Enyew bantie

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
A STUDY OF FLEXURAL AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS

OF
JUTE FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE
ENYEW BANTIE
MARCH, 2010
OF
A Thesis
Presented to the School of Graduate Studies
Addis Ababa University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Masters of Science in

Civil Engineering (Structures)
by
Enyew Bantie
MARCH, 2010
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

OF
by
Enyew Bantie
Approved by Board of Examiners:
Name Signature Date
Advisor
Dr. Asnake Adamu _______________ ______________
Examiner
Dr. Esayas G/Yohannes _______________ ______________
Examiner
Dr. –Ing Adil Zekaria _______________ ______________
III
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis is done under the supervision of my advisor Dr. Asnake Adamu at Addis
Ababa University, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department. Hence, I am
very grateful to his invaluable and indispensable suggestions and thorough follow up in
the accomplishment of the thesis work.
I am also grateful to members of the examining board for their academic assessment and
comments so as to have a final and standard framework of the thesis.
I would like to extend my deep gratitude to my father Ato Bantie Tamiru, my mother
W/ro Fentanesh Ayenew, my brothers and sisters for their honorable and courteous
supports all the way through my postgraduate career.
I am indebted to Ato Daniel Kifle for his technical assistant in the accomplishment of the
laboratory activities. Finally, I greatly acknowledge the School of Graduate Studies,
Addis Ababa University for funding the thesis work.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................... III

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. VII
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. IX
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................ X
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ XII
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Objectives and Scope of the Study ................................................................... 2
1.3 Contents of the Thesis ...................................................................................... 3
2 A BRIEF REVIEW OF FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE ........................... 5

2.1 Historical Background of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete ....................................... 5
2.2 Material Compositions for FRC ....................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Cement ..................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Aggregates ............................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Water ....................................................................................................... 8
2.2.4 Fibres ....................................................................................................... 9
2.2.5 Admixtures ............................................................................................. 12
2.3 Mix Design of the FRC ................................................................................. 13
2.4 Properties and Test Methods of FRC ............................................................. 15
2.4. 1 General................................................................................................... 15
2.4. 2 Properties of FRC ................................................................................... 15
2.4. 3 Test Methods for FRC ............................................................................ 17
3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF JFRC ................................................................ 21

3.1 Experimental Set Up ...................................................................................... 21
3.2 Material Specifications ................................................................................... 24
3.2.1 Water ..................................................................................................... 24
V
3.2.2 Cement ................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3 Aggregates ............................................................................................. 24
3.2.4 Fibre ....................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Mix Proportioning and Specimen Preparations ............................................... 27
3.3.1 Mix Proportioning .................................................................................. 27
3.3.2 Mix and Test Specimen Preparations ...................................................... 30
3.4 Experimental Tests ......................................................................................... 32
3.4.1 Compression Test ................................................................................... 32
3.4.2 Bending Test .......................................................................................... 32
4 DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSES ON TEST RESULTS .................................. 34

4.1 Effects of Jute Fibre on Properties of Fresh Concrete ..................................... 34
4.2 Effects of Jute Fibre on Mechanical Properties of Concrete ............................ 35
4.2.1 Compressive Strength............................................................................. 35
4.2.2 Flexural Strength .................................................................................... 38
4.2.3 Toughness Behavior ............................................................................... 45
4.3 Design Considerations and Areas of Applications .......................................... 46
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................... 54

5.1 CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................ 54
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................... 55
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................. 57
ANNEX .................................................................................................................... 76
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 87
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
Table 2.1 Names and Abbreviations of Major Compounds............................................6
Table 2.2 Chemical Composition of Common Vegetable Fibres ................................. 10
Table 2.3 Mechanical Properties of Vegetable Fibres .................................................. 11
Table 3.1 Specific Gravity, Absorption Capacity and Unit Weight of Aggregates ....... 25
Table 3.2 Tensile Strength and Extensibility of Jute Fibre ........................................... 26
Table 3.3 Mix Quantities per Cubic Meter of Concrete for Different Fibre Contents ... 30
Table 3.4 Test Programme .......................................................................................... 31
Table 4.1 Properties of Fresh JFRC............................................................................. 35
Table 4.2 Average Compressive Strength of JFRC at 28-Days .................................... 36
Table 4.3 Average Failure Load and Modulus of Rupture of JFRC at 28-Days............ 38
Table 4.4 Average First-Crack Deflection of JFRC ..................................................... 43
Table 4.5 Comparison of Flexural Strength of Experimental Results with that of

Prediction Equation ....................................................................................................... 44
Table 4.6 Toughness Indices and Residual Strength Factors of JFRC .......................... 46
Table A-1 Procedure and Check List for Sieve Analysis of Aggregates ....................... 58
Table A-2 Procedure and Check List for the Specific Gravity and Absorption Capacity
of Aggregates ................................................................................................................ 61
Table A-3 Procedure and Check List for the Determination of Unit Weight of
Aggregates .................................................................................................................... 64
Table A-4 Procedure and Check List for Mix Preparation of JFRC .............................. 66
Table A-5 Procedure and Check List for the Evaluation of Properties of Fresh JFRC .. 68
Table A-6 Procedure and Check List for Test Specimen Preparation ........................... 70
VII
Table B-1 Unit Weight of Fresh Concrete ................................................................... 74
Table B-2 Compression Test Results at 28-Days ......................................................... 74
Table B-3 Bending Test Results at 28-Days ................................................................ 75
VIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page
Figure 3.1. Compression Test Set Up .......................................................................... 22
Figure 3.2. Bending Test Set Up................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.3. Material Preparation ................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.1. Properties of Fresh Concrete ....................................................................... 34
Figure 4.2. Compression Test Failures for Different Jute Fibre Content ........................ 37
Figure 4.3. Typical Stress-Strain Diagrams for Coir FRC ............................................. 38
Figure 4.4. Statical Systems and Bending Moment Diagram......................................... 39
Figure 4.5. Bending Test Failures ................................................................................. 40
Figure 4.6. Typical Flexural Load-Deflection Curves for JFRC .................................... 41
Figure 4.7. Typical Load-Deflection Curves for FRC .................................................. 42
Figure 4.8. Trend Curve of Flexural Strength against Fibre Parameters of JFRC .......... 44
Figure 4.9. Stress Analysis of FRC in Bending without Additional Steel Reinforcement .. 47
Figure 4.10. Stress Analysis of FRC in Bending with Additional Steel reinforcement... 50
Figure B.1. Grading Chart of Sand ............................................................................... 72
Figure B.2. Grading Chart of Gravel ............................................................................. 73
IX
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
a Depth of effective tension zone

b Width of beam section
C Resultant compressive force on the compression zone
c Clear cover to reinforcement
cb Distance of the extreme tensile fibre from neutral axis
d Effective depth of beam section

E co Modulus of elasticity of FRC composite
Ef Modulus of elasticity of fibre
Em Modulus of elasticity of the concrete matrix
f cco Extreme fibre compressive stress of FRC composite
f ck Characteristic compressive strength
f ckm Characteristic compressive strength of the matrix in FRC
f ctk Characteristic tensile strength
f rco Modulus of rupture of the FRC composite
f rm Modulus of rupture of the matrix
f tco Extreme fibre tensile stress of FRC composite
h Depth of beam section

Ig Gross moment of area of the beam section
L Span of the beam

T Resultant tensile force on the tension zone
Ts Resultant tensile force on the steel reinforcement
Vf Volume percentage of fibre
Vm Volume percentage of concrete matrix

X Neutral axis depth measured from the extreme compression fibre
Xc Distance of the resultant compression force from the extreme compression fibre
X
Ζ Section modulus
δ cr First-crack deflection at mid-span of the beam
ε cco Extreme fibre compressive strain of FRC composite
ε tco Extreme fibre tensile strain of FRC composite

JFRC Jute Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
FRC Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
tex Unit of linear density of fibre, 1tex = 1g/km
XI
ABSTRACT
The problems associated with low efficiency in tensile strength of structural elements,
brittle mode of failure, rapid crack propagation and increased overload are common in the
concrete construction industry. Whereas ordinary steel reinforced concrete is the most
popular mechanism developed so far to alleviate such problems, it is rather becoming
expensive in production costs, transportation of pre-cast members, maintenance costs and
the supply of much amount of steel. These impediments have driven the development of
contemporary concrete technologies such as high strength concrete and fibre reinforced
concrete in which all the advancements entail an investigation into the constitutive
materials. This thesis is part of such works dealing with the experimental assessment of
flexural and compressive strengths of JFRC with different jute fibre contents. To achieve
this objective a series of compression and two point bending tests were conducted.
The results of the compression test indicated that the presence of jute fibre tends to
reduce the compressive strength of concrete at higher fibre content. Despite the
minimal reduction in the compressive strength at higher jute fibre content, there is an
improvement of ductility after cracking of concrete. Similarly, the bending test results
indicated that the modulus of rupture of concrete increases by 50% at 0.50% jute fibre
content. Moreover, jute fibre significantly improves the toughness behavior of concrete.
There is as much as 28%, 82% and 105% increment in I 5 , I10 , and I 20 respectively at
1.00% jute fibre.
In spite of the limited scope of the thesis work and the shortcomings associated with jute
fibre, the thesis work results elite a hope that JFRC can be used in areas where small
tensile reinforcement is expected and also in the construction of temporary structures.
The least cost of jute fibre, its being renewable resources, the reduced weight of the JFRC
composite and the reduction in consumption of other constitutes of the concrete matrix
would indicate its economic advantage. While an assessment of flexural and compression
strengths of JFRC have been shown and described in detail in this thesis, various
additional changes and modifications may be made to study other properties of JFRC.
XII
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The classical materials for the largest part of the constructions include brick, concrete,
steel, wood and others. Nevertheless, only some of these materials have been evolved
into the contemporary technologists because of their competence in the construction
environment. Concrete is one of such classical construction materials, which achieved its
reputation since the early 1960`s [8]. The application of concrete in the field of structural
engineering often involves a technique of reinforcing with other materials, such as steel,
so as to complement the undesirable properties.
However, ordinary steel-reinforced concrete construction more than ever is becoming

the supply of much amount of steel, which takes huge capital investment to produce
locally. Moreover, difficulties attributed to low efficiency in tensile strength of structural
elements, brittle mode of failure, rapid crack propagation and increased overload are
common in the concrete construction industry. These impediments have driven the
development of contemporary concrete technologies: high strength concrete, fibre
reinforced concrete etc, in which all the advancements entail an investigation into the
constitutive materials.
Many investigations [9, 11, 12, 16, 17] have been carried out in the use of various types
of fibres to reinforce concrete thereby enhancing the mechanical properties of the same. It
has been revealed that concrete reinforced with a permissible amount of fibre acquires
better performance in compression, flexure, shear, toughness, energy absorption and
micro-mechanical properties, in which case the degree of improvement relies on the types
of fibres.
The development of FRC has brought about many changes in cement and concrete
technologies and resulted in wide spectra of applications in the construction industries.
Structural members made up of FRC have of great significance owing to enhanced
physical and mechanical properties apart from its ease of transportation and construction
1
attributed to light in weight of the FRC technologies. Concrete pathologies formed in
such a manner have been utilized in the construction of airfield pavements, manhole
covers, industrial floors, nuclear power industries, spillways, repair of concrete
constructions, shotcrete, impact loading situations, blast loading situations, deep beams,
piles and marine environment [8].
It is worthwhile to mention that FRC has got some short comings. The presence of fibers
could impart negative outcomes on the rheological characteristics of the fresh concrete,
particularly at high fibre concentrations [7]. The problem of durability due to
deterioration of fibres is also one of the issues that would offset the generality of
applications, especially in natural fibre-reinforced concrete [17, 18, 20].
Many undertakings are in continuous path in the exploration of FRC technologies. This
thesis is part of such works dealing with the experimental assessment of flexural and
compressive strengths of Jute Fibre-Reinforced Concrete (JFRC). The study was
designed to investigate the rheological characteristics and mechanical properties of JFRC
with different jute fiber contents. The compressive strength of the JFRC has been
investigated by conducting compression test and that of the flexural strength by bending
test. Finally, conclusions and recommendations have been drawn based on the test results
and analysis of the same.
1.2 Objectives and Scope of the Study
The general objective of this thesis is to conduct experimental study on the flexural and
compressive strengths of Jute Fibre-Reinforced concrete (JFRC) with the hypothesis that
"reinforcing concrete with jute fibre significantly improves the flexural and compressive
strength of concrete." In view of the general objectives, this thesis has the following
specific objectives:
1. To carry out flexural and compressive strength tests on concrete reinforced with
locally fabricated jute fibre.
2. To analyze the experimental results so as to determine the flexural and
compressive strength properties of JFRC.
2
3. To assess the efficiency of the jute fibre as a reinforcement by evaluating the
contribution in strength of the JFRC specimens.
In order to achieve the objectives, frame work of the experiment has been established
with detailed checklists corresponding to the milestone activities. In doing so, literature
survey has been made to assess previous works on the area of the thesis work and to get
information about test specimen preparation, methods of testing and analysis of results.
Following this, third-point bending tests were conducted on a simply supported beam
specimens made from concrete mix with different jute fibre contents. Similarly,
compression tests were carried out on cube specimens corresponding to the mixes utilized
for each beam specimen.
After the accomplishment of the tests, observations and analysis of results were
accomplished so as to assess the flexural and compressive strengths, and also to establish
the relationship between different parameters. Finally conclusions and recommendations
have been drawn based on the analysis results.
The thesis work is limited to investigate the effect of jute fiber reinforcement on
compressive and flexural strengths of concrete. The scope is bounded to assess and
analyze the compressive and flexural strengths on cube and beam specimens only.
Further, the analysis is carried out on a particular species of natural fibre product, namely
jute fibre. Therefore, the wide variety of morphological and chemical properties among
the different natural fibres may affect the generality of conclusions and recommendations
attained from the study. Since the study focuses on few aspects of the design parameters,
only general insights on the design consideration of JFRC are dealt with in the thesis.
1.3 Contents of the Thesis
This thesis is intended to investigate and summarize the compressive and flexural
strengths of JFRC. The thesis is organized into five sections. In section one are presented
the background, objectives and scope of the study. Section two is devoted to the brief
review of FRC. Section three aims at discussing the experimental study of JFRC. The
3
experimental set up, specifications of materials utilized in the experimental investigation,
mix preparations, specimen casting and laboratory tests are all elaborated in this section.
While in section four are dealt with discussions and analyses on the experimental results,
in section five are presented a winding up conclusions and recommendations of the thesis
work.
4
2 A BRIEF REVIEW OF FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE
2.1 Historical Background of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
Fibre Reinforced-Concrete (FRC) is one of the composite materials containing short

