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Routledge Revivals
Methods of Architectural Programming
First published in 1977, this volume is intended as a sourcebook for designers and attempts to specify the
ingredients necessary to develop a design program rather than postulate a model program for which no consensus
exists. As such it ﬁlled a void in the existing literature, which seldom covered programming with much depth,
and provides technical aids to guide designers. The author attempts to integrate pioneering contributions from
others in order to identify the substance of programming for designers and represents a culling of the strategies
and techniques from the social, behavioural and management sciences — building on the developing efforts of
other disciplines.
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Methods of Architectural Programming
Henry Sanoff
First published in 1977
by Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc.
This edition ﬁrst published in 2016 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 1977 Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
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The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies
may be apparent.
Disclaimer
The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they have been unable to contact.
A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 7613231
ISBN 13: 978-1-138-68830-8 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-1-315-54187-7 (ebk)
CDS/29
Methods of
Architectural
Programming
Henry Sanoff
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
AT RALEIGH
745815
C opyright© 1977 by Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc.

Community Development Series, Volume 29
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 76-13231
ISBN: 0-87933-253-0
All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyrights here
on may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means-
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping, or information storage and retrieval systems—w ithout written
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77 78 79 5 4 3 2 1
Manufactured in the United States of America.
LIB R A R Y OF CONGRESS CATALO G ING IN PUBLICATIO N DATA

Sanoff, Henry.
Methods of architectural programming.
(Community development series ; 29)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Architectural design—Computer programs. 2. Architectural—Research.
I. Title.
NA2728.S26 720'.28'542 76-13231
ISBN 0 -8 7 9 3 3 -2 5 3 -0
To Joan
This volume was prepared as a source book fo r de
Preface signers; consequently it has neither a beginning nor
an end. I have attempted to specify the ingredients
necessary to develop a design program, but I have not
provided a model program. The reason may appear to
be obvious: there does not appear to be any consensus
from researchers in the field about the availability or
desirability of the best type of program. There is also
some doubt about the adaptive nature of a standard
ized program considering the variability of designed
artifacts and the diversity in size and type of organiza
tions producing those artifacts.
The contents of this volume can be compared with
a set of navigational aids, whereby the traveler decides
upon his destination while the course is plotted with
technical aids. The designer, too, must decide upon
the final destination, as well as the amount of time
available to reach that terminal point. The technical
aids presented in this book w ill guide the designer to
that destination as well as illustrate charted courses
that other designers have taken. The manner by which
the navigational aids are assembled is described as a
"strategy," and the systematic recording of the events
along the selected course is called the "program ."
This book is designed to fill a void in the existing
literature. There is very little in the way of literature
in programming, although there are numerous state
ments commonly referred to as programs that bear
slight resemblance to the material in this book.
I have attempted to integrate many o f the pioneer
ing contributions of others in order to identify the
substance of programming for designers. Although
this work is embryonic, it represents a culling o f the
strategies and techniques from the social, behavioral,
and management sciences in order to build upon the
developing efforts of other disciplines. The selection
and assemblage of the contents represents a decade of
personal exploration, testing, and evaluation—some
times systematic, often random and exploratory.
The final organization of this book was arrived at
as a result of Dick Dober's role as the devil's advocate,
for which I am certainly grateful. I also wish to ex
press my appreication to Ron Wells for his editorial
scrutiny and to Greg Centeno for his assistance in the
review of literature.
Henry Sanoff IX
Contents Preface ix
1 Preconditions to Programming 1
The Roots of Programming 1
The Program 3
Design Problem Solving 4
Collective Decisions: Group Processes 6
Management by Objectives 17
The Structure of a Program 21
Notes and References 26
2 Information Retrieval Methods 27
Prediction: How We Know What We Know 27
How to Conduct Survey Research 28
Applications of Analysis and
Evaluation Methods 36
Analytic Methods of Information
Retrieval 37
Behavioral Mapping 38
Comparison Methods 60
Rating Methods 70
Visual Preference Methods 83
Checklists 89
Summary 89
3 Methods of Transforming Design
Information 93
Design Procedures and Methods 94
Systematic Design 94
Pattern Language 98
The A ctivity Analysis 99
The Performance Concept 110
Building Performance System 113
Morphological Approach 125
4 Applications of Programs 129
PAK (Planning Aid Kit) 129
Computers in Architectural Programming 132
Analytic Space Programming 143
Learning Environments Program 148
Participatory Games 167
References 174
Conclusion 175
Bibliography 177
Index 179 x/
Methods of
Architectural
Programming
1 THE ROOTS OF PROGRAMMING
The architect's concern about the built environ

ment is prim arily for the accommodation of people:
the people who use it, build it, design it, pay for it,
Preconditions and are directly affected by it. Clearly, when we
discuss the people, their behavior, and their purposes
to Programming as they relate to the built environment, we are bound

to engage in conflicts, which is the very stuff of de
sign decisions. The successful resolution of conflicts
is based on a clear understanding of people's objec
tives and the methods of establishing priorities for
making decisions; thus the recognition and under
standing of people's needs and people's behavior is
a prerequisite to the form ulation of goals for a build
ing program (and, moreover, a recognition that
people are goal oriented and are trying to achieve
some end). The architect, then, is the facilitator of
the means by which the environment can flex and
change to accommodate people's desires. All people,
too, are architects to some degree, since they are al
ways involved in manipulating their own environ
ment. This constant alteration and modification,
sometimes referred to as homeostasis, is the continual
and growing need fo r a balance between people and
their environment. This is an iterative process, in that
people alter their environment and are in turn in flu
enced by the environmental change. The d iffic u lty
occurs when there is a state of disequilibrium be
tween people and their surrounding environment. The
consequences are usually dissatisfaction and corre
sponding malfunction.
It is a long-standing tradition that initial client
contacts and program form ulation, however defined,
are the domain of the seasoned architect. This heri
tage is rooted in the need for collective bargaining
techniques, including those characteristics of firmness
and judgment, the principle ingredients o f long-term
experience. Although it is not w ithin the province of
this book to argue against tradition, it is fair game to
question the effectiveness of "playing it by ear"
methods in favor of goal-oriented, client-user-archi
tect interactions. It has also been the experience of 1
2 Preconditions to Programming
numerous professional designers that the initial phase to Descartes that is comparable to the beginnings of
of the design process is the key link to pro fit or loss, intellectual culture in ancient Greece. Descartes was
the area in which most of the ambiguity and contra not an advocate of reform in general but only reform
diction in the profession lies. This part of the process of his own ideas. In fact, he often stated that his
has been veiled in mystery, unobservable, yet inex decision to abandon all his preconceived notions was
tricably linked to success. not an example for all to follow . Descartes did, how
The last decade has been a period of marked aware ever, believe in a set of precepts, o f which he argued,
ness of the potential contributions from the manage logic is composed. They can best be described as the
ment and social sciences to the design professions. If rules of method and are as follows:
those relevant tools and techniques become part of
the designer's mode of operation, substantial changes The first rule was never to accept anything as true
in professional practice w ill be imminent. " I t may unless I recognize it to be evidently such: that is, carefully
to avoid precipitation and prejudgment, and to include
well be that what we have hitherto understood as
nothing in my conclusions unless it presents itself so
architecture, and what we are beginning to under clearly and distinctly to my mind that there is no reason
stand of technology, are incompatible disciplines. The to doubt it.
architect who proposes to run with technology knows
that he is in fast company, and that in order to keep The second was to divide each of the difficulties which
I encountered into as many parts as possible, and as m ight
up he may have to discard his whole cultural load, in
be required fo r an easier sol Jtion.
cluding the professional garments by which he is
recognized as an architect. If, on the other hand, he The third was to think in an orderly fashion, beginning
decides not to do this, he may find that a technolog with the things which were simplest and easiest to under
ical culture has decided to go on w ithout h im ."1 stand, and gradually, and by degrees, reaching towards
Technology is best defined by Donald Schon as "any more complex knowledge, even treating as though ordered,
materials which are not necessarily so.
tool or technique, any product or process, any phys
ical equipment or method of doing or making, by The last was always to make enumerations so complete
which human capability is extended."2 The sub and reviews so general that I would be certain that noth
stance o f this book, in part, is devoted to expanding ing was omitted.4
the technological resources of the design profession.
This book is also about good sense—since that is Descartes believed that the conscious awareness of
the one endowment abundantly provided and assumed those few precepts premitted him to solve many
to be equitably divided. Good sense or reason is problems that he had previously considered d ifficult.
argued to be the same in all people, yet differences in Those precepts were individual, yet direction-giving
opinion are not due to differences in intelligence but commitments, dealing with important issues. Whether
to the fact that we use different approaches and we describe Descartes' precepts as the roots o f systems
consider different things. Rene Descartes, a seven theory or systematic thinking, he clearly articulated,
teenth-century philosopher, has stated that "those some 250 years ago, a decision-making process ame
who walk slowly can, if they follow the right path, go nable to design thinking. When we attempt to integrate
much further than those who run rapidly in the a more self-conscious approach to problem solving
wrong d irection."3 amid contemporary design concerns, we require a
It is generally agreed that Rene Descartes is con new technology to permit us to achieve an acceptable
sidered the first, most important philosopher of our level of competence.
times. If we add to this the common belief that In the world of design today, there are increasingly
philosophy points to the way to development in more complex operations to be performed and a large
other fields, it is evident that we ascribe an importance body of information to be gathered. In order for the
The Program 3
design professions to cope with new and unprecidented The sequence of phases of a design project, be-
change, many modifications will be required in the ginning with a program, includes preliminary design,
nature and performance of design tasks. A self-evalu- production, construction, and postcompletion evalu-
ation is necessary with a resulting change in the "view ation (see Figure 1). This morphology outlines the
of design." phases that a design project usually goes through and
Our increasing recognition of the relatedness of is initiated when there is agreement to take action on
architecture to its contextual environment, of the a problem. Although there may be many interpreta-
need to incorporate the user as a vital ingredient tions, elaborations, and variations, it is generally
toward change, and of the multidisciplinary and thought of as a sequence of phases, and sometimes it
multieffect of the built environment is the begin- is referred to as the design process.
ning of a rationale for more order in the organiza- It is necessary to distinguish this phased sequence
ti on and more organization in the process. Ouite of activities from those discussed in this book. The
simply, we need to program-and that is a matter of basic ingredient for sorting conflicts and decision
good sense. making is the problem-solving process, which has its
roots in stimulating the development of a program.
Obviously the hints suggested for successful problem
THEPROGRAM solving are useful for other stages in project develop-
ment, as weil as the wide range of complex decisions
The concept of programming can fit into the com- people make daily; however, the discussion of prob-
plex net of designing, with its myriad of inextricably lem solving as described in the following section is in
linked processes. The program is the first sequence of relation to the effective development of the design
phases, the results of which ultimately effect some program.
type of physical change in the environment. This The flow diagram in Figure 1 clearly reveals the
change can take the form of an addition to a new or inextricable connection between the program and
recycled building, a plan for the use of interior or ex- postcompletion evaluation as the two important
terior space, or other environmental modifications phases that complete the project design cycle. Since
that require systematic forethought prior to pro- the program phase is the primary source of input
ceeding with action. into the subsequent design phases, it can be hypoth-
IPROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
Alternative jfeveloPL'lentl lJevelop Develop Materials. Construct or Post-Completion
Design of best Drawings for and Specifications Manufacture Evaluation of
Solutians Alternative Production for Production Product Product
PRELIMINARY DESIGN PRODUCnON PHASE CONSTRUcnON EVALUATION

