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SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO
PSYCHOLOGY ESSENTIALS
(SAPE)
PG ENTRANCE COACHING -STUDY MATERIAL

PART 2

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 PHYSIOLOGY

A. NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that

carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts
of the body.
 Nervous system controls all the activities of the body. It is quicker
than the other control systems in the body.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

 Central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
 It is formed by neurons and the supporting cells called neuroglia.
 The structure of the brain and spinal cord are arranged in two layers:
grey matter and white matter
 Grey matter is formed of nerve cell bodies and the proximal parts
nerve fiber arising from the nerve cell body.
 White matter is formed by nerve fibers.
 In brain, white matter is centrally placed and grey matter is in the
outer part. In spinal cord white matter is in the outer part and grey
matter is in the inner part.

 CNS is present in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which nourishes the

brain and provides a protective cushion for it.
 Brain is situated in the skull and is continued as spinal cord in the
vertebral canal through the Foramen Magnum of the skull bone.
 Brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three layers of meninges:
A. Outer Dura mater : Also called “hard mother”, solid or hard
matter.
B. Middle Arachnoid matter : “web-like structure”.
C. Inner Pia mater: Also called soft mother.
 Arachanoid and piamater are thin layers. Thus together called
Leptomeninges.
 Space between Cranium/vertebral column and Dura mater is called
Epidural space.
 Space between Dura mater and arachnoid mater is called Subdural
space.
 Space between arachnoid and piamater is subarachenoid space.
  Subarachanoid space is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid.
The brain and spinal cord are actually suspended in CSF.
 The blood vessels and CSF are composed at subarachenoid space.
 Inflammation of meninges is called Meningitis.
 The hollow cavities in the brain that are filled with Cerebro Spinal
Fluid are called
ventricles.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

 The peripheral nervous system is made up of all those nerves that lie
outside the brain and spinal cord.
 It consists of cranial nerves arising from brain and spinal nerves
arising from the spinal cord.
 PNS carries neural signals from the body to the CNS and from CNS out
to the body.
 It is again divided into 2 subdivisions:
1. Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System

 The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect

voluntary skeletal muscles to sensory receptors. These nerves
are the cables that carry information from receptors in the skin, muscles
and joints to the CNS and that carry commands from the CNS to the
muscles.
 Somatic nervous system is concerned with somatic functions. It
includes nerves connected to skeletal muscles
 All these functions require two kinds of nerve fibres:
1. Afferent nerve fibres
2. Efferent nerve fibres
 Afferent nerve fibres are axons that carry information inwards to the
CNS from periphery of the body.
 Efferent nerve fibres are axons that carry information outward from
the CNS to the periphery of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

 The ANS is a set of neurons that receives information from and sends
commands to the heart, intestines and other organs (i.e., Controls
involuntary Actions).
 Is concerned with regulation of visceral or vegetative functions. So,
it is otherwise called vegetative or involuntary nervous system.
 The ANS controls much of the physiological arousal that occurs through
when people experience emotions.
 Walter Canon (1932), one of the 1st psychologists to study this reaction,
called it the fight-or-flight response. Canon carefully monitored this
 response in cats, after confronting them with dogs. He concluded that
organisms generally respond to threat by preparing physiologically for
attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) from the enemy.
 The ANS can be subdivided into 2 branches:
o Sympathetic division
o Parasympathetic division

 The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), a network of nerves

that prepares the organs for vigorous activity (i.e., it mobilizes the
body’s resources for emergencies).
 Its primary process is to stimulate the body’s fight-or-flight
response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to
maintain homeostasis.
 It increases breathing and heart rate and decreases digestive activity.
 Activation of sympathetic division inhibits digestive processes and
drains blood from the periphery, lessening bleeding in the case of an
injury.

 Parasympathetic division also called “rest and digest” system.

 It conserves energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and
gland activity. And relaxes sphincter muscles in gastrointestinal tract.
 It activates processes that allow the body to save and store
energy.
 Activation by parasympathetic nerves slows down heart rate, reduce
blood pressure and promote digestion.
 It increases digestive activity.
 Also known as Craniosacral system because it consists of the cranial
nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord.

NERVOUS TISSUE

The nervous system is composed of two kinds of cells: neurons and glia.
Only the neurons transmit impulses from one location to another.
Neurons

 Neurons are the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. It is also called nerve cells.
 It is different from other cells by two ways:
1. Neurons has branches or processes called axons and dendrites
2. Neuron does not have Centrosome; so it cannot undergo cell
division
 Neurons are cells that receive, integrate and transmit information.
 A Nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres in the PNS held together with
connective tissue

Structure of neuron

A neuron is composed of three major

parts –

 Cell body,
 Dendrites
 Axons.

Cell body (cytol/soma/Perikaryon)

 The nerve cell body is irregular in shape and like any other cell it is
constituted by a mass of cytoplasm called neuroplasm which is
covered by a cell membrane.
 The cytoplasm contains a large nucleus, nissl bodies, neurofibrils,
mitochondria and Golgi apparatus.
 Nissl bodies and neurofibrils are found only in nerve cells and not in
any other cells

Dendrite

 The dendrites are branching fibres that get narrower near the ends
 A dendrite is shaped like a tree
  The dendrites surface is lined with specialized synaptic receptors
through which the dendrite receives information from other
neurons
 The greater the surface area, the more information you can receive
 Dendritic spines: branches or outgrowths of dendrites that
increases the surface area
 The shape of dendrites varies enormously from one neuron to
another and can even vary from one time to another for a given
neuron
 All dendrites have synaptic areas

Axon

 Axon hillock: Axon originating place from cell body

 Axon is a long thin fiber that transmit signals away from the
soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands
 Axon arises from the axon hillock of the nerve cell body and it is
devoid of Nissl's granules
 In humans, many axons are wrapped in cells with a high
concentration of a white, fatty substance called myelin.
 The myelin sheath is an insulating material that speeds up the
transmission of signals through axons.
 Myelin sheath have interruptions known as Nodes of Ranvier
 Axons swell at its tip forming a presynaptic terminal also known
as an end bulb/ end button or terminal button. These are small
knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters- these
chemicals act as messengers that may activate nearby neurons.
 Thus, the information is received at the dendrites is passed through
the Soma and along the axon, and it is transmitted to the dendrites of
other cells at meeting points called synapses.

Nerve: combination of neurons are called nerves

Nerve fibres: it denotes axons or dendrites combination

Synaptic receptors: present on dendrites and
receives information

Synapse: a synapse is a junction where information is

transmitted from one neuron to another. The
transmission depends on chemical messengers.

CLASSIFICATION OF NERVE FIBRES

Depending upon structure

a) Myelinated nerve fibre: Nerve fibres that are covered with myelin
sheath.
b) Non-myelinated nerve fibre: Nerve fibres that are not covered by
myelin sheath.

Depending upon distribution

a) Somatic nerve fibres-they supplied to the skeletal muscles of the

body
b) Visceral /autonomic nerve fibres-they are supplied to various
internal organs of the body

Depending upon origin

a) Cranial nerves- nerve fibres arising from the brain

b) Spinal nerves-nerve fibres arising from spinal cord

Depending upon function

a) Sensory nerve fibres-they carry sensory impulses from different

parts of the body to the central nervous system. Also known as
afferent nerve fibres
 b) Motor nerve fibres- carry data and motor impulses from central
nervous system to different parts of the body. Also known as
efferent nerve fibres.

Depending upon secretion of neurotransmitters

a) Adrenergic nerve fibres- they secrete nor-adrenaline

b) Cholinergic nerve fibres-they secrete acetylcholine

All or none law-it states that when a nerve is stimulated by a stimulus it

gives maximum response or does not give response at all.

NON- NERVOUS TISSUES

Neuroglia

 Glia is a Greek word meaning "glue"

 Neuroglia is the supporting cells of the nervous system
 The neuroglial cells are non-excitable and do not transmit nerve
impulses or action potential. So, these cells are also called non-
neuronal cells or glial cells.
 The functions of neuroglia include
o Supplying nourishment to neurons
o Help remove neuron waste products
o Provide insulation around many axons
o Helps in the development of nervous system in human embryo
o Places an important role in the reaction of nerve during
infection
o They do exchange chemicals with adjacent neurons and holds
the neurons together
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA

Oligodendrocytes or oligodendroglia

 Oligodendrocytes are the neuroglial cells which produce myelin sheath

around the nerve fibres in central nervous system.
 They insulate vertebrate axons
 Their functions are equivalent to schwann cells in the peripheral nervous
system
 It also provides support to CNS neurons by forming a semi stiff
connective tissue between the neurons

Microglia

 Microglias are the smallest neuroglial cells.