discrete fibrous material uniformly distributed and randomly oriented, which increases its
structural integrity. The concept of FRC technology dates back to the era of civilization.
People used to employ mud reinforced with straw to construct houses, churches,
mosques, utensils etc [5]. The recent trends in the technology of reinforcing concrete with
fibres have been aiming at the improvement of physical properties, mechanical properties
and to optimize cost of concrete production.
Different types of fibres have been considered as part of concrete making materials [8]:
natural fibres, synthetic fibres and ferro-cementitious fibres. Peculiarities in using natural
fibre reinforced concrete could be its economic benefits attributed to the ease of
production with least energy, being environmentally friendly, high strength-to-weight
ratio and allow insulation properties higher than current materials. The debating issue,
apart from the advantages, is that natural fibres are biodegradable imparting negative
effects on the performance of concrete [18]. This special concern of durability limits the
range of applications of natural fibre-reinforced concrete to an extent dictated by
engineering analysis.
2.2 Material Compositions for FRC
FRC comprises two components; namely the matrix component considered as the
conventional concrete and the fibre component. The compositions of the concrete matrix
component consist of cement, aggregate, water and in some cases additives are
incorporated for a particular interest. The relative amount of these constitutive materials
depends on several factors like workability, strength, durability and cost of the final
product [3, 4, 9, 10].
5
2.2.1 Cement
Conventionally, cement is a powdered material that serves as a binder in mortar or

concrete after reactions of lime or lime compounds have taken place with appropriate
medium-usually water. Portland cement is one of such materials, composed largely of
calcium and aluminum silicates, in which the former upon reaction with water produces
the new compound capable of imparting stonelike quality to the mixture. While the
specific gravity of Portland cement ranges from 3.12 to 3.16, its unit weight varies with
the degree of compaction [4].
The chemical, physical and mechanical properties of cement are attributed to the basic
constitutive compounds, the fineness to which the cement is ground and the ambient
condition during the hardening process [1, 4]. The chemistry of cement is available else
where in literatures [2, 4]. In cement chemistry, it is customary to report the results of the
chemical analysis in terms of the oxides of the elements present, although such
compounds do not occur as oxides, nor do the oxides form the unit cell of the crystalline
structure of the major cement compound. The basic constitutive elements are lime (CaO),
silica (SiO 2 ), alumina (Al2 O 3 ), iron (Fe 2 O 3 or FeO), gypsum (CaSO 4 .2H 2 O), magnesia
(MgO), and alkalies (Na 2 O) and K2 O). The characteristic compounds in Portland cement
are shown in Table 2.1. The relative composition of the chemical compounds in Portland
cement results in different types of cement such as normal Portland cement, high-early-
strength cement, sulfate resisting cement etc, which could be meant for different purposes
[2, 4].
Table 2.1 Names and Abbreviations of Major Compounds [4]
Name Chemical composition Abbreviation
Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO 2 C 3S

Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO 2 C 2S
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al 2 O 3 C3A
Tetracalcium alluminoferrite* 4CaO.Al 2 O 3 .Fe 2 O 3 C 3 AF
*
The iron compounds may occur in a solid-solution system. C 3 AF is only one of several compounds.
6
2.2.2 Aggregates
Aggregate is one component of FRC, which is connected into a cohesive whole by means
of binding materials-the cement paste. Aggregates are usually inert materials or
artificially manufactured from industrial products, which are added to cement paste in
order to improve strength, durability and structural performance of concrete. Those
aggregates from natural sources are conventionally adopted as concrete materials, and
those from artificial ones are either light in weight or high density, developed for specific
structural applications and also for solving part of the problems related to the shortage of
naturally occurring aggregates. Aggregates can be explained with respect to petrological
(rock type), mineralogical, and geological examinations, of which the later two basis are
of great helpful in recognizing properties and qualities of aggregates for our purpose [1,
4].
The physical and mechanical properties of aggregate (density, strength, elasticity,

toughness, hardness etc) depend largely on its composition, texture and structure. Such
properties of aggregate and their contribution on its physico-mechancical properties, and
also their influence on the strength of concrete are available in literatures [1, 2, 4]. The
mechanical strength, bond characteristics and absorption capacity of aggregate are some
of the factors that influence the strength of concrete. The bond is due, in part, to the
interlocking of aggregate and to the paste that is attributed to the surface of the former. A
rough surface and mineralogical heterogeneous particles result in better bond [1].
The common method to manufacture concrete is to obtain the aggregate in at least two
size groups: the fine aggregate, which is not larger than 5mm (5/6 in); and the coarse
aggregate, which comprises materials at least 5mm (5/6 in) in size. A further distribution
of particle size is essential on one hand to improve the workability of fresh concrete and
on the other hand to solve the economic problem related to the size of the aggregate.
Some of the factors that govern the grading of aggregate are: the surface area of the
aggregate, which determines the amount of water required to wet all the voids; the
relative volume of the space occupied by the aggregate; the workability of the mix; and
the tendency to segregate [1]. The grading is carried out using a method of sieve analysis
7
the procedure and requirements of which is detailed in the relevant codes of standards [1,
4, 29].
Aggregate is not fully inert material, as it was believed so far, hence its physical, thermal
and chemical properties influence the performance of concrete [1]. Such influences are
more pronounced in the case of FRC made with natural fibres since natural fibres could
undergo chemical reaction with the aggregate resulting undesirable features on concrete.
Also, there are deleterious substances that may be found in aggregate [1, 4]:
Impurities- interfere with the process of hydration of cement. Examples of such

impurities are organic impurities.
Coatings-prevent the development of bond between aggregate and cement paste. These
include clay and other fine materials.
Unsound (weak) materials-certain materials of the aggregate themselves may fail to

maintain their integrity or lead disruptive expansion on freezing or even exposure to
water.
Alkali-aggregate reaction-such deleterious reaction starts with the attack on the

siliceous minerals in the aggregate by the alkaline hydroxides derived from the alkalies
(Na 2 O and K 2 O) in the cement, resulting the formation of an alkali-silicate gel and
alteration of the borders of the aggregate. Swelling of the gel is not limited and takes in
water with a consequent tendency to increase volume.
2.2.3 Water
In the production of concrete, water is used for mixing, washing of aggregate and curing
of the final concrete product. Mixing water should contain no substances that can have an
appreciably harmful effect on the process of hydration or upon the durability of concrete
during its service period. Water having appreciable amounts of impurities-silt, oil, acids,
alkalies, salts of alkalies, organic matter and sewage may have an injurious effect upon
concrete [4].
8
The reduction in strength of concrete through the use of water suspected of undesirable
substances could be as high as 10% [29]. The effect of same amount of impurities in
water for washing aggregate is much greater than that of mixing water. Such water if
used for washing aggregate causes deleterious coatings (silts, salts or organic materials)
on the surface of aggregate particles. Water containing sufficient amount of acidic or
organic substances should be regarded with suspicion to be used for curing of concrete.
Nevertheless, silt or oil in curing water does not appear to have harmful effects except for
the possibility of discoloration [4]. Above all, the limiting amount of deleterious
substances to be employed in making natural fibre reinforced concrete should not be
underestimated, as the natural fibres by themselves are highly susceptible to such
impur ities. ASTM C 1116-02 gives the limiting values of deleterious materials in water
for the FRC.
2.2.4 Fibres
A fibre may be defined as a flexible, macroscopically homogenous body having a high

ratio of length to width and a small cross-section [5, 6]. On the basis of their origin, fibres
are classified as follows [5]:
Natural fibres-are those derived directly from the animal, vegetable and mineral
kingdoms. These include cotton, linen, hemp, jute and ramie all obtained from vegetable
cellulose; wool, mohair, vicuna from animal; and asbestos from minerals.
Synthetic fibres- are manufactured from natural organic fibres, synthetic organic
polymers and inorganic substances. Included in this category are: rayon, acetate, azlon
based on natural organic polymers; acylic, aramid, nylon, olefin, polyster, vinyon based
on synthetic polymers; and glass, metallic fibres, ceramics based on inorganic substances.
Fibres have been used for the manufacture of a wide variety of products in different fields
of applications in fine arts, flooring materials, food science, forensic aspects, furniture
and fracture (fatigue) mechanics [6]. The detail discussions of fibre types, their
properties, methods of productions and applications are available in literatures [5, 6] and
9
only a few aspects of vegetable fibres relevant to the present study are reviewed
subsequently.
The concept of applying vegetable fibres for commercial and domestic uses dates back to
the ancient Egypt (4000BC)-ropes, cords, and fabrics were made from reeds and grasses;
boats, sails and mats were made from palm leaf fibres and papyrus stalks from the pith
section. Jute was cultivated in India in ancient times and used for spinning and weaving.
These days, jute is mainly used for sacking, balling for rugs, webbing and twine [5].
Vegetable fibres are derived from the different sources of plants: bast fibres extracted
from the bark of certain plants; leaf fibres (hard fibres) used for cordage; seed-hair fibres
(cotton); and palm fibres (brush fibres) from various section of the plant. The principal
chemical composition of vegetable fibres is cellulose mostly bound by a natural gummy
substance closely associated with lignin. While all vegetable fibres have cellulose as a
major chemical component, other components like hemicelluloses, pectins, extractives
and lignin vary significantly providing the characteristics of specific fibres as shown in
Table 2.2 [5, 6].
Table 2.2 Chemical Composition of Common Vegetable Fibres [5]
Fiber Cellulose Hemicellulose Pectin Lignin Extractives

Cotton 94.0 2.0 2.0 - 2.0
Kapok 43.2 32.4 6.6 15.1 -
Flax 71.2 18.5 2.0 2.2 6.0
Hemp 74.3 17.9 0.9 3.7 3.1
Ramine 76.2 14.5 2.1 0.7 6.4
Jute 71.5 13.3 0.2 13.1 1.8
Abaca 70.0 21.8 0.5 5.7 1.8
Sisal 73.2 13.3 0.9 11.0 1.6
From Table 2.3, one can see that bast and leaf fibres have higher tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity, but lower in extensibility than cotton. Besides, vegetable fibres are
stiffer but less than synthetic fibres [6].
10
Table 2.3 Mechanical Properties of Vegetable Fibres [6]
Fibre Fineness, Tensile strength a, Elongation, Modulus of Modulus of

