; and (2) manufacturing attributes, which
consider the sequence of processing steps required to make a part. While the design and
manufacturing attributes of a part are usually correlated, the correlation is less than perfect.
Accordingly, classification and coding systems are devised to include both a part's design attributes
and its manufacturing attributes. Reasons for using a coding scheme include:
Design retrieval.
A designer faced with the task of developing a new part can use a design retrieval system to
determine if a similar part already exists. A simple change in an existing part would take much less
time than designing a whole new part from scratch.
Automated process planning:
The part code for a new part can be used to search for process plans for existing parts with
identical or similar codes
Machine cell design:
The part codes can be used to design machine cells capable of producing all members of a
particular part family, using the composite part concept To accomplish parts classification and
coding requires examination and analysis of the design and/or manufacturing attributes of each
part. The examination is sometimes doneby looking in tables to match the subject part against the
features described and diagrammed in the tables. An alternative and more-productive approach
involves interaction with a computerized classification and coding system, in which the user
responds to questions asked by the computer. On the basis of the responses, the computer
assigns the code number to the part. Whichever method is used, the classification results in a code
number that uniquely identifies the part's attributes. The classification and coding procedure may
be carried out on the entire list of active parts produced by the firm, or some sort of sampling
procedure may be used to establish part families. For example, parts produced in the shop during
a certain time period could be examined to identify part family categories. The trouble with any
sampling procedure is the risk that the sample may be unrepresentative of the population.
A number of classification and coding systems are described in the literature [13], [16], [31], and
there are a number of commercially available coding packages. However, none of the systems has
been universally adopted. One of the reasons for this is that a classification and coding system
should be customized for it given company or industry. A system that is best for one company may
not be best for another company.
Features of Parts Classification and Coding Systems
The principal functional areas that utilize a parts classification and coding system are design and
manufacturing. Accordingly.parts classification systems fall into one of three categories;
 Systems based on part design attributes
 Systems based on part manufacturing attributes
 Systems based on both design and manufacturing attributes
 the common design and manufacturing attributes typically included in classification schemes. A
certain amount of overlap exists between design and manufacturing attributes, since a part's
geometry is largely determined by the sequence of manufacturing processes performed on it.In
terms of the meaning of the symbols in the code, there are three structures used in classification
and coding schemes:
Hierarchical Structure, also known as a monocode, in which the interpretation of each successive
symbol depends on the value of the preceding symbols
Chain-type structure, also known as a polycode, in which the interpretation of each symbol in the
sequence is always the same; it does not depend on the value of preceding symbols mixed-mode
structure. which is a hybrid of the two previous codes.To distinguish the hierarchical and chain-
type structures, consider a two-digit code number for a part, such as 15 or 25. Suppose the first
digit stands for the general shape of the part: 1 means the part is cylindrical (rotational), and 2
means the geometry is rectangular.
In a hierarchical structure, the interpretation of the second digit depends on the value of the first
digit. If preceded by 1, the 5 might indicate a length to diameter ratio; and if preceded by 2, the 5
indicates an aspect ratio between the length and width dimensions of the part. In the chain-type
structure, the symbol 5 would have the same meaning whether preceded by 1 or 2. For example, it
might indicate the overall length of the part. The advantage of the hierarchical structure is that in
general. more information can he included in a code of a given number of digits.

The number of digits in the code can range from 6 to 30. Coding schemes that contain only design
data require fewer digits. perhaps 12 or fewer. Most modem classification and coding systems include
both design and manufacturing data, and this usually requires 2030 digits. This might seem like too
many digits fur a human reader to easily comprehend, but it must be remembered that most of the
 data processing of the codes is accomplished by computer. for which a large number of digits is of
minor concern.
Examples of Parts Classification and Coding Systems
Some of the important systems (with emphasis on those in the United States) include: the Opitz
classification system, which is nonproprietary; the Brisch System (Brisch-Birn, Inc.); CODE
(Manufacturing Data Systems. lnc.]: CUTPLAN (Metcut Associates); DCLASS (Brigham Young
University): Multi-Class (OIR: Organization for Industrial Research);and Part Analog System
(Lovelace. Lawrence & Co., Inc.). Reviews of these systems and others can be found in [161 and [23].

In the following.we discuss two classification and coding systems: the Opitz System and Multi-Class.
The Opitz system is 0' interest because it was one of the first published classification and coding
schemes for mechanical parts [31] (Historical Note 15.1) and is still widely used. MultiClass is a
commercial product offered by the Organization for Industrial Research (OIR).

2. Explain about OPITZ CODING system.

Opitz Classification System. This system was developed by H. Opitz of the University of Aachen in
Germany. It represents one of the pioneering efforts in group technology and is probably the best known,
if not the most frequently used, of the parts classification and coding systems. It is intended for machined
parts. The Opitz coding scheme uses the following digit sequence:

12345 6789 ABCD

The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended by adding four more digits. The first nine
arc intended to convey both design and manufacturing data. The interpretation of the first nine digits is
defined in Figure 15.5. The first five digits, 12345, are called the form code. It describes the primary
design attributes of the part, such as external shape (e.g., rotational vs. rectangular) and machined
features (e.g., holes, threads, gear teeth, etc.]. The next four digits, 6789, constitute the supplementary
code, which indicates some of the attributes that would be of use in manufacturing (e.g., dimensions,
work material, starting shape, and accuracy). The extra four digits, ABCD, are referred to as
the secondary code and are intended to identify the production operation type and sequence. The
secondary code can be designed by the user firm to serve its own particular needs.

The complete coding system is too complex to provide a comprehensive description here. Opitz wrote an
entire book on his system. However, to obtain a general idea of how it works, let us examine the form
code consisting of the first five digits. defined generally in Figure 15.5. The first digit identifies whether the
part is rotational or nonrotational.1t also describes the general shape and proportions of the part. We limit
our survey here to rotational parts possessing no unusual features, those with first digit values of O, 1,
 Or 2. For this etas, of work parts, the coding of the first five digits is defined in Figure 15,6.
Consider the following example to demonstrate the coding of a given part.
EXAMPLE 15.1
Opitz Part Coding System
Given the rotational part design in Figure 15.7, determine the form code in the Opitz parts
classification and coding system
Solution: The five digit code is developed as follows:
Length to diameter ratio, LID = 1.5 Digit 1 = 1
External shape: stepped on both ends with screw thread on one end Digit 2 = 5
Internal shape: part contains a through hole Digit 3 =1
Plane surface machining: none Digit 4 = 0
Auxiliary holes, gear teeth, etc.: none Digit 5 = 0
The form code in the Opitz system is 15100.
MultiClass. MultiClass is a classification and coding system developed by the Organization for
Industrial Research (OIR). The system is relatively flexible, allowing the user company to
customize the classification and COlling scheme 10 a large extent to fit its own products and
applications. Multi Class can be used for a variety of different types of manufactured items,
including machined and sheer metal parts, tooling, and electronics, purchased.
Parts, assemblies and subassemblies, machine tools, and other elements. Up to nine different
types of components can be included within a single MultiClass software structure MultiClass
uses a hierarchical or decision-tree coding structure in which the succeeding digits depend
on values of the previous digits. In the application of the system, a series of menus, pick lists,
tables, and other interactive prompting routines are used to code the part. This helps to organize
and provide discipline to the coding procedure.
The coding structure consists of up to 30 digits. These are divided into two regions, one provided
by GIR, and the second designed by the user to meet specific needs and requirements. A prefix
precedes the code number and is used to identify the type of part (e.g., a prefix value of 1 indicates
machined and sheet metal parts). For a machined part, the coding for the first 18 digit positions
(after the prefix) is summarized in Table

TABLE 15.2 First 18 digits of the Multiclass Classification and Coding System

Digit Function
0 Code system prefix
1 Main shape category
2, 3 External and internal configuration
4 Machined secondary elements
5, 6 Functional descriptors
7, 12 Dimensional data length, diameter
13 Tolerances
14, 15 Material chemistry
Raw material shape
Production quantity
Machined element orientation
EXAMPLE 15.2 Multi-Class Coding System
Given the rotational part design in Figure 15.8, determine the IS digit code in the Multi-

Class partssystem.
 2. Explain composite part concept in cellular manufacturing. (May/June 2013)

Cellular Manufacturing
Application of group technology in which dissimilar machines or processes are aggregated into
cells, each of which is dedicated to the production of a part family or limited group of families
Typical objectives of cellular manufacturing:
– To shorten manufacturing lead times
– To reduce WIP
– To improve quality
– To simplify production scheduling
– To reduce setup times.
Composite Part Concept
A composite part for a given family is a hypotheticalpart that includes all of the design and
manufacturing attributes of the family1)In general, an individual part in the family will havesome of
the features of the family, but not all of them 2) A production cell for the part family would consist of
those machines required to make the composite part3)Such a cell would be able to produce any
family member, by omitting operations corresponding to features not possessed by that part.

Part Features and Corresponding

Manufacturing Operations
Design feature Corresponding operation
1. External cylinder Turning
2. Face of cylinder Facing
3. Cylindrical step Turning
4. Smooth surface External cylindrical grinding
5. Axial holeDrilling
6. Counter bore Counter‐boring
7. Internal threads Tapping

Machine Cell Designs

1. Single machine
2. Multiple machines with manual handling– Often organized into U‐shaped layout
3. Multiple machines with semi‐integrated handling
4. Automated cell – automated processing and integrated handling
– Flexible manufacturing cell
– Flexible manufacturing system
Machine Cell with Manual Handling
 Cell with Semi‐Integrated Handling:

Four Types of Part Moves in Mixed Model Production System:

4.Explain the methods of part family formation with a suitable illustration and discuss with
examples the coding system structure. (May/June 2013) (Nov/Dec 2015) .
 Clearly, also the organization should be structured around groups. Each group performs functions
that in many cases were previously attributed to different functional departments. For instance, in most
situations employee bonuses should be based on group performance. Worker empowerment is an
important aspect of manned cells. Exchanging ideas and work load is necessary. Many groups are
allocated the responsibility for individual work assignments. By cross training of technical skills, at
least two workers can perform each task and all workers can perform multiple tasks. Hence the there
is some flexibility in work assignments. The group should be an independent profit center in some
sense. It should also retain the responsibility for its performance and authority to affect that
performance. The group is a single entity and must act together to resolve problems. There are three
basic steps in group technology planning:
1. Coding 2. Classification 3.Layout.