 These cells are derived from monocytes and enter the tissue of nervous
system from blood
 These phagocytic cells migrate to the site of infection or injury and are
often called the macrophages of central nervous system
 Functions-
 o Engulf and destroy the microorganisms and cellular debris by means
of phagocytosis
o Migrate to the injured or infected area of CNS and act as miniature
macrophages. That is, remove toxic materials from the body
o Increases immunity. It acts as the immune system of nervous system

Astrocytes

 Astrocytes are star shaped neuroglial cells present in all parts of the
brain
 These cells are wrapped around the presynaptic terminals of several
axons
 Functions-
o twist around the nerve cells and form the supporting network in brain
and spinal cord
o Remove waste materials, particularly waste created when neurons die
o form the blood brain barrier and thereby regulate the entry of
substances from blood into brain tissues
o Provide calcium and potassium and regulate neurotransmitter level in
synapses
o Regulate recycling of neurotransmitter during synaptic transmission
o Make conduction or propagation smoother
o Receive impulse and transmit it in the form of waves

Radial glia

 A type of astrocyte which guide the migration of neurons and the growth
of their axons and dendrites during embryonic development
 Functions-
o Provide guidance about position and function of neurons during
embryonic stage
Schwann cells

 Schwann cells are major glial cells in PNS which produce myelin sheath
around the nerve fibres.
 Functions-
o Provide myelination around nerve fibres in peripheral nervous
system
o Plays an important role in nerve regeneration

Satellite cells

 Glial cells present on the external surface of PNS neurons

 It provides physical support to PNS neurons

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON

Based on origin

1. Unipolar neuron- found in the embryo. Have a cell body and a single
axon.
2. Pseudo unipolar- contain a cell body and a single fiber dividing into
an axon and dendrite.
3. Bipolar neuron-found in retina, ear etc. It contains a cell body and a
single axon and dendrites
4. Multipolar neurons-found in brain and spinal cord. It contains a cell
body with a single axon and many dendrites.
Based on function

1. Sensory neurons- respond to one particular type of stimuli such as

touch, sound or light and all other stimuli affecting the cells of the
sensory organs and converts it into an electrical signal via transduction
which is then sent to the spinal cord or brain
2. Motor neurons - receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to
cause everything from muscle contraction and affect glandular outputs.
3. Interneurons-connects neurons to other neurons within the sense
region of brain or spinal cord in neural networks. It acts as both sensory
and motor neuron.

VENTRICLES

The nervous system begins its development as a tube surrounding a fluid

canal. The canal persists into adulthood as the central canal, a fluid filled
channel in the center of the spinal cord and as ventricles, four fluid filled
cavities within the brain.

Each hemisphere contains one of the two large lateral ventricles. Towards
the posterior, they connect to the third ventricle which connects to the
fourth ventricle in medulla.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)

 The ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord contain
cerebrospinal fluid, a clear fluid similar to blood plasma.
 CSF is formed by groups of cells, the choroid plexus present inside the
four ventricles
 Functions-
o CSF cushions the brain against mechanical shock when the head
moves, thereby, reducing injury.
o It provides buoyancy, thus helping to support the weight of the brain
o Provides a reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and
spinal cord
o Removes waste material from brain and spinal cord

HYDROCEPHALUS

Sometimes the flow of CSF is obstructed, and accumulates within the

ventricles or in the subarachnoid space thus creating a pressure on the
brain. When this condition occurs in infants, the skull bones may spread
causing an overgrown head. This condition is known as hydrocephalus. It is
usually associated with mental retardation.

BLOOD CSF

 The choroid plexus and epithelial cells forms the blood cerebrospinal
fluid barrier
 Functions-
o It is a transport system allowing the directed transportation of ions
and nutrients into the CSF and removal of toxic agents out of the CSF
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)

 The mechanism that keeps most of chemicals out of the brain is known
as the blood brain barrier
 Cells in the brain require a very stable environment to ensure controlled
and selective stimulation of neurons. As a result, only certain materials
are allowed to pass from blood vessels to the brain
 Toxins and psychoactive drugs have limited access or are totally blocked
from entering the brain
 Brain capillaries are less permeable than other capillaries because of
tight junctions between the endothelial cells in the capillary walls.

NERVE IMPULSE

 The membrane of a nerve is selectively permeable.

 Oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, and water cross freely through channels
that are always open.

 A few biologically important ions, such as sodium, potassium, calcium,

and chloride, cross through membrane channels (or gates)

 When the membrane is at rest, the sodium channels are closed,

preventing almost all sodium flow.

 Ion/ Membrane channels: Ion channels are pore-forming membrane

proteins that allow ions to pass through the channel pore.

 Two different types of ion channels in a neuron

 Sodium channels: Allows Na+ ions to cross the membrane.

 Potassium channel: Allows K+ ions to cross the membrane.

 Sodium-potassium pump: A protein complex which repeatedly

transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell while drawing 2 potassium ions
into it.

 The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport requiring energy.

 As a result of the sodium-potassium pump, sodium ions are more than
10 times more concentrated outside the membrane than inside, and
potassium ions are similarly more concentrated inside than outside.

IMPULSE GENERATION AND CONDUCTION

 Hodgkin and Huxley (1952) learned that the neural impulse is a

complex electrochemical reaction.

 Positively charged sodium and potassium ions and negatively charged

chloride ions flow back and forth across the cell membrane, but they do
not cross at the same rate. The difference in flow rates leads to a slightly
higher concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell.

 The membrane of a neuron maintains an electrical gradient (a difference

in electrical charge) between the inside and outside of the cell.

 Polarization: It is the difference in electrical charge between outside

and inside of the membrane.

 The membrane of an unstimulated neuron is polarized.

Polarization is established by maintaining an excess of sodium ions
(Na+) on the outside and an excess of potassium ions (K+) on the inside.
This difference in voltage in a resting neuron is called the resting
potential.
 Resting potential: The resting potential describes the unstimulated,
polarized state of a neuron (-70 mV) OR It is the difference in
voltage in a resting neuron.

 The resting potential is mainly the result of negatively charged proteins

inside the cell.

 Resting membrane potentials are maintained by two different types of

ion channels: the sodium-potassium pump and the sodium and
potassium leak channels.

 The resting potential prepares the neuron to respond rapidly.

 As long as the voltage of a neuron remains constant, the cell is quiet, and
no messages are being sent. When the neuron is stimulated, channels in
its cell membrane open, briefly allowing positively charged sodium ions
to rush in and the membrane depolarizes (becomes more positive).

 Depolarization: Reduction of polarization of the neuron towards zero.

 With a slightly stronger depolarization current, the potential rises

slightly higher, but again it returns to the resting level as soon as the
stimulation ceases.

 Any stimulus beyond a certain level, called the threshold of

excitation produces a sudden massive depolarization of the membrane
 Action potential: It is the change in electrical potential associated with
the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve
cell.

 If the stimulus is strong enough- above a threshold level – additional

sodium ion gates open, increasing the flow of sodium ions even more,
causing an action potential or complete depolarization (from -70 mV to
+30 mV). Thus in return stimulates neighboring sodium ion gates,
farther down the axon to open. In this manner, the action potential
travels down the length of axon as opened sodium ion gates stimulate
neighboring sodium ion gates to open.

 All-or-none law: The all-or-none law is the principle that the strength
by which a nerve or muscle fibre responds to a stimulus is independent
of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold
potential, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a complete response;
otherwise, there is no response.

 Re-polarization: It refers to the change in membrane potential that

returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an
action potential.

 Repolarization is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the

opening of potassium ion channels

 At the peak of depolarization, the sodium channels close and

potassium channels open allowing K+ on the inside to rush out of the
cell. The movement of the K+ out of the cell causes repolarization by
restoring the original membrane polarization. Unlike the resting
potential, however in the repolarization, the K+ are on the outside and
the Na+ are on the inside.

 By the time the K+ channels close, more K+ have moved out of the cell
than is actually necessary to establish the original polarized potential.
Thus, the membrane becomes hyperpolarized (about -80mV).
 Hyperpolarization: Hyperpolarization is a change in a cell's
membrane potential that makes it more negative. It is the opposite of a
depolarization.