b
km/kg km % elasticity , rapture,
N/tex mN/tex
Bast (soft) Fibres
flax - 24-70 2-3 18-20 8-9
hemp 139 38-62 1-6 18-22 6-9
jute 489 25-53 1.5 17-18 2.7-3
kenaf 180 24 2.7 - -
ramie - 32-67 4.0 14-16 11
urena 342 16 1.9 - -
Leaf (hard) fibres
abaca 32 32-69 2-4.5 - 6
cantala 58 30 - - -
henequen 32 20-42 3.5-5 - -
istle 34 22-27 4.8 - -
phormium 38 26 - - -
sansevieria 118 43 4.0 - -
sisal 40 36-45 2-3 25-26 7-8
Seed hair
kapok - 16-30 1.2 13 10
Others
coir - 18 16 4.3 16
a
Based on breaking length, which measures strength per unit area
b
Young's modulus
Although the uses of vegetable fibres for indoor applications have been justified, distinct
features of vegetable fibres when combined with concrete have not been well developed.
With this regard, recent attempts have been made to practice vegetable fibres as a
component material of concrete. Concrete reinforced with sisal fibre, coir fibre and others
have been studied [9, 10, 13].
11
Primarily, fibres in FRC serve as crack arrestors thereby increase post cracking
properties, improve fatigue and fracture properties, control plastic shrinkage cracking,
lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water. Not all fibres play
the same role on concrete properties-some types of fibres induce greater impact, abrasion
and shatter resistance while others may reduce strengths [24, 25, 27]. If fibres are added
beyond the permissible amount, they may result a problem in workability of fresh FRC.
A peculiarity in natural fibre reinforced concrete is that durability of concrete will be in
question under severe exposures which may degrade the fibres on account of their
chemical composition and molecular structure [18, 20, 26].
2.2.5 Admixtures
Admixtures are materials other than the main constituents of concrete that are added to
the mixing process at appropriate periods and conditions, thus mainly modify the
hydration reaction so as to introduce a significant change in behavior of concrete
production-the out come of the changes follows the intended functions. A number of
admixtures that have been in practice in ordinary concrete work include accelerators,
retarders, water reducers, air-entraining agents, gas-forming admixtures, expansion
producing admixtures, bonding admixtures, curing aides etc [1, 4]. Those additives
employed for the conventional concrete could be adopted for the FRC with the relevant
modifications associated with the chemical and morphological properties of a particular
fibre utilized in making the FRC. In addition, special polymeric resins have been
exercised to improve the chemical, physical and mechanical properties of natural fibre
reinforced-concrete [5, 6].
The various purposes of admixtures are to improve workability of fresh concrete, reduce
water requirement, improve durability by entrainment of air, accelerate hardening so a to
produce high-early strength, aid curing, impart water proofing, retard setting, improve
wear resistance (hardness), reduce offset shrinkage during setting and hardening, offset or
reduce some adverse chemical reactions, reduce bleeding and the evolution of gases and
so on [4].
12
It is worth noting that a specific type of admixture can be effective for its intended
purpose while it may have an adverse effect on any other important properties of the
fresh or hardened concrete. Therefore, the proceeding factors, more emphasized in the
case of FRC, should be closely examined to decide whether or not an admixture is
desirable or necessary [4, 14, 15]:
(1) the possibility of accomplishing the desired result by a small

modification in the basic mix
(2) the additional cost of using admixture against the additional cost of a
modified basic mixture
(3) the possible adverse effects on properties other than those which the
admixture is intended to improve.
2.3 Mix Design of the FRC
Mix design is the process of determining the relative quantities of the ingredients of
concrete taking in to account the availability of materials and their cost, requirements of
placing and finishing the fresh concrete, and properties of the hardened concrete[1, 4,
19]. The mix design of FRC materials is quite similar to that of the conventional concrete
except the inclusion of reinforcing fibres-the relative amount of which is governed by
workability of the fresh concrete and the properties of the hardened concrete [26, 29].
The economic aspect of concrete mix in construction depends primarily on the cost of
material other than on cost of labor and related factors as the later two, although take
larger part of the total cost, do not make differences between different concretes. Hence,
concrete mix design aims at compromising between the costs of materials associated with
the amount needed in the desired mix and the production of appropriate workability so as
to keep placement and finishing costs at a minimum while securing quality in the finished
product [1, 26].
In practice, proportion of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is expressed in

terms of parts or ratios with cement as a reference-usually taken as unity. The content of
water, fibre and other entrained air or admixtures is expressed in terms of water-cement
13
ratio, fibre-matrix ratio and percentage ratio respectively. In any case, the basis of
proportioning should be stated along with the parts or ratios: may be either by weight or
by volume (absolute or bulk) [3, 4].
In ordinary concrete mix, it is reasonable to assume that concrete consists essentially of

inert mineral aggregate and cement-water paste which is the active ingredient controlling
workability, strength, permeability and drying shrinkage [1, 4]. However, this assumption
is not always valid in FRC, as the content and anatomy of the fibre component would
significantly affect properties of fresh and hardened concrete [5, 18].
Water-cement ratio, cement content or cement-aggregate ratio, gradation of the aggregate

and consistency of the paste are among the variables to be manipulated in the mix design
of concrete [1]. In addition, the content and morphology of fibre in FRC have to be taken
into account while mix design is carried out. All the aforementioned variables are so
interrelated that one can not choose or manipulate arbitrarily; usually two or more of the
variables are specified and others are adjusted to give the intended requirements dictated
by general experience with regard to structural design considerations, durability and
condition of placing.
Different methods of mix design of concrete have been investigated so far [4]: arbitrary
proportions, proportioning by maximum density of aggregate, proportioning by surface
area of aggregate, proportioning by fineness modulus of aggregate, proportioning by void
content ratio and mortar voids, and proportioning by void contents of coarse aggregate.
There are no separate methods of proportioning devised for the mix design of FRC.
Instead, the relative amount of cement, aggregate and water is determined based on the
usual methods of proportioning, then follows the determination of the fibre content based
on the required workability and strength of the FRC. Many investigations [3, 9, 11, 26 ]
have been undertaken to determine the relative amount of fibre and the fibre aspect ratio
to be added in FRC that would result a sound workability and desired properties of
hardened concrete.
14
The amount of fibre to be added in a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the
total volume of the composite (concrete and fibres) termed volume fraction (V f ), and the
aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fibre length (l) by its diameter (d). If the fibre
in question has non-circular cross section, an equivalent diameter can be used to calculate
aspect ratio. Generally, the fibre content and aspect ratio of the additive fibre should be
lower in order to have a good workability [3, 26].
2.4 Properties and Test Methods of FRC
2.4. 1 General
The distinct features of fibre reinforced-concrete such as strength, durability,

permeability, creep and shrinkage have been studied [9-18]. Besides, several test methods
have been explored and reported by various institutions and codes of practices including
ACI and ASTM [19, 29]. It is not possible to put dead ends to the over all properties and
test methods of FRC as there are some concerns of FRC that got a debating issue among
several endeavors. Consequently, it appears sound to point out only some aspects of such
subjects through the subsequent paragraphs.
2.4. 2 Properties of FRC
The contribution of fibres to the compressive strength is usually at the early age of
concrete, the case of which is more prominent to natural fibres [10, 22]. However, the
compression strength could be improved at extended ages by extracting the crystalline
(mineral) portion through a further processing of the fibres [30].
Under compressive loading the microcracks in the solids come under a local tension at
their tips causing wide and unstable crack propagation due to the interaction between
other micro-cracks. When fibres are present in such a body, they affect the crack
propagation by increasing the resistance to sliding of the initial microcracks and opening
of the wing cracks by crack-bridging [22]. This phenomenon signifies that fibres can be
exploited to increase the compressive strength in a manner analogous to the tensile crack-
bridging and in consequence provide a passive confining pressure.
15
B. Chatveera et al [9] have shown that sisal fibre-reinforced composite containing rice
husk ash provides better strength both in compression and flexure. It was also indicated
that the combination of using sisal fibre reinforcement and rice husk ash can improve the
ductility of the composites. Further, Li et al [31] reported that an optimum addition of
natural hemp fibre increases the compressive and flexural properties of natural hemp
fibre-reinforced concrete.
Plain concrete is weak in tension, and the limiting tensile force is carried between cracks.
When fibres are added to the plain concrete, the tension capacity is increased through the
transfer of tensile forces at the cracks by fibre interferences. In addition to the increase in
tensile strength capacity, fibres can reduce crack width with further improvement in the
rigidity of the FRC [10, 24].
The tensile strength of FRC made with high tensile fibres largely depends on the pullout
resistance between the fibre and matrix. This interfacial bond between the fibre and the
matrix can be improved through chemical treatment of the fibre or physical manipulation
over the geometry of the fibre [21, 23, 26, 28, 32]. Alva et al [23] have shown that
crimping yarns results in strain hardening composite with a marked increase in adhesion
and frictional resistance. Further, Guozhong Li et al [28] reported that cotton stalk fibre
treated with styrene acrylic emulsion can form a flexible interfacial layer between the
fibre and matrix, which is stronger than the matrix and relaxes the additional stress in
course of shaping.
The flexural strength and deformation characteristics of concrete beams reinforced with
various fibres have been studied [11, 27, 31]. Flexural tests of mortars reinforced with
different steel wool contents dictate that there was about 36% increase in flexural
strength of the FRC. Collapse of such beams during testing occurred mostly through
either flexural failure of concrete in compression or diagonal tension with out brittle
modes of failure. The fibres control the propagation of major cracks, thus preventing
sudden collapse. Experiments using concrete reinforced with soft fibre (glass or sisal)
revealed that the crack expanding resistance and flexural toughness of plain concrete
could be enhanced through the addition of fibres [9, 10, 11]. The flexural strength of
16
laminates in sandwich construction can be significantly increased using a reformed
bamboo plate as a tensile layer and fibre reinforced-mortar sheet as a compression layer.
The high-strength to weight-ratio of bamboo fibres accounts for the improved in mortar
strength and the reduced in total weight of the laminate [27].
Fibre reinforced-concrete has an important behavior of absorbing enormous amount of

energy. There can be as much as 100% increase in flexural toughness with the inclusion
of natural hemp fibre and coir fibres [10, 31]. Apart from the increase in toughness and
ductility, the increase in post-cracking strength with the incorporation of fibres maintains
the equilibrium and structural integrity of the whole system [10, 13].
The development of diagonal tensile cracking in the direction perpendicular to the

principal tensile stress axis rapidly softens crack surfaces, which significantly reduces the
shear strength of the beam. This asserts that the shear failure of a reinforced concrete
beam is directly related to the diagonal tensile cracking and flexural deformation. Since
FRC has the ability to develop post-cracking tensile strength, the applied shear force is
resisted by both the compression and the tension zone. Thus, the overall shear strength
can be defined as the sum of the contributions of both compression and tension zones
[12].
2.4. 3 Test Methods for FRC
Development of testing methods for FRC is not a dead end and the issue is still in
progress. Around in the 1970s, there have been some organizations involved in the
development of test methods for FRC [19].
ACI Committee 544 and ASTM [19, 29] provide the following suggestions for rheology,
compression and flexural test of FRC.
Material Specifications
Material specification for cement, aggregate, water and admixture are similar to the
conventional concrete. In reference to this study, conventional concrete signifies the
17
usual concrete which contains cement, water and aggregates as a basic constituents
whereas FRC contains additional fibrous components. ASTM C 1116 recommends that
natural fibre should be approved for their adverse effects during reaction with the
constitutive materials and surrounding environment in the cracked matrix [29].
Specimen Preparation
Generally, external vibration using a standard amplitude, frequency and duration, as
described in ASTM C 192, is suggested for all sample preparation in the laboratory [29].
Although internal vibration is not recommended for FRC because of the effect of fibre
orientation and lack of consolidation in stiff mix, it may be used for specimens with least
dimensions greater than about 102mm reflecting the actual practice in the field. It is also
concluded that external vibration promotes preferential fibre alignment and increases the
toughness strength [19].
Compressive Strength
Compression test for FRC can be conducted as per the conventional concrete stipulated in
ASTM C 39, C 192 and C 469.
Workability
Workability is the property of fresh concrete which indicates its ability to be mixed,
handled, transported and placed with a minimum loss of homogeneity [4, 19]. The slump
cone test may be used as an indication of relative workability of FRC, however, other test
methods, the Vebe and Inverted cone tests are preferred. This is due to the fact that the
presence of fibre makes the concrete easily consolidate and hence reduces the slump [29].
Flexural Strength
The general test procedures in ASTM C 42, C 78, C 293 and C 683 are applicable with
the subsequent constraints:
• The span of FRC specimen shall be at least 50mm greater than three
times the depth and in any case not less than 350mm.
• Width and depth of the specimens should be at least three times the
maximum fibre length and the maximum size of aggregate used.
18
• Recommended size for thick section is 150*150*350mm.
The flexural behavior of FRC can be determined by evaluating the modulus of rupture,
first-crack strength and flexural toughness indices from the test results. According to
ASTM C 1018, the end point deflection for a toughness index, I n is (n + 1) / 2 times the
first-crack deflection. The selection of most appropriate index so as to measure material
performance for a specific application depends on the level of serviceability required in
terms of cracking and deflection. Hence, when the level of serviceability appropriate to
the particular application in terms of cracking and deflection indicates that the specified
end-point deflection should be higher, a higher index value shall be used. For most
practical applications, index values of 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0 corresponding to I 5 , I 10 and I 20
respectively, dictates elastic linear behavior up to first-crack and perfectly plastic
thereafter [19, 29].
Other parameters called residual strength factors could be derived directly from
toughness indices to describe the level of strength retained after first crack. These factors
can be derived simply by expressing the average post-crack load over a specified
deflection interval as a percentage of the load at first crack. Note that there is no
restriction on the representations and calculations of the toughness indices; the
requirement is to specify the end point deflection as a multiple of the first-crack
deflection that is consistent with the intended conditions of serviceability [29].
The first-crack deflection for third-point loading test can be estimated, assuming elastic
linear behavior up to the first crack, by [29]:
PL3  216 D 2 (1 + µ ) 
δ = 23 * 1 +  (2.1)
1296 EI  115 L2 
Where P is the first crack load,