PHASE PHASE PHASE
Problem Identification J
Information Collection
rlnformation Organization
Figure 1
Phases of a design project.
esized that the quality of the program has a direct of a book of instructions for competing architects as
impact on the quality of the designed product. early as 1862. Although competitions for public
Since the best interests of the design world evolve buildings were presented as far back as 1819 (for a
around quality to improve the condition of people, new general post office), submissions were deemed
then knowledge about the development of the pro inadequate, and the work was given to an architect
gram can have a marked effect on the quality of the in the Office of Works. Generally, the outcome of
designed product. competitions had proven to be unsatisfactory. With
A program is a communicable statement of intent. this vast background of competion results, clear
It is a prescription for a desired set of events in flu precautions had to be taken to prevent the recur
enced by local constraints, and it states a set of de rence of such fiascos. The first step was the com
sired conditions and the methods for achieving those missioners' elaborate inquiry into what was needed.
conditions. In 1865, instructions for competing architects were
The program is also a formal communication be published. They provided for the following:
tween designer and client in order to determine that
the client's needs and values are clearly stated and The existing courts were also made available for in
understood. It provides a method for decision making spection. They [architects] were warned that "the
and a rationale for future decisions. It encourages arrangement of the Courts and Offices is of vital mo
greater client participation, as well as user feedback. ment; on it mainly depends the success of failure of the
concentration, and its importance cannot be overesti
The program also serves as a log, a memory, and a set
mated" Light and quiet were major considerations and
of conditions that are amenable to postconstruction were to be indicated for each room on a three-point scale.
evaluation. Speaking tubes, telegraphic communications throughout
The program conveys current information on the the building, shoots for papers and lifts "for large models
progress of the project and its various stages of devel to be produced in Court, and for infirm persons" were
to be provided. Refreshment rooms for judges, officers of
opment. Frequently it is perceived as an organizing
the courts, clerks, the Bar and attorneys should be en
procedure fo r codifying and classifying numerous bits tirely separate from those jurors and witnesses, and first
of project information, sometimes misused, often and second class must be provided. Bridges were required
forgotten. In sum, it is an operating procedure for on the site of Temple Bar and over Carey Street to
systematizing the design process. It provides an or Lincoln's Inn—the latter preferably low, to discourage
traffic. The chief points constantly to be kept in view,
ganizational structure for the design team and a clear,
"to be treated as superseding so far as they may conflict,
communicable set of conditions for review by those all considerations of architectural effect, are the accom
affected by its implementation. modation to be provided and the arrangements to be
The program is not new to the world of architec adopted so as in the greatest degree to facilitate the dis
ture. Actually, evidence indicates that is has been patch and the accurate transaction of the law business of
the country".5
used for more than a century, since an architectural
competition was held for building new courts of
justice in London. Prior to that, courts were built and
found to be inadequate from the start. As judicial DESIGN PROBLEM SOLVING
business increased and the establishment of a profes
sional organization, the legal society, occurred, a The approach to design programming that is im
strong campaign was mounted for centralization of plicit in this book might appear to be negative in that
courts of law. With the establishment of a Commission many of the strategies proposed are error correcting.
of Works, plans were underway for the development While the intention of the suggestions for dealing
Design Problem Solving 5
w ith complex problems is a liberating one, the prem closest we can come to description are the broad
ise is clearly based on a history of problems and categories of "analysis," wherein lies the problem;
blockages faced by many designers in executing their "synthesis" of possible solutions; and "evaluation,"
daily problem-solving activities. of which solution is most acceptable for imple
Many reasons for the difficulties that designers mentation.
often confront stem from the m ultiplicity of pro Problem solving can be described in terms of a set
cesses necessary to work through a problem. The of strategies, which can increase an individual's ability
comprehension of these processes and the strategies to solve problems.
appropriate for minimizing errors, then, is the prov A problem is perceived as a state of co nflict that
ince of this book. needs to be resolved. Problem-solving literature has
The natural inclination in problem solving is to been stated in both positive and negative terms. The
select the first solution generated for further devel positive method is often referred to as creative
opment. Clearly, the disadvantage of this approach is thinking, while the negative approach is called remov
that the first solution forecloses other possibilites, and ing conceptual blocks. Both viewpoints, however,
it may not be the best solution after all. The strategy lead toward the development of methods and strat
for maximizing the performance of each individual's egies for solving problems. There are numerous
abilities is to select the best alternative solution from strategies for eliminating conceptual blocks and
a wide range of conceptual possibilities. There are thinking creatively. They are conscious methods that
often obstacles that prevent the designer from seeing can influence the problem-solving process. First it is
the problem itself or the information necessary to necessary to outline the stages that frequently occur
solve the problem. in the problem-solving process.7 Each stage in itself
Before identifying and evaluating programming is a process, which is diagrammed in Figure 2.
strategies, it is necessary to first establish certain Perception is a selection process that is learned and
preconditions, which are based purely on common developed. It is also an ability to see and become
sense. Mathematician G. Polya describes these pre aware. In order to begin consciously to be aware and
conditions succinctly in his book How To Solve It 6 develop a better understanding of sensory patterns,
There are many appropriate questions that can be follow the key strategies developed in the matrix.
posed to find something unknown and similarly Definition is to state what is known about a prob
certain strategies that w ill generally be useful in lem in a precise way. Clearly, in order to make a
solving a problem. These strategies suggest a certain statement of some accuracy already requires insight
conduct, a style of problem solving that, Polya and understanding of the problem. The definition of
argues, comes naturally to anyone who is seriously the problem requires the establishment of boundaries
concerned with the problem and is endowed with or limits beyond which no solution is acceptable. This
common sense. Recognizing that this behavior is solution space, then, is the arene of possibilities w ithin
often subconscious and infrequently articulated, which the solution must lie. Defining a problem
we w ill attempt to describe those internal processes requires the recognition of constraints, descriptions,
that have aided successful problem solvers. and assumptions, as well as values describing the
Many attempts at describing the activity of prob limits of acceptability.
lem solving, however, are too often ambiguous. We Analysis is the way in which the problem is dis
are all familiar with this activity and discuss prob aggregated into manageable parts. For problems of
lem solving frequently, but because it is so unsystem unusual complexity, specific techniques or methods
atic, there are no technical terms to describe it. The are appropriate fo r breaking the problem down into
FLUENCY
PLANNING
AND FLEXIßILITY EVALUATION SYNTHESIS
PREDICTION
ORIGINALITY
Figure 2
tractable parts. These analytic tools permit the man- It is quite normal for individuals to 6X
agement of complex and dynamic problems. obstacles or mental blocks during each of tl
Planning and prediction are linked activities that of the problem-solving process. A simple y,
require advanced thinking about the problem and the tive strategy for removing those blocks is th·
consequences of certain courses of action. manipulative verbs. Aseries of polar oppcr.
Alternative generation is also basic to the problem- were selected for their applicability to
solving process. In seeking the most creative solutions mind stretching or block busting. The
to problems, three basic ingredients provide the Figure 3 lists the verb pairs as weil as their ai'
foundation for alternative generation. The first is fit with the stages of the problem-solvin'
fluency, which is the ability to produce ideas from When the flow of ideas ceases, it may be ac:
one class of information. The second is fexibility, review these verbal strategies and select fo
the ability to move between different points of view ti on those concepts that may aid in reIT
in the search for ideas. The third is originality, which obstacles.
is the ability to make basic transformations on infor-
mation once it has been recalled.
Evaluation, critical judgement based on a set of
values or criteria, is a critical link in the problem- COLLECTIVE DECISIONS: GROUP PROCESSES
solving cycle. Although it is advisble to defer judg-
ment as long as possible, it is necessary to make In the previous section we examined methods that
explicit the values and standards that form the basis an individual can incorporate into a personal reper-
of an evaluation. toire for removing mental blocks and stimulating the
Synthesis is the integrative phase where all the development of creative ideas. As designers confront
parts come together to shape a solution. In most situations requiring groups of people to identify
instances the assembly of the parts of the solution problems and make decisions, it is only logical that
brings these parts into conflict with each other, similar aids can be utilized to facilitate group activ-
requiring the synthesis phase to be one of constant ities. The composition and purpose of groups can
balancing. vary from a multidisciplinary problem-solving focus
to a client-designer review to a designer-user infor
P L A N N IN G & P R E D IC T IO N
CO
mation-seeking purpose. CO
>-
_l
The nature of this expansion from the individual <
z
problem solver to the group is an outgrowth of the <
o6 >-
E V A L U A T IO N
>
need for wider fields or reference with distinct areas of
P E R C E P T IO N
z i-
S Y N T H E S IS
o _i
_j
FLUENCY
expertise that can be directed to solve those problems H
m
<
z
Z
X o
that do not respect traditional academic or profes L i.
LU
LU
_ l oc
o LL o
sional boundaries. Group processes contain the
A B S T R A C T - C O N C R E T IZ E
unique advantage of facilitating learning through the
A D A P T -S U B S T IT U T E
transfer of expertise between participants. It is this A D D -S U B T R A C T
experiential change that is the very dynamic of A N A L O G Y -B R A IN S T O R M
learning. A N A L Y Z E -S Y N T H E S IZ E
A S S U M E - Q U E S T IO N
Collective decision making is a set of operations in
C H A N G E -V A R Y
which actions of some individuals have consequences C O M B IN E - S E P A R A T E
for others because their actions are interdependent. C O M P A R E -R E L A T E
Research into group behavior and creative problem C O N C E N T R A T E -D IS P E R S E
solving has helped to develop principles of social C O N S C IO U S -U N C O N S C IO U S
C Y C L E -R E P E A T
interaction that subsequently have been incorporated
D E F IN E -S Y M B O L IZ E
into various types of group problem-solving situations. D IA G R A M -C H A R T
Many of the group behavior principles center around D IS P L A Y -O R G A N IZ E
the development of group loyalty, the cohesion of D IV ID E - M U L T IP L Y
groups as a function of outside threats, and the D R E A M -IM A G IN E
E V A L U A T E -D E F E R
impact of shared responsibility for a decision on the
E X P E R IE N C E -R E C A L L
kind of decision that w ill be made.8 F O R C E -R E L A X
A social system of any size or complexity can be IN C R E A S E - D E C R E A S E
understood if the small face-to-face group is considered IN C U B A T E - P U R G E
IN T U IT -R A T IO N A L IZ E
a major component of it. Similarly, the small group
IN V O L V E -D E T A C H
is analogous to a complex social system, enabling us
L E A R N -T E A C H
to learn more by placing the small group in an envi L IS T -C H E C K
ronment similar to the social system to be studied M O T IV A T E -P R A C T IC E
with similar resources and tasks. O P T IM IZ E - M IN IM IZ E
P L A N -P R E D IC T
Since our rational decision making occurs in social
R E C O R D -R E T R IE V E
groups or organizations, Herbert Simon states, "O r S E A R C H -S E L E C T
ganizations are the least natural and most rationally S IM U L A T E - T E S T
contrived units of human association. It is only be S T A R T -S T O P
cause individual human beings are limited in knowl S Y S T E M IZ E -R A N D O M IZ E
T R A N S F O R M -M A N IP U L A T E
edge, foresight, skill, and time that organizations are
V E R B A L IZ E -V IS U A L IZ E
useful instruments for the achievement of human W O R K F O R W A R D S -W O R K B A C K W A R D S
purpose; and it is only because organized groups of W O R K IN -W O R K O U T
human beings are limited in ability to agree on goals,