 Within the passage of action potential, the cell membrane is in an

unusual state of affairs. The membrane is polarized, but the Na + and K+
are on wrong sides of the membrane. During this refractory period, the
axon will not respond to a new stimulus. To re-establish the original
distribution of these ions, the Na+ and K+ are returned to their resting
potential location by Na+ -K+ pumps in the cell membrane. Once these
ions are completely returned to their resting potential location, the
neuron is ready for another stimulus.

 Refractory period: This is the time during which another stimulus

given to the neuron (no matter how strong) will not lead to a second
action potential. The absolute refractory period takes about 1-2
milliseconds.

Local neurons: Axons produce action potentials. However, some

neurons do not have axons. These neurons are smaller but very
important. Neurons without axons exchange information only with their
closest neighbors and are therefore known as local neurons.

SYNAPSE

 Synapse/ synaptic cleft: Synapse is the junction between two

neurons. It is the gap that separates adjacent neurons or a neuron and a
muscle.

 Signals have to jump this gap to permit neurons to communicate. In this

situation, the neuron that sends a signal across the gap is called the
presynaptic neuron, and the neuron that receives the signal is called the
postsynaptic neuron.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNAPSE

Synapse is classified by two methods:

A. Anatomical classification

1. Axoaxonic synapse in which axon of one neuron terminates on

axon of another neuron.

2. Axodendritic synapse in which the axon of one neuron terminates

on dendrite of another neuron

3. Axosomatic synapse in which axon of one neuron ends on soma

(cell body) of another neuron.

B. Functional classification

Is on the basis of mode of impulse transmission.

1. Electrical Synapse

 There is direct exchange of ions between the two neurons through the
gap junction. Because of this reason, the action potential reaching the
terminal portion of presynaptic neuron directly enters the
postsynaptic neuron.

 Synaptic delay is very less because of the direct flow of current.

2. Chemical synapse

 In the chemical synapse, there is no continuity between the two

neurons because of the presence of a space called synaptic cleft
between the two neurons.

 Action potential reaching the presynaptic terminal causes release of

neurotransmitter substance from the vesicles of this terminal.

 Neurotransmitter reaches the postsynaptic neuron through synaptic

cleft and causes the production of potential change.
 However, generally the word synapse
refers to a chemical synapse.

B. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

BRAIN

 If the CNS is the processing centre of the human body, the brain is its
headquarters.

 The organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all
vertebrate animals.

 3 cavities called the primary brain vesicles, form during the early
embryonic development of the brain. These are the

1. Forebrain (prosencephalon)

2. Midbrain (mesencephalon)

3. Hindbrain (rhombencephalon)

During subsequent development, the 3 primary brain vesicles develop into

5 secondary brain vesicles. They are:

1. The telencephalon generates the cerebrum (contains cerebral cortex,

white matter and basal ganglia).

2. The diencephalon generates thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal

gland.

3. Mesencephalon generates midbrain portion of the brain stem.

 4. Metencephalon generates pons portion of the brain stem and the
cerebellum.

5. Myelencephalon generates medulla oblongata, portion of the brain

stem.

Area Also known as Major structures

Forebrain Prosencephalon (“forward-brain”)

Diencephalon (“between-brain”) Thalamus,

hypothalamus

Telencephalon (“end-brain”) Cerebral cortex,

hippocampus, basal
ganglia

Midbrain Mesencephalon (“middle-brain”) Tectum, tegmentum,

superior colliculus,
inferior colliculus,
substantia nigra

Hindbrain Rhombencephalon (literally, Medulla, pons,

“parallelogram-brain”) cerebellum

Metencephalon (“afterbrain”) Pons, cerebellum

Myelencephalon (“marrow-brain”) Medulla

FOREBRAIN

Largest region of brain.

The most anterior and most prominent part of the mammalian brain.

It consists of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left and one on the
right. Each hemisphere is organized to receive sensory information, mostly
from the contralateral (opposite) side of the body, and to control muscles,
mostly on the contralateral side, by way of axons to the spinal cord and the
cranial nerve nuclei.

It contains the entire cerebrum and several structures directly nestled

within it - the thalamus, hypothalamus, the pineal gland, basal ganglia and
the limbic system.

Functions:

 Central role in the processing of information related to complex

cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and
voluntary motor activities.
 Controls body temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping,
and the display of emotions.
1. Cerebrum and the cerebral cortex

Structure: Cerebrum with its wrinkly, pinkish-grey outer appearance

makes up around 85% of the brain and consists primarily of grey matter,
divided into two hemispheres (left and right hemispheres).

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, and in each
hemisphere it is traditionally divided into four lobes - frontal, parietal,
occipital and temporal. Communications between the two hemispheres
are maintained by a fibrous bridge called the corpus callosum.

Cerebral cortex (Cerebrum is a Latin word meaning “brain.” Cortex is a

Latin word for “bark” or “shell”.)

Functions: To control

 Sensory perception
 Language
 Personality traits
 Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking, memory, decision-
making, creativity and self-consciousness.
 Voluntary control of movements
 To exert centralized control over the other organs of the body.
2. Diencephalon
 Deep within the brain near the basal ganglia is the diencephalon, a
midline structure that forms the walls of the 3rd ventricular cavity.
 It connects cerebrum to brain stem.
 Consist of 2 main parts- Thalamus and Hypothalamus.

Thalamus

 The term is derived from a Greek word meaning “inner chamber,” or

“bridal bed.”
 The thalamus is a pair of structures (left and right) in the center of the
forebrain.
 Relay station of the brain i.e., Most sensory information goes first to
the thalamus, which processes it and sends output to the cerebral cortex.
An exception to this rule is olfactory information, which progresses from
the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs and then directly to the
cerebral cortex.
 Thalamus screens out insignificant signals and route the important
sensory impulses to appropriate areas of the somatosensory cortex as
well as to the other regions of the brain.
Functions:

Thalamus is primarily concerned with somatic functions and it plays little

role in the visceral functions.

Hypothalamus

 Is a collection of specific nuclei and associated fibers that lie beneath

the thalamus.
 Is the major control centre of the autonomic motor system.
 It is an integrating centre for many important homeostatic functions
and serves as an important link between autonomic nervous system
and endocrine system.
 It conveys messages to the pituitary gland, partly through nerves and
partly through hypothalamic hormones to alter the release of
hormones by the pituitary.
Functions:

Hypothalamus is the important part of brain, concerned with homeostasis

of the body. It regulates many vital functions of the body like endocrine
functions, visceral functions, metabolic activities, hunger, thirst, sleep,
wakefulness, emotion, sexual functions, etc.

3. Pituitary gland
 The pituitary gland is an endocrine (hormone-producing) gland
attached to the base of the hypothalamus by a stalk that contains
neurons, blood vessels, and connective tissue.
 In response to messages from the hypothalamus, the pituitary
synthesizes and releases hormones into the bloodstream, which
carries them to other organs.
 Also called “master gland” of the body because its secretion control
the timing and amount of hormones secreted by the other endocrine
organs.

4. Pineal gland
 The pineal gland is even smaller than the hypothalamus - only about
the length of a grain of rice - and is tucked between the two lobes of
the thalamus.
 It is actually shaped like a tiny pinecone, and its main job is to
produce the hormone melatonin, which regulates our sleep-
wake cycles.
 Just like the hypothalamus, it is also involved in regulating
hormonal functions.

5. Basal ganglia

Beneath the surface of the hemispheres are large knots of neurons

called basal ganglia, which specialise in programming and executing our
motor functions. When basal ganglia are affected by diseases such as
Parkinson’s, patients have tremors and uncontrolled movements.

6. Limbic system
 Limbic system, form a border (or limbus, the Latin word for “border”)
around the brainstem.
 The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural
and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we
need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and
fight or flight responses.
 You can find the structures of the limbic system buried deep within
the brain, underneath the cerebral cortex and above the brainstem.
The thalamus, hypothalamus (production of important hormones and
regulation of thirst, hunger, mood etc) and basal ganglia (reward
processing, habit formation, movement and learning) are also
involved in the actions of the limbic system, but two of the major
structures are the hippocampus and the amygdala.
 These structures are particularly important for motivations and
emotions, such as eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and
aggression.

Hippocampus

Location: The hippocampus (from a Latin word meaning “seahorse”) is a

large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, mostly
toward the posterior of the forebrain.