L is span length,
E is the estimated modulus of elasticity of the concrete,
I is the cross-sectional moment of inertia,
19
D is depth of specimen and
µ is Poisson's ratio.
The method of obtaining the modulus of rupture of FRC is similar to that of conventional
concrete [29]. Thus, if fracture occurs in tension surface within the middle third of span
length, then the modulus of rupture, f r can be determined by:
PL
fr = (2.2)
bh 2
If fracture occurs in tension surface outside of the middle third of span length by not
more than 5% of the span length, then the modulus of rupture can be determined by:
P*a
fr = 3* (2.3)
bh 2
The test result will be discarded if fracture occurs in the tension surface outside of the
middle third of the span by more than 5% of the span length.
20
3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF JFRC
3.1 Experimental Set Up
The experimental investigation carried has involved two major tasks: material
specifications and experimental evaluation of JFRC. Materials required for the
experimental works were prepared and also their properties were determined in the
laboratory. Compressive and flexural strengths of the FRC were evaluated by conducting
tests in the laboratory. The general laboratory set up for the thesis work is presented
schematically in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2.
The material and test specimen preparation include washing and sieve analysis of
aggregates; determination of specific gravity, absorption capacity, and unit weight of
aggregates; cleaning and chopping of fibres; determination of tensile strength of fibres;
measurement of the required amount of mix ingredients; mix preparations and evaluation
of properties of the fresh FRC; and test specimen preparations. The detail descriptions of
the equipment utilized and the procedure followed during the accomplishment of these
activities is described in appendix-A.
An ADR-Auto Range testing machine has been employed to carry out the compression
test. The general description of the test set up is in accordance with the manufacturer
instructions-ELE. The test set up comprised compression test frame and an ADR-Auto
console.
The loading frame component consists of an upper platen assembly, lower platen
assembly, ram extension with a connection plug to the console and enclosure of the
loading assembly as shown in Figure 3.1. The upper platen assembly is equipped with a
ball seated platen to which the upper rectangular platen and ram extension is fitted and
the lower platen assembly is supplied with the lower most rectangular platen, adaptor,
distance pieces and self-centered lower platen on which the sample is to be placed. The
self-centered platen is provided with locating pillars to enable test specimens to be
accurately located to the loading axis of the machine.
21
The console component controls the automatic loading cycle by the closed loop micro-
processor (hydraulic system). All control functions and displays are built into the
hydraulic power pack of the console. The front panel of the console consists of an LCD
display, a key pad and four function keys-''RUN'', ''STOP'' and ''RESET'' by which the
operations of the ADR-Auto are controlled. Several operating modes are possible by the
ADR-Auto configurations: display units, pace control mode, automatic sample log,
automatic sample print, automatic load tare, auto-increment reference, option for dual
pace rate, failure threshold, failure detection, sample selection, clock setting, reset mode,
calibration and other testing facilities. The rear panel of the console is fitted with an AC
power input, Travel Limit Switch and a serial port.
While the micro-processor runs a series of self-test routines to check the operation of the
system, a serial output port that is built into the system enables test data to be stored in
memory, downloaded to a PC or suitable printer.
Loading frame
Display unit, key pad and function keys
Door
Console
Ram extension
Upper platen assembly
Locating pillars
Lower platen assembly
Figure 3.1 Compression Test Set Up
22
The flexural test set up consists of a microprocessor controlled Universal Testing
Machine with model UTM 70-C 0820/C as shown in Figure 3.2. The general description
of the test set up is in accordance with the manufacturer instructions-ELE. The UTM
machine comprises two major components: the machine frame and the control console.
The machine frame is bolted to the ground with a steel base plate and it contains a piston
(cylinder assembly) that incorporates electronic load cell and mobile frame. The mobile
frame is manipulated with four high tensile strength steel columns, upper crosshead
directly connected to the piston and an intermediate crosshead with supporting platen.
The two point loading accessory is connected to the loading cell and a supporting device
is placed on the frame platen on which beam specimens are to be placed. The vertical
position of the supporting system can be adjusted by independent auxiliary cylinders
controlled by pendent hand control.
Loading cell
Loading accessory Upper control section
Supporting accessory PC
Frame platen
Machine frame Lower control section
Pendent hand control Control console
Figure 3.2 Bending Test Set Up
The lower section of the control console houses the hydraulic assembly which comprises
hydraulic pump, proportional valve, hydraulic valves, heat exchanger to control the oil
temperature and an oil tank. The upper part of the control console houses the electronic
microprocessor control driven by a PC. The control console is principally used to
condition and convert all the analogical signals to send to the PC, control the valves and
23
safety devices, automate the test, maintain constant load rate and interacts with the PC to
control the test conditions.
Upon operating a test on the UTM, the hydraulic pump located in the control console
increases the pressure in the cylinder assembly of the machine and moves the mobile part
of the frame, thus applying load to the specimen up to failure which is recorded on the
display unit on the PC.
3.2 Material Specifications
3.2.1 Water
Tap water from the municipal water mains of Addis Ababa City was utilized to wash
aggregates, to mix concrete and to cure the test specimens. None of the impurity contents
of the water were determined.
3.2.2 Cement
In order to minimize the effect of high rate of hydration on the jute fibre, Pozzolana
Portland Cement (PPC) from Mugger Cement Factory was used for the concrete mix.
Neither the physical nor the chemical properties of the cement under consideration were
investigated.
3.2.3 Aggregates
Natural river sand and crushed gravel damped in the laboratory months ago were utilized
for the test. The aggregates were washed and dried. Before stepping on to other works,
sand and gravel were sieved with 4.75mm and 25mm sieves respectively and the
materials retained were rejected. Then, the aggregates were sieve analyzed following the
procedures established in Table A-1 and the results are presented in Figure B-1 and
Figure B-2.
24
Washing of aggregates Hand Sieving
Chopping of fibre
Figure 3.3 Material Preparation
For the determination of the specific gravity, absorption capacity, and compacted unit
weight of aggregates, the general procedures outlined in Table A-2 and Table A-3 of
Appendix-A were applied in the laboratory and the results are shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Specific Gravity, Absorption Capacity and Unit Weight of Aggregates
Aggregate Bulk specific Bulk specific Apparent specific Absorption Unit weight
gravity gravity (SSD) gravity capacity (%) (kg/m3)
Sand 2.38 2.47 2.62 3.95 1560
Gravel 2.69 2.75 2.84 1.90 1600
3.2.4 Fibre
The type of fibre that has been considered in the experimental investigation was jute fibre
manufactured in the Sidama Administrative Zone.
Jute is one of the bast fibers obtained from herbaceous annual plants- white Corchorus
Capsularis originally from Asia having round seed pod and C. Olitorius originaly from
Africa having a long pod.
25
The manufacturing process of jute fibre involves hand harvesting of the source plant,
drying in the field for defoliation, retting for periods up to a month, stripping and sun
drying. Further formation and grading of the jute fibre under consideration for color,
length, fineness, strength, cleanliness, luster, softness and uniformity is possible
depending on the requirements stipulated by specific uses [6].
The tensile strength and extensibility of jute fibre were determined in the laboratory
using texture analyzer. The texture analyzer was fixed at a span of 150mm height, the
fibre was tied on the top and bottom jaws of the analyzer and load was automatically
applied on the fibre. The breaking load and extension were recorded by the Jaxter
software installed in the PC that was connected to the analyzer. The tensile stress was
calculated by dividing the ultimate load by the cross-sectional area of the fibre and the
results are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Tensile Strength and Extensibility of Jute Fibre
S/No Cross-section Area Breaking Load Extension Stress Extensibility

2
(mm) (mm ) (N) (mm) (MP) (%)
Width Depth
1 0.11 0.36 0.0396 19.10 2.50 482.32 1.67

2 0.22 0.22 0.0484 21.00 3.00 433.88 2.00
3 0.16 0.29 0.0464 23.00 1.50 495.69 1.00
4 0.13 0.27 0.0351 17.00 2.00 480.23 1.33
5 0.10 0.36 0.0360 14.80 2.00 411.11 1.33
6 0.22 0.24 0.0528 20.50 2.00 388.26 1.33
Average-values 448.58 1.44
The fibre was first cleaned and chopped to a length of 30-50mm [13]. Thereafter, the
required amount of fibres for each batch was weighed and added to the concrete matrix
during the mixing process.
26
3.3 Mix Proportioning and Specimen Preparations
3.3.1 Mix Proportioning
The mix proportioning for this experimental work has been carried out following the ACI
method of mix proportioning. The material data for sand and gravel were those values
determined in the laboratory in section 3.2.3 above, and the values for cement and jute
fibre were taken from literatures [4, 6].
A. Mix Information
(1) Desired strength is 20MPa.

(2) Expected slump for medium workability is 20-50mm [33].
(3) Materials
• Cement Specific gravity = 3.15

• Sand Dry unit weight = 1560kg/m3
Dry bulk specific gravity = 2.38
Fineness modulus = 3.00
Absorption capacity = 3.95%
• Gravel Dry unit weight = 1600kg/m3

Dry bulk specific gravity = 2.69
Fineness modulus = 6.78
Absorption capacity = 1.9%
Maximum aggregate size = 20mm
• Jute fibre Dry unit weight = 1500kg/m3

Absorption capacity = 14% to bring the jute fibre to SSD [6]
27
B. Mix Proportioning
(1) The maximum amount of water for a slump of 20-50mm and maximum aggregate
size 20mm, including allowance for absorption by aggregates is 184kg per cubic
meter of concrete [4].
(2) The approximate volume of entrapped air for non-air entrained concrete with
maximum aggregate size of 20mm is 2% [4].
(3) Minimum cement content for C-20 concrete with maximum aggregate size of 20mm
is 290kg per cubic meter of concrete [33].
(4) Maximum water-cement ratio, from durability requirement, for moderate condition of
exposure and maximum aggregate size of 20mm is 0.62 [33].
Maximum water-cement ratio, from strength requirement, for concrete with 20MPa
strength is 0.60 [4].
Taking the minimum of the two values; water-cement ratio to be used for the mix
design is 0.60. Thus, the cement content is:
184
= 307 kg / m 3 > 290kg / m 3 ........ok
0.60
(5) Bulk volume of dry rodded gravel for maximum aggregate size of 20mm and fineness
modulus of sand 3.00, is 0.59m3 per cubic meter of concrete [4].
Hence, the dry mass of gravel per cubic meter of concrete is:
0.59 *1600 = 944kg.
(6) The absolute volume of mix ingredients per cubic meter of concrete is:
307
Cement = = 0.097 m 3
3.15 *10 3
184
Water = = 0.184m 3
1.00 *10 3
944
Gravel = = 0.351m 3
2.69 *10 3
Air (2%) = 0.02 *1.00 = 0.020m 3
Total volume without sand = 0.652m 3
28
Volume of sand = 1.000 - 0.652 = 0.348m3 and the dry mass = 0.348*2.38*103 = 828kg.
Therefore, the mass of ingredients per cubic meter of concrete on dry weight basis is:
Cement = 307 kg
Water = 184kg
Sand = 828kg
Gravel = 944kg
Adjustment of the quantities is made for absorption by aggregates. Thus,
Cement = 307 kg
Water = 134kg
Sand = 860kg
Gravel = 962kg
(7) The mass of constituent materials per cubic meter of JFRC for different jute fibre
content is determined as follows.
• 1% by volume of jute fibre
Volume of jute fibre per cubic meter of concrete = 0.01m3.

Volume of the concrete matrix = 1.00 - 0.01 = 0.99m3.
Thus, the modified mass of constituent materials per cubic meter of concrete, for 1%
fibre content is:
Cement = 307 * 0.99 = 304kg

Sand = 860 * 0.99 = 851kg
Gravel = 962 * 0.99 = 952kg
Fibre = 0.01 * 1500 = 15kg
Water = 134 * 0.99 + 15 * 0.14 = 135kg (including 14% absorption by jute fibre )
The mix proportions for other fibre contents were carried out in a similar fashion and the
results are shown in Table 3.3 below.
29
Table 3.3 Mix Quantities per Cubic Meter of Concrete for Different Fibre Contents
Mix materials Mass of materials per cubic meter of concrete (kg)