Coding schemes The knowledge concerning the similarities between parts must be coded somehow.
This will facilitate determination and retrieval of similar parts. Often this involves the assignment of a
symbolic or numerical description to parts (part number) based on their design and manufacturing
characteristics. However, it may also simply mean listing the machines used by each part. There are
four major issues in the construction of a coding system:
• part (component) population
• code detail
• code structure, and
• (digital) representation.

Numerous codes exist, including Brisch-Birn, MULTICLASS, and KK-3. One of the most widely used
coding systems is OPITZ. Many firms customize existing coding systems to their specific needs.
Important aspects are
• The code should be sufficiently flexible to handle future as well as current parts.
• The scope of part types to be included must be known (e.g. are the parts rotational, prismatic,
sheet metal, etc.?)
• To be useful, the code must discriminate between parts with different values for key attributes
(material, tolerances, required machines, etc.) Code detail is crucial to the success of the coding
project. Ideal is a short code that uniquely identifies each part and fully describes the part from
design and manufacturing viewpoints,
• Too much detail results in cumbersome codes and the waste of resources in data collection.
• With too few details and the code becomes useless. As a general rule, all information necessary
for grouping the part for manufacturing should be included in the code whenever possible.
Features like outside shape, end shape, internal shape, holes, and dimensions are typically
included in the coding scheme. W.r.t. code structure, codes are generally classified as, hierarchical
(also called monocode), chain (also called polycode), or hybrid. This is explained in Figure 3.3
(taken from Askin&Standridge, 1993).Hierarchical code structure: the meaning of a digit in the code
depends on the values of preceding digits.

The value of 3 in the third place may indicate

• The existence of internal threads in a rotational part: "1232"
• A smooth internal feature: "2132" Hierarchical codes are efficient; they only consider relevant
information at each digit. But they are difficult to learn because of the large number of conditional
inferences.Chain structure. Chain code: each value for each digit of the code has a consistent
meaning. The value 3 in the third place has the same meaning for all parts.
Since both hierarchical and chain codes have advantages, many commercial codes are hybrid:
combination of both: Some section of the code is a chain code and then several hierarchical digits
further detail the specified characteristics. Several such sections may exist. One example of a
hybrid code is OPITZ.

The final decision is, code representation. The digits can be 1) numeric or even binary; for direct
use in computer (storage and retrieval efficiency) 2) alphabetic; humans are more comfortable with
a coding like "S" for smooth or "T" for thread (Gewinde) than with digits The proper decision
process involves the design engineer, manufacturing engineer, and Computer scientist working
together as a team. A well-known coding system is OPITZ. It can have 3 sections: 3) it starts with a
five-digit "geometric form code" 4) followed by a four digit "supplementary code." 5)This may be
followed by a company-specific four-digit "secondary code" intended for describing production
operations and sequencing.
Digit 1: shows whether the part is rotational and also the basic dimension ratio (length/diameter if
rotational, length/width if nonrotational).
Digit 2: main external shape; partly dependent on digit 1.
Digit 3: main internal shape.
Digit 4: machining requirements for plane surfaces.
Digit 5: auxiliary features like additional holes, etc.

Classification (group formation)

Here, part codes and other information are used to assign parts to families. Part families
are assigned to groups along with the machines required to produce the parts. A variety of
models for forming part machine groups are available in the literature, as can be seen from
the following figure
 5. Explain MCLASS system? (Nov/Dec 2015)
MICLASS System (Developed in the Netherlands): the abbreviation is derived from the name Metal
Institute Classification System. Developed to help automate & standardize a number of design,
production and management function. These include:
Standardization of engineering drawings
Retrieval of drawings according to classification
Standardization of process routing
Automated process planning
Selection of parts processing on particular group of machine tools.
Machine tool investment analysis etc.
The System consists of 30 digits (maximum) 1 2 3 4 ..... 12 13 14 15 .....30 Universal Code Special
Code (for any part) (for any company or industry including lot size, cost data, time, operation
sequence, etc.)

 Basic form: Basic shape (1), Shape element (2 & 3), Location of the shape element (4)
 Supplementary design and mfg. information: Number of outside diameters (19), Number of inside
diameters or specific shape (20), Rotational grooves or knurls (21), Close tolerance diameters (22),
Splines (23), Gears (24), Sprockets (25), Pitch diameter/diameter pitch (26), Number of teeth (27)
An example of coding a part using the MICLASS system
MultiClass –developed by the Organization for Industrial Research (OIR) First 18 digits of the
Multiclass Classification and Coding System
6. Discuss how group technology is used in designing manufacturing cells.
Group technology is drawing increasing interest from manufacturers because of its many
applications for boosting productivity. GT is an approach to manufacturing that seeks to maximize
production efficiencies by grouping similar and recurring problems or tasks. Through a careful
examination of the many applications of GT, the authors show how it saves time, avoids
duplication, and facilitates easy and timely information retrieval and use. An important part of GT is
the use of a code that—like a library reference system—serves as an index to characteristics in
manufacturing, engineering, purchasing, resource planning, and sales to improve productivity in
each of these areas.
Introducing a new part into manufacturing can cost from $1,300 to $12,000, including expenses for
design, planning and control, and tools and fixtures. Clearly, if a company can reduce the number
of new parts it needs, it would realize large cost savings. Consider a company that typically
releases 2,000 new parts per year. If the company could substitute existing parts for only 10% of
these new parts, it could reap an annual saving ranging from a relatively modest $260,000 to a
quite substantial $2.4 million. But this saving hinges on one critical factor: the identification of parts
that can be used with or without modification to meet the designer’s need. A ―group technology‖
manufacturing data base offers great assistance in this identification process.

Group technology (GT) is a concept that currently is attracting a lot of attention from the
manufacturing community. The essence of GT is to capitalize on similarities in recurring tasks in
three ways:
 By performing similar activities together, thereby avoiding wasteful time in changing from one
unrelated activity to the next.
 By standardizing closely related activities, thereby focusing only on distinct differences and
avoiding unnecessary duplication of effort.
 By efficiently storing and retrieving information related to recurring problems, thereby reducing the
search time for the information and eliminating the need to solve the problem again.

GT offers a number of ways to improve productivity, according to studies of companies in batch

manufacturing. One senior executive in the agriculture machinery business told us, ―The
fundamental reason for our adoption of GT was to improve cost and quality through reduction of
design proliferation, response time, and work-in-process inventories through standardization and
simplification of manufacturing planning and through creation of more efficient plant layouts.‖

Over the last two years, this company has saved more than $9 million through GT. When 20 U.S.
manufacturers using GT were surveyed, 17 of them indicated that the benefits of implementing GT
equaled or exceeded their expectations.

The management of manufacturing technologies represents a vital component in the

competitiveness of U.S. industry, one that should play a more important role in the formulation of
strategic plans.3 For this to happen, general management must become more familiar with
emerging and promising technologies. In this article we discuss several such technologies, all tied
together by group technology, and identify their wide-reaching applications to all areas of business
operations. We describe the potential benefits that can be achieved as well as common
implementation problems.
The Meaning of Group Technology

GT is, very simply, a philosophy holding that managers should exploit similarities and achieve efficiencies
by grouping like problems. In most cases, a prerequisite for the recognition of similarities is a system by
which the objects of interest can be classified and coded (that is, assigned symbols representing relevant
information). As an analogy, books in a library catalog are classified and coded in such a way that one can
easily find all books written by a particular author, covering a certain topic, or sharing the same title.In
design engineering, parts can be classified by geometric similarities using codes that contain design
attributes. The purpose could be to retrieve all parts with certain features, such as rotational parts with a
length-to-diameter ratio of less than 2. If one of these fits the need at hand, the engineers can thereby
avoid having to design a new part.Similarities between parts, captured in the GT code, can in like manner
be used by manufacturing engineering, manufacturing, purchasing, and sales. For example, a
manufacturer can drastically reduce the time and effort spent deciding how a part should be produced if this
information is available for a similar part.A GT data base is a computerized filing system that speeds up the
retrieval of parts information, facilitates the design process, improves the accuracy of process planning,
aids in the creation and operation of manufacturing cells, and enhances the communication between
functional areas.An early use of GT was documented in the Soviet Union in the 1940s. It has since been
implemented in many European and Asian countries, mainly in the manufacturing area. Interest among
U.S. manufacturers took root in the mid-1970s, and by now many large corporations (John Deere,
Caterpillar, Lockheed, General Electric, Black & Decker, and Cincinnati Milacron are a few) have taken
advantage of GT or are planning GT programs.The expansion of computer capabilities and the availability
of software obviously have abetted the growth of GT applications. Storing and retrieving codes with 20 or
30 characters are unthinkable without the aid of a computer. But with advanced employment of the
computer in any area of production operations also comes the need for coding and classification as a way
to integrate tasks and even organizational units. This is the reason why many experts see GT as the
missing link between CAD and CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing) and
thereby as an important building block for CIM (computer-integrated manufacturing).