Structure: It resembles the shape of a curvy seahorse.

 The hippocampus, like many other structures in the brain, comes as a

pair, one in each hemisphere of the.
 People with hippocampal damage have trouble storing new
memories, but they do not lose the memories they had before the
damage occurred.
Functions:

 Hippocampus is essentially the memory centre of our brains.

 Here, our episodic memories are formed and catalogued to be filed away
in long-term storage across other parts of the cerebral cortex.
 Connections made in the hippocampus also help us associate memories
with various senses (the association between Christmas and the scent of
gingerbread would be forged here).
 The hippocampus is also important for spatial orientation and our
ability to navigate the world.
 The hippocampus is one site in the brain where new neurons are made
from adult stem cells. This process is called neurogenesis, and is the
basis of one type of brain plasticity. So it’s not surprising this is a key
brain structure for learning new things.

Amygdala

Structure: An almond-shape set of neurons located deep in the brain’s

medial temporal lobe.

Location: Located right next to the hippocampus

Functions:

 The left and right amygdala play a central role in our emotional
responses, including feelings like pleasure, fear, anxiety and anger.
 The amygdala also attaches emotional content to our memories, and
so plays an important role in determining how those memories are
stored. Memories that have strong emotional meaning tend to stick.
 The amygdala doesn't just modify the strength and emotional content
of memories; it also plays a key role in forming new memories
specifically related to fear. Fearful memories are able to be formed
after only a few repetitions. This makes ‘fear learning’ a popular way
to investigate the mechanisms of memory formation, consolidation
and recall.
MIDBRAIN

Location: Located towards the base of brain.

It’s the top part of the brainstem, which connects the brain to the spinal
cord.

It serves as the vital connection point between the forebrain and the
hindbrain.

There are three main parts of the midbrain –

1. Tectum

2. Tegmentum

3. Substantia nigra

Tectum

 The roof of the midbrain is called the tectum (Latin word for “roof.”)

 The swellings on each side of the tectum are the superior colliculus
and the inferior colliculus.

 Both are important for sensory processing—the inferior colliculus

for hearing and the superior colliculus mainly for vision.

Tegmentum

 Under the tectum lies the tegmentum, the intermediate level of the
midbrain. (Latin word for “covering,” such as a rug on the floor. The
tegmentum covers several other midbrain structures, although it is
covered by the tectum.)

Substantia nigra

 Substantia nigra, a darkly pigmented cluster of neurons with cells

(containing melanin – the sleep hormone) that make the
neurotransmitter dopamine.
  This layer of neurons is an important relay station for nerve signals of
the CNS systems that coordinate our movements. This area is
specifically damaged in Parkinson’s Disease.

HINDBRAIN

Position: Present at the lowest back portion of the brain.

Hindbrain consist:

1. Pons
2. Cerebellum
3. Medulla oblongata.

1. Pons

Structure: Bulbous in shape.

Location: It sits right underneath the midbrain

The term pons is Latin for “bridge”; the name reflects the fact that many
axons in the pons cross from one side of the brain to the other.
This is in fact the location where axons from each half of the brain cross to
the opposite side of the spinal cord so that the left hemisphere controls the
muscles of the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the
left side.

Functions:

 It connects the rest of the brainstem to the cerebral cortex.

 Serves as a coordination centre for signals and communications that
flow between the two brain hemispheres and the spinal cord.
2. Medulla / Medulla oblongata

Location: Lies just above the spinal cord and could be regarded as an
enlarged extension of the spinal cord but located in the skull.

Functions:

 The medulla controls some vital reflexes—including breathing,

heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing—
through the cranial nerves, which control sensations from the head,
muscle movements in the head, and much of the parasympathetic output
to the organs.

Reticular formation

 The medulla and pons also contain the reticular formation and the
raphe system.
 Reticular formation: A widespread network of interconnected
neurons that runs throughout the entire brain stem and into the
thalamus. This network receive and integrates all incoming
sensory synaptic inputs.
 Raphe system: A neural network system which also sends axons to
much of the forebrain, modifying the brain’s readiness to
respond to stimuli.

3. Cerebellum

Structure: Dense coral-shaped structure with many deep folds.

Location: Behind the pons.

Cerebellum (Latin for ‘little brain’).

 Just like the cortex, it has two hemispheres, with a dense layer of grey
matter surrounding an inner region of white matter.
 Is the center for “balance and coordination”.
  It also contains special neurons called Purkinje cells, capable of
processing many signals at once due to their highly complex dendrite
branches.

Functions:

 The cerebellum coordinates our sensations with responses from our

muscles, enabling most of our voluntary movements.
 It also processes nerve impulses from the inner ear and coordinates
them with muscle movement, thus helping us maintain balance and
posture.
 Play a key role in learning skilled motor tasks such as a dance routine.

BRAIN STEM

 The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central structures of
the forebrain constitute the brainstem.
 It connects the brain to the spinal cord and coordinates many vital
functions, such as breathing and heartbeat.
 Brain stem consist of 4 regions, all of which provides connections
between various parts of the brain and between the brain and the
spinal cord.
1. Midbrain: Upper most part of the brain stem.
2. Pons: Bulging region in the middle of the brain stem.
3. Medulla oblongata: Lower portion of brain stem that merges
with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum.
4. Reticular formation: Consist of small clusters of gray matter
interspersed within the white matter of brain stem and
certain regions of the spinal cord, diencephalon and
cerebellum.

Functions:

 The brainstem has many basic functions, including regulation of

heart rate, breathing, sleeping, and eating.
 It also plays a role in conduction.
 All information relayed from the body to the cerebrum and
cerebellum and vice versa must traverse the brainstem.
 Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves occurs in brain stem.
 Regulation and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex.
SPINAL CORD

 The spinal cord is a part of the CNS within the spinal column.
 Lies loosely in the vertebral canal. It extends from foramen
magnum where it is continuous with medulla oblongata.
 Is protected by vertebral column.
 Spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and muscles
except those of the head.
 It is a segmented structure, and each segment has on each side a
sensory nerve and a motor nerve.
 Information from receptors below the head enters the spinal cord and
passes towards the brain through the 31 spinal nerves.
 Externally, the spinal cord is protected by 26 bones called vertebrae,
which are sandwiched between cartilage disks to cushion the cord
from any jarring caused by bodily movement. Just like the brain
itself, the spinal cord is also protected by three layers of meninges
(membranes).
 Each segment of the spinal cord sends sensory information to the
brain and receives motor commands from the brain. All that
information passes through tracts of axons in the spinal cord.
 If the spinal cord is cut at a given segment, the brain loses sensation
from that segment and below. The brain also loses motor control over
all parts of the body served by that segment and the lower ones.

Bell-Magendie law

According to the Bell-Magendie law, which was one of the first discoveries
about the functions of the nervous system, the entering dorsal roots (axon
bundles) carry sensory information, and the exiting ventral roots carry
motor information.
REFLEX ACTION

Reflex: A reflex is a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus.

Reflex activity: Reflex activity is the response to a peripheral nervous

stimulation that occurs without our consciousness. It is a type of protective
mechanism and it protects the body from irreparable damages. For
example, when hand is placed on a hot object, it is withdrawn immediately.

Reflex arc: A reflex arc is the pathway travelled by the nerve impulses
during a reflex. OR

It is the anatomical nervous pathway for a reflex action.

A simple reflex arc includes five components:

1. Receptor
Receptor is the end organ, which receives the stimulus (usually a
dendrite). When receptor is stimulated, impulses are generated in
afferent nerve.

2. Afferent nerve / Sensory neurons

Afferent or sensory nerve transmits sensory impulses from the
receptor to center.

3. Center
Center receives the sensory impulses via afferent nerve fibers and in
turn, it generates appropriate motor impulses. Center is located in the
brain or spinal cord.

4. Efferent Nerve
Efferent or motor nerve transmits motor impulses from the center to
the effector organ.

5. Effector Organ
Effector organ is the structure such as muscle or gland where the
activity occurs in response to stimulus. Afferent and efferent nerve
fibers may be connected directly to the center. In some places, one or
 more neurons are interposed between these nerve fibers and the
center. Such neurons are called connector neurons or
internuncial neurons or interneurons.

 EASY REFERENCE
 STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that focuses on the organization,

analysis, and interpretation of a group of numbers.

DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

There are two basic types of statistics

• Descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

 Inferential Statistics is a method that allows us to use information

collected from a sample to make decisions, predictions or inferences
from a population.
 It grants us permission to give statements that goes beyond the
available data or information.
 For example, deriving estimates from hypothetical research.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

• Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that

summarize a given data set, which can be either a representation of
the entire or a sample of a population.
• Graphical/ Numerical distribution
• Descriptive statistics are broken down into measures of central
tendency and measures of variability (spread).
• Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode,
while measures of variability include standard deviation, variance,
minimum and maximum variables, kurtosis, and skewness.
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Organization

Organization of data refers to the systematic arrangement of collected

figures (raw data), so that the data becomes easy to understand and more
convenient for further statistical treatment

1. Classification

Classification is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups

according to their common characteristics or separating them in to
different but related parts.

a. Frequency distribution
• The frequency is the number of times a particular data point occurs
in the set of data. A frequency distribution is a table that list each
data point and its frequency.
• A frequency distribution is a comprehensive way to classify raw data
of a quantitative variable.
• It shows how different values of a variable is distributed in different
classes along with their corresponding class frequencies.
• The class mid-point or class mark is the middle value of a class. It
lies halfway between the lower class limit and the upper class limit of
a class and can be ascertained in the following manner.
upper class limit + lower class limit
• Class mid-point =
2
• Class frequency: It means the number of values in a particular class.
• Class width:- It is the difference between the upper class limit and
lower class limit
• Class width = upper class Limit – Lower class Limit
• Class Limits:- There are two ends of a class. The lowest value is
called lower class limit and highest value is called upper class limit.

i. Ungrouped frequency
• Data is often described as ungrouped or grouped.
• Ungrouped data is data given as individual data points.
Grouped data is data given in intervals.

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 ii. Grouped frequency
• To construct a grouped frequency distribution, the data
are sorted and separated into groups called classes.
• The number (frequency) of data belonging to each class is
then recorded in a table of frequencies called a frequency
table. This table describes the distribution of frequencies.

b. Relative frequency

A relative frequency distribution shows the proportion of the total number

of observations associated with each value or class of values and is related
to a probability distribution, which is extensively used in statistics.

x f Rf = f/n
0 2 2/10 = 0.2
1 4 4/10 = 0.4
2 2 2/10 = 0.2
3 2 2/10 = 0.2
Total 10

c. Cumulative frequency (Ogive)

A cumulative frequency distribution is a list of scores, their frequency, and

their cumulative frequency. Cumulative frequency is the total of a frequency
and all of the frequency scores beneath it

Age 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 5 3 7 5 4 2
Cumulative 5 8 15 20 24 26
frequency

Age group 10-20 30-40 50-60

Frequency 8 12 6
Cumulative frequency 8 20 26

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2. Tabularization

Tabularization is the presentation of figures from an investigation in a table

which consists of rows and columns of cells, or spaces, each of which
provides one unit of information. A table serves three purposes:

A. to provide in a compact form results which the less able, or those who
have less time, can more quickly take in and digest.
B. to summarise data for the statistician so that he does not have to handle
the raw material for each investigation he initiates.
C. to make it possible to incorporate fresh results as they become known,
and sometimes to discard out-of-date material which is no longer
relevant.

3. Graphical representation & diagrammatic representation

An attractive representation of a frequency distribution is graphical
representation. We are going to consider the following types of
graphical representation:

HISTOGRAM-
• A two-dimensional graphical representation of a continuous
frequency distribution is called a histogram.
• In histogram, the bars are placed continuously side by side with
no gap between adjacent bars.
• That is, in histogram rectangles are erected on the class
intervals of the distribution. The areas of rectangle are
proportional to the frequencies.

BAR DIAGRAM-

• Bars i.e. rectangles of equal width and usually of varying lengths are
drawn either horizontally or vertically.
• There are two types of bar diagrams namely, Horizontal Bar
diagram and Vertical bar diagram.
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PIE CHART-

• In a pie chart, the various observations or

components are represented by the sectors of a circle
and the whole circle represents the sum of the value
of all the components.
• Clearly, the total angle of 360° at the centre of the circle is divided
according to the values of the components.
• Bars i.e. rectangles of equal width and usually of varying lengths are
drawn either horizontally or vertically.

FREQUENCY POLYGON-

• Frequency Polygon is another method

of representing frequency distribution
graphically.
• Obtain the frequency distribution and
compute the mid points of each class
interval.
• Represent the mid points along the X-
axis and the frequencies along the Y-
axis.
• Plot the points corresponding to the
frequency at each mid-point.

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 • Join these points, by straight lines in order.
• To complete the polygon, join the point at each end immediately to
the lower- or higher-class marks (as the case may be at zero
frequency) on the X-axis.

OGIVES OR CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPHS -

• By plotting cumulative frequency against

the respective class boundary, we get
ogives.
• As such there are two ogives – less than
type ogives, obtained by taking less than
cumulative frequency on the vertical axis
and more than type ogives -by plotting
more than type cumulative frequency on
the vertical axis and thereafter joining the
plotted points successively by line
segments.

4. Summarisation

It is important to summarize and provide information about your sample

data. It tells you something about the values in your data set. This includes
where the mean lies and whether your data is skewed. Summary statistics
fall into three main categories:

i. Measures of location (also called central tendency).

ii. Measures of spread/variability.
iii. Shape of data.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

• The central tendency of a group of scores (a distribution) refers to the

middle of the group of scores.
• Three measures of central tendency:
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  Mean
 Mode
 Median
 Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency.

MEAN

• Usually, the best measure of central tendency is the ordinary average,

the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. In statistics,
this is called the mean. The average, or mean, of a group of scores is a
representative value.
• The mean is the only measure of central tendency where the sum of
the deviations of each value from the mean is always zero.
• Formula for the Mean:

MEDIAN

• Another alternative to the mean is the median. If you line up all the
scores from lowest to highest, the middle score is the median.
• When you have an even number of scores, the median can be between
two different scores. In that situation, the median is the average (the
mean) of those two scores
• Steps for Finding the Median:
a. Line up all the scores from lowest to highest.
b. Figure how many scores there are to the middle score by adding
1 to the number of scores and dividing by 2. For example, with
29 scores, adding 1 and dividing by 2 gives you 15. The 15th
score is the middle score. If there are 50 scores, adding 1 and
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 dividing by 2 gives you 25.5. Because there are no half scores,
the 25th and 26th scores (the scores on either side of 25.5) are
the middle scores.
c. Count up to the middle score or scores. If
you have one middle score, this is the
median. If you have two middle scores, the
median is the average (the mean) of these
two scores.

MODE

• The mode is the most common single value in a

distribution
• mode is the value with the greatest frequency in a
distribution
• In a perfectly symmetrical unimodal distribution,
the mode is the same as the mean
• the mode is the usual way of describing the central tendency for a
nominal variable. For example, if you know the religions of a
particular group of people, the mode tells you for this group which
religion has the most people in it. However, when it comes to
figuring central tendency for numerical variables in psychology
research, the mode is rarely used.
• If there are two values that are tied for being the most frequently
occurring observation, the data has two modes, or is bimodal. A
distribution can also have three modes' or four modes, etc

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

• Measure of dispersion refers to how spread out the scores are in a

distribution. This shows the amount of variability in the
distribution.
• The variability of a distribution is the amount of spread of the
scores around the mean. In other words, how close or far from the
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 mean are the scores in a distribution? If the scores are mostly quite
close to the mean, then the distribution has less variability than if
the scores are further from the mean.
• Two measures of the variability of a group of scores: the variance
and standard deviation
• Standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion.

RANGE

• The range describes the spread of scores in a distribution. It is

calculated by subtracting the lowest from the highest score in the
distribution

Range formula=maximum value –minimum value

• Eg: consider the following data set 2,4,5,8,9,10

Range of this data set = maximum value –minimum value = 10-
2=8
Range=8

QUARTILES

• A quartile divides the number of data points into four parts, or

quarters, of more-or-less equal size.
• The data must be ordered from smallest to largest to compute
quartiles; as such, quartiles are a form of order statistic.

Interquartile range

The interquartile range (IQR), also called the mid-spread, middle 50%, or
H‑spread, is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to the
difference between 75th and 25th percentiles, or between upper and
lower quartiles.

IQR = Q3 – Q1
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 Semi-Interquartile range

Semi interquartile range is a measure of dispersion.it is computed as one

half the difference between the 75th percentile (Q3) and the 25th
percentile (Q1).