0.00% 0.25% 0.50% 1.00%
Cement 307 306 306 304
Water 134 135 135 135
Gravel 962 960 957 952
Sand 860 858 856 851
Fibre 0 4 8 15
3.3.2 Mix and Test Specimen Preparations
The required proportions of mix ingredients obtained in section 3.3.1 were weighed for
each batch separately. Then, gravel was spread in an even layer in the mixing pan
followed by cement and sand respectively. Some amount of fibre was added on each top
of ingredient. After 1 minute dry mixing, water and the remaining fibre were added and
the mixing operation continued for more than 3 minutes (since FRC requires more
mixing period than ordinary concrete [29]). During the mixing process, some properties
of the fresh concrete were diagnosed and the observations are shown in Table 4.1.
After the mixing operation had been completed, a total of 30 specimens of which 15 for
compression test and 15 for flexure test were prepared and cured in moist storage for 28-
days. The detail procedures for the mixing of concrete and specimen preparation are
described in Table A-4, Table A-5 and Table A-6 of appendix A.
Moreover, Table 3.4 depicts the test programme for the thesis work. In the specimen
coding C, B and J represents cube, beam and jute fibre respectively. In addition, the first
and second numbers in the coding stand for the test series and specimen number of that
particular test, respectively.
30
Table 3.4 Test Programme
Test series Code Specimen size (mm) Test Fibre Fibre content
(%)
Length Width Depth
CJ 1-1 150 150 150 Compression Jute 0.00
1 CJ 1-3 150 150 150 Compression Jute 0.00
BJ 1-1 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.00
BJ 1-2 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.00
BJ 1-3 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.00
BJ 2-1 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.25
BJ 2-2 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.25
BJ 2-3 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.25
BJ 3-1 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.50
BJ 3-2 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.50
BJ 3-3 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 0.50
BJ 4-1 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 1.00
BJ 4-2 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 1.00
BJ 4-3 500 100 100 Flexure Jute 1.00
31
3.4 Experimental Tests
3.4.1 Compression Test
The compression test was conducted on cube specimens cured for 28 days. The test cubes
were removed from the moist storage 24 hours before testing. The top and bottom
bearing plates of the compression testing machine were wiped and cleaned before the
placement of the specimen. After ensuring the connection between the loading and
control chambers, the cube specimen was placed on the lower bearing plate keeping the
center alignment by the screwed guides on the bearing plate.
The door of the loading chamber was closed, power was made on, and adjustments were
made on the display unit of the control chamber for specimen code, rate of loading and
percentage of the limiting load to be applied after failure. The load was applied at a rate
of 0.3MPa/s (ASTM C 39 recommends a loading rate of 0.15 to 0.35MPa/s). When the
given percentage of load after failure was attained, the control automatically stops the
test. At the end of the test, the maximum load and the corresponding stress were read on
the display board of the control chamber, and also the mode of failure was noticed as
shown in Table B-2.
3.4.2 Bending Test
After 28 days of curing, the beam specimens were removed from the moist storage,
turned on their sides with respect to their position as cast and recessed at a span of
440mm. The supporting (bearing block) was placed at the center of the lower frame
platen and the load-applying accessory was connected to the loading cell of the UTM 70-
C 0820/C. Thereafter, the bearing block with the test beam was brought to the surface of
the loading system in such a way that a gap of 5 to 10mm was remained between the
beam specimen and the load-applying accessory.
After ensuring the exact alignment of the beam specimen in relation to the loading
systems, the test was started by clicking the ''PUMP'', ''START'', and ''LOAD'' buttons on
the PC. The rate of loading was adjusted in the control console by selecting the loading
32
speed options on the display unit of the PC. During testing, the load-deflection diagram
was automatically appeared on the display unit by the Universal Winsoft Testing
software (UWT-8) installed in the PC. At the end of testing, the test results were saved
and printed. Further, the location and type of rupture were noted as shown in Table B-3.
In the load-deflection diagram, the discrepancies at the beginning of the diagram were
corrected by extending the main line at the kinked part of the graph towards the
deflection axis. Basically, the UTM machine reads the positive load value when there is a
reactive (resistance) against the direction of loading. Thence, the negative loads at the
beginning of the diagram were the result of the 5-10mm gap that was intentionally
provided between the test beam and the loading accessory, and those at the end were due
to the complete cracking of the beams losing their resistance. In addition, the instability
of the pumping oil (jerking effect) may induce negative pressure during the change in
resistance and loading rate.
33
4 DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSES ON TEST RESULTS
4.1 Effects of Jute Fibre on Properties of Fresh Concrete
Table 4.1 shows some properties of the fresh concrete that were recorded during the mix
and specimen preparations. The inclusion of jute fibre in the concrete creates problem of
workability as dictated by the poor trowel workability and nil slump results. When a great
deal of fibre is mixed with the concrete, it balls the paste and hinders the uniform grain
formation and free circulation of the concrete matrix, thereby, it requires greater effort to
mix, trowel, vibrate and place the concrete into the molds as compared to the
unreinforced concrete. On the contrary, the concrete gets stiff when fibre is added to the
mix because of the tendency of fibres to closely attach the mix components.
Plate (a) Balling problem Plate (b) Inconvenient specimen casting
Plate (c) Nil slump
Figure 4.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
Further, the unit weight of the fresh concrete gets decreasing as the fibre concrete
increases. About 6% decrease in weight was observed at 1% by volume of fibre content.
This is best explained by the presence of voids due to the inconsistency of concrete flow
34
trapped by the fibres during casting of the cubes. Besides, the presence of fibre reduces
the consumption of aggregates in the mix preparation resulting in lesser weight in view of
the fact that the weight of fibre is less than that of the aggregates.
Table 4.1 Properties of Fresh JFRC
Characteristics of fresh concrete Fibre content by volume (%)
0.00 0.25 0.50 1.00

Cohesiveness Low Normal High High
Troweling workability Good Fair Poor Poor
Slump test (mm) 23.00 4.00 0.00 0.00
Unit weight (kg/m3) 2374.16 2351.04 2319.14 2231.66
4.2 Effects of Jute Fibre on Mechanical Properties of Concrete
4.2.1 Compressive Strength
Table 4.2 shows the test results of 28-days compressive strength for different fibre
contents. The compression test results for the control group is slightly less than the
expected strength. This might be attributed to the following factors:
• The sand and gravel utilized for the test were damped in the laboratory
months before the test. Although the aggregates were thoroughly washed, the
gravel was observed to be easily disintegrated during the sieve operation. In
addition, the sand seems to be coarser as dictated by the fineness modulus.
Hence, these factors might contribute to the reduction in strength.
• The storage of cement utilized has not been clearly known and that might
cause a prolonged hydration process.
• Further, technical errors in the laboratory activities such as mixing and testing
might cause the discrepancies.
From the result it can be seen that the presence of high fibre content reduces the
compressive strength of concrete. This agrees with the result reported by G. Shimizu et al
35
[13]. However, at lower fibre content (0.25%) there is an increase in compressive
strength on account of the lesser voids as compared with the higher fibre content and
confining effect of the fibre prevents early tensile crack propagation. At higher fibre
content there are more voids in the concrete due to the lack of free rearrangement of the
concrete matrix as a result of the poor workability and balling effect during vibration and
casting of the specimens.
According to the distortion energy failure theory (Huber-Van Mises-Hencky theory),

failure is predicted to occur in the multi-axial state of stress when the distortion energy
per unit volume becomes equal to or exceeds the distortion energy per unit volume at the
time of failure in a simple uniaxial stress testing using a specimen of the same materials.
The distortion energy per unit volume is the difference between the strain energy
associated with volume change and the total strain energy per unit volume [35]. This
theory verifies the increment in compressive strength at lower fibre content. At lower
fibre content, the jute fibre closely binds the JFRC constituent, results an intact composite
and this requires more energy to distort the specimen up to failure. Although the jute fibre
imparts the same effect to the composite at higher fibre content, the presence of
significant air voids weakens the specimen and it will be easy to distort with minimal
energy.
Table 4.2 Average Compressive Strength of JFRC at 28-Days
Test series Average strength Standard deviation Variation from the control
(MPa) (%)
1 17.40 0.48 -
2 18.10 0.59 4
3 16.01 0.33 -8
4 16.68 0.43 -4
Although there seems to be a tendency of fibres to decrease the compressive strength of

concrete, there is an improvement of yield plateau after cracking of concrete occurred.
The presence of fibres interferes with the sudden explosion of concrete matrix ingredients
36
during failure thereby reduces the rate of rapid failure as shown in the Figure 4.2 below
and this results in improved energy absorption capacity as reported by P. Jorillo Jr et al
[10]. The crack propagates rapidly in the weakest failure zone for the control specimens
as shown in plate (a) of Figure 4.2. On the other hand, there is multidirectional flow of
cracks for the JFRC specimens (see Figure 4.2 of plate (b), (c) and (d)). This is possible
through stress transfer across the cracks and the fibre arrests the rapid crack propagation
and prolongs the strain life to continue beyond the ultimate.
Plate (a) 0.00% Plate (b) 0.50%
Plate (c) 0.25% Plate (d) 1.00%
Figure 4.2 Compression Test Failures for Different Jute Fibre Content
The reduction in the sudden explosion of concrete during failure can be supported by the
stress-strain diagram of Coir FRC developed by P. Jorillo Jr et al [10] as shown in Figure
4.3. While the stress-strain diagram for plain concrete (0.00% fibre) shows sudden fall
beyond the ultimate, the diagrams for FRC (0.50%, 1.50 and 2.5%) show gradual
declining of strain capacity after failure.
Although the test equipment employed in this thesis does not have the mechanism to
record the stress-strain data for JFRC, similar failure patterns were observed as shown in
Figure 4.2.
37
Figure 4.3 Typical Stress-Strain Diagrams for Coir FRC [10]
4.2.2 Flexural Strength
Table B-3 presents the bending test results at 28-days. During the test it was observed
that all beams failed by rupture (flexure) and all the failures occurred in the middle third
span of the test beams. Therefore, equation (2.2) was used to calculate the modulus of
rupture and the results are shown in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Average Failure Load and Modulus of Rupture of JFRC at 28-Days
Test series Average failure load Standard Modulus of rupture Variation from control
(kN) deviation (MPa) (%)
1 4.75 0.07 2.09 -
2 6.13 0.26 2.70 29
3 7.20 0.42 3.17 52
4 6.07 0.67 2.67 28
For the purpose of checking the test results, the theoretical cracking load is estimated
based on the average flexural strength corresponding to the control specimens. The
statical system that simulates the laboratory set up is shown in Figure 4.4.
38
(a) Statical system
(b) Bending moment diagram (BMD)
Figure 4.4 Statical Systems and Bending Moment Diagram
The theoretical cracking moment, M cr is calculated using equation (4.1) [33].
M cr = 1.7 * f ctk * Z (4.1)
Ig
Moreover; Z= = 0.17 * 10 6 mm 3 and f ck = 17.40 / 1.25 = 13.92 MPa
cb
f ctk = 0.21* ( f ck ) = 1.22 MPa [33]

2/3
Substituting the values in equation (4.1), we get M cr = 0.35kN − m .
The load pertaining to the cracking moment can be determined by equating the bending
moment at the mid-span to be equal to M cr .
Thus, M cr = P * L / 6 ⇒ P = M cr * 6 / L = 4.77 kN .
The corresponding load obtained from the test result is 4.75kN. The theoretical value is
greater than the experimental result which is to be expected. This is due to the fact that
the mean strength was used in the calculation. It was not convenient to determine the
characteristic strength (few samples were tested i.e. 3 specimens).
39
Plate (a) Failure at 0.00% Jute fibre Plate (b) Failure at 1.00% Jute fibre
Plate (c) More voids at 1.00% Jute fibre Plate (d) Intact specimen at 0.25% Jute fibre
Figure 4.5 Bending Test Failures
The bending test results shown in Table 4.3 indicate that there is significant improvement
of flexural strength due to the addition of jute fibre as dictated by the increase in modulus
of rupture. There is as much as 50% increment in modulus of rupture at 0.50% jute fibre
content. The trend of flexural strength varies directly with the jute fibre content up to
certain amount, beyond which it tends to decrease. As the fibre content increases, the
balling of JFRC during mixing creates many voids in the specimen which in turn forms
prior weak zones as shown in plate (c) of Figure 4.5. When failure is initiated for such
beam specimen, cracks would proceed along the pre-weak zones with lesser cracking
load as compared with the intact specimen at lower fibre content.
Generally, the presence of fibre diverts the crack path in search for the weak zone
through tensile stress transfer across the cracks and in the meantime there will be a delay
in collapse of the beam providing a relatively ductile failure.
40
Figure 4.6 Typical Flexural Load-Deflection Curves for JFRC
Figure 4.6 shows typical bending test load-deflection diagrams of JFRC. The result
reveals that the load-deflection diagram for the plain concrete has a lower failure load and
very steep curves after failure. On the contrary, the load-deflection diagram after failure
for higher fibre content (1%) has got a mild slope indicating that JFRC acquires a better
ductility and toughness behavior as compared with the unreinforced concrete.
According to K. Schrader [19], the first crack load of FRC depends on the amount, length
configuration, strength and ductility of fibres apart from other factors such as cement
content and aggregates. As can be visualized in Figure 4.7, the ultimate load and first
crack load for low strength and brittle fibres are close to one another whereas there is
much difference for high strength and ductile fibres. Since the jute fibre is more brittle as
compared with the steel fibres, most of the experimental results signify that the ultimate
and first crack loads are nearly equal. The contribution of the jute fibre is rather observed
on the ability of JFRC composite to maintain the ultimate load through further deflection
without sudden collapse.
41
Figure 4.7 Typical Load-Deflection Curves for FRC [19]
Table 4.4 shows the mid-span deflection at the first crack load obtained from
experimental results and from theoretical results. The theoretical deflections were
calculated using equation (2.1) for the corresponding first-crack load read from the load-
deflection diagrams shown in Annex 1. The discrepancies at the beginning of the load-
deflection diagrams for some graphs with initial kinks were corrected by extending the
straight part of the graph at the kinked point towards the deflection axis.
In the first crack deflection calculations, the modulus of elasticity of reinforced

composites was estimated using the law of mixture as formulated in equation (4.2) [3].
The E f used in the calculation was 75GPa [5, 6].
Eco = E f *V f + Em *Vm (4.2)
E m = 9.5 * ( f ckm + 8) = 27.00GPa and υ = 0.10 [33]

1/ 3
Moreover, L = 440mm, d = 100mm, I = 8.33 *10 6 mm 3 .
42
Table 4.4 Average First-Crack Deflection of JFRC
Test series Ec P δ cr , Recorded δ cr , Computed Deviation