to communicate, and to cooperate that organizing Figure 3
Best application o f strategies.
becomes for them a problem ."9
A SHORT GLOSSARY OF STRATEGIES
ABSTRACT: To remove from the context of a specific reality, to reduce to basic principles, to put in the most general
terms, to express as simply as possible, to widen the scope of the problem. Abstraction encourages an overview of the prob
lem by thinking in terms of principles, processes, and general directions. Abstracting allows one to try new combinations of
ideas without being tied down to particulars.
C O NCRETIZE: To make specific, to state in real terms, to illustrate by a particular set of conditions. Concretization is a
good way to push ideas to their limit, to test them by specifying all their parts or by demonstrating their feasibility through
reference to existing situations.
AD A P T: To modify, to make fit the situation; to make a slight change for a new purpose. Adaptation is a principal strategy
for generating a new solution by making relatively small changes in an existing idea or object to serve in a new situation.
SUB STITU TE: To put in place of another, to exchange, to replace, to find something else that could do the job. Sub
stitution resolves the problem by locating critical elements and replacing them with new processes or parts often drawn
from other fields.
A D D : To join or unite, to build up, to grow by induction. Addition is the process of growth and development of a solution
by expansion incrementally in terms of individual elements or subsolutions. Additive growth is a common strategy for
updating old solutions.
SUBTRACT: To take away by deducting, to reduce by elimination, to deduct, to simplify. Subtraction is a way of arriving
at a solution by beginning with more than you need of material, processes, or ideas, and then progressively getting rid of
what is not essential, as in carving out a sculpture or editing a manuscript.
A N A L O G Y : Resemblance in some particulars between things otherwise unlike, correspondence in function between
anatomical parts of different structure and origin, an example from a different field. To look for an analogous problem
and to examine its solutions for relevance is a good way to seek new ideas and to break away from fixations. In the syn-
ectics procedure three types of analogy are defined (direct, personal, and symbolic), and they are used to make an "excur
sion” away from the problem in order to come back at it from a new context through the process of "force-fitting."
B R A IN S TO R M : Brainstorming is a process that can be used individually or in groups to come up with a quantity of
alternatives by spontaneously generating ideas and by deferring judgment on them. All ideas should be recorded.
A N A L Y Z E : To study or determine the nature and relationship of the parts, to separate into component parts, to break
down and study in smaller problems. Analysis can be considered an essential phase in problem solving and, as such, employs
many of the other strategies.
SY N TH E SIZE: To compose or combine parts or elements so as to form a whole, to resolve diverse conceptions into a
coherent whole, to integrate. Synthesis is the process of building back up to a solution after the problem has been analyzed
and alternatives generated. It is a phase of problem solving that incorporates many of the other strategies.
ASSUME: To take for granted or true, to suppose, to accept conditionally in order to proceed to another step. Assuming
is a strategy for testing a potential solution to a problem by leaping over immediate uncertainties by ignoring them or
fixing their values in order to investigate the consequences—an essential process in prediction and evaluation.
Q UESTIO N: To doubt, to dispute, to inquire, to challenge concerning validity. Questioning all aspects of a problem, in
cluding your own solutions, is an essential strategy in problem solving. Self-questioning helps sustain an internal dialogue
that can keep you thinking flexibly.
CHANGE: To make different in some particular, to give a different position, course or direction to, to move to another,
to replace with another. Changing is a strategy for using other strategies. Changing approach or media is a way of reacting
to developments in problem solving by shifting attack to become more effective; it involves awareness and flexibility in
thinking.
VA R Y : To make a partial change in, to make different in some attribute or characteristic, to change a part in order to test
its influence on the whole. Variation can be algorithmic, heuristic, or random. Variation induces change in order to invest!-
gate the relationship of factors in a problem (for example, systematically changing the dial on a lock to find the com
bination).
C O M B I N E : To bring into close relationship, to unite, to act together, to form a solution from several different parts.
Combining and recombining are processes of simplification and synthesis: several different elements come together to
produce totally new entities, as in chemistry.
S E P A R A T E : To make a distinction between, to divide, to sort, to break up into elements, to keep different things apart.
Separating is a process of breaking apart a problem and dealing with different issues at different times. This clarifies the
situation and concentrates energy on a limited field. Separating can be used to remove elements from context in order to
study them more closely.
CO M PARE: To represent as similar, to examine the character or qualities of, to discover resemblances or differences, to
put side by side. Comparing is a strategy for examining two or more things aspect by aspect, checking for similarities and
differences in terms of attributes or functions. Comparison is used generally to make a selection or to analyze through
contrast.
R E L A T E : To show or establish logical or causal connection between, to develop a mathematic or symbolic equation that
expresses how two or more elements affect each other, to make relationships. To relate is to find the force or theory that
governs how two elements or variables behave with respect to each other. It is a critical strategy for understanding a prob
lem and for developing a hypothesis or solution.
C O N C E N T R A T E : To bring or direct toward a common center or objective, to gather into one body, mass, or force, to
focus one's powers, efforts, or attentions. Concentrating in problem solving is a process of collecting and directing energy,
your own personal psychic energy and attention, on one aspect of the problem in order to make as much headway as possible.
D I S P E R S E : To cause to break up and go in different ways, to distribute more or less evenly throughout a medium, to
scatter. In problem solving dispersion is the process of letting your mind wander over the problem, not focusing on one
aspect, stopping only to probe but not to become entangled. Dispersion is a quick way to explore a problem and to balance
periods of concentration.
C O N S C I O U S : Perceiving, apprehending, or noticing with a degree of controlled thought or observation, marked by thought,
design, or perception; to be aware. To be conscious of mental processes in problem solving is an important ability to
develop for any degree of mental self-control.
U N C O N S C I O U S : Not knowing or perceiving, not aware, not consciously held or deliberately planned or carried out.
Unconscious or subconscious thought processing is a complement to conscious thought and can, in fact, to some extent be
purposefully directed. Strategies continue to operate subconsciously in spontaneous recall.
C Y C L E : To pass through an interval of time during which a sequence of a recurring succession of events or phenomena
is completed, to jump back and forth between several different strategies or points of view. Cycling is a process by which
simultaneity or totality of view can be approximated by alternating between many different strategies. Thus problem
solving can be seen as a heuristic or feedback process (concept formation, implementation, and evaluation).
R E P E A T : To make do, or perform again, to try again, to keep attacking a problem from the same point of view. Repeti
tion is important strategy for minimizing error and is basic to the process of learning in skill development. Many processes
can be successful only after several repetitions.
D E F IN E : To fix or mark the limits of, to determine the essential qualities or precise meaning of, to clearly express the
problem. Defining is one of the most critical processes in problem solving and can be considered a definite phase, incor
porating many other strategies. As the definition sets certain limits to the range of possible solutions, redefining as a
reiterative process can be used to widen or narrow the scope of the problem.
S Y M B O L I Z E : To represent, express, or identify by a symbol (something that stands for or suggests something else by
reason of relationship, association, convention, or accidental resemblance). Symbolizing alows you to represent or define
an element of a problem as abstractly as possible and then to manipulate it with respect to other elements, concentrating
only on relationships.
D IA G R A M : To explain in simple graphic language, to describe relationships in terms of graphic symbols, to abstract
graphically. Diagramming is the most fundamental way of recording ideas visually in two or three dimensions. It uses a
symbolic and nonrepresentational language to graphically express concepts in terms of relationships, sequences, and
simplified features.
C H ART: To represent the relationships between pieces of alphanumeric information graphically, to present sequences of
events in time diagrammatically. Charting is really a special case of diagramming, specifically as a method for planning and
scheduling sequences of events and activities by describing their relationships in graphic terms and then making projections
concerning estimated real time, costs, and so on.
D IS P LA Y : To spread before the view, to make visible, to present graphically. Displaying is one of the most powerful con
ceptual strategies related to perception and problem solving. Graphic display relieves the short-term memory function of
the human brain and allows information to be "remembered” simply by visually scanning. Its information density can be
high because it does not need to be read in a particular sequence.
O R G A N IZE: To arrange or form into a coherent unity or functioning whole, to make a pattern, to arrange elements into a
whole of interdependent parts, to structure, to order. Organizing is the process of reducing large quantities of complex
information into structures, often hierarchical in nature, that can be handled or remembered. To display and then to orga
nize visually is one of the most powerful strategies in problem solving.
D IV ID E : To separate into two or more parts, areas, or groups, todistribute,apportion,or allocate, todivide mathematically.
Dividing in problem solving is the process of allocating some precious resource—like time, energy, or space—in some pro
portion to some scale of values. It is an important strategy in planning and scheduling.
M U L T IP L Y : To increase in number greatly or in multiples, to augment, to propagate, to multiply mathematically. In
problem solving multiplying is the process of augmenting whatever you have in the way of product or process by increasing
its effectiveness through making it larger or more powerful. Man's power is augmented or multiplied through his technolog
ical artifacts.
D R E A M : To have vivid thoughts, images, or emotions during sleep, to observe subconscious mentation during periods of
lack of conscious intervention. Dreams can provide valuable understanding of how a problem is being treated subconsciously
and what your feelings and motivations are toward it, for it is only during sleep that your consciousness is turned off.
Dream thought can be a source of rich images, and the period of dreaming just before complete sleep, or hypogogic dream
ing, can actually be induced and can provide great insights into aspects of a problem.
IM A G IN E : To form a mental picture of (something not present), to form mental images, to visualize mentally. Imagining
is a powerful way of projecting yourself into hypothetical situations and mentally experiencing them. A developed
imagination can be a source of creative visions. Imagery can be used as a mental simulation of an experience or situation,
involving all the senses.
E V A L U A T E : To determine or fix the value of, to examine and judge, to estimate. Evaluation, like analysis and synthesis,
is really a metaheuristic and a phase of problem solving. Evaluating primarily involves testing against some standard of
values and comparing, making a selection. Evaluation is a critical step in the feedback loop in heuristic behavior.
DEFER : To put off, to postpone, to delay (in reference to evaluation or judgment). Deferring judgment or evaluation is an
important strategy during periods of alternative generation; it permits you to concentrate on "thinking up" ideas and not
worrying about their ultimate quality. Deferred judgment encourages a positive environment and attitude and prevents
budding ideas from being thrown out too soon.
EXPERIENCE: To consciously perceive or apprehend reality or an external, bodily, or psychic event, to directly partici
pate, to have or make an experience. Experiencing in this context means to become as intimately and directly involved
with the problem and the problem-solving process in order to have a rich source of information from which to draw. The
more intense the experience and the more senses it involves, the more likely you are to remember it and derive useful
information from it at a later date.
RECALL: To call back, to bring back to mind, to remember. Recalling or remembering is the basic process by which we
can learn and retrieve information from previous experiences and may in fact be similar to the original act of perception.
Many of these strategies can be used to aid recall, and the development of our powers of memory can be an invaluable help
in problem solving.
FORCE: To attain or to effect against resistance or inertia, to hasten the rate of progress or growth of, to make a great
effort to. Forcing as a strategy refers to pushing an issue in a problem as far as it can go in order to investigate its validity.
"Force fitting" is the process of trying to relate a seemingly unrelated idea to the problem in searching for new points of
view (see analogy and synectics). Forcing also refers to forcing oneself to continue to follow a given procedure, especially
in alternative generation, as we often give up too soon.
R E L A X : To make less tense or rigid, to become lax, weak, or loose, to seek rest or recreation. Relaxing is the process of
releasing mental and physical tension and is often essential for free and innovative thinking. Because of the strong relation
ship of mind to body, knowing how to physically relax is important, and you should seek a balance between tenseness and
total collapse and lack of attention.
INCREASE: To make greater, to enlarge, to exaggerate. Increasing refers here to exaggerating and making more definite
as in a feature of a design in order to make a stronger statement and to more easily detect and examine the effect of a
particular variable. It is the process of moving away from the neutral to the upper limit.
DECREASE: To cause to grow less, to reduce, to lessen, to diminish. Decreasing refers in this context to lessening the
effect of a particular variable in the problem, reducing it toward total elimination. Increase and decrease refer to the pro
cess of leveling and sharpening as described in cybernetics.
IN C U B A TE: To maintain under conditions favorable for hatching, development, or reaction, to cause to develop, to mull
over, to "sleep on it." Incubation has been recognized as a common phase in problem solving, and there is evidence that
strategies and plans continue to operate on the problem subconsciously during these periods, sometimes resulting in insight
or a sudden transformation.
PURGE: To get rid of, to eliminate, to get out of your system. Purging is the process of getting rid of immediate ideas and
preconceptions by expressing them and writing them down. Purging seems to result in a definite psychic release from the
strain of having to consider and remember something. You then feel free to explore other alternatives before evaluation.
IN T U IT : To immediately apprehend, to directly know or decide without rational thought and inference, to feel. Intuition
is a valuable process in problem solving as it is a spontaneous result of all your past experiences and may well include
factors that you have not consciously considered. Intuitive solutions are immediate responses to the problem and should
be listened to but not accepted unconditionally.
R A T IO N A L IZ E : To make conformable to rational principles, to substitute a natural for a supernatural explanation, to be
explicit and to try to understand, to justify. In problem solving rationalizing is the process of trying to explain as rationally
and explicitly as possible all ideas and actions. To do so you must try to become aware and self-conscious of what you are
doing in order to communicate your reasons behind decisions to others.
IN VOL VE: To enfold or envelop so as to encumber, to draw in as a participant, to occupy absorbingly. Total involvement
with a problem means to eat, sleep, and dream about it, in effect to become the problem. Periods of this kind of total
absorption and empathy can be very productive because everything you experience becomes related to the problem, and
chance happenings can lead to new insights. Involvement can be initiated by simply leaping in and getting "your feet wet".
D ETA C H : To separate from a larger mass, to disentangle, to withdraw. Detachment from a problem is a useful way to get
away from it and see it in perspective. Detachment enhances incubation and also removes you from overweighted priorities
and considerations.
LE A R N : To gain knowledge or understanding of or skill in by study, instruction, or experience, to come to realize, to