Semi Quartile Range = 𝐐𝟑−𝐐𝟏

𝟐

VARIANCE

• The variance of a group of scores is one kind of number that tells you
how spread out the scores are around the mean. To be precise, the
variance is the average of each score’s squared difference from the
mean.

4 steps to figure the variance

1) Subtract the mean from each score. This gives each score’s
deviation score, which is how far away the score is from the mean.
2) Square each of these deviation scores (multiply each by itself).
This gives each score’s squared deviation score.
3) Add up the squared deviation scores. This total is called the sum
of squared deviations.
4) Divide the sum of squared deviations by the number of scores.
This gives the average (the mean) of the squared deviations, called
the variance.

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ABSOLUTE DEVIATION

• The absolute deviation of an element of a data set is the absolute

difference between that element and a given point.
• The average absolute deviation of a data set is the average (or
expected value) of the absolute deviations and is a summary statistic
of statistical dispersion or variability.

Mean absolute deviation

 The mean absolute deviation (MAD), also referred to as the
mean deviation, is the mean of the absolute deviations of a set
of data.
 In other words, it is the average distance of the data set from its
mean during a certain number of time periods.

STANDARD DEVIATION

 The most widely used number to describe the spread of a group of scores
is the standard deviation.
 The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.
 There are two steps in figuring the standard deviation
1) Figure the variance.
2) Take the square root. The standard deviation is the positive
square root of the variance.
 If the variance of a group of scores is 100, the standard deviation is 10. If
the variance is 9, the standard deviation is 3.
 The variance is about squared deviations from the mean.

∑(𝑿−𝑴)𝟐
𝑆𝑆= √
𝑵

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SHAPE OF DATA/GRAPH

SKEWNESS

Skewness is a measure of asymmetry of the probability distribution of a

real-valued random variable.

 Positively skewed

In statistics, a positively skewed (or right-skewed) distribution is a type of

distribution in which most values are clustered around the left tail of the
distribution while the right tail of the distribution is longer.

 Negatively skewed

A negatively skewed (also known as left-skewed) distribution is a type of

distribution in which more values are concentrated on the right side (tail)
of the distribution graph while the left tail of the distribution graph is
longer.

KURTOSIS

 The term "kurtosis" refers to the "peakedness" or flatness of a frequency

distribution as compared with the normal.
 Kurtosis is a statistical measure used to describe the degree to which
scores cluster in the tails or the peak of a frequency distribution.
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 The peak is the tallest part of the distribution, and the tails are the ends
of the distribution.
 There are three types of kurtosis: mesokurtic, leptokurtic, and
platykurtic

1) Leptokurtic-peakedness
• A frequency distribution that is more peaked than the normal
distribution, having more scores in the center and fewer at the two
extremes

2) Mesokurtic-normal
• A frequency distribution that is neither flatter nor more peaked than
the normal distribution.
• That is, a mesokurtic arrangement of values follows a bell-shaped
curve, with the majority of scores clustered around a value at the
midpoint and a few extreme scores tapering off on either side.

3) Platykurtic-flatness
• A distribution of scores that is flatter than a normal distribution,
having more scores at the extremes and fewer in the center.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

• The most widely used classification of measurement scales are: (a)

nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

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CATEGORICAL/ DISCRETE/ QUALITATIVE VARIABLES

 A variable that takes only the whole number as its value is called a
discrete variable.
 For example, Number of people in a family, the number of students
in a class.
 Categorical variables can be further categorized as either nominal,
ordinal or dichotomous.

NOMINAL

 Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but
which do not have an intrinsic order.
 A nominal scale is an unordered set of categories identified only by
name. Nominal measurements only permit you to determine whether
two individuals are the same or different.
 Have no quantitative value.
 Example: religious affiliation, names, list of students, gender, country
or city you belong to, marital status, etc.

Dichotomous variable
 Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only
two categories or levels.
 For example, if we were looking at gender, we would most
probably categorize somebody as either "male" or "female". This
is an example of a dichotomous variable

ORDINAL

 An ordinal scale is an unordered set of categories identified only by

name.
 Ranking in an order.
 Example : Ratings or rank ordering

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CONTINUOUS VARIABLE

 A variable that can take any value, within a reasonable limits is called
a continuous variable
 These variables assume a range of values or an increase in fraction
and not in jumps.
 For example, age, height, weight etc…
 Continuous variables further categorized as either interval or ratio
variables.

INTERVAL
 An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized categories.
 Interval measurements identify the direction and magnitude of a
difference.
 Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but no absolute zero.
 The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero;
it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a
trait or characteristic.
 Example: Temperature

RATIO
 Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement.
 For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the
complete absence of length or height.
 Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of
physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are
examples.
 Ratio measurements identify the direction and magnitude of
differences and allow ratio comparisons of measurements.

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 Type of variable Best measure of central
tendency
Nominal Mode
Ordinal Median
Interval/ Ratio (not skewed) Mean
Interval/ Ratio (skewed) Median

VARIATE ANALYSIS

Analysis of variable is variate analysis.

UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS

 Univariate analysis is the simplest form of analyzing data.

 It doesn’t deal with causes or relationships (unlike regression ) and
it’s major purpose is to describe; It takes data, summarizes that data
and finds patterns in the data.
 Focuses on a single variable at a time (Descriptive statistics)

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

 Multivariate analysis is a set of statistical techniques used for

analysis of data that contain more than one variable.
 The only way to solve the complex problems and realise the full
potential is by analysing all variables and dimensions of the data
using multivariate analysis.
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BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

 Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest forms of quantitative

(statistical) analysis.
 It involves the analysis of two variables (often denoted as X, Y), for
the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them.
 Bivariate analysis can be helpful in testing simple hypotheses of
association.
 Example: Correlation

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE

 Normal probability curve is the frequency curve of any normal

distribution.
 It is an ideal symmetrical frequency curve and is supposed to be based,
on the data of a population.
 Normal probability curve is bell shaped curve.
 Laplace & Gauss derived the normal probability curve independently,
so the curve is also known as Gaussian curve in the honour of gauss.

Properties

 Normal probability curve is a bell shaped curve

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  All the three central tendencies: mean, median , mode coincide at
the middle and are equal.
 NPC is asymptotic to the X axis: It approaches but never touches the
baseline.
 The NPC is bilateral symmetric: it implies size, shape and slope of
the curve on one side are identical to that of the other side.
 The curve has its maximum height or ordinate at the starting point
ie;the mean of the distribution
 The first and third quartile (Q1 AND Q3) are at equal distance from
Q2 or median

Application of normal distribution

• To determine the percentage of cases in a normal distribution within

given limits
• To find the limits in any normal distribution which include a given
percentage of the cases
• To compare two distribution in terms of overlapping
• To determine the relative difficulty of test questions, problems, and
other test items
• To separate a given group into subgroups according to capacity, when
the trait is normally distributed

Normal distribution curve table- SD, Z score, T score, Percentile

score

SD

It defines the width of the normal distribution.

The standard deviation determines how far away from the mean the values
tend to fall.

It represents the typical distance between the observations and the average.

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T-distribution

T score are primarily used to find two things; the upper and lower bounds
of a confidence interval when the data are approximately normally
distributed

Percentile score

It indicates the percentage of scores that fall at or below a given score (e.g.,
if your score is at the 90th percentile, 90 percent of the scores fall at or
below your score)

Z score

It indicates the number of standard deviations your score is away from the
mean

CORRELATION AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS

CORRELATION

• Correlation analysis are another type of descriptive statistics that

measures to what extent two or more variables are related.
• Correlations help us understand the relationship and degree of
association between two variables.
• The usual measure of a correlation describes the relationship between
two equal- interval numeric variables
• Examples of correlations: in children, there is a correlation between
age and coordination skills; among students, there is a correlation
between amount of time studying and amount learned.

Scatter diagram

A graph showing the relationship between two variables: the values of one
variable are along the horizontal axis and the values of the other variable
are along the vertical axis; each score is shown as a dot in this two-
dimensional space.

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Correlation coefficient

Correlation coefficient (r) is the measure

of degree of linear correlation between
two variables ranging from -1 (a perfect
negative linear correlation) through 0
(no correlation) to +1 (a perfect positive
correlation).