Classification & Coding

Among the range of materials that manufacturers handle—raw materials, purchased components,
fabricated parts, subassemblies, and complete items—GT is predominantly applied to purchased items and
fabricated parts. We will concentrate our discussion on these groups.When engineers are classifying parts
and assigning those with closely related attributes to a particular family, they can determine similarities
between items in several ways. From a design standpoint, for example, similarity can mean closely related
geometric shapes and dimensions. From a manufacturing point of view, similarity between two parts means
that they are processed through the factory in the same or almost the same way. Of course, parts that look
alike are not always produced in the same way (it depends on variations in raw materials, tolerances,
dimensions, and so on), while parts that are routed through the same machines can be quite dissimilar in
geometric form.Simple, informal parts classification techniques have been employed in companies where
the sole intent was to identify families with similar manufacturing requirements to create dedicated lines or
cells of machines. The Langston Division of Harris-Intertype Corporation in Camden, New Jersey, one of
the early users of GT in the United States, took Polaroid snapshots of every seventh of some
21,000fabricated parts. When inspected from a production processing point of view, about 93% of the
sample could be allocated to five part families.
While informal ways of grouping parts are not uncommon, the greatest potential of GT comes via a formal
coding system in which each part gets a numeric or alphanumeric code describing the attributes of interest.
For the widest use, the code should be able to describe the part from both a design and a manufacturing
point of view. Such characteristics as the external and internal shapes, dimensions, and any threads,
grooves, and splines describe the geometric form. The shape and chemistry of the raw material, the
surface finish and tolerance requirements, the need for special processes like heat treatment, and parts
demand—all these are manufacturing attributes. Exhibit I offers a simple example of a coded part. Clearly,
to capture all significant attributes, a large number of characters is needed.

Simple Example of a Coded Part Note: Based on the first five digits of the Opitz coding system

Numerous coding systems have been developed all over the world by university researchers and
consulting firms and also by corporations for their own use. A handful of commercial systems is available
on the U.S. market. Of all these, many have a short range of applications, such as coding sheet metals or
forgings only. Modern systems, however, are often computerized, and coding takes place by having the
planner work in a conversational mode with the computer, responding to a series of questions on the CRT
screen.Once the parts have been coded, classification, which simply means the grouping of parts with
similar characteristics, follows. For example, one family could consist of all parts with a 2 in the third
position of the code. Another could be of those with a 3 in the third position and a 2 in the fourth. It is easy
to see that with a code length of 30 digits, it is possible to create a very large number of families.

Applying GT…

Although many areas of business operations can benefit from GT, manufacturing, the original application
area, continues to be the place where GT is most widely practiced. Two important tasks in manufacturing
planning and manufacturing engineering are scheduling and process planning. Job scheduling sets the
order in which parts should be processed and can determine expected completion times for operations and
orders. Process planning, on the other hand, decides the sequence of machines to which a part should be
routed when it is manufactured and the operations that should be performed at each machine. Process
planning also encompasses tool, jig, and fixture selection as well as documentation of the time standards
(run and setup time) associated with each operation. Process planning can directly affect scheduling
efficiency and, thus, many of the performance measures normally associated with manufacturing planning
and control.

…in production planning & control

Grouping parts with similar manufacturing characteristics into families will reduce the time spent on setups
of parts and tools. In small-to medium-batch manufacturing, striving for setup reduction is most important.
This type of parts production usually is carried on in a job shop environment where general purpose
machines are grouped according to function, such as lathes in one cluster and grinders in another. Job
shops also usually have high work-in-process inventories, long lead times, and an extremely low productive
use of the time a part spends on the shop floor (normally no more than 5% of the total shop time). The
following are among the ways GT can be carried out in production planning.

Sequencing of parts families

The simplest—and a highly informal—application of GT in a job shop setting is to sequence similar parts on
a machine. This procedure, followed daily by foremen in most machine shops, often means overriding
formal dispatch lists, which are made up with no consideration of efficiency. The saved setup time from
running two or more related parts in a row can be converted to productive time. A more sophisticated
application is the creation of families of parts (using the GT code) and the dedication of machines for
exclusive processing of families. This approach has several advantages. First, there are fewer interfering
flows of material at each machine. Second, setup time is reduced since common tooling and fixtures can be
developed to handle all members of each family processed at the work station. Third, the quality of parts
can be improved, since the variety of parts flowing through the work station has been reduced.

Cellular production

The most advanced GT application is through the creation of manufacturing cells. A cell is a collection of
machine tools and materials-handling equipment grouped to process one or several part families.
Preferably, parts are completed within one cell. (The Japanese make much use of such cells, but
apparently without formal classification and coding systems.) The advantages of cellular manufacturing are
many, especially when the cells are designed with one dominant materials flow and with a fixed conveyor
system connecting the work stations. A cell represents a hybrid production system, a mixture of a job shop
producing a large variety of parts and a flow shop dedicated to mass production of one product. Exhibit II
illustrates the difference between a job shop, based on a functional layout, and a cell shop.
Exhibit II Movement of parts through a job shop and a cell shop

The allocation of equipment to a subset of parts will reduce interference, improve quality, make materials
handling more efficient, cut setup and run times, and therefore trim inventories and shorten lead times.
Shortening parts manufacturing lead times can reduce the response time to customer orders and thus lead
to smaller finished-goods inventories as well. These benefits are likely to be greater with a physical
rearrangement of machinery into cells.One U.S. manufacturer, EG&G Sealol in Warwick, Rhode Island,
found that after producing 900 parts (representing about 30% of all standard hours in the factory) in
manufacturing cells, work in process dropped by 20% to 30% and the need for floor space declined by
15%. For one example, Sealol turned out 324 parts in one cell with seven machines, whereas before the
parts had been routed to 22 machines. All of these improvements contributed to a 150% rise in total output.

Management of Otis Engineering in Carrollton, Texas estimated that at one time it had spent $5 million a
year on setups. The magnitude of the potential saving is shown by the result of Otis’s first cell installation—
reduction in setup time of 35%.
Cellular manufacturing offers other advantages too. The factory layout change has organizational and
behavioral implications. Otis Engineering, for example, achieved a more efficient use of supervisory
personnel, and equipment operators gained flexibility and thereby job enrichment. Otis also established
centralized tool and gauge storage for the cell to permit easier access to the tools and better tool
scheduling.Managers can simplify production planning and control by considering the cell as one planning
point for which capacity planning can be performed and to which jobs can be released. Cells commonly
have more machines than operators, which means that the operators must balance the load in the cell.
This, of course, represents a decentralization of tasks, requiring operators to handle several machine tools
and processes. Further, with cellular manufacturing, tracing a part to its origin is easy, which facilitates
accountability for quality. Management can exploit this by assigning the responsibility for quality inspection
to the cell operators.

The capacity for wider task variety and the need for higher skill levels are features of the cellular approach,
together with the opportunity for teamwork and the focusing of the production process from raw material to
finished part. These advantages can add to operators’ job satisfaction, which can lead to higher productivity
and better quality.Manufacturing cells also change the tasks production planners, schedulers, and
manufacturing engineers perform and, most dramatically, alter the role of the foreman. Where before he or
she was responsible for only one process, the foreman now supervises production of an entire part. This,
too, affects accountability. In a job shop environment it is always possible to pass the buck by blaming
other foremen for not having parts ready on time. With cells, timely completion becomes a responsibility
solely of the cell foreman.By mechanizing and automating the materials handling and the manufacturing
process, engineers can create unmanned cells based on GT principles. A robotic work cell designed to
process a small set of part families, for example, consists of computer-controlled machine tools located
around one or more materials-handling robots. Since there is no fixed machine sequence, this type of cell
can be quite flexible. A somewhat less flexible and often much larger cell, designed for higher volumes and
more specialized parts, is called a flexible manufacturing system.

…in process planning

Some of the largest productivity gains have been reported in the creation of process plans that determine
how a part should be produced. With computer-aided process planning (CAPP) and GT it is possible to
standardize such plans, reduce the number of new ones, and store, retrieve, edit, and print them out very
efficiently.Process planning normally is not a formal procedure. Each time a new part is designed, a
process planner will look at the drawing and decide which machine tools should process the parts, which
operations should be performed, and in what sequence.There are two reasons why companies often
generate excess process plans. First, most companies have several planners, and each may come up with
a different process plan for the very same part. Second, process planning is developed with the existing
configuration of machine tools in mind. Over time, the addition of new equipment will change the suitability
of existing plans. Rarely are alterations to old process plans made. One company reportedly had 477
process plans developed for 523 different gears. A close look revealed that more than 400 of the plans
could be eliminated. Another company used 51 machine tools and 87 different process plans to produce
150 parts. An investigation determined that these parts could be produced on only 8 machines via 31
process plans. Process planning using CAPP can avoid these problems.
Process planning with CAPP takes two different forms:

With variant-based planning, one standardized plan (and possibly one or more alternate plans) is created
and stored for each part family. When the planner enters the GT code for a part, the computer will retrieve
the best process plan. If none exists, the computer will search for routings and operations sequences for
similar parts. The planner can edit the scheme on the CRT screen before printout.

With generative planning, which can but does not necessarily rely on coded and classified parts, the
computer forms the process plan through a series of questions the computer poses on the screen. The end
product is also a standardized process plan, which is the best plan for a particular part.

The variant-based approach relies on established plans entered into the computer memory, while the
generative technique creates the process plans interactively, relying on the same logic and knowledge that
a planner has. Generative process planning is much more complex than variant-based planning; in fact, it
approaches the art of artificial intelligence. It is also much more flexible: by simply changing the planning
logic, for instance, engineers can consider the acquisition of a new machine tool. With the variant-based
method, the engineers must look over and possibly correct all plans that the new tool might affect.

CAPP permits creation and documentation of process plans in a fraction of the time it would take a planner
to do the work manually and vastly reduces the number of errors and the number of new plans that must be
stored. When you consider that plans normally are handwritten and that process planners spend as much
as 30% of their time preparing them, CAPP’s contribution of standardized formats for plans and more
readable documents is important. CAPP, in effect, functions as an advanced text editor. Furthermore, it can
be linked with an automated standard data system that will calculate and record the run times and the
setup times for each operation.

CAPP can lead to lower unit costs through production of parts in an optimal way. That is, cost savings
come not only via more efficient process planning but also through reduced labor, material, tooling, and
inventory costs. One manufacturer of lamp-making machine tools has developed an eight-digit coding
scheme allowing selection of standard processes to produce certain components. This application has led
to a 76% improvement in manufacturing productivity. At the same time, the use of CAPP boosted the
process planners’ productivity by 30%.