discover. Learning in problem solving means to be aware of strategies and to constantly look for new ones. To learn a
strategy, you must perceive it, understand it conceptually, and then apply it in many different problem contexts. Over
learning is the process of practicing something so many times it becomes a skill.
TEACH: To cause to know, to instruct by precept, example, or experience, to educate. Teaching problem-solving abilities
to yourself or to others is a strategy for improvement and should involve a conceptual understanding of the nature of
problem solving, a knowledge of the individual strategies, and experience of using these heuristics successfully in many
different kinds of problems.
L IS T: To put down, to enumerate, to record in abbreviated form. Listing is the simplest strategy for recording ideas, num
bers, and other items of information, writing them down one after another. Once pieces of information have been recorded
in a list, they can later be recalled, organized, or evaluated. A list is the easiest form of graphic display to search.
CHECK: To compare with a source, original, or authority, to verify, to review. Checking in problem solving refers especially
to the process of making and using checklists, reminders of operations to perform, issues to consider, and spontaneous
ideas to include. Checking involves comparing what has been done with some statement of what should be done, and some
systematic procedures can avoid great errors and lost time in dealing with complicated problems.
M O T IV A T E : To offer incentive, to induce, to entice, to encourage to do something. Motivation and desire to solve in
problem solving are critical factors, and it is good to develop ways of enticing yourself and other to plow through the more
laborious phases of problem solving. You must want to solve a problem. You can overcome the initial fear of the unknown
and possible failure often by simply leaping in and getting started.
PRACTICE: To perform or work at repeatedly so as to become proficient, to train by repeated exercise, to perform often,
customarily, or habitually. Practice is a principal strategy for learning a process or skill through repeatedly performing it,
ideally in a variety of situations, and thus developing a generalized cognitive structure, pattern of behavior, or conditioned
response.
O PTIM IZE: To make as perfect, effective, or functional as possible (given some criteria). Optimization is the process of
adjusting a set of variables so that the result is the best according to some scale of values. Where these variables can be
mathematically defined, a simulation model can be developed, and in these cases there are some well-defined systematic
tachniques for finding the optimum. The question to ask is whether the optimization of this particular set of variables
leads to the optimum solution of the total problem.
M IN IM IZ E : To reduce to the least quantity assignable, admissible, or possible. Minimization is the opposite of optimization
and is a strategy for dealing with variables that cannot be eliminated but can be reduced in a problem. With interdependent
variables, the minimum value of one variable may not represent the minimum of the function of all the variables. The same
set of systems techniques is available as for optimization.
PLAN: To devise or project the realization or achievement of, to develop a procedure for doing something. Planning in
problem solving is the process of putting together these strategies into a program for attacking a problem. Planning involves
thinking ahead, and plans may be no more than a set of intentions. The structure of plans has been discovered to be
generally hierarchical.
PREDICT: To declare in advance, to foretell on the basis of observation, experience, or scientific reason, to anticipate, to
think in the future. Predicting is a critical strategy in evaluating the effects of an alternative and involves understanding the
problem situation enough to foresee the effects of possible changes. The ability to anticipate and project is distinctly
different from being able to react to an immediate problem. Simulation techniques are often useful.
RECORD: To set down in writing, to register permanently, to copy in a retrievable form. Recording is the equivalent
process in the external world to experiencing and memorizing in the human mind. A record is a permanent copy or image
that can be recalled by searching and does not have the same limitations and susceptibility to change as information in the
brain. There is theoretically no limit to the amount of information that can be recorded.
R E T R IE V E : To discover and bring back, to locate and return, to access. Information retrieval is the equivalent to remem
bering and involves mainly search strategies. The great problem in information retrieval is the method of labeling and
accessing, which ideally should have the same characteristics of cross-referencing and association as the human mind.
SEARCH: To look into or over carefully or thoroughly in an effort to find or discover something, to look for, to try to
locate. Searching may well be the common denominator of all strategies. Problem solving may be defined generally as
searching for a solution, and there are algorithmic, heuristic, and random methods.
SELECT: To take by preference from a number or group, to pick out, to choose. Selecting involves inspecting a number of
alternatives, evaluating, and then actually choosing one (or possibly several). But it is the act of closure and selection, even
if arbitrary, that is essential in order to proceed with dependent operations. It is the issue of commitment that makes
selecting a difficult but important process to master.
S IM U L A T E : To give the appearance or effect of, to develop a model, to translate into other terms or media. Simulation is
the process of developing a model of the problem situation on which you can test alternative solutions and prdict out
comes. Models can range from simple cardboard models of a building (iconic) to sophisticated computer models of trans
portation networks (symbolic). In a sense a model is an image or representation of reality and should behave analogously,
in some way like its real counterpart. At least a crude kind of representation may be necessary in most problem solving.
TEST: To try, to experiment, to verify, to compare. Testing is basically the process of performing an operation on some
thing and then comparing the results against some standard of expectation. The test phase can be considered the comparison
stage before evaluation and forms a critical link in the feedback loop in heuristic behavior.
S T A R T : To perform the first stages or actions of, to cause to move, act, or operate, to begin. Starting in problem solving
is the act of initiating a process. While it may seem to be a simple concept, the sense of when to start and what to start and
the courage to actually start is a constantly troublesome issue.
STOP: To discontinue, to cease, to desist. Stopping in problem solving is the strategy of constantly checking to see if you
should stop a particular approach and start another. The sense of when to give stop orders is another necessary issue in
problem solving; to stop too soon may mean failure, but not to stop may mean futile waste of time.
SY STEM IZE: To develop an organized procedure, to arrange methodologically, to make into a system. A systematic strat
egy in problem solving is a procedure that follows a given set of steps and can guarantee to completely search a set of alter
natives. It is generally algorithmic in nature, rigid, and often lengthy to implement, but it does not involve much risk.
R A N D O M IZE : To arrange tests, samples, and other factors so as to simulate a chance distribution, to proceed without a
plan and by chance. Radomization is a strategy to reduce systematic errors in a procedure. In this sense it can be used to
overcome fixation by randomly selecting a piece of information and trying to "force fit" it into relevance to the problem,
or what has been called lateral thinking. Randomness induces chance, and chance has played a large role in the history
of invention.
TRANSFO RM : To change in composition or structure, to change in character or condition, to make go from one state into
another. Transformations are operations or rules governing change from one state or position into another. In a sense, all
strategies can be considered transformations on the problem state. Transformations can convert information into new or
original forms.
M A N IP U L A TE : To treat or operate with the hands or by mechanical means, to move around, to change position. Manipu
lation in problem solving is a particular set of transformations that pertain to the changing of physical position or relation
ship of entities, especially symbols. Manipulating can become a heuristic strategy when followed by an evaluation after
each change, and, as such, accounts for a large percentage of trial-and-error procedures in literary and graphic composition.
VE R B A L IZ E : To express in words, to describe verbally. Verbalizing is the process of explaining something in words, and
in doing so can be considered a strategy for forcing yourself to be explicit. Verbal communication is the most common
medium in a highly literate society.
V IS U A LIZ E : To make visual, to see or form a mental image, to describe graphically. Visualization is a process of seeing
or describing things in terms of perceptual images and is a very powerful, dense, and often underdeveloped ability. Where
physical relationships and aspects of design are to be studied or communicated, visualizing is a necessity.
WORK FORW ARDS: To proceed conceptually from where you are to where you are going, from the problem to the
solution, to work inductively. Working forwards seems so obvious at first that we forget that there are other basic strategies.
Induction is basic to the scientific method and is required to build a logically watertight argument.
WORK BACKWARDS: To . . ., go from the solution state back to the problem state conceptually, to work deductively.
Working backwards is a powerful strategy when you know roughly what the solution should be but do not know how to
get there. Working backwards can be used in conjunction with working forwards to narrow the difference between the
problem state and the solution state until the gap is conceptually bridged.
WORK IN : To close in from outside, to narrow the scope, to limit. Working in is the strategy behind linear programming
or the limiting of solution space by examining constraints. Often you know more about what is not the solution than what
is and thus can dramatically limit the range of possibilities by considering first what you know cannot solve the problem.
WORK O UT: To develop incrementally, to grow, to proceed form a core and move out. Working out as a strategy in
problem solving involves starting with what you know must exist and slowly building on that. It is extremely useful in
complex situations and can provide a first foothold on the problem.
In spite o f what seems a logical and apparent ob ence the situation. A role includes not only a formal
servation that decision making occurs most frequently job description but also the informal understandings,
in groups, most models of decision making assume agreements, expectations and arrangements with
the decision maker to be operating as a single indi others that influence interpersonal relationships.
vidual. In order to effect practical application, how The outcome for the participants includes the stimu
ever, methods must concern themselves w ith several lation of new attitudes about the situation, them
individuals having conflicting interests. This section selves, and other people and the ability to illustrate
w ill describe five group decison-making strategies: and discuss specific behaviors that influence the
role playing, brainstorming, synectics, buzz sessions, situation under observation.
and discussion groups. The first step in the role-playing process is role
negotiation to clarify each participant's role assign
ment, his relationship to each other, and his expec
Role Playing tation from other members. Participants should
feel comfortable with their role assignments and
Role playing is a powerful group participation must adhere to those roles.
strategy that can be used by designers to simulate It is desirable to have the role-playing situation
client or user group situations for training or infor observed and the results reported back to the group
mational purposes. It is a method for creating for further discussion. This follow-up is necessary to
responses to particular situations to provide the aid the participants in their interpretation and appli
designer with better insights into the behavior of a cation of the outcome.
selected population. It can be used as an in-house
method for increasing the designer's awareness and
sensitivity to other members of the organization. It Brainstorming
is also effective when time and financial constraints
permit only a brief but intensive exposure to a Brainstorming is a group facilitation session used
user population. to develop an inventory of ideas. It is desirable that