(kN) (%)
(GPa)
(mm) (mm)
1 27.00 4.75 0.0393 0.0353 11
2 27.12 6.13 0.0618 0.0454 36
3 27.24 6.85 0.0443 0.0505 -12
4 27.47 5.93 0.0235 0.0434 -45
There is an average deviation of 25% between the theoretical and experimental

deflections. This might be attributed to the sudden motion of the displacement encoder
cable due to the jerking effect of the control console while oil pumping took place and
also it was difficult to exactly locate the first crack deflection on the graphs.
The mathematical correlation between the flexural strength and the fibre parameters has
been studied [10, 11]. The fact that the data results in this experimental work were not
sufficient to carry out the multiple regression, few supplementary data have been
imported from the results of coir FRC reported by P. Jorillo et al [10]. Thus, the
mathematical correlation between the fibre parameter ( v f * (l / d ) ), modulus of rupture of
the JFRC composite ( f rco ) and that of the concrete matrix ( f rm ) was carried on the basis
of data obtained from the experimental results adjoined with the data of coir FRC.
Looking in to the trend diagrams as shown in Figure 4.8, one can clearly verify that the
flexural strength of the JFRC is proportional to the fibre volume fraction up to a certain
limit beyond which there will be a tendency of decay in strength. Through multiple
regression analysis of the data, the prediction equation of flexural strength of JFRC was
developed as shown in Equation (4.3).
l
f rco = 0.50142 * f rm + 0.00416 * v f *   + 1.16975 (4.3)
d 
43
Trend Curve of Flexural S trength against Fibre Parameter
3.00
2.50
Flexural strength (Mpa)

2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00 0.00 45.00 90.00 135.00 180.00
Vf*(l/d)
Figure 4.8 Trend Curve of Flexural Strength against Fibre Parameters of JFRC
Table 4.5 depicts the comparison of flexural strength of the experimental results with that
of the prediction equation. As can be visualized in the table, there is an average
difference of 10% between the strength values obtained from the prediction equation and
experimental results which may be attributed to lack of sufficient data pertaining to the
different fibre parameters-only single fibre aspect ratio has been considered in the
laboratory. However, the values based on the prediction equation and the correlation
equation reported by Al Feel et al [11] provides similar results. Despite the 10%
deviation, the correlation analysis given by equation (4.3) can be used as a first hand
approximation to establish the trend of flexural strength with respect to jute fibre content.
Table 4.5 Comparison of Flexural Strength of Experimental Results with that of Prediction Equation
Fibre Modulus of Rupture (MPa)

parameter
(vf *(l/d)) Analytical using Experimental results Analytical
equation (4.3) by Al Feel et al [11]
0.00 2.22 2.09 2.24

45 2.40 2.70 2.43
90 2.59 3.17 2.63
180 2.97 2.67 3.02
44
4.2.3 Toughness Behavior
Toughness behavior of concrete is also another parameter that plays a vital role in the
design of structures. The ability of preserving strains beyond the first crack is associated
with the energy required to bring complete collapse of structural members. When a
structural member acquires more energy absorption capacity, then there will be a chance
of cracking strains to be prolonged before complete failure. The energy absorption
capacity of the JFRC has been studied by the toughness indices and residual strength
factors as discussed in section 2.4.3 of this study. The toughness indices were calculated
using equation (4.4) following ASTM C 1018 recommendations [29].
Area under Load − Deflection Diagram up to 3 * δ cr

I5 =
Area under Load − Deflection Diagram up to δ cr
Area under Load − Deflection Diagram up to 5.5 * δ cr

I10 = (4.4)
Area under Load − Deflection Diagram up to 10.5 * δ cr

I 20 =
Similarly, the residual strength factors were also estimated as the ratio of the toughness
indices [29].
R5,10 = 20 * (I10 − I 5 )
(4.5)
R10, 20 = 10 * (I 20 − I10 )
Table 4.6 depicts the toughness indices and residual strength factors calculated based on
the bending test results of the JFRC with different jute fibre contents. ASTM C 1018
specifies that the toughness indices of plain concrete is 1.00 for all cases of I 5 , I10
and I 20 . For that of the FRC the observed range of index values are 1.00 to 6.00, 1.00 to
12.00 and 1.00 to 25.00 corresponding to I 5 , I10 and I 20 , respectively. The index results
obtained in this work for the JFRC satisfy the code recommendations despite slight
deviations which might arise from the difficulties in the determination of the first crack
points and in the calculations of the area under the load-deflection curves.
45
Table 4.6 Toughness Indices and Residual Strength Factors of JFRC
Test series I5 I10 I 20 R5,10 R5,10
1 1.01 1.02 1.02 0.18 0.00

2 1.01 1.45 1.55 8.92 0.95
3 1.17 1.48 1.58 6.22 1.05
4 1.30 1.86 2.09 11.26 2.31
From Table 4.6, one can see that the toughness indices and residual strength factors
increase as the fibre content increases. There is as much as 28%, 82% and 105%
increment in I 5 , I10 , and I 20 respectively at 1.00% jute fibre. Similar results have been
reported by several researchers [10, 13]. This result asserts that the incorporation of jute
fibre in the concrete matrix significantly improves the toughness behavior of concrete.
The improvement in toughness behavior allows the JFRC to absorb sufficient amount of
energy. Thus, structural members made up of JFRC will have enough time to sustain the
ultimate capacity before complete collapse.
4.3 Design Considerations and Areas of Applications
The initial stage of design considerations in structural engineering involves the

determination of the stress-strain diagram of the particular materials utilized to construct
a structure. The limitation of this thesis work lies on the inability of plotting the stress-
strain diagram of the JFRC composite. This was because of the constraints in obtaining
the equipment for measuring the stress-strain data during the compression test. However,
the stress-strain diagram of other natural fibre reinforced composites such as coir FRC
developed by P. Jorillo Jr et al [10] as shown in Figure 4.3 above, could be applied in the
stress analysis of JFRC.
In the design of structures subjected to pure compression force, we can use the usual
design procedures established by the relevant codes of standards for conventional
concrete. For such cases the effect of fibre on the composite material can be taken into
account by applying a reduction factor for the presence of voids [9].
46
In the design of flexural members, the contribution of fibre to the tensile capacity of the
section shall be incorporated in the stress-strain diagram of the FRC composite sections.
Two major cases could be considered in this regard: structural members constructed from
only FRC composite and those provided with additional steel reinforcement.
f cco ε cco
C x
b f tco ε tco
(a) Cross-section (b) Actual stress distribution (c) Strain profile (d) Approximated stress
distribution
Figure 4.9 Stress Analysis of FRC in Bending without Additional Steel Reinforcement
When flexural members composed of only FRC are subjected to bending actions up to
failure, the extreme fibre stress of the compression zone is far less than the ultimate
compression capacity of the section. Hence, the stress distribution of the compression
zone can be assumed to vary linearly across the depth of the section. The actual stress
distribution in the tension zone is of parabolic type. However, failure of plain FRC beams
is initiated in the tension zone at lower load level and the ordinate of the maximum
tensile stress is not significantly far from the neighborhoods. Hence, the stress
distribution in the tension zone can be reasonably assumed simple rectangular [20].
In stress analysis of members in bending, two governing conditions are essential. The
first is the conditions of equilibrium of internal forces across the section shall be satisfied
simultaneously (both moment and forces about and along the neutral axis, respectively).
The second condition is the relationship between the extreme fibre strains (depth of
compression and tension zones). The basic assumptions to be made in the stress analysis
of FRC are [10, 20, 33]:
47
• Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending
• There is strong interfacial bond between the fibre and the matrix of the
FRC composite
Consider the stress and strain diagrams of Figure 4.9.
1
C = * f cco * b * x (4.6)
2
T = f tco * b * (h − x) (4.7)
Applying the normal force equilibrium along the neutral axis yields:
C =T (4.8)
Substituting equations (4.6) and (4.7) in equation (4.8), we get:

1
f tco * b * (h − x) = * f cco * b * x (4.9)
2
Let k x denotes the related neutral axis depth.
x
Thus, k x = .
h
1
Multiplying both sides of equation (4.9) by and re-arranging in terms of k x , we
h *b
get:
1
f tco * (1 − k x ) = * f cco * k x (4.10)
2
Similarly, taking the moment of forces about the point of application of the resultant
compression force yields:
h−x 2
M = f tco * b * (h − x) * ( + * x)
2 3
h2
Multiplying the right side of the moment equation by a factor of 2 and rearranging
h
using k x , results the moment expression.
48
1 k
M = f tco * b * h 2 * (1 − k x ) * ( + x ) (4.11)
2 6
Compressive strain in the extreme fibre of the compression zone can be determined using
similarity of triangle in the strain profile.
x
ε cco = * ε tco (4.12)
h−x
Stress-strain relation:
f cco
ε cco = (4.13)
Eco
Comparing equations (4.12) and (4.13):
x
f cco = * ε tco * Eco (4.14)
h−x
h
Multiplying both sides of equation (4.14) by and rearranging in terms of k x , we get:
h
kx
f cco = * ε tco * Eco (4.15)
1− kx
Substituting equation (4.10) in equation (4.15) and simplifying, results the following
expression:
f tco f tco
kx + 4* * kx + 2* =0
2
(4.16)
ε tco * Eco − 2 * f tco 2 * f tco − ε tco * Eco
f tco
Let, α = 4* (4.17)
ε tco * Eco − 2 * f tco
Thus, equation (4.16) becomes:
49
α
kx + α * kx − =0
2
(4.18)
2
Solving for k x and taking the positive value, we get:
− α + α 2 + 2 *α
kx = (4.19)
2
Therefore, for a given limit of tensile strain of a particular FRC, one can evaluate the
corresponding stress and strain using equations (4.12), (4.15), (4.17), (4.19) and the
moment, M using (4.11).
For verification, consider the control specimen test results. f tco = 1.22 MPa . The
corresponding limiting tensile strain, ε tco is read from the tensile stress-strain diagram of
polymer FRC [20], just for approximation (since no such diagram is developed in this
study). Hence, ε tco = 0.15 * 10 −3 . Substituting these values in equations (4.17), (4.19) and
(4.11), we get M = 0.39kN − m . From the test result, P = 4.75kN and the corresponding
P*L
moment is, M = = 0.35kN − m . There is 11% deviation between the computed and
6
test results which might be due to the lack of exact determination of the limiting tensile
strain. Note that this is not an exhaustive work on the design aspects of JFRC and hence
the exact stress distribution of the JFRC composite has to be developed using
experimental results.
f cco ε cco
xc C x
h d
T a
Ts c ε tco
b f tco εs
(a) Cross-section (b) Stress distribution (c) Strain profile
Figure 4.10 Stress Analysis of FRC in Bending with Additional Steel reinforcement
50
In the case of beams made of FRC but with additional steel reinforcement, the stress level
in the compression zone could be fully exhausted, depending on the percentage of the
steel reinforcement. In such scenario, the stress distribution assumed by A.M Ivanov as
shown in Figure 4.10 can be utilized in the stress analysis. Thus, the stress distribution in
the compression zone can be assumed to be parabolic and that of the tension zone to be
rectangular-the depth of which depends on the type of FRC and steel grade. When the
FRC beam is provided with additional steel reinforcement, the tensile stress in the tension
zone is shared between the FRC and the steel reinforcement. When a higher percentage
of steel is provided, most of the tensile stress is taken up by the steel reinforcement and
the fibres may not be significant. Thus, to account for this phenomenon, the depth of the
tension zone is reduced in relation to the percentage of steel reinforcement.
Following the above calculation procedures and adopting the stress and strain diagrams
depicted in Figure 4.10, one can develop analogous expressions for the different design
parameters.
Similarly, the moment-curvature relationships of FRC can be established using the stress
and strain distributions presented so far. The curvature ( ϑ ) of a flexural member is
represented by the gradient of strain profile at the element. Basically, the curvature of a
given FRC section (such as Figure 4.8) is given by equation (4.20) [34].
ε cco εs ε cco + ε sco

ϑ= = = (4.20)
kx h * (1 − k x ) h
Hence, the moment curvature relationship for a given FRC section can be determined by
assuming intervals of extreme fibre strain ( ε cco ) of the compression zone. For each value
of ε cco , the related neutral axis depth ( k x ) satisfying equilibrium is calculated by adjusting
k x until the internal forces determined using equations (4.6) and (4.7) balance the
corresponding external action effects. Then, the internal forces and neutral axis depth
determined so far can be utilized to calculate the moment and curvature from equations
(4.11) and (4.20) respectively. Finally, the moment-curvature diagram can be plotted
using these values.
51
The significance of the JFRC in view of moment curvature is clearly visible. Although
the change in cracking strength of JFRC may not be significant, the ability of jute fibre to
sustain the ultimate strain in the tensile zone to a remarkable limit provides ductile
behavior as depicted in the load-deflection diagrams on Figure 4.6. When such a section
is subjected to bending up to failure, the presence of jute fibre allows the composite
section to enter in to some degree of plastic zones. This phenomenon would permit the
curvature of the section to increase more than the concrete matrix does.
As a general remark, the design of structures made of FRC encompasses:
• Determination of the geometric parameters of the structural member