GT can help in the creation of programs that operate numerically controlled (NC) machinery, an area
related to process planning. For example, after the engineers at Otis Engineering had formed part families
and cells, the time to produce a new NC tape dropped from between 4 and 8 hours to 30 minutes. The
company thereby improved the potential for use of NC equipment on batches with small manufacturing
quantities.7

…in parts design

GT coding of parts is useful for the efficient retrieval of previous designs as well as for design
standardization. These features help speed up the design process and curb design proliferation.

It is not unusual for a company to find several versions of basically the same part during a preliminary
investigation of the part population. The parts can serve the same function but differ in terms of tolerances,
radii, and so on. General Dynamics’ Pomona Division, for example, came across a case where a virtually
identical nut and coupling unit had been designed on five different occasions by five design engineers and
then drawn by five draftsmen.8 These parts were purchased from five suppliers at prices ranging from $.22
to $7.50 each. The company also investigated 2,891 parts with different part numbers and discovered that
the number of distinct shapes leveled out fairly quickly to comprise a population of only 541 shapes.

Design proliferation of this kind occurs because of difficulties with design retrieval. While a part similar to
the one that is needed may already exist, the designer has neither a system nor the patience to find it. It is
easier to create a new part, which then means that a new part number must be assigned, a new process
plan made up, new tools designed, and so on.

The aim of design standardization is to reduce variations, to make the parts efficiently, and to require
justification for deviations from norms. Standardization does not mean that all parts with the same function
must be identical. It does mean, however, that norms are established for tolerances, dimensions, angles,
and other specifications. Setting these norms should be done with both manufacturing and design
considerations in mind, bridging the gap between these two areas and making design engineers more
aware of manufacturing costs and restrictions.

A GT coded parts population simplifies the cumbersome job of sifting through old drawings to find an
already designed part. The designer can enter on a CRT a partial code describing the main characteristics
of the needed part. The computer will then search the GT data base for all items with the same code and
list them on the screen. The designer can go through the specifications of each part and select one that fits
or can be modified. With modern computer graphics, each designed part can be displayed on the CRT so
that the designer can inspect it. Once a part design has been selected or ―edited,‖ the designer can make
the actual drawing manually or by computer.

In one company, the retrieved drawing of an already existing spur gear required only slight modification for
a new design.9 The overall saving in design time, manufacturing planning time, and tooling requirements
was estimated to exceed $10,000. In the same company, an analysis of a shaft family revealed that all
eight shafts used three different undercuts. By adopting a design standard to allow only one undercut
design for parts in the family, the company saved about $12,000.

…in other areas

GT can also be applied in purchasing. Relying on the GT coding of purchased components and raw
materials and on information from the production planning system, a purchasing manager can obtain
statistics not directly available with a traditional parts numbering system. GT can help reduce proliferation
of purchases of different kinds of parts, for example, by identifying components that serve the same
function. It can also list identical parts for which designers have specified different brands. Companies that
reduce the number of different parts they order and the suppliers they do business with can use the
increased volume as leverage to negotiate better deals.

The Aerospace Group of VSI Corporation, which produces engine nuts, purchased blank slugs based on
part number demand.10 By using a coding system, the company found that fewer different parts could be
purchased at higher volumes. This resulted in an average reduction of the purchase price per unit from 22
cents to 20 cents. This small reduction per unit, multiplied by the 4.8 million pieces purchased in a year,
resulted in an annual saving of $96,000.

Another interesting application is in sales. The same company received a request for immediate delivery of
an engine bolt that was not a stock item. A search of the GT data base, however, turned up a substitute
part that fit the customer’s need and could be delivered right away.

GT can also be used for cost estimation. A company that needs product cost estimates for bidding
purposes, for example, can tentatively code the required parts and then search the GT data base. For parts
falling into established families, standard cost data might already exist. If not, the CAPP system can help to
determine the processes needed to manufacture the part, thereby arriving at cost data. Several companies
have found that GT-generated cost estimates can be constructed more quickly and with greater accuracy
than those made by traditional methods. The approach is also helpful during the design process to help
select components that will lower the total cost of the proposed product.

GT can also assist in determining the economic consequences of anticipated changes in materials cost.
Assume, for example, that the price of an already expensive alloy is expected to rise. With GT coding, a list
of all parts that use this alloy can be produced within minutes, permitting a swift assessment of how the
increased purchasing cost will affect the manufacturing cost of products made with the parts.

Implementing GT

GT is a philosophy calling for simplicity and standardization. Any serious attempt to take full advantage of it
begins with the selection of one or more coding systems (each type of material can conceivably have its
own coding system) and the subsequent coding of the material. As with any formal information system that
requires changing ingrained methods and old procedures, GT cannot be casually decided on or
instantaneously implemented. A GT program could require two or three years to install and will have far-
reaching ramifications inside the organization, particularly if cellular manufacturing is instituted.

We recently surveyed 20 U.S. manufacturers using GT to discover the problems they had encountered
during the implementation process.11 The most common problems fell into three categories: organizational
change and associated human resistance, classification and coding of parts, and planning and execution of
the manufacturing cell concept. The discussion that follows draws to a large extent from our findings.

Resistance to change, of course, is a universal problem in any organization. Resistance can take different
forms, depending on the employee’s perception of job status and security, understanding of the new
situation, and ability and willingness to adapt. In the case of GT, some examples illustrate the range of
potential problems.

 The mandate for designers to reduce the number of new parts can conflict with a company’s long-
standing evaluation and reward system. In one company, designers had been evaluated on the
number of new drawings they created. Instituting the variety-reduction concept, therefore,
necessarily meant changing the incentive system. (Installing CAD by itself can lead to a surge in
new parts, simply because of the speed with which new designs can be produced.)
 In manufacturing, problems commonly stem from the changing roles of operators and the new
areas of responsibility for supervisors. Working as a team and participating in decision making puts
 employees in a new sociological setting. Operators should be able to move from work station to
work station and to perform quality inspection. This requires additional skills and constitutes a new
job design. Both workers and labor union representatives often resist these changes. The
foreman’s role also expands to cover many functions. The foreman must, therefore, know several
manufacturing processes instead of only one and be responsible for the completion of the whole
part and not for only a single operation.

Extensive education about GT concepts, hands-on training, and the early involvement of the affected
individuals are the best ways to implement new work roles. Selling the idea of GT cells to labor unions can
require great efforts, including restructuring payment systems. Personnel policies and training systems
must change as well. Because of the different requirements of working in a cell, companies commonly rely
on volunteers when forming teams. The Alfa-Laval company in Sweden lets the workers form their own
teams and then trains them by simulating the movements and coordination inside the manufacturing cell on
a scale model.

 Production planners and schedulers are also directly affected by cellular manufacturing. Once a
cell has been established, parts not belonging to the appropriate family must be routed
elsewhere.Some companies have found that planners have a tendency to break the family rule:
they schedule a part to the cell containing machines they consider to be the most efficient for its
production or to cells that have become so efficient that they seem underused. It is difficult to keep
the new system up, and lapses like these can destroy the system’s integrity and lead to backsliding
to old ways. Regular monitoring should accompany the period immediately following a changeover,
when these lapses are most likely to occur.
 The most common problem companies face in the area of coding and classification stems from the
inability of codes to describe the material adequately. Some companies, for example, found that
their coding systems were suitable for design but not for manufacturing purposes. A manager of
one company commented that its coding system could not handle electrical parts. In fact, about
two-thirds of the companies with externally developed systems had made modifications to suit their
own needs. This finding reflects two facts. First, codes to handle both design and manufacturing
are relatively new, and second, companies often need to develop procedures that reflect their own
ways of doing things.
 One direct implication of cellular manufacturing is that the more rigid, flow-oriented system with
drastically reduced work in process requires a stronger emphasis on machine maintenance. Cell
formation, however, also creates a visibility that does not exist in job shops. This visibility makes it
easier for managers and supervisors to identify load-balancing problems in the cells. When a
manufacturing cell is designed, one obvious goal is to achieve a high utilization of all machines in
the cell. The variation in the productive capacities of the machines, however, can create a
restriction, especially if existing machines are relocated to form a cell. The result is usually that one
or two machines end up being bottlenecks, while the others are underused.

The load-balancing problem, also affected by the mix of parts entering the cell, can be alleviated somewhat
by the way parts and part families are released to and sequenced through the cell. At least one company
tried to attack this problem through its production planning and control system. Interestingly, however, the
integration of GT cells and a scheduling system like MRP (materials requirements planning) can cause a
whole new set of problems. These derive from the fact that an MRP system focuses on the completion
dates of individual parts and assemblies, while cellular manufacturing focuses on the efficient production of
part families. Bringing these two systems together will require new procedures for planning and scheduling.
Another problem concerns buffer inventories, which usually stack up between work stations, and the
operators’ ability to eliminate these inventories in a balanced fashion. The unbalanced work load can
become an advantage, however, by focusing capacity planning on these few bottlenecks. Even if the
additional, dedicated machines cause a lower overall machine usage, the increased throughput times,
lower inventory levels, increased productivity, and higher quality associated with cells represent a net gain.
One company actually reduced its machine population by 25% after switching to cellular manufacturing
because of a significant increase in efficiency.

Two things, finally, must be pointed out regarding cellular production. First, there are, at present, no
established and widely accepted formal procedures for creating cells. It is clear, however, that in the future
computer simulation will increasingly be used for this purpose. Second, if cell manufacturing is
implemented in an existing plant, the expectation that all parts can be allocated to part families and
manufactured in production cells is unrealistic. Instead, the converted plant will be a mixture of a job shop
and a cell shop, where the job shop area retains the flexibility to handle odd parts.