Role playing is an enactment of a situation, either the participants have some expertise pertaining to
fictional or real, where one or more people assume the problem situation. Participants can be designers
designated roles in relation to a particular problem seeking a fresh way at looking at their problem or a
in a specific situation. It is an unrehearsed drama group of individuals with some expertise in the
that forces the actors or participants to project into domain of the problem under observation.
that situation and consider all the factors that influ Brainstorming is an idea-generating group activity
that involves oral expression with particular con tion of diverse individuals into a problem-solving
straints on discussion, analysis, or criticism. The group.
underlying rationale for brainstorming is that each The premise underlying synectics theory is that
individual taking part in the discussion receives ideas creative efficiency in people can be markedly in
and can originate them. Ideas are encouraged to flow creased if they understand the psychological processes
w itho ut form ality to minimize the resistance of the by which they operate. Since the major effective
individuals to participating in order to provide a components of creative processes are subconscious,
favorable atmosphere for the synthesis of ideas. creative solutions to problems traditionally contain a
Unavoidably, when individuals feel free to respond, high incidence of accident. It is d iffic u lt to purposely
or their negative resistance is lowered, a great deal of repeat a process that is only subconsciously per
commonplace and possibly irrelevant and useless ceived. Synectics attempts to make explicitly con
information w ill be communicated. Any attempts to scious some subconscious mechanisms so that they
discriminate impose censorship on the group, result can be evoked when the need arises.
ing in individuals personally testing their ideas before In order to look at specific synectic operations,
transmitting them, which impedes spontaneity and it is helpful to understand that the process basically
innovativeness. Participants should be encouraged to involves making the strange familiar and making the
fantisize, which also minimizes judgments. The familiar strange. When confronting a problem-oriented
quantity of ideas, too, is important in that there is situation, the primary responsibility of the problem
a greater likelihood of quality with increased quantity. solvers or participants in the process is to under
This rapid-fire system of idea generating stimulates stand the problem. This is basically an analytic step
group enthusiasm and releases inhibitions. in which the participants become aware of the con
A group leader is important to encourage and sequences and ramifications of a problem while
stimulate the participants while avoidingdirectiveness. placing it into a context of known relationships and
All ideas should be recorded and presented to the acceptable patterns.
group in a feedback session to let the participants If only the analytical step is taken, the synectics
know how productive they have been. They also argument is that a novel solution would not be
expect some action to result from their ideas. possible. Novelty demands a fresh viewpoint. A new
way of looking at the problem increases the potential
for a new solution.
Synectics To make the familiar strange is to distort, invert,
or transpose the everyday ways of looking and
Synectics is an operational theory designed to responding, which render the world a secure and
increase the probability of success in problem-stating familiar place. It is a conscious attempt to achieve a
and problem-solving situations.10 The method is a new look at the same old w orld, people, ideas, feel
way of increasing the level of consciousness directed ings, and things. The following specific synectics
toward creativity, while the focus of all activity is mechanisms, which are metaphorical in character,
to arrive at a novel solution. w ill help make the familiar strange.
Synectics attempts to study creative processes in
motion while they are occurring, through nonrational, 1. Personal analogy is the identification w ith the
free-associative concepts. Based on the assumption elements of a problem by means of empathy as
that creative processes in humans are describable and well as first-person identification of facts and
ultim ately useful in effecting the creative output of emotions.
individuals, synectics theory applies to the integra 2. Direct analogy is a single comparison of two
concepts. In " A crab walks sideways like a recorder to keep brief notes for reporting and fu r
sneaky burgler," the subject of the analogy is ther analysis.
the first part of the comparison (“ the crab").
The analogue of the analogy is the thing to
which the subject is compared ("a burgler").
Discussion Groups
3. Symbolic analogy is an outgrowth of an em
phasis on the rational or scientific method
A discussion group is a small-group activity de
while the rest of the possible contributions of
signed for sharing knowledge among participants,
man tend to be disregarded.
stimulating the development of new attitudes, and
4. Fantasy analogy is where one assumes the best
arriving at well-considered decisions. The group size
possible of all solutions.
can vary from seven to fifteen people who consent to
Synectics holds that w itho ut the presence of these meet over a prolonged period of time. It is desirable
mechanisms, no problem-stating or problem-solving for the participants to have some diversity in knowl
attempt w ill be successful. The mechanisms are re edge and attitudes.
producible mental processes: tools to initiate the The group leader is a pivotal individual who
motion of the creative process and to sustain and requires training in techniques for leading discussions.
renew the motion. In the use of the mechanisms a It should not be assumed that informed, personable
willingness to operate on a nonrational basis is the individuals can effectively lead a group; highly in
basic requirement to successful functioning of a formed individuals may well inhibit group discussions.
synectics group. The ultimate solution to any given All participants in the group should be informed
problem w ill inadvertently be rational, but the of the purpose and proposed outcome of their
process is not. activities. Similarly, participants should be encour
aged to be open-minded in their assessment of ideas
discussed and seek consensus on all major issues.
Buzz Sessions Voting should be avoided since it usually reflects the
group's unpreparedness to reach consensus. Similarly,
For multidisciplinary or user groups to reach con tendencies that seek everyone participating should be
sensus, identify distinct points of view, or stimulate avoided. The discussion leader should exercise control
interest in a project, the buzz session is an appropriate by lim iting his or her own remarks and by creating an
atmosphere conducive to free interaction.
group activity. Groups are temporarily formed for the
A discussion group should not be organized to
purpose of discussing a specific topic. The primary
support a previously arrived at decision. Partici
interest of this type of group interaction session is
pants are generally aware of manipulative attempts by
the expression and critical analysis of ideas related to
group leaders and tend to function inefficiently.
the topic. The form ation of the group is to promote
an understanding of all viewpoints held by the par
ticipants, yet arrive at consensus on certain points.
When an issue has been identified by the group, The Auction
smaller subgroups of about five people can be formed
to discuss and analyze specific topics. These buzz- The conscious process of disclosing values about
groups should be given a time lim it and location to environmental concerns points to many decision
develop their ideas. A discussion leader is usually conflicts that require resolution. Value-based infor
appointed to facilitate interaction, along with a mation generally guides the direction and emphasis
Management by Objectives 17
of the design program. Any type of group decision- priorities and values is completed, the group is ready
making process inadvertently raises value-based issues to compete for items of value. The entire deck of
while conflict-resolving strategies frequently attempt cards is to be auctioned off, each to the highest
to expose and clarify the participants' values. This bidder. Only those items actually purchased by each
clarification concept can be most frequently imple participant are considered to fu lfill the requirements
mented during the goal-setting process as well as any of the purpose statement. The goal is to get as many
program stage that seeks to identify and sort out a high priorities on the value list as possible. Each
group's priorities. participant is evaluated on the number of weighted
There are numerous game strategies designed to cards from the initial list of ten that is bought at
examine values, ideals, and goals. Any attempts at auction and by the weighted value originally assigned
involving user groups in decision making must actively to them.
make users aware of their own feelings, their own Participants may bid only for those cards identified
ideas, and their own beliefs so that their choices and on their priority list. For each item won, participants
decisions are conscious, deliberate, and based on are credited with the number of priority points
personal value systems. originally set for the item irrespective of what is
One such game strategy is based on the principles actually paid at auction to win the bid.
and procedures of an auction. This is a highly theatri A review of individual scores, items selected, and
cal approach to group value clarification, particularly intensity of competition is an important measure of
since it relies upon a lively auctioneer to stimulate the worth of the items to each participant. This
the bidding process and encourage competitive strategy for clarifying personal values is particularly
bidding. effective when played with a heterogeneous popula
The procedure has four distinct stages: setting tion such as those found in health facilities projects
priorities; weighting priorities; bidding at auction; where administrators, physicians, nurses, staff, and
and discusssing results. The props should include an patients have different and conflicting needs that
introductory statement, a deck of option cards, and must be satisfied by one facility.
a priority ranking and weighting schedule. Opening It is important to be aware that a considerable
statements can be very general, such as, "What do amount of preparation time is necessary to develop
you want most for your com m unity?" or they can these materials, as well as to organize the appropriate
be specific statements pertaining to a building or a participants. Game props, including the issues, should
space planning problem. The option cards should be generated and even pretested prior to the formal
identify a wide range of possible choices, from the application of the auction.
most practical to the most utopian options. The While the auction has had limited past application
schedule is a recording sheet to note the choices and to design programming, it is sufficiently flexible and
priorities each participant makes. engaging and requires only imagination fo r an appro
A fter the introductory statement has been read, priate application.
each participant reviews the deck of option cards
and selects those he or she considers personally impor
tant. From this set, the participant selects the ten most MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
important cards and lists them in order of their impor
tance. Each participant is given 100 units of value to As designers expand the scope of their activities
distribute among the ten options. The units or to include programming, their organizational methods
weights are then assigned individually and recorded of management must change to accommodate these
on the schedule. Once this preparatory assignment of new activities. Management by objectives (MBO) is
Preconditions to Programming
Reyner Banham , Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, 2d ed. (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1967).
Donald Schon , Technology and Change (New York: Delacorte Press, 1967), p. 1.
René Descartes , Discourse on Medthods and Meditations, trans. Lawrence J. Lafleur (Indianapolis: Liberal Arts Press, 1960).
Ibid.
M. H. Port , “The New Law Courts Competition, 1866/67,” Architectural History 2 (1968).
G. Polya , How to Solve It (New York: Doubleday, Anchor Books, 1957).
The organizational framework and manipulative verbs have been adapted from the unpublished work of D. A. Straus and S. Van der
Ryn , Problem Solving Notebook, University of California at Berkeley, 1969.
John R. Raser , Simulation and Society (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1969), p. 46.
Herbert Simon , Models of Man (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1957), p. 199.
William J. J. Gordon , Synectics (New York: Collier Books, 1961).
Bruce Archer , “The Structure of the Design Process,” unpublished manuscript, 1968.
Information Retrieval Methods