• Carry out analysis of the structure acted up on by external actions
• Determination of strength of FRC composite that suit the stress analysis
results-using the design philosophies stipulated by the relevant codes of
standards. At this stage, determination of the fibre content of the
composite and the steel reinforcement ratio are also part of the design
processes.
• Determine the moment-curvature relationships of the FRC section (if
required) based on the final design provisions.
As the scope of the thesis work is limited, comprehensive design consideration is not
presented. However, analysis and design of FRC is available in literatures [10, 19, 20].
Despite the appreciable usage of natural fibres in concrete composite constructions, there
are problems experienced with the poor durability of natural fibres in reinforced cement
composites probably due to alkali attack of the fibres by the pore water present in the
cement matrix and by the exposure conditions such as temperature and pressure [16-18].
The presence of the OH- ion oxidizes the cellulose and also at higher temperatures,
around 750 C, the degree of polymerization of cellulose will be damaged and the lignin
portion begins to soften loosing its binding property. In addition, the lignin has no
resistance to alkaline medium [17]. P. Soproushian et al [18] demonstrated that the
precipitation of cement hydration within cellulose fibre cores and at interface zones is the
52
key deterioration mechanism. Further, it was observed that the fibre-to-matrix bond is
adversely affected by moisture effects.
With passage of time under normal conditions, FRC manufactured from natural and
plastic fibers would lose some of its positive characteristics as a result of age effects,
which depends considerably on exposure to solar or ultraviolet rays and on the impact of
heat. Therefore, the use of natural fibre-reinforced concrete in exposed forms of
construction has to be checked for age effects [20].
Several fibre treatment methods have been explored so far, the choice of which depends
on cost, easy way of processing and effects on the fibre structure. Some of these are:
surface washing to remove soluble substances at fibre surface as well as the residues and
dusts, changing the alkalinity of the pore water, replacing part of the cement with silica
fume and reduce moisture sensitivity using natural pozzolanas such as rice husk ash and
bagasse ash in the mix or by sealing the pore system using additives in the mix or
impregnating with chemicals [17, 18].
The question of durability of natural fibre-reinforced concrete shall not be a discouraging

phenomenon in the FRC technology. Instead, technical justifications are essential in the
applications of FRC: either well developed protection methods have to be looked into
along with the objective of economy or search for situations where fibre durability is a
minimal. Structures with light-weight mine props, lining of mine shafts, impermeable
constructions with short life span, concrete masonry blocks and temporary structures are
some of those areas in which only short term strength is required, thus natural and
synthetic fibres may be used to reinforce the corresponding matrix [20].
53
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
Difficulties attributed to low efficiency in tensile strength of structural elements, brittle

mode of failure, rapid crack propagation and increased overload are common in the
concrete construction industry. Whereas ordinary steel reinforced concrete is the most
popular mechanisms developed so far to alleviate such problems, it is rather becoming
the supply of much amount of steel, which takes huge capital investment to produce
locally. These impediments have driven the development of contemporary concrete
technologies such as high strength concrete, fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), shotcrete
etc, in which all the advancements entail an investigation into the constitutive materials.
This thesis is part of such works dealing with the experimental assessment of flexural and
compressive strengths of JFRC with different jute fibre contents. The study was carried
out by conducting compression tests on cube specimens and two point bending test on
beam specimens at different jute fibre content. From the results and analysis of the thesis
work it can be concluded that:
(1) The incorporation of jute fibre as a constitutive material of concrete

affects the rheological properties of the fresh concrete. High fibre content
in the concrete matrix reduces workability and unit weight.
(2) Reduction in the compressive strength of concrete has been observed at
higher fibre content. Despite the reduction in the compressive strength of
JFRC, there is an improvement of ductility after cracking of concrete
through stress transfer across the cracks and the fibre arrests the rapid
crack propagation and prolongs the strain life to continue beyond the
ultimate.
(3) The incorporation of jute fibre increases the modulus of rapture of
concrete by 50% at 0.50% jute fibre content.
54
(4) The multiple regression curve developed in equation (4.3) can be used as
first hand approximation to establish the trend of flexural strength with
respect to jute fibre content.
(5) Jute fibre significantly improves the toughness behavior of concrete. There
is as much as 28%, 82% and 105% increment in I 5 , I10 , and I 20
respectively at 1.00% jute fibre. The improvement in toughness behavior

allows the JFRC to absorb sufficient amount of energy before complete
collapse.
(6) The test results have shown that fibre content in the JFRC composite is an
essential parameter that influences both the rheological and mechanical
properties of concrete. Therefore, it is worth noting that fibre content
along with other composite parameters has to be closely viewed in the
study of JFRC.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the insights gained from the test results and analyses of the JFRC, the
incorporation of jute fibre in making FRC composite would be one of the promising
strategies to improve the performance of concrete. The greater improvement in flexural
and toughness behavior of JFRC outshine the minimal reduction of compressive strength
at higher fibre content. The significant improvement in toughness behavior allows the
JFRC to absorb sufficient amount of energy and hence, structural members made up of
JFRC will have enough time to sustain the ultimate capacity before complete collapse.
In spite of the limited scope of the thesis work, the problem of durability of jute fibre at
sever exposure conditions and degradation of JFRC by aging; the investigation results
would indicate the possibility of utilizing JFRC in various applications. To this end, the
thesis work results elite a hope that JFRC can be used in areas where small tensile
reinforcement is expected, such as ground floor slabs, framing of small scale structures
like villas etc. Further, JFRC can be employed in the construction of temporary structures
including detours and refuge camps. The least cost of jute fibre, its being renewable
resources, the reduced weight of the JFRC composite and the reduction in consumption
55
of other constitutes of the concrete matrix would clearly show the economic advantage
of JFRC.
While an assessment of Flexural and Compression Strengths of JFRC and a method of

producing same and modifications thereof have been shown and described in detail in
this thesis, various additional changes and modifications may be made without departing
from the scope of the present study. The length of jute fibre used in the thesis was based
on the optimum aspect ratio speculated from the results of Coir FRC by G. Shimizu et al
[13], hence the optimum aspect ratio of the jute fibre has to be determined in further
works. In addition, the design concepts discussed herein are not exhaustively articulated,
thus detail investigations of stress-strain behavior of JFRC composite has to be made in
the future.
The study of Flexural and Compressive strengths of other Fibre-Reinforced Concrete

may also be carried out in association with the methods and techniques outlined in this
study for JFRC. Likewise, scholars may continue to study jute fibre-reinforced concrete
by including other parameters such as Fatigue, Shear Capacity, Ductility, etc apart from
the flexural and compressive strength parameters.
56
APPENDIX
57
APPENDIX-A LABORATORY PROCEDURES AND CHECKLISTS
This section describes the standard procedures and checklist utilized in accomplishing
different laboratory activities. The total scheme has been organized in reference to
international standards and literatures [4, 19]. During the laboratory works a check mark
(√) was made on the mark column of the check list after accomplishing the required
activities. This was basically intended to ensure appropriate accomplishment of every
item of activities for as particular test.
Table A-1 Procedure and Check List for Sieve Analysis of Aggregates
S/No Activities Mark Remarks
1.1 Sieve Analysis of Sand (ASTM C 136)
a Collect, clean and arrange the following apparatus √
Weighing scales √
Trowel √
Shaking machine √
Set of sieves √
Measuring cylinder √
b Select a representative sample from the damp sand by quartering √ Successive

quartering was done
c 3
From the representative sample select 0.007m by quartering √
d For sieving, select about 500g from (c) √
e Air-dry the sample in (d) √
f Weigh the air-dry sample in (e) to the nearest 0.5g √
g Arrange the set of sieves in the order of their size √
h Place the nest of the arranged sieves in the shaker √
i Add the 500g air-dry sample on top of sieve, then cover the sieve and √
clamp securely
j Then shake for 2,000 oscillations ( for about 10 minutes) √
k Weigh the residue in each sieve and in the pan to 1/000 of the weight √
of the sample
l Check the sieve operation by hand sieving, according to ASTM C 136 √
58
m Find the sum of weights of material retained in each sieve √
n If the value in (m) is not equal to 500g within 1%, then repeat the sieve √ The sieving
test conforms to the
requirement
o Calculate the percentage passing and retained to the nearest 1% √
p Calculate the fineness modulus √
q Plot the grading chart in standard format-ASTM C 136 √
1.2 Sieve Analysis of Gravel (ASTM C 136)
Weighing scales √
Balance with scoop √
Trowel √
Set of sieves √
b Select a representative sample from the damp gravel by quartering √ Successive

quartering was done
c From the representative sample select 0.015m3 by quartering √
d For sieving, select about 7kg from (c) √
e Air-dry the sample in (d) √
f Weigh the air-dry sample in (e) to the nearest 0.5g √
g Screen the sample by hand successively through all the screens, using √
one at a time and starting with the largest. Shake on each screen until
no more pass. In no case shall the fragments in the sample be turned
or manipulated through the screen
h Weigh the residue in each sieve and in the pan to 1/000 of the weight √
of the sample
i Check the sieve operation by hand sieving, according to ASTM C136 √
j Find the sum of weights of material retained in each sieve √
k If the value in (m) is not equal to 500g within 1%, then repeat the √
sieve test
l Calculate the percentage passing and retained to the nearest 1% in √ The test conforms to
tabular format the requirement
59
m Calculate the fineness modulus √
n Plot the grading chart in standard format √
60
Table A-2 Procedure and Check List for the Specific Gravity and Absorption Capacity of Aggregates
2.1 Specific Gravity and Absorption Capacity of Sand (ASTM C-128)
Platform scale √
1-pt mason-jar pycnometer or 500-ml volumetric flask √
Conical mold top 40mm dia, bottom 90mm dia, height 75mm √
25mm dia tamping rod √
Two 6-in pans and two 12-in pans √
Measuring cylinders √
Trowel √
b Select a representative sample from the damp sand by quartering √
c Screw the pycnometer cap and make match marks to show its position √
on the jar
d Weigh the pycnometer empty √
e Weigh the pycnometer filled with water at room temperature √
f Gently roll and agitate the jar to eliminate air bubbles √
g Determine the capacity of the pycnometer from (d) and (e) √
h Select 1500-g of sand from (b) √
i Saturate the sample in (h) √
j Air-dry the sample (SSD), by spreading on a clean, flat surface √
k Check for surface dry using conical mold (ASTM C 128) √
l Immediately introduce 500-g of the SSD sand into the pycnometer √
m Fill the jar with water (90% of total capacity up to the mark) and screw √
down till the match mark in (c)
n Gently roll and agitate the jar being inclined, to remove air bubbles, √
then fill 100%
o Weigh the pycnometer with all its contents in (n) √
p Determine the total weight of water introduced in the jar from (o) and √
(g)
q Empty the jar √
61
r Weigh out a second 500-g sand as soon as the first is inundated in the √
pycnometer
s Oven-dry the sample in a suitable pan or vessel for 24-hours at 100 to √

O
110 C
t Cool the oven-dry sample to comfortable temperature √
u Weigh the oven-dry sample and record as the corresponding value of √

``A``
v Calculate the specific gravity and absorption capacity (ASTM C 128) √
2.2 Specific Gravity and Absorption Capacity of Gravel (ASTM C-127)
Platform scale sensitive to .5g √
Wire basket √
Two 6-in pans and two 12-in pans √
Trowel √
4.75mm sieves √
Measuring cylinders √
b Select a representative sample from the damp aggregate by quartering √
c Saturate the sample √
d Select about 3-kg of aggregate √
e Sieve and reject all material passing 4.75mm sieve √
f Surface-dry the sample by rolling in a trowel √
g Obtain the weight in air of the SSD sample to the nearest 0.5-g √
h Prepare and determine the weight in water of wire basket alone √
i Then, immediately place the SSD sample in the wire basket and weigh √
all the contents
j And then determine the weight in water of the sample after correcting √ (i)-(h)
the weight obtained in (h)
k Oven-dry the sample in a suitable pan or vessel for 24-hours at 100 to √

O
110 C
l Cool the oven-dry sample to comfortable temperature √
m Weigh the oven-dry sample and record as the corresponding value of √
62
``A``
n Calculate the specific gravity and absorption capacity ( ASTM C 127) √
63
Table A-3 Procedure and Check List for the Determination of Unit Weight of Aggregates
3.1 Unit Weight of Sand (ASTM C 29/C)
Platform scale √
16mm dia and 600mm long tamping rod √

3
1/10-cu ft (0.0028-m ) measuring cylinders √
Trowel √
b Select a representative sample from the damp sand by sand splitter or √

quartering
c Weigh the 1/10-cu ft (0.0028-m3) of standard cylinder to the nearest √

0.5g
d Fill the cylinder one-third full of air-dry, carefully mixed sand and √
level it with finger
e Tamp the mass with the rounded end of the rod 25 times evenly over √
the surface
f Fill the cylinder two-third full and tamp as in (e) √
g Then fill the cylinder overflowing and tamp 25 times √
h Strike off the surplus using the rod as a straight edge √
i Weigh the cylinder filled with the sand as in (h) √
j Calculate the volume of the cylinder by measurement and check with √

the standard
k Compute the unit weight from (c), (i) and volume of the cylinder √
(ASTM C-29)
3.2 Unit Weight of Gravel (ASTM C 29/C)
Platform scale √