The Cost-Benefit Picture

Companies that have implemented GT have reported that it can produce impressive benefits. In the 20-
company survey previously mentioned GT was given credit for reduced tooling and fixture expenses,
reduced materials handling cost, reduced production planning and control efforts, reduced need for floor
space, reduced lead times, reduced work-in-process inventories, improved quality, increased worker
satisfaction, reduced design effort, easier design retrieval, and easier and more accurate cost estimates.
One company stated that the rationale for using GT was ―to simplify operations so they come within the
bounds of human comprehension.‖ Another company suggested that GT’s most significant contribution was
to provide ―a tool for understanding what we manufacture.‖

Although manufacturing cells can be established without previous coding of the parts, coding systems are
definitely necessary for a wider use of GT. Selecting coding systems and coding the parts is a long and
costly exercise. When this milestone has been passed, however, the code opens a wide range of possible
uses. Otis Engineering, for example, reportedly spent 18 months training people and analyzing parts
populations with no apparent benefits. The company, however, quickly recaptured the cost of the
preparation during the first nine months of manufacturing operations based on GT principles. 13

Once coding has been done, it can be used in connection with design retrieval, CAPP, cell formation,
purchasing, and tooling development. The more experience a company gathers, the more it can take
advantage of the GT concept, and the more satisfied it will be with the result. According to the survey, an
absolute majority of the GT users were reaping benefits that met or exceeded their initial expectations. And
users were generally more satisfied with GT the longer they had been involved with it. Almost all of the
companies had plans for expanding their use of GT, for example, by increasing the number of
manufacturing cells, installing CAPP, or coding all material in their inventory files.

To make any type of investment worthwhile, the expected benefits must exceed the expected costs.
According to one senior-ranking executive, few U.S. businesses have adopted GT because of a
misperception of its cost-benefit picture. ―The real causes of excessive manufacturing costs are either not
understood at all or only poorly understood by most manufacturing managements,‖ he says. ―Therefore, the
benefits of the group technology approach to design and manufacturing are not appreciated. On the other
hand, the time and money needed to adopt GT are readily apparent and discourage managers who cannot
visualize the benefits.‖

In a recent HBR article, Bela Gold warned against the uncritical use of traditional capital budgeting
techniques in connection with CAM projects.14 An investment in modern manufacturing technology should
be a piece of a larger manufacturing system, in which each new part creates tangible and intangible
synergisms. The systemwide approach also requires a broad level of analysis and a longer planning
horizon. GT and associated technologies should be analyzed the same way. If the rewards are long-term,
short-term financial projections are simply inappropriate—particularly if the ultimate objective is to create an
integrated manufacturing system.

Implications for Management

The world of manufacturing is changing rapidly, due both to new applications for the computer developed
largely in the United States and to unorthodox views of management principles and systems often taken
from abroad. These changes put pressure on management to acquire new skills. Emerging technologies
require executives to have at least a working knowledge of their applicability and the role they will play in
corporate strategy. Top management cannot abdicate its responsibility and delegate these important
decisions.

Launching a GT program is a major undertaking with long-term implications for the organizational structure
and the people in it. It will be costly, but it will also make contributions that grow over time. GT is another
example of the need for management to include technology in strategic decision making. As was the case
in the past with installations of management information systems, so today in the case of GT, top
management support and absolute commitment are critical for successful implementations, particularly
because better communication and coordination between departments necessarily evolve as a result of the
GT concept. Computerized information technologies represent an opportunity for many manufacturers to
establish a competitive edge. The learning process is long, so there is no time to waste.

7. Discuss the parts classification and coding structure employed in-group technology.

Classification is a means of retrieval. A designer needs to retrieve designs to obtain relevant information
and to utilize existing components in the new products. A provision must be made for performing such
tasks efficiently. From such provisions, there will be significant economic gains, since unnecessary new
designs will be avoided and the use of the existing designs will produce an additional return on past
investment. Retrieval is also necessary in connection with costing, refluxing, planning and standardization,
and in each instance, comparisons need to be made in order to avoid errors and anomalies which leads to
unnecessary varieties. Classification categories are symbolized by codes. Classification leads to the
identification of an item and the code provides a unique item identity. A code is one or more symbols to
which an arbitrarily assigned meaning and/or arrangement has been given, which, when deciphered,
communicates specific information or intelligence. Industrial coding may takes several forms. There are
codes that are applied to classification which integrate a number of parameters within a single code
character- entitled MONOCODES. Another type of code that relates to a single parameter, feature or
descriptor, is entitled
POLYCODE. The combination of the two codes is called MULTIPLEX CODES (MULTICODES). Monocode
Monocode is an integrated code of fewest characters to distribute evenly a classification of a population of
items where each code character is qualified by the preceding code and, in turn, qualifies the succeeding
code. Polycode Polycodes [2] are one or more code symbols assigned to one or more features or
characteristics predicted to occur in a population of items for specific needs. 1. Concept of Monocode The
monocode is designed to satisfy 90% of the data retrieval needs for any organization. The selection of the
parameters, i.e., number and order of placement while subjective to some extent --primarily serves to
provide engineering needs for data visibility to prevent proliferation of variety of materials and components
in the product. Manufacturing has slightly different needs. The significance of monocode could be explained
in concise for the typical factory scenario. A product engineer will want to see the variety of classified
components which are similar in shape or function with little concern for the process for manufacturing the
part. The manufacturing engineer, on the other hand, will want to see the operation .sequence, with the
shape and /or function of the part of secondary importance. Similarities in process can exist even though
the parts may be classified in several different families. The major significance of monocode exists for its
extensive use for product research, design improvement, engineering change(s) which affect multiple parts,
as well as design variety control. There is an average of 4.3 to 4.8 retrievals in product engineering for
every part number released in the life of the part. Another consideration is that almost every part can be
processed in more than one way due to conditions which are themselves non-permanent. The fact is, that
within any family of monocode parts, one process may suffice for all-- or there may be two, three, or even
four different processes. On the other hand, one process routing sheet with provision to reflect predictable
variations may serve many families. 2. Concept of Polycode Where additional or specific data are required
that are highly desirable for one functional user but of little or no consequence to any other, such data are
best coded using polycodes in conjunction with the monocode identifier of the whole part. Polycodes are
used by trailing them behind the Monocode. Polycodes deal with a single detail each, usually with one code
for each. In some cases, several code positions may be required due to the variation or degree of
specificity. One vital difference between Polycode and Monocode needs to be taken in to account.
Polycode (feature or descriptor) enables a horizontal search across the board, irrespective of other
characteristics. In contrast, the Monocode is a vertical search and analysis tool. Most coding schemes are
Polycode, but do not include the Monocode as the unique identifier. Polycoding requires no specific coding
skill to develop. Polycodes-- variously referred to as feature codes, trailer codes, may take a variety of
forms and formats. While they may have their differences i.e., more than one code position, alpha, or
alpha-numeric, or all numeric, even direct read: e.g., 0=one, 2=two, and so on, they do have one thing in
common. They deal with a single feature-- each code, expressed schematically, a Polycode formatted code
is represented by the following:
Benefits of Classification and Coding There are numerous classification and coding systems in
existence today. The best coding system is one which is adapted specifically to the industry or company
where it is used. To insure this, a company can devise its own classification system based upon either
universal systems or some other tailor-made system installed by outside consultants or experts. This is one
of the key features which needs to be considered for achieving culmination. Summary of benefits derived
from a well-designed classification and coding system could be depicted as follows: (1) Formation of
groups of parts (part family) and machine groups. (2) Quick retrieval of designs, drawings and production
plans. (3) Design rationalization and reduction of design costs. (4) Secure reliable work piece statistics. (5)
Accurate estimation of machine tool requirements rationalized machine loading and optimized capital
expenditure. (6) Rationalization of tooling set-up and reduction of set-up time and overall production
time.(7) Rationalization and improvement of tool design and reduction of tool design time and cost, and
fabrication time and cost. (8) Rationalization of production planning procedures and scheduling. (9)
Accurate cost accounting and cost estimation. (10) Better utilization of machine tools, work holding devices
and manpower. (11) Improvement for NC programming and effective uses of NC machines. E. Significance
of Classification and Coding in manufacturingThe key area of application of classification and coding
systems is through design data retrieval and rationalization. Not only design information, but material
requirements, production planning and other production information will be readily available, so that all
relevant production information can be retrieved for scheduling, group machining, tooling and set-up. A
classification and coding system also facilitates an extensive variety of reduction and standardization on
programs which is valuable to the company itself as well as a great aid to G.T. application. It has been
reported[16] that an average cost of introducing a new part into engineering and manufacturing system is
around $1,300 to $2,500 (average $1,900) per part. For example, a company reported that about 2,500
new parts were released annually (thus an average of ten new parts every day), while about 30,000 active
parts were in their design files. Therefore, it can easily be estimated that the annual cost of new part
introduction becomes $4,750,000 per year (=2,500 parts X$1,900 per part). So it makes clear how much
one can save by eliminating duplication of parts and thus reducing the number of new parts. It has also
been reported that about 5-10% of annual new parts output could be avoided by the proper use of
classification and coding systems. Thus, a company can save about $237,500 to $475,000 in reduction of
duplicated design alone. Activities affected by introduction of a new part Activities affected by introduction
of a new part can be divided in to two major groups. They are ascribed as follows. 1. Engineering activities
(a) Design and detail drafting (b) Protocol building (c) Testing and experimentation (d) Auditing and costing
(e) Records and documentation