Irwin Bross , Design for Decision (New York: The Free Press, 1953), p. 37.
See W. J. J. Gordon , Synectics (New York: Collier Books, 1961).
Bross , Design for Decision.
L. B. Archer , “An Overview of the Structure of the Design Process,” in Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning, ed.
G. Moore (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973).
H. A. Simon , Models of Man (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1957), p. 198.
H. Sanoff , S. Christie , D. Tester , and B. Vaupel , “Building Evaluation,” Build International 6 (May–June 1973): 261–297.
H. Sanoff , “Behavioral Settings in Residential Environments,” Journal of Architectural Education 25, no. 4. (1971): 95–97.
R. Barker , Ecological Psychology (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968).
H. Proshansky and B. Seidenberg , eds., Basic Studies in Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965).
E. Willems , “Place and Motivation: Independence and Complexity in Patient Behavior,” in EDRA-3: Proceedings from the 3rd Annual
Environmental Design Research Association Conference, ed. W. Mitchell (1972), 4.3.1–8.
G. Winkel and G. Hayward , “Some Major Causes of Congestion in Subway Stations,” unpublished manuscript, 1971.
R. Bechtel , “Human Movement in Architecture,” in Environmental Psychology, ed. H. Proshansky , W. Ittelson , and L. Rivlin (New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970), p. 642–6445
H. Sanoff and J. Dickerson , “Mapping Children’s Behavior in a Residential Setting,” Journal of Architectural Education 25 (1971):
98–103.
B. Wells , “The Psycho-social Influence of Building Environment: Sociometric Findings in Large and Small Office Spaces,” in People
and Buildings, ed. Robert Gutman (New York: Basic Books, 1972), pp. 93–118.
W. Moleski , “Environmental Programming for Offices Based on Behavioral Considerations,” in Proceedings of Conference:
Architecture for Human Behavior, ed. J. Lang , C. Burnette , and D. Vashon (Philadelphia: AIA, 1971), and W. Moleski and D.
Goodrich, “The enalysis of Behavioral Requirements in Office Settings,” in EDRA-3, ed. Mitchell, pp. 41–47.
L. Goldblatt , “Architecture, Prisons and People,” unpublished manuscript, 1972.
J. Moreno , Who Shall Survive? (New York: Beacon House, 1934).
Wells , “The Psycho-social Influence.”
J. Gullahorn , “Distance and Friendship as Factors in the Gross Interaction Matrix,” Sociometry 15 (1952): 123–134.
J. Adams , T. Alford , and T. Raper , “Environmental Planning Study,” unpublished manuscript, North Carolina State University, 1970.
Wells , “The Psycho-social Influence.”
S. Van der Ryn and M. Silverstein , Dorms at Berkeley: An Environmental Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).
A. Edwards , Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957).
By means of Table 1 in the appendix to ibid.
The ranking chart is described in Bruce Archer , “Systematic Method for Designers, Part Four: Examining the Evidence,” Design 179
(Nov, 1963): 68–72.
For a complete analysis and description of the Kendall coefficient of concordance, see S. Siegel , Non-Parametric Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956), p. 229.
R. Ackoff , The Design of Social Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953).
Ibid.
K. W. Norris , “A Morphological Approach to Engineering Design,” in Conference on Design Methods, ed. J. C. Jones and D. G.
Thornley (New York: Pergamon Press, 1963).
L. B. Archer , “An Overview of the Structure of the Design Process,” in Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning, ed.
G. Moore (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973); M. Riley, Sociological Research (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1963).
Archer , “An Overview of the Structure.”
L. Guttman , “The Basis for Scalogram Analysis,” in Measurement and Prediction, ed. S. A. Stouffer , L. Guttman , E. A. Suchman , P.
F. Lazarsfeld , Shirley A. Stor , and J. A. Gardner (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), pp. 60–90.
Ibid.
See B.W. White and E. Saltz , “Measurements of Reproducibility,” Psychological Bulletin 24 (1957): 81–99, for an excellent discussion
of this technique.
Clair Selltiz , Marie Jahoda , M. Deutsch , and S. W. Cook , Research Methods in Social Relations, rev. ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston, 1959).
W. Osgood et al., The Measurement of Meaning (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957).
For a more complete discussion of these objectives, see C. Osgood , G. Suci , and P. Tannenbaun , The Measurement of Meaning
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957), p. 100.
Milne Murray , research paper, University of California, Berkeley, 1964).
H. Sanoff , “Relating Learning Objectives to Education,” in Designing the Method, ed. D. Tester (Raleigh, N.C.: Learning
Environments, 1974), p. 231.
For a detailed description of the study, see H. Sanoff , “Measuring Attributes of the Visual Environment,” in Designing for Human
Behavior, ed. J. Lang , C. Burnette , W. Moleski , and D. Vachon (Stroudsburg: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1974), pp. 244–260.
Methods of Transforming Design Information