Dependent variables/independent variable

• The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or

tested in an experiment. For example, in a study looking at how
tutoring impacts test scores, the dependent variable would be the
participants' test scores, since that is what is being measured.
The dependent variable is the variable that changes in response to the
independent variable.
• An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable
that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are
trying to measure. For example, someone's age might be an
independent variable.
The independent variable is the one the experimenter controls.

Positive and negative correlation

• Positive correlation is a relation between two variables in which the

value of one variable increases with respect to another.
• Negative correlation is a relation between two variables in which the
value of one variable decreases with respect to another, which means
as one variable goes down, the other goes up.

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Linear and non-linear correlation

• Linear correlation refers to straight-line relationships between two

variables. A correlation can range between -1 (perfect negative
relationship) and +1 (perfect positive relationship), with 0 indicating
no straight-line relationship.
• Non-linear or Curvilinear correlation is said to occur when the ratio
of change between two variables is not constant. It can happen that as
the value of one variable increases, similarly the value of another
variable increases/decreases.

Correlation analysis table

• A correlation matrix is a table showing correlation coefficients between

variables. Each cell in the table shows the correlation between two
variables.
• A correlation matrix is used to summarize data, as an input into a more
advanced analysis, and as a diagnostic for advanced analyses.

Pearson correlation

• Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is also known as the product

moment correlation coefficient.
• the Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient is usually
calculated for two continuous variables. If either or both the variables
are not continuous, then other statistical procedures are used.
• It is a measure of the strength of a linear association between two
variables and is denoted by ‘r’
• The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) can take a range of values from
+1 to -1.
• A value of ‘0’ indicates that there is no association between the two
variables.
∑ 𝒙𝒚
OR 𝒓 = ̅ and
where, 𝒙 = 𝑿 − 𝑿
√∑ 𝒙𝟐 × ∑ 𝒚𝟐
̅ x = X − ̅X (Raw score – Mean of X)
𝒚=𝒀−𝒀

y = Y − ̅Y (Raw score – Mean of Y)

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Rank-Order Correlation/ Spearman’s Rank order correlation

Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of correlation is used to measure correlation

between variables which are normally distributed. If population is not
normal, or the shape of the distribution is not known, another measure is to
be used to measure correlation that involves no assumption about the
parameter of the population.

Formula:
𝟐
R=1- 𝟔∑ 𝑫
𝑵(𝑵𝟐− 𝟏)

D - Difference of rank between paired items in two series.

R - Spearman's Rank Correlation correlation

N – Number of pairs

Biserial correlation

• The symbol of the correlation is 𝑟𝑏.it is a correlation between, one or

more quantities variables, but one of the variable is dichotomous ordinal
data and has an underlying continuity
• For example, dispersion level can be measured on a continuous scale ,
but can be classified dichotomously as high/low.

Point Biserial correlation

• The symbol of the correlation coefficient is 𝑟pb.

• correlation between one continous variable and other variable that is
true dichotomous.
• For example, correlation between height(continous) and
gender(dichotomy)

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Spearman Rho/Tetrachoric correlation

• The symbol of the correlation coefficient is 𝑟t

• Correlation between two continuous variable that have been arbitrarily
dichotomous.
• For example, correlation of tall versus short (arbitrarily dichotomous)
with pass versus fail in a physical fitness test (arbitrarily dichotomised).

Rank biserial correlation

• The rank biserial correlation coefficient,rrb , is used for dichotomous

nominal data vs ranking (ordinal).

Phi correlation

• The symbol of this correlation coefficient is ‘φ’. Correlation between two

true dichotomous variables.
• For example, correlation between male/ female and alive/dead

Partial correlation

• Partial correlation is the measure of association between two variables,

while controlling or adjusting the effect of one or more additional
variables.
• In other words, in partial correlation analysis, we aim at measuring the
relation between a dependent variable and a particular independent
variable by holding all other variables constant.
• Thus, each partial coefficient of correlation measures the effect of its
independent variable on the dependent variable.

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Variable X/Y Quantitative Ordinal X Nominal X
X
Quantitative Y Pearson r Biserial rb Point Biserial
rpb
Ordinal Y Biserial rb Spearman rho/ Rank Biserial
Tetrachoric rtest rrb
Nominal Y Point Biserial Rank Bierial rrb Phi, L, C,
rpb Lamba

REGRESSION

• The term "regression" was first used by Francis Galton.

• Regression analysis is a set of statistical processes for estimating the
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent
variable
• Regression is another name statistician use for prediction.
• Predictor variable (usually X): variable that is used to predict scores
of individuals on another variable.
• Criterion variable (usually Y): a variable that is predicted.
• Linear prediction rule formula for making predictions: formula for
predicting a person’s score on a criterion variable based on the person’s
score on one or more predictor variables.
• Regression constant (a) in a linear prediction rule, particular fixed
number added into the prediction.
• Regression coefficient (b) number multiplied by a person’s score on
a predictor variable as part of a linear prediction rule.

All linear prediction rules have this formula:

𝒀̂ = 𝒂 + (𝒃)(𝑿)

a = Y − 𝑏X

∑ 𝐗𝐘−∑ 𝐗 × ∑ 𝐘
b= ∑ 𝐗𝟐 − (
𝐍
∑𝐗 𝟐
)
𝐍

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Y : Dependent variable i.e. its value depends on X.

X : Independent variable. i.e., we can take a given value of X and

compute the value of Y.

a : Y intercept. Its value is the point at which the regression line crosses

theY axis.

b : Slope of curve/ line. It represents change in Y variable for a unit

change in X variable.

Positive and negative regression

• The sign of a regression coefficient tells you whether there is a positive

or negative correlation between each independent variable the
dependent variable.
• A positive coefficient indicates that as the value of the independent
variable increases, the mean of the dependent variable also tends to
increase.
• A negative coefficient suggests that as the independent variable
increases, the dependent variable tends to decrease.

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Regression coefficient

The Regression Coefficient is the constant 'b' in the regression equation

that tells about the change in the value of dependent variable
corresponding to the unit change in the independent variable.

RESEARCH

Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and

critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena”

- Kerlinger 1986

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to

identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic.

RESEARCH PROCESS/ STAGES IN RESEARCH

1) Formulating the research problem

2) Extensive literature review
3) Developing the hypothesis
4) Identifying, manipulating and controlling variables
5) Formulating the research design
6) Determining sample design
7) Collecting the data
8) Summarizing the results
9) Carrying out statistical analysis
10) Drawing conclusions

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research

problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. Essentially two steps are
involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the
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 problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view.

2. Extensive literature review: Once the problem is formulated, a brief

summary of it should be written down. For this purpose, the abstracting
and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature
of the problem.

3. Developing the hypothesis: When the researcher has identified the

problem and reviewed the relevant literature, he formulates a
hypothesis, which is a kind of suggested answer to the problem.
Hypothesis may be defined as a tentative statement showing a
relationship between variables under study. It is stated in the form of a
declarative sentence.

4. Identifying, manipulating and controlling variables: Variables

are defined as those characteristics which are manipulated, controlled
and observed by the experimenter.

5. Formulating the research design: A research design may be

regarded as the blueprint of those procedures which are adopted by the
researcher for testing the relationship between the dependent variable
and the independent variable. There are several kinds of experimental
designs and the selection of any one is based upon the purpose of the
research, types of variables to be controlled and manipulated as well as
upon the conditions under which the experiment is to be conducted.

6. Determining sample design: The researcher must decide the way of

selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. A

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 sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.

7. Collecting the data: Data collection is defined as the procedure of

collecting, measuring and analyzing accurate insights for research using
standard validated techniques. A researcher can evaluate their
hypothesis on the basis of collected data.
8. Summarizing results: By summarizing the results, a suitable analysis
can be made. There are two common methods for summarizing results –
the tabular method and graphical method.

9. Carrying out statistical analysis: There are two types of statistical

test – parametric and non-parametric test. Depending upon the nature
of data and purpose of experiment, either a parametric statistic or non-
parametric statistic is chosen for statistical analysis. The purpose of
statistical analysis is to reject the null hypothesis so that the alternative
hypothesis may be accepted.

10. Drawing conclusions: The researcher, after

analyzing the result, draws some conclusions. Whatever conclusion is
arrived at, he generalizes it to the whole population. At this stage, the
researcher also makes some predictions about certain related events or
behaviors in new situations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

The most general way of classifying research is to divide it into fundamental

or pure or basic research and applied research.

A fundamental research is the formal and systematic process where the

researcher’s aim is to develop a theory or a model by identifying all the
important variables in a situation and by discovering broad generalizations
and principles about those variables.