2. Manufacturing and Finance activities (a) Advance manufacturing engineering (central) (b)
Manufacturing engineering (plant) (c) Tool design and tools & gages (d) Time study and standards (e)
Production control and scheduling (1) cost accounting (g) Purchasing and inventory (h) Quality control.
Process Planning "Process planning is a subsystem responsible for the conversion of design data to work
instruction . In profound explanation process planning could be defined as that function within
manufacturing facility that establishes the machining processes and parameters to be used (as well as
those machines capable of performing these process) in order to convert (machine) a piece-part from its
initial form to its final form predetermined (usually by a design engineer) on a detailed engineering drawing.
The initial material may take a number of forms; the most common of which are bar stock, castings,
forgings or maybe just a slab of metal. This slab of material is normally a burn-out (a part produced by a
flame cutting operation) cut to some rough dimension. This slab might have almost any shape. With these
types of raw materials as a base, the process planner must prepare a list of those (machining) processes
needed to convert this normally predetermined material into a specified final geometry. The most common
processes that a process planner has at his disposal are turning, facing, milling, drilling, reaming, planning,
sawing, trepanning, brushing, punching, and grinding. some manufacturing people may consider some of
the operations as subsets of a major category. Others may define further categories. A few examples of
this are: Reaming is often considered a subset of drilling, and trepanning is often considered a type of gun
drilling. With above processes and specific set of machine tools at his disposal, the process planner relies
on his experience to develop that set of processes capable of producing a part. The selection of processes
is not an entirely random phenomenon. As a matter of fact, there are usually more than one process
capable of producing specific surface; therefore, the process planner must choose what he feels is the best
process. This is normally done by recalling similar parts or at least similar surfaces and recalling the means
utilized in machining this part. In this way, the planner compares specific processes used to obtain some
final specification and chooses what he feels is the best alternative. This sort of planning is known as man-
variant planning. G. Need for Automated Process Planning Process plan creation is a central activity in the
orderly and efficient operation of a manufacturing enterprise. Once a product has been designed, the
process planner's work probably has more impact on the cost, quality and rates of production than any
other company activity. A Well-formulated process plan can provide products that meet quality, quantity,
timing and cost objectives. If a process plan mismatches process capabilities with product requirements,
however, the result can be excessive scrap and rework, low output, excessive in-process inventory, and
high production costs. Most problems with current manual planning methods exist [22] because the
methods depend on such subjective factors as the planner's previous experience, personal preference,
extent of shop knowledge, interpretation of design requirements, and judgment. At worst, this subjectivity
results in inaccurate or inconsistent plans and/or high production costs. In addition, manual process
planning requires continual education of planners as new processes and equipment’s are introduced. The
current shortage of experienced and dexterous planners is another critical issue in consideration.

8. Give the form code for the part family using any one coding system.

Group Technology (GT) in Manufacturing  Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually
made in batches  Disadvantages of batch production:  Downtime for changeovers  High inventory
carrying costs  GT minimizes these disadvantages by recognizing that although the parts are different,
there are groups of parts that possess similarities Overview of Group Technology in Manufacturing  An
approach to manufacturing in which similar parts are identified and grouped together in order to take
advantage of their similarities in design and production  The improvement is typically achieved by
organizing the production facilities into manufacturing cells that specialize in production of certain part
families  GT can be implemented by manual or automated techniques  When automated, the term
flexible manufacturing system is often applied I. Group Technology Definition: GT is a manufacturing
concept in which similar parts are grouped together in parts groups families. i). In their
Designcharacteristics (differ in the production processes) #1 #2 Cold rolled steel Aluminum tolerance:
0.0125― 0.003" Finish: Two coats primer Sand & Puff

ii). In the manufacturing processed required to produce them (differ design) GT exploits the part similarities
by utilizing similar processes and tooling to produce them

Part family concept A part that has been designed for manufacturing usually has to be produced by
several succeeding manufacturing operations. If there is a large spectrum of parts to be produced, it will be
necessary for work pieces to share common processing equipment.  It is advantage to group parts
together to families either according to their geometric similarities or to similar fabrication methods.

A change of parts would only require a new part program to generate a new contour. The parts form a
design family, they are similar in design, and in this case can also be produced by a similar manufacturing
process.

The cubical parts which are not very similar any more; however, they also form a production family and can
be made on the same multi-axis machining center.

The dissimilar parts requiring at least one common process, which is to drill four holes. In this case, the
other processes needed to shape the part would have to be done with different machine tools. These parts
are typical for companies producing a wide spectrum of products.
Two completely identical designed parts, one made from plastic and the other from steel. The
manufacturing processes would be injection molding for the plastic reel and turning for the metal reel. In
this case we have a common design family; however, the production processes are unrelated

If the parts were to be manufacturing according to group technology considerations, the plant would have to
be realigned.

The production process assumes a flow line operation with machine tools located in the flow line where
they are needed. It can readily be seen that intra-plant transportation is minimized. Setup operations and
tool changes are also reduced.

Ways to Identify Part Families 1. Visual inspection - using best judgment to group parts into appropriate
families, based on the parts or photos of the parts 2. Production flow analysis - using information contained
on route sheets to classify parts 3. Parts classification and coding - identifying similarities and differences
among parts and relating them by means of a coding scheme Classification Procedures  With group
technology the work pieces and machining operations have to be classified. This implies that a suitable
method of coding must be found which can easily be used for manual method or computer-aided
classification procedures.  With the manual method the description of parts and processed are cataloged.
When awork piece is scheduled for production, a catalog search is made to find a suitable manufacturing
process and sequence.  When the computer is used, the information about the part and the fabrication
process is stored in a memory peripheral and the manufacturing data are retrieved automatically.  One of
the main difficulties for coding is to decide which parameters are important for classification. No rigid rule
can be given since the parameters may vary, depending on the part spectrum. A common practice is to
separate rotational from non-rotational parts.  Classification by shape usually determines the
manufacturing process, whereas the function is of interest to the designer. If a part that has similar
functions is already in existence, the designer does not have to duplicate it. The result of an industry
survey where different parameters for typical work pieces were ranked in order of importance. The most
important ones are candidates to be included in a classification system.
Example: A similar study with sheet metal parts. The major shape, the material, and the material
specification had the highest ranking.

Other Classification Consideration: 1) For classification there are also many processing parameters that
must be taken into consideration. This means that the types of processes within the plant and their
limitations must be known. 2) Tool changes and setup times usually add considerably to processing cost.
Similarly, the number of machining sequences should be kept to a minimum. The entire machining
operation should be controllable by one operator; otherwise, difficulties may be encountered during
rescheduling of production runs. 3) One of the most difficult tasks is to balance the load of available
machine tools. In adverse conditions it may even happen that most operations are done on only a small
number of machine tools and that the rest of the machines are underutilized. This may require an unduly
large effort to balance machine tools. 4)There are many parts that cannot be handled by any known
classification method. It is important to perform economic studies when group technology is introduced and
to limit its application to parts that can be grouped together in a family reasonably well.

9. Discuss the principle and advantages of group technology coding.

GT, is a manufacturing technology where similar parts are collectively identified and grouped to
use the benefit of their relationship in design and as well as in production. The similar parts are grouped to
form part families. Each and every family has similar design and manufacturing qualities.Example: A plant
manufacturing 10,000 various parts could be capable to arrange into 30 to 40 part families.As each
member in a family have nearly processing activities, collection of machines needed for processing of all
part family members leads to the most efficient method of manufacturing. This group or collection of
machines is called as GT Cells and this method of manufacturing is called as Cellular Manufacturing.
 Part Family:

The collection of parts with similar design characteristics and similar manufacturing characteristics
is known as part family. The parts in a part family are different however the similarities are good
enough to classify them as one of the member of a family.

The various methods implemented for part family grouping are visual inspection, coding and
classification, and analysis of production flow.

Part Classification and Coding System:

It concerns with identification of similarities with parts and it relates those similarities in the form of
code. The similarities could be design characteristics alone or manufacturing characteristics alone
or both characteristics. The part classification and coding system can be fallen into three
categories:

 System related to design characteristics,

 System related to manufacturing characteristics, and
 System related to both design and manufacturing characteristics.
Coding Structure:

The coding system is comprised of series of symbols which is used to identify the design and
manufacturing characteristics of the parts. The symbols can be in the form of all alphabetic or all numeric
or the both. This arrangement of symbols is called as Coding Structure. It can be divided into three
types:

 Chain type Structure,

 Hierarchial Structure, and
 Hybrid Structure.
Advantages of Group Technology:

 Maximizes the output

 Less lead time
 Less setting time
 Reduced scrap
 Reduced material handling.

10. Classify a component using either OPITZ or MICLASS system.

The Opitz Classification System (Developed by the Technical University of Aachen): the code
number has a maximum of 13 positions. Each position may assume 10 different values (attributes).
Basic structure of the Opitz system 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D Form Code
Supplementary Secondary Code Code
Form code: describes the primary design attributes of a part
Supplementary code: describes manufacturing related attributes
Secondary code: more detail of manufacturing attributes
CODE System (Developed by industry and is marketed by Manufacturing Data System Inc.)
 MICLASS System (Developed in the Netherlands): the abbreviation is derived from the name Metal
Institute Classification System. Developed to help automate & standardize a number of design,
production and management function. These include:

Standardization of engineering drawings

Retrieval of drawings according to classification

Standardization of process routing

Automated process planning

Selection of parts processing on particular group of machine tools.

Machine tool investment analysis etc. The System consists of 30 digits (maximum) 1 2 3 4 ..... 12
13 14 15 .....30 Universal Code Special Code (for any part) (for any company or industry including
lot size, cost data, time, operation sequence, etc.)

11.Describe cellular manufacturing.