J. Christopher Jones , “A Method of Systematic Design,” in Conference on Design Methods (New York: Macmillan, 1963), pp. 53–73.
Christopher Alexander and Barry Poyner , “The Atoms of Environmental Structure,” in Emerging Methods of Environmental Design
and Planning, ed. G. Moore (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973), p. 308.
F. Duffy and J. Torrey , “A Progress Report on the Pattern Language,” in Emerging Methods, ed. Moore , pp. 270–277.
An example of the design process is described in Morris Asimow, Introduction to Design (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962).
A. Edwards , Techniques of Attitude Construction (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
John Eberhard , The Performance Concept: A Study of Its Application to Housing (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Department of Commerce,
1969), 1:3.
T. A. Markus , ed., Building Performance (New York: Halsted Press, 1972), p. 1.
Ibid., p. 19.
Ibid., pp. 21–25.
Asimow , Introduction.
Riba Handbook of Architectural Practice and Management (London, 1967).
Markus , Building Performance, pp. 21–25.
Ibid., pp. 29–30.
See P. A. Stone , “The Economics of Building Design,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 123 (1960), for a discussion of the
deficiencies of this.
P. A. Stone , Building Economy (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1966).
Markus , Building Performance, p. 31.
Ibid., pp. 112–113.
BPRU , “The Relationship between One Performance Criterion and the Cost of Some Boundaries Separating School Teaching
Spaces,” Report GD/27, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 1968.
BPRU , “Sound Attenuation of Some School Boundaries,” Report GD/26, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 1968.
BPRU , “Psychological Studies,” Report GD/28. University of Strathclyde, 1968.
BPRU , “The Implications of Choice of Boundary on Accommodation Scheduling,” Report GD/29, University of Strathclyde, 1968.
BPRU , “Psychological Studies.”
BPRU , “The Relationship between One Performance Criterion.”
Ibid.
BPRU , “Design Appraisal–Extract from RIBA Conference Paper, Part 2,” Report GD/24, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 1968.
BPRU , “The Relationship between One Performance Criterion.”
The assumptions that background information on the buildings could be readily obtained and that assessing the actual product of the
organization that the building housed later turned out to be troublesome.
Markus , Building Performance, pp. 55–56.
Ibid., p. 56.
K. W. Norris , “The Morphological Approach to Engineering Design,” in Conference on Design Methods, ed. J. C. Jones and D. G.
Thornley (New York: Macmillan, 1963).
Applications of Programs
M. Brill , “PAK: Planning Aid Kit” (Paper presented at the 123d meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, San Francisco, 1970).
C. Stewart and K. Lee , “Troika for Architectural Planning.” in Association for Computing Machinery, Annual Conference Proceedings
(1971), pp. 112–126.
C. Cave , “Layout in Open Spaces,” The Architect’s Journal 17 (October 1973).
H. Sanoff , J. Sanoff , and A. Hensley , Learning Environments for Children (Raleigh, N.C.: Learning Environments, 1971), pp. 19–77.
W. Moleski , “Behavioral Analysis and Environmental Programming for Offices,” in Designing for Human behavior, ed. J. Lang , C.
Burnette , W. Moleski , and D. Vachon (Stroudsburg: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1974), pp. 303–314.
H. Sanoff , “ROLE: Relating Objective for Learning to Education,” in Designing the Method, ed. D. Tester (Raleigh, N. C: Student
Publication of the School of Design, North Carolina State University, 1974), p. 231.
References
Agostini, Edward J. “The Value of Facilities Programming to the Client.” Building Research (April 1969): 28–32.
Alexander, Christopher . Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971.
Alexander, Christopher ; Ishikawa Sara; and Silverstein Murray. A Pattern Language Which Generates Multi-Service Centers.
Berkeley: California Center for Environmental Structure.
Alexander, Christopher Silverstein Murray ; Angel Shlomo ; Ishikawa Sara ; and Abrams Denney . The Oregon Experiment. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1975.
Alger, John R. M. , and Hays, Carl V. Creative Synthesis in Design. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1964.
Asimow, Morris . Introduction to Design. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1962.
Balchen, Bess . “Where Programming is the Design.” A/A Journal (April 1973): 38–47.
Briggs, William A. “Pre-Programming and Programming for the Live Performing Arts.” AIA Journal (December 1964).
Bross, Irving . Design for Decision. New York: Free Press, 1953.
Canter, D. V. “Office Size: An Example of Psychological Research in Architecture.” Architects Journal (April 1968): 881–888.
Canter, D. V. “The Measurement of Appropriateness in Buildings.” Transactions of the Bartlett Society 6 (1967–1968): 40–60.
Canter, D. V. , and Woods, R. “A Technique for the Subjective Appraisal of Buildings.” Building Science 5, (1970): 187–198.
Clark, Jeffrey E. “Office Space Programming.” The Office (June 1971): 27–36, 125.
Cogswell, Arthur R. , “Programming and a Computer-Based Cost Analysis System.” Building Research (April 1969): 33–35.
Davis, Gerald . “The Independent Building Program Consultant.” Building Research (April 1969): 16–21.
Davis, Gerald . “Using Interviews of Present Office Workers in Planning New Offices.” Proceedings of the Environmental Design
Research Association Conference. Los Angeles: University of California, 1972.
Deasy, C. M. “When Architects Consult People.” Psychology Today (March 1970): 54–57, 78–79.
Design Research Society . Proceedings: Design Activity International Congress. London: Design Research Society, 1973.
Evans, Benjamin H. , and Wheeler, C. Herbert, Jr. Emerging Techniques to Architectural Programming. Washington, D.C.: The
American Institute of Architects, 1969.
Gutman, Robert . “The Sociological Implications of Programming Practices.” Building Research (April 1969): 26–27.
Horowitz, Harold . “The Programs The Thing.” American Institute of Architects Journal (May 1967): 94–100.
Jones, J. Christopher , and Thornley, D. G. , ed. Conference on Design Methods: Papers presented at the Conference on Systematic
and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications. London: Macmillan, 1962.
Newman, Oscar . Design Guidelines for Creating Defensible Space. National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law
Enforcement Assistance Administration, Washington, D.C., 1976.
Pena, William M. , and Focke, John W. Problem Seeking: New Directions in Architectural Programming. Houston: Caudill, Rowlett,
Scott, Architects, Planners, Engineers, 1969.
“Performance Design.” Progressive Architecture, 48 (August 1967): 103–153.
Perin, C. With Man in Mind: An Interdisciplinary Prospect for Environmental Design. Cambride: MIT Press, 1970.
Research Center , College of Architecture and Environmental Design. Environmental Criteria: MR Preschool Day Care Facilities.
College Station, Tex.: Texas A and M University, 1973.
Richardson, Stephen . “The Value of a Program to the Architect.” Building Research (April 1969): 40–42.
Rittel, Horst . “Rittel Think.” DMG Newsletter 5 (Jan 1971): 2–11
Rittel, Horst . “Son of Rittel Think.” DMG 5th Anniversary Report. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 5–12.
Rossetti, Louis . Building Programming.” In Comprehensive Architectural Service–General Principles and Practice, edited by William
Dudley Hunt, Jr. , New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
Seaton, Richard . “Research for Building Programming.” Building Research (April 1969): 36–39.
Sommer, Robert . Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
Studer, R. G. , and Stea, D. “Architectural Programming, Environmental Design and Human Behavior.” Journal of Social Issues 22
(Oct. 1966): 127–136.
Walton, W. W. , and Cadoff, B. C. “Performance of Buildings–Concept and Measurement,” Proceedings of the First Conference in a
Series of “Man and His Shelter”. Washington, D.C.: Building Science Series, No. 1, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1968.
Ward, Anthony , and Broadbent, Geoffrey . Design Methods in Architectural Proceedings of the Portsmouth Symposium, 1967.
Wheeler, Lawrence , and Miller, Ewing H. “Human Factors Analysis.” In Comprehensive Architectural Service–General Principles and
Practice, edited by William Dudley Hunt, Jr. , New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
White, Edward T. Introduction to Architectural Programming. Tucson, Ariz.: Architectural Media, 1972.