3
1/3-cu ft (0.0093-m ) measuring cylinders √
64
Trowel √
b Select a representative sample from the damp gravel by quartering √
c Weigh the 1/3-cu ft (0.0093-m3) of standard cylinder to the nearest √

0.5g
d Fill the cylinder one-third full of air-dry, carefully mixed sand, level it √
with finger
e Tamp the mass with the rounded end of the rod 25 times evenly over √
the surface
f Fill the cylinder two-third full and tamp as in (e) √
g Then fill the cylinder overflowing and tamp 25 times √
h Strike off the surplus using the rode as a straight edge √
i Weigh the cylinder filled with the sand as in (h) √
j Calculate the volume of the cylinder by measurement and check with √

the standard
k Compute the unit weight from (c), (i) and volume of the cylinder √
65
Table A-4 Procedure and Check List for Mix Preparation of JFRC
4.1 Collect, Clean and Arrange the Necessary Equipment, Utensils

and Apparatus
Sampling pans √
Trowel √
Slump cone √
Mixer (cleaned, washed and moistened) √
1,000-ml graduate √
10-ml graduate √
150 by 150mm cube and 100*100*500mm beam molds √
Base plates √
Cover plates √
12-in (30 mm) steel rule √
Chopping knives √
External vibrator √
4.2 Material Preparation
a Store all the materials at room temperature (20-30 OC) √
b Clean and chop the jute fibre to the required aspect ratio √
c Blend the course aggregate according to the grading requirements in √

the sieve analysis results
d Blend the sand according to the grading requirements in the sieve √

analysis results
4.3 Mixing Concrete
a Designate each mixing pan with the specific requirements √
Batch designation √
Approximate ultimate strength expected √
Water-cement ratio √
66
Slump required √
Percentage of Jute fibre √
b Weigh the required amount of gravel from (c) and add to the mixer √ Amount as per the
mix type
c Weigh the required amount of sand from (d) and add to the mixer √ Amount as per the
mix type
d Weigh the required amount of cement and add to the mixer √ Amount as per the
mix type
e Add some amount of jute fibre √
f Do 1 minute dry mixing √
g Add some of the mixing water √
h Start the mixing and then continuously add the remaining jute fibre √
and water while the mixer is running for more than 3 minutes.
i Cover the opened end of the mixer to prevent evaporation during the √
mixing period
j Deposit machine mixed concrete in the clean, damp mixing pan and √
remix by shovel or trowel until it appears to be uniform so as to
eliminate segregation,
67
Table A-5 Procedure and Check List for the Evaluation of Properties of Fresh JFRC
5.1 Cohesiveness
a During the mixing process, note whether the concrete tends to hang √
together well or whether it tends to crumble readily. Rate as follows
High
Normal
Low
5.2 Troweling Workability
a Work the concrete with a trowel and rate as follows. If it appears to √

work smoothly and with little effort, the toweling workability may be
called good.
Good
Fair
Poor
5.3 Slump Test
a The total time required to accomplish the test is 11/2 minutes √
b Place the slump cone (see 4.1) on a smooth and moist rigid base √
c Place the newly representative mixed concrete of 4.3 (j) in the mold in √
three layers, each approximately one-third the volume of the mold
d Ensure symmetrical distribution of concrete within the mold by √

moving the scoopful concrete around the top edge of the mold as the
concrete slides from it
e Rod each layer uniformly with 25 strokes using the tamping rod √
specified in 4.1 above. Each stroke shall penetrate the underlying
layer. Consolidation using internal vibration is not possible as the size
is small
f After rodding the top layer strike off the surface of the concrete with a √
trowel leaving the mold exactly filled
g Clean the surface of the base out side the cone of any excess concrete √
h Immediately remove the mold from the concrete by raising it slowly in √

a vertical direction
i If the pile topples sideways, it indicates that the materials have not √ The test conforms to
been uniformly distributed in the mold and the test should be repeated. the requirement
68
j Measure the slump immediately by determining the distance between √

the height of the mold and the height of the vertical axis (not the
maximum height) of the specimen
k Clean the mold thoroughly immediately after using √
69
Table A-6 Procedure and Check List for Test Specimen Preparation
6.1 Compression Specimens
a Place the molds as near as to the place where to store for 24-hours √
b Measure the dimensions of the molds to the nearest 0.5mm √
c Weigh the empty 150mm by 150mm cube molds and base plate √
combined
d Place the newly mixed concrete of 4.3 (j) in the mold in two layers √
using scoop, trowel or shovel
e Ensure symmetrical distribution of concrete within the mold by √

f Vibrate each layer uniformly using the external vibrator specified in √

4.1 above with supplementary surcharge plates. Consolidation using
internal vibration is not possible as the size is small (ASTM C 192)
g And then tamp the outsides of the mold lightly 10 to 15 times to close √
any holes left by vibrating and to release any large air bubbles
h After vibrating the top layer strike off the surface of the concrete with √
a trowel, leaving the mold exactly filled
i Weigh the mold filled with concrete in (h) above √
j The unit weight will be computed from the volume and weight of √
concrete in the mold
k Cure the specimens as follows
Protect the outside surface of the card-board molds from all contact √
with any sources of water for the first 24-hours
Remove the specimens from the mold within 24 ± 8-hrs after casting √
Moist cure the specimens at 23 ± 1.7 OC from the time of molding √

until the moment of test
6.2 Flexural Specimens
a Place the forms (molds) as near as to the place where to store for 24- √
hours
b Place the newly mixed concrete of 4.3 (j) in the forms (molds) in two √
layers using scoop, trowel or shovel
70
c Ensure symmetrical distribution of concrete within the mold by √

d Vibrate each layer uniformly using the external vibrator specified in √

4.1 above with supplementary surcharge plates. Consolidation using
internal vibration is not possible as the size is small (ASTM C 192)
e And then tamp the outsides of the mold lightly 10 to 15 times to close √
any holes left by vibrating and to release any large air bubbles
f After vibrating the top layer strike off the surface of the concrete with √
a trowel, leaving the mold exactly filled
g Cure the specimens as follows
Protect the outside surface of the card-board molds from all contact √
with any sources of water for the first 24-hours
Remove the specimens from the mold within 24 ± 8-hrs after casting √
Moist cure the specimens at 23 ± 1.7 OC from the time of molding √

until the moment of test
At the end of the curing period, between the time the specimen is √ To avoid tensile
removed from curing until testing is completed, drying of the surface stresses in the
shall be prevented extreme fibers
71
APPENDIX-B LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
a) Before adjustment
b) After adjustment
Figure B.1 Grading Chart of Sand
72
a) Before adjustment
b) After adjustment
Figure B.2 Grading Chart of Gravel
73
Table B-1 Unit Weight of Fresh Concrete
Test series Specimen code Dimensions (cm) Weight (kg) Average unit weight
Length Width Height (kg/m3)
CJ 1-1 15.0 15.0 15.0 7.995

1 CJ 1-2 15.0 14.9 15.0 8.040
CJ 1-3 15.0 15.0 15.0 8.071 2374.16
CJ 2-1 15.2 14.9 15.1 7.970
2 CJ 2-2 14.9 15.1 15.1 7.970
CJ 2-3 15 14.9 15.0 7.935 2351.04
CJ 3-1 14.9 15.0 15.0 7.775
3 CJ 3-2 15.0 14.8 15.0 7.855
CJ 3-3 15.0 15.0 15.0 7.920 2319.14
CJ 4-1 15.0 15.0 15.0 7.700
4 CJ 4-2 15.1 15.1 15.2 8.085
CJ 4-3 14.9 15.2 15.5 7.860 2231.66
Table B-2 Compression Test Results at 28-Days
Test series Specimen code Maximum load Maximum stress Failure Mode
(kN) (MPa)
CJ 1-1 379.00 16.84 Cone
1 CJ 1-2 396.80 17.64 Cone
CJ 1-3 398.40 17.71 Cone
CJ 2-1 419.10 18.65 Columnar
2 CJ 2-2 393.10 17.47 Cone
CJ 2-3 408.70 18.17 Cone
CJ 3-1 368.39 16.39 Cone
3 CJ 3-2 358.10 15.82 Cone
CJ 3-3 355.90 15.82 Cone
CJ 4-1 377.50 16.78 Cone
4 CJ 4-2 364.40 16.20 Cone
CJ 4-3 383.70 17.05 Cone
74
Table B-3 Bending Test Results at 28-Days
Test series Specimen code Cracking load Ultimate load Failure Mode
(kN) (kN)
BJ 1-1 4.70 4.70 Flexural
1 BJ 1-2 4.80 4.80 Flexural
BJ 1-3 Defected Defected
2 BJ 2-2 6.00 6.00 Flexural
3 BJ 3-2 6.80 7.50 Flexural
BJ 3-3 Incorrect loading Incorrect loading
4 BJ 4-2 5.30 5.50 Flexural
75
ANNEX
76
TRANSVERSE TEST ON JFRC SPECIMENS
Client : ENYEW B.
Test organization : AAU, Faculty of Technology
Test location : AAU, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Laboratory Section
_______________________________________________________________________
SPECIMEN DESCRIPTION
Date received : 12-10-2001 E.C. Test date : 12-10-2001 E.C.

Label : BJ 1-1
Material type : JFRC
Machined : Ye
Load (kN) : 4.7 Span between rollers (mm): 440
Notes : The horizontal axis is scaled up by a factor of 10
_______________________________________________________________________
Name : ENYEW BANTIE Position : Student, MSc in Structures
_______________________________________________________________________
CERIFICATE IDENTIFICATION:
BJ 1: Certificate date : 12-10-2001 E.C.
77
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 1-2
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
78
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 2-1
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
79
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 2-2
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
80
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 2-3
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
81
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 3-1
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
82
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 3-2
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
83
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 4-1
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
84
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 4-2
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
85
Client : ENYEW B.
_______________________________________________________________________

Label : BJ 4-3
Machined : Ye
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
86
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DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work, has not been presented for
a degree in this or any other university and all sources of materials used for the thesis
have been duly acknowledged.
Name: Enyew Bantie Tamiru
Signature: ________________
Institution: Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty
Date of Submission: March, 2010
92

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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

A STUDY OF FLEXURAL AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Masters of Science in

A STUDY OF FLEXURAL AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS

Approved by Board of Examiners:

Name Signature Date

Dr. Asnake Adamu _______________ ______________

Dr. Esayas G/Yohannes _______________ ______________

Dr. –Ing Adil Zekaria _______________ ______________

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................... III

2 A BRIEF REVIEW OF FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE ........................... 5

3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF JFRC ................................................................ 21

4 DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSES ON TEST RESULTS .................................. 34

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................... 54

Table 2.1 Names and Abbreviations of Major Compounds............................................6

Table 2.2 Chemical Composition of Common Vegetable Fibres ................................. 10

Table 2.3 Mechanical Properties of Vegetable Fibres .................................................. 11

Table 3.2 Tensile Strength and Extensibility of Jute Fibre ........................................... 26

Table 3.4 Test Programme .......................................................................................... 31

Table 4.1 Properties of Fresh JFRC............................................................................. 35

Table 4.2 Average Compressive Strength of JFRC at 28-Days .................................... 36

Table 4.4 Average First-Crack Deflection of JFRC ..................................................... 43

Table 4.5 Comparison of Flexural Strength of Experimental Results with that of

Table B-2 Compression Test Results at 28-Days ......................................................... 74

Table B-3 Bending Test Results at 28-Days ................................................................ 75

Figure 3.1. Compression Test Set Up .......................................................................... 22

Figure 3.2. Bending Test Set Up................................................................................... 23

Figure 3.3. Material Preparation ................................................................................... 25

Figure 4.1. Properties of Fresh Concrete ....................................................................... 34

Figure 4.3. Typical Stress-Strain Diagrams for Coir FRC ............................................. 38

Figure 4.4. Statical Systems and Bending Moment Diagram......................................... 39

Figure 4.5. Bending Test Failures ................................................................................. 40

Figure 4.6. Typical Flexural Load-Deflection Curves for JFRC .................................... 41

Figure 4.7. Typical Load-Deflection Curves for FRC .................................................. 42

Figure B.1. Grading Chart of Sand ............................................................................... 72

Figure B.2. Grading Chart of Gravel ............................................................................. 73

a Depth of effective tension zone

d Effective depth of beam section

Ef Modulus of elasticity of fibre

Em Modulus of elasticity of the concrete matrix

f cco Extreme fibre compressive stress of FRC composite

f ck Characteristic compressive strength

f ckm Characteristic compressive strength of the matrix in FRC

f ctk Characteristic tensile strength

f rco Modulus of rupture of the FRC composite

f rm Modulus of rupture of the matrix

f tco Extreme fibre tensile stress of FRC composite

h Depth of beam section

L Span of the beam

Vf Volume percentage of fibre

Vm Volume percentage of concrete matrix

ε cco Extreme fibre compressive strain of FRC composite

ε tco Extreme fibre tensile strain of FRC composite

1.00% jute fibre.

1.1 Background of the Study

However, ordinary steel-reinforced concrete construction more than ever is becoming

1.2 Objectives and Scope of the Study

1.3 Contents of the Thesis

2.1 Historical Background of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete

Dr. Asnake Adamu _

Dr. Esayas G/Yohannes _

Dr. –Ing Adil Zekaria _