Cellular manufacturing is a manufacturing process that produces families of parts within a single line or cell
of machines operated by machinists who work only within the line or cell. A cell is a small scale, clearly-
defined production unit within a larger factory. This unit has complete responsibility for producing a family of
like parts or a product. All necessary machines and manpower are contained within this cell, thus giving it a
degree of operational autonomy. Each worker is expected to have mastered a full range of operating skills
required by his or her cell. Therefore, systematic job rotation and training are necessary conditions for
effective cell development. Complete worker training is needed to ensure that flexible worker assignments
can be fulfilled.Cellular manufacturing, which is actually an application of group technology, has been
described as a stepping stone to achieving world class manufacturing status. The objective of cellular
manufacturing is to design cells in such a way that some measure of performance is optimized. This
measure of performance could be productivity, cycle time, or some other logistics measure. Measures seen
in practice include pieces per man hour, unit cost, on-time delivery, lead time, defect rates, and percentage
of parts made cell-complete.
This process involves placing a cluster of carefully selected sets of functionally dissimilar machines in close
proximity to each other. The result is small, stand-alone manufacturing units dedicated to the production of
a set or family of parts—or essentially, a miniature version of a plant layout. While the machinery may be
functionally dissimilar, the family of parts produced contains similar processing requirements or
has geometric similarities. Thus, all parts basically follow the same routing with some minor variations (e.g.,
skipping an operation). The cells may have no conveyorized movement of parts between machines, or they
may have a flow line connected by a conveyor that can provide automatic transfer.
Cellular manufacturing is a hybrid system that links the advantages of a job shop with the product layout of
the continuous flow line. The cell design provides for quick and efficient flow, and the high productivity
associated with assembly lines. However, it also provides the flexibility of the job shop, allowing both similar
and diverse products to be added to the line without slowing the process. Figures 1 and 2 compares a
cellular layout to that of the typical job shop (process layout).

BENEFITS OF CELLULAR MANUFACTURING

Many firms utilizing cellular manufacturing have reported near immediate improvements in performance,
with only relatively minor adverse effects. Cited improvements which seem to have occurred fairly quickly
include reductions in work-in-process, finished goods, lead time, late orders, scrap, direct labor, and
workspace.
In particular, production and quality control is enhanced. By breaking the factory into small, homogeneous
and cohesive productive units, production and quality control is made easier. Cells that are not performing
according to volume and quality targets can be easily isolated, since the parts/products affected can be
traced to a single cell. Also, because the productive units are small, the search for the root of problems is
made easier. Quality parameters and control procedures can be dovetailed to the particular requirements of
the parts or work pieces specific to a certain cell. By focusing quality control activity on a particular
production unit or part type, the cell can quickly master the necessary quality requirements. Control is
always enhanced when productive units are kept at a minimum operating scale, which is what cellular
manufacturing provides. When production is structured using cellular manufacturing logic, flow
systematization is possible. Grouping of parts or products into sets or families reveals which ones are more
or less amenable to continuous, coupled flow. Parts that are standardized and common to many products
will have very low changeover times, and thus, are quickly convertible to continuous, line-flow production.
Products that are low-volume, high-variety and require longer set-up times can be managed so that they
evolve toward a line flow. Cells can be designed to exploit the characteristics peculiar to each part family so
as to optimize the flow for each cell and for groups of cells as a whole. Flow systematization can be done
one cell at a time so as to avoid large disruptions in operations. Then the cells that were easy to systemize
can provide experience that can be exploited when the more difficult systematization projects occur later.
Cells that have been changed to a line flow will invariably show superior performance in the areas of
quality, throughput time, and cost, which can lead to eventual plant wide benefit.
Work flow that is adapted to the unique requirements of each product or part allows the plant to produce
high-volume and high-variety products simultaneously. Since the cell structure integrates both worker and
product versatility into a single unit, it has the potential to attain maximum system flexibility while
maintaining factory focus. Cells can be designed around single products, product groups, unique parts, part
families, or whatever unique market requirements are identified. For the same part, there may be one high-
volume, standardized design and one low-volume customized design. Cells can be built specifically for any
of these with a focus on the individual marketing or production requirement called for by the individual
product or part.
Systematic job rotation and training in multiple skills also make possible quick, flexible work assignments
that can be used to alleviate bottlenecks occurring within the cell. Since normal cell operation requires the
workers to master all the skills internal to the cell, little or no additional training should be needed when
workers have to be redeployed in response to volume or sales mix changes. When it is routine for workers
to learn new skills, they can be easily transferred to another job within the cell or possibly even to an
entirely different production unit. Without this worker flexibility and versatility, there can be no real
production system flexibility.

LIMITATIONS
While its benefits have been well documented, it should also be noted that some have argued that
implementing cellular manufacturing could lead to a decrease in manufacturing flexibility. It is felt that
conversion to cells may cause some loss in routing flexibility, which could then impact the viability of cell
use. Obtaining balance among cells is also more difficult than for flow or job shops. Flow shops have
relatively fixed capacity, and job shops can draw from a pool of skilled labor so balance isn't that much of a
problem. By contrast, with cells, if demand diminishes greatly, it may be necessary to break up that cell and
redistribute the equipment or reform the families.
Also, some researchers have warned that the benefits of cellular manufacturing could deteriorate over time
due to ongoing changes in the production environment. Finally, it must be noted that conversion to cellular
manufacturing can involve the costly realignment of equipment. The burden lies with the manager to
determine if the costs of switching from a process layout to a cellular one outweigh the costs of the
inefficiencies and inflexibility of conventional plant layouts.
THE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS
A wide variety of methods for the implementation of cellular manufacturing have been proposed. These
range from complex computer and mathematical models to straightforward applications, such as production
flow analysis. A pattern for implementation is now presented.
The first step in implementing cellular manufacturing is to break down the various items produced by the
company into a number of part sets or families. The grouping process (group technology) involves
identifying items with similarities in design characteristics or manufacturing characteristics, and grouping
them into part families. Design characteristics include size, shape, and function; manufacturing
characteristics or process characteristics are based on the type and sequence of operations required. In
many cases, though not always, the two kinds of characteristics are correlated. Therefore design families
may be distinctly different from processing families.
Once identified, similar items can be classified into families. Then a system is developed that facilitates
retrieval from a design and manufacturing database. For example, the system can be used to determine if
an identical or similar part exists before a completely new part is designed. If a similar part is found, it may
be that a simple modification would produce satisfactory results without the expense of new part design.
Similarly, planning the manufacturing of a new part after matching it with an existing part family can
eliminate new and costly processing requirements.
This grouping of part or product families requires a systematic analysis that often proves to be a major
undertaking. Usually, there is a considerable amount of data to analyze, and this in turn can be quite time-
consuming and costly. Three primary methods exist for accomplishing the grouping process: visual
inspection, examination of design and production data, and production flow analysis. Visual inspection is
the least accurate of the three but nonetheless the simplest and the least costly. The most commonly used
method of analysis is the examination of design and production data. This method is more accurate but is
also more time-consuming. Production flow analysis examines operation sequences and machine routing
to uncover similarities (therefore, it has a manufacturing perspective rather than a design perspective).
However, unless the operation sequencing and routings are verified, this method could be far from optimal.
The resulting number of families determines the number of cells required, as well as what machines are
required within each cell. The cell usually includes all the processing operations needed to complete a part
or subassembly. However, it is possible for a product to go from raw materials to packaging and be ready
for shipment by the time it reaches the end of the cell.
The families will also help determine where within the cell each machine will be located for the most
efficient flow, and how many employees are needed within each cell. After the product families are
determined, the machines needed for the production process of a specific family are organized into cells
according to processing requirements (e.g., the order of processing). Frequently, machines are grouped in
an efficient U-shaped configuration. Since each machine operates on its own for much of the cycle, few
workers may be needed, and even then only for a limited number of steps.
The optimal layout is one that minimizes the distance between cells, or the distance to the next production
point. The resulting reduction in time and handling ultimately provides a reduction in processing costs.
Some firms utilize "linked-cell manufacturing," which is the concept of arranging the manufacturing cells
near the assembly cells. Again, this decreases travel distances while reducing materials handling.
Hopefully, the floor layout will also provide for the easy flow of a product to shipping, if shipping is located
close to the cells in a streamlined flow.
Some plants in advanced stages of cellular manufacturing utilize what is known as a "mini-plant." The cell
not only does the manufacturing, but also has its own support services, including its own industrial
engineer, quality manager, accountant, and marketing representative and/or salesperson. Only research
and development and human resource management are not dedicated to the mini-plant.
An entire facility can be broken down into a number of mini-plants, each of which operates as an
independent profit center.

THE IMPACT OF CELLULAR MANUFACTURING ON WORKERS.

Nancy Hyer and Urban Wemmerlov noted in Mechanical Engineering that while technology and processes
represent the "hard side" of cells, people represent the "soft side." They state that the soft side factors are
far more difficult to change than are the hard side factors. Most implementing firms spend most of their time
struggling with soft issues. Cellular manufacturing calls for radical changes in the way industrial work is
designed, structured, planned, controlled, and supervised. It makes workerselfmanagement a reality, so
management must be convinced that the workers can master all the required aspects of the work.
The decision to implement cellular manufacturing requires a deep commitment to excellence and a desire
to permanently change the way factories are viewed and managed. Cellular manufacturing affects workers
in a number of ways. Among the factors now discussed are issues of self-management, motivation,
employee input, supervision, and group cohesiveness.

SELF-MANAGEMENT.
Cell workers are encouraged to think creatively about production problems and are expected to arrive at
pragmatic solutions to them. While they are free to seek advice from plant management and staff, the
identified problems and subsequent analysis, and usually the solutions, are entirely their own. Workers
have the authority and are encouraged to implement and follow up on action plans to improve their work.
Some managers ask cells to set improvement targets for themselves and measure their performance in
comparison to these targets. In addition, workers are given the freedom to plan, coordinate, and control
their work within their cell as long as they meet company standards of quality, volume, time, and cost.

MOTIVATION.
Behavioral psychology proposes that challenging work assignments keep employees motivated, satisfied,
and productive. Flexible work assignments within the cells ensure that employees are constantly learning
new tasks and constantly being challenged. Job rotation within the cell introduces variety in work patterns,
thereby breaking the monotony (which has been known to cause absenteeism and problems in quality and
productivity). Industrial work is productively accomplished in a group work setting. Cellular manufacturing
can energize the group, attacking the lethargy found in many industrial situations.
EMPLOYEE INPUT.
With the cell work group energized and motivated, the employees are more likely to actively and continually
bring their mental capabilities to bear on job-related problems. Cell workers are the closest ones to the
production process, so practical ideas are likely to instigate other ideas, which could then give rise to a
continuous, almost self-sustaining chain reaction of improvement. As the workers see their own creative
output being implemented, they begin to develop self-esteem and a stronger desire to succeed. They even
begin to challenge each other to improve on their prior accomplishments.
The drive toward excellence is fueled by the human need to achieve until the desire to excel and
continuously improve becomes part of the factory culture. Then as workers learn by doing more, they
become more proficient at generating ideas which, perpetuates the cycle of improvement. Cellular
manufacturing can be the structural catalyst that starts, contains, and sustains the improvement process.