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Routledge Revivals

Methods of Architectural Programming

A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 7613231

ISBN 13: 978-1-138-68830-8 (hbk)

C opyright© 1977 by Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc.

LIB R A R Y OF CONGRESS CATALO G ING IN PUBLICATIO N DATA

The architect's concern about the built environ­

to Programming as they relate to the built environment, we are bound

PRELIMINARY DESIGN PRODUCnON PHASE CONSTRUcnON EVALUATION

to a client-designer review to a designer-user infor­

experiential change that is the very dynamic of A N A L O G Y -B R A IN S T O R M

Research into group behavior and creative problem C O N C E N T R A T E -D IS P E R S E

solving has helped to develop principles of social C O N S C IO U S -U N C O N S C IO U S

the development of group loyalty, the cohesion of D IV ID E - M U L T IP L Y

groups as a function of outside threats, and the D R E A M -IM A G IN E

A social system of any size or complexity can be IN C R E A S E - D E C R E A S E

understood if the small face-to-face group is considered IN C U B A T E - P U R G E

ronment similar to the social system to be studied M O T IV A T E -P R A C T IC E

with similar resources and tasks. O P T IM IZ E - M IN IM IZ E

contrived units of human association. It is only be­ S T A R T -S T O P

cause individual human beings are limited in knowl­ S Y S T E M IZ E -R A N D O M IZ E

human beings are limited in ability to agree on goals,

A SHORT GLOSSARY OF STRATEGIES

LE A R N : To gain knowledge or understanding of or skill in by study, instruction, or experience, to come to realize, to

Information Retrieval Methods

Methods of Transforming Design Information

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The architect's concern about the built environ

to a client-designer review to a designer-user infor

contrived units of human association. It is only be S T A R T -S T O P

cause individual human beings are limited in knowl S Y S T E M IZ E -R A N D O M IZ E