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The applied research applies the theory or model developed through the
fundamental research to the actual solution of the problems. The main
purpose of applied research is to test those theories in actual situations.

DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

A. EXPERIMENTAL/ NON-DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

B. NON-EXPERIMENTAL/ DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

A. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• An experiment is a type of research method in which the
investigator manipulates one or more independent variables and
measures their effect on one or more dependent variables.
• Experimental design means creating a set of procedures to test a
hypothesis.

Experimental group

 An experimental group (sometimes called a treatment group) is a

group that receives a treatment in an experiment.

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  The “group” is made up of test subjects (people, animals, plants,
cells etc.) and the “treatment” is the variable you are studying.
 For example, a human experimental group could receive a new
medication, a different form of counseling, or some vitamin
supplements.

Control group

 Control group is a comparison group in a study whose members

receive either no intervention at all or some established intervention.
 The responses of those in the control group are compared with the
responses of participants in one or more experimental groups that are
given the new treatment being evaluated.

Practice questions:

Find the Experimental and control group in the following questions:

1. Are grades influenced by the color of test paper?

Group 1: Has a red test
Group 2: Has a white test

2. Does the use of fertilizer increase the number of tomatoes the plant
produces?
Group 1: Uses fertilizer
Group 2: Uses plain water

Variables

 A variable is something that can be changed or varied, such as a

characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology
experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to
another.
 The independent variable is the one which is manipulated or selected
by the experimenter
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  The dependent variable is one about which the prediction is made on
the basis of the experiment. ie., the dependent variable is the one
which changes as the experimenter changes the independent
variables.
 Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent
variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a
specific study.
 A confounding of variables occurs when two variables are linked
together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific
effects.

Practice Questions

Find the IV and DV in the following questions

 A scientist studies the impact of a drug on cancer.

 An entomologist (bug scientist) wants to determine if temperature

changes how many times a cricket chirp.

Characteristics of Experimental Research

 manipulation of one or more independent variables

 control over extraneous variables.
 Measuring Dependent Variables

True Experimental Research

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• True experiment allows the researcher to assess whether, and the
degree to which, a variable (the possible cause) manipulated by
the experimenter leads to a change in another variable (the
effect).
• In a true experiment, there is a Control Group, which won’t be
subject to changes, and an Experimental Group, which will
experience the changed variables.

Quasi Experimental Research

• Quasi-experiments allow comparisons to be made in observations
across time and among groups with the assumption that these
groups may not be equivalent to each other.
• Researchers using a quasi-experimental design do not use random
assignment and lack sufficient control over the variables.
• There are several common differences between true and quasi-
experimental designs.
True experiment Quasi-
experiment
Assignment to The researcher Some other, non-
treatment randomly assigns random method is
subjects to control and used to assign
treatment groups. subjects to groups.

Control over The researcher usually The researcher often

treatment designs the treatment does not have
and decides which control over the
subjects receive it. treatment, but
instead studies pre-
existing groupsthat
received different
treatments after the
fact.
Use of control Requires the use of Control groups are
groups control and not required
treatment groups. (although they are
commonly used).

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B. NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Non-experimental research is the label given to a study when a
researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the variables or
subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation or
interactions to come to a conclusion.
• The non-experimental researcher must rely on correlations,
surveys or case studies, and cannot demonstrate a true cause-and-
effect relationship.
• Non-experimental research tends to have a high level of external
validity, meaning it can be generalized to a larger population.

Types of Non-experimental Research

1. Historical Research
• Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time.
• It is used to compare records of historical events and the activities
surrounding them. This type of research also helps to organize
historical events sequentially, and to preserve historical data so it
doesn’t get lost.

2. Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research involves the process of objectively
collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or
control variables of interest.
 Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of
behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts.
Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or
reject it.

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 3. Correlational Research
• Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research
method in which a researcher measures two variables
(independent and dependent variable), understands and assesses
the statistical relationship between them with no influence from
any extraneous variable.
• In correlational research, you make no attempt to manipulate
variables but observe them “as is.”
• A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that calculates the
strength of the relationship between two variables. It is a value
measured between -1 and +1.
 When the correlation coefficient is close to +1, there is a positive
correlation between the two variables.
 If the value is close to -1, there is a negative correlation between
the two variables.
 When the value is close to zero, then there is no relationship
between the two variables.

4. Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-
numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand
concepts, opinions, or experiences.
• It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research.
• It aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in
depth interviews for the purpose.
• Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar
other projective techniques.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research.

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 5. Ex-post-facto Research
• Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of
research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has
occurred without interference from the researcher.
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
• Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as,
for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or
similar data.
• Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to
discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

1. Observation
 In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful
observation of behavior without intervening directly with the
subjects.
 This type of research is called naturalistic because behavior is
allowed to unfold naturally (without interference) in its natural
environment—that is, the setting in which it would normally occur.
 In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of
the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed
information, standardized conditions of observation and the
selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation.
 When observation is to take place without these characteristics to
be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation.

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  Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive
studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational
procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
 If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a
member of the group he is observing so that he can experience
what the members of the group experience, the observation is
called as the participant observation.
 When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what
others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-
participant observation
 If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be
termed as uncontrolled observation
 when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged
plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed
controlled observation
 The major strength of naturalistic observation is that it allows
researchers to study behavior under conditions that are less
artificial than in experiments.
 A major problem with this method is that researchers often have
trouble making their observations unobtrusively so they don’t
affect their participants’ behavior.

2. Interview Method
 Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person
known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-
face contact to the other person or persons.
 Structured interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined
questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording.
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order
prescribed.
 The unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of
approach to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a

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 system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques
of recording information
 The semi-structured interview is the most common form of
interviewing. In it, the interviewer has worked out a set of
questions beforehand, but intends the interview to be
conversational.
 Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given
experience of the respondent and its effects.
 The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings
or motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience.
 In case of non-directive interview, the interviewer’s function is
simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic
with a bare minimum of direct questioning.
 Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information
consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself

3. Case Studies
 A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
 When this method is applied to victims of suicide the case studies
are called psychological autopsies
 Case studies are particularly well suited for investigating certain
phenomena, such as psychological disorders
 In normal circumstances, when the participants are not deceased,
typical techniques include interviewing the subjects, interviewing
people who are close to the subjects, direct observation of the
subjects, examination of records, and psychological testing
 The main problem with case studies is that they are highly
subjective

4. Surveys
 In a survey researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather
information about specific aspects of participants’ background and
behavior

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  Surveys are often used to obtain information on aspects of
behavior that are difficult to observe directly.
 The major problem with surveys is that they depend on self-report
data.

5. Meta Analysis
 A Statistical technique called meta-analysis can be used to
combine the results of many studies as if they were all part of
one big study
 In other words, a meta-analysis is a study of the results of other
studies. In recent years, meta-analysis has been used to
summarize and synthesize mountains of psychological research.
 This allows us to see the big picture and draw
 conclusions that might be missed in a single, small-scale study
6. Focus Group Discussions
 A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research method
and data collection technique in which a selected group of people
discusses a given topic or issue in-depth, facilitated by a
professional, external moderator
 FDG allows the investigator to solicit both the participants’ shared
narrative as well as their differences in terms of experiences,
opinions and worldviews during such ‘open’ discussion rounds.

7. Narrative Inquiry
 Narrative inquiry is a form of qualitative research in which the
stories themselves become the raw data.
 This approach has been used in many disciplines to learn more
about the culture, historical experiences, identity, and lifestyle

8. Archival Research.
 Some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without
interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use
existing records to answer various research questions. This type of
research approach is known as archival research.
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  Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to
look for interesting patterns or relationships.
 For example, a researcher might access the academic records of all
individuals who enrolled in college within the past ten years and
calculate how long it took them to complete their degrees, as well
as course loads, grades, and extracurricular involvement.

9. Content Analysis
 A method of systematic observation of communications or of
current records or documents
 The primary sources of data are letters, autobiographies, diaries,
compositions, printed forms, films, pictures, cartoon etc.
 Can be used with responses of projective tests, With all kind of
verbal materials and with material specially produced for research
problems

10. Phenomenological Study

 Phenomenology helps us to understand the meaning of people's
lived experience.
 A phenomenological study explores what people experienced
and focuses on their experience of a phenomena
 For example, the lived experiences of