SUPERVISION.
The intense use of manufacturing cells tends to flatten the factory management structure and reduce
overhead costs. When work group autonomy, worker versatility, and small group improvement activities
converge, the need for supervision is drastically reduced, if not eliminated all together. Cell manufacturing
perpetuates the idea that the work group should supervise itself. A workforce that is motivated, trained, and
assigned specific clear responsibility for a product or part, coupled with simplified production planning and
control, does not need to be minutely controlled or supervised in order to do a good job.

GROUP COHESIVENESS.
The creation of small-scale productions dedicated to production of a few similar parts increases work group
cohesiveness. Since each cell has few employees, typically less than fourteen, extensive interpersonal
contact is unavoidable. The workers are now part of a single, identifiable unit with operating autonomy and
responsibility for a specific product, linked by the common purpose of continually improving the productive
unit for which they are responsible. The cell structure keeps problems at a level where they are
manageable and gives employees the opportunity to exercise their creative potential in a pragmatic way.
When problems calling for technical expertise beyond that of the workers, managers and production staff
can be called on to provide assistance. Cell manufacturing builds a cohesive subculture within the wider
social environment of the plant.
The use of flexible work assignments contributes even more to the group's cohesiveness and loyalty.
Employees who regularly perform the work also done by coworkers are more likely to demonstrate
empathy and support when dealing with each other on the job. If each worker has experienced each job
firsthand, they are more able to offer encouragement and advice on how the work can be improved and
each worker is more receptive to the input of his or her coworkers. Each worker can view and understand
completely the task, responsibilities, and mission that top management has dedicated to the cell. The
cross-fertilization process that emerges can generate some truly creative ideas for process improvement.
As the expression goes, "as iron sharpens iron, so shall one man sharpen another."
Finally, work group cohesiveness, reinforced by the cell structure, facilitates total people management. Due
to its small scale and mission focus, the cell can be easily mobilized. Top management is too far removed,
spatially and socially, from the workers to be able to interact with them extensively enough to significantly
control the socialization process. Management can shape corporate values and create a nurturing social
environment, but it cannot instill these values into the minds of the lower level employees. Hence, corporate
values are better communicated and instilled into daily work habits by small group processes.
The cell is better able to exercise social control over deviant workers since it can directly and immediately
manipulate social rewards and punishment. Any worker who fails to conform may find his deviant behavior
quickly detected and reacted to by the withdrawal of the social support of the cell. Deviant behavior that is
hidden from management for long periods of time is very visible to the small group and can be dealt with
quickly.
Conversely, high-performing group members are also quickly visible but are rewarded with esteem and
respect from the other cell workers. Consequently, management can work through the cell to instill the
corporation's values, attitudes, and philosophies. Once these are internalized by the group's key members,
the group itself will take over the socialization process of indoctrinating these values into the mindset of
each worker.
12.Describe about PFA?
This is an approach to part family identification and machine cell formation that was pioneered by J.
Burbidge. Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for identifying part families and associated machine
groupings that use the information contained 011 production route sheets rather than on part drawings.
Work parts with identical or similar routings are classified into part families. These families can then be
used to form logical machine cells in a group technology layout. Since PFA uses manufacturing data rather
than design data to identify part families, it can overcome two possible anomalies that can occur in parts
classification and coding. First, parts whose basic geometries are quite different may nevertheless require
similar or even identical process routings. Second, parts whose geornetries are quite similar may
nevertheless require process routings that are quite different.
The procedure in production flow analysis must begin by defining the scope of the study, which means
deciding on the population of parts to be analyzed. Should all of the parts in the shop be Included in the
study, or should a representative sample be selected for analysis! Once this decision is made, then the
procedure in PFA consists of the following steps:
Data collection. The minimum data needed in the analysis are the part number and operation sequence,
which is contained in shop documents called route sheets or operation sheets or some similar name. Each
operation is usually associated with a particular machine, so determining the operation sequence also
determines the machine sequence. Additional data.such as lot size, time standards, and annual demand
might be useful for designing machine cells of the required production capacity.

Soriation of process routings. In this step, the parts are arranged into groups according to the similarity
of their process routings. To facilitate this step, all operations or machines included in the shop are reduced
to code numbers, such as those shown in Table 15.3. For each part, the operation codes are listed in the
order in which they are performed. A sortation procedure is then used to arrange parts into "packs," which
are groups of parts with identical routings. Some packs may contain only one part number, indicating the
uniqueness of the processing of that part. Other packs will contain many parts, and these will constitute a
part family.

PFA chart. The processes used for each pack are then displayed in a PFA chart, a simplified example of
which is illustrated in Table 15.4.1 The chart is a tabulation of the process or machine code numbers for all
of the part packs. In recent GT literature [30], the PFA chart has been referred to as part-machine incidence
matrix. In this matrix, the entries have a value xii=1 or 0: a value of xij = 1 indicates that the corresponding
part i requires processing on machine j, and X'I = 0 indicates that no processing of component i is
accomplished on machine j.For clarity of presenting the matrix, the D's are often indicated as blank (empty)
entries, as in our table.

Cluster analysis. From the pattern of data in the PFA chart. related groupings are identified and
rearranged into a new pattern that brings together packs with similar machine sequences. One possible
rearrangement of the original PFA chart is shown in Table 15.5, where different machine groupings are
indicated within blocks. The blocks might be considered as possible machine cells. It is often the case (but
not in Table 15.5) that some packs do not fit into logical groupings. These parts might be analyzed to see if
a revised process sequence can be developed that fits into one of the groups. If not, these parts must
continue to be fabricated through a conventional process layout. In Section 15.6.1, we examine a
systematic technique called rank order clustering that can be used to perform the cluster analysis.
TABLE 15.3 Possible Code Numbers indicating Operations and/or Machines for Sortation in Production
Flow Analysis (Highly Simplified
 The weakness of production flow analysis is that the data used in the technique are derived from existing
production route sheets. In all likelihood, these route sheets have been prepared by different process
planners, and the routings may contain operations that are non-optimal, illogical, or unnecessary.
Consequently, the final machine groupings obtained in the analysis may be suboptimal. Notwithstanding
this weakness, PFA has the virtue of requiring less time than a complete parts classification and coding
procedure. This virtue is attractive to many firms wishing to introduce group technology into their plant
operations.
13. List out the premises for the development of DCLASS code.
DCLASS System
1) It is a decision-making and classification system.
2) It is a tree-structured system that generates codes for components, material, processes,
machines, and tools. Each branch of the system represents a condition in which a code is formed
at the junction of each branch.
3)The complete code is obtained by taking multiple passes in the decision tree. Sample of
DCLASS code representation

General Code (AA BC DD)

1)The code is a numerical code of constant length and is divided into two groups of six
digits each:
2) The first digit (AA) has 10 possible values, the second and third digits (B and C) are
combined to give 99 possible subclasses of each item classified, and the last digit (DD) in
the general code has 10 possible values.
3)The general code gives a general description of the part, the type of operation it
performs, and other specifications that uniquely identify the product. Specific Code (XX
X XX X)
4)The specific code gives us a more detailed description about a part by classifying it into
subclasses.
5) Some parts do not need all 12 digits. The extra digits are reserved for possible future
expansion of the company of the company line of products. Method Used for the
Proposed Classification System
6) The first step taken in designing the proposed classification system is to break down
all of the company’scomponentsorpartsintoeightmajordesignclassesasfollowing:
1. Designed piece parts
2. Designed assemblies
3. Designed products
4. Purchased piece parts
5. Purchased assemblies
6. Purchased products
7. Raw material
8. Miscellaneous
Division of a design class into subclasses
Benefits of a Well-Designed Classification and Coding System
1) Facilitates formation of part families.
2)Permits quick retrieval of part design drawings
3) Reduces design duplication
4) Promotes design standardization
5) Improves cost estimating and cost accounting
6) Facilitates NC part programming by allowing new parts to use the same part program
as existing parts in the same family 6)Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) becomes
feasible
14. Explain about part family.
PART FAMILIES (Similarity groupings are called Part Families)
• A part family is a collection of parts that are similar either because of geometric shape and size or
because similar processing steps are required in their manufacture.
• The parts within a family are different, but their similarities are close enough to merit their inclusion as
members of the part family

GROUPING PART FAMILIES

• There are three general methods for solving part families grouping. All the three are time
consuming and involve the analysis of much of data by properly trained personnel.
• The three methods are:
• Visual inspection.
• Parts classification and coding.
• Production flow analysis.
1- Visual Inspection Method The visual inspection method is the least sophisticated and least
expensive method. It involves the classification of parts into families by looking at either the
physical parts or their photographs and arranging them into groups having similar features.

2- Parts classification and Coding

• In parts classification and coding, similarities among parts are identified, and these similarities are related
in a coding system.
• Two categories of part similarities can be distinguished:
1. Design attributes, which concerned with part characteristics such as geometry, size and material.
2. Manufacturing attributes, which consider the sequence of processing steps required to make a part.
• Reasons for using a classification and coding system:
• Design retrieval. A designer faced with the task of developing a new part can use a design retrieval
system to determine if a similar part already exist. A simple change in an existing part would take much
less time than designing a whole new part from scratch.
• Automated process planning. The part code for a new part can be used to search for process plans for
existing parts with identical or similar codes.
• Machine cell design. The part codes can be used to design machine cells capable of producing all
members of a particular part family, using the composite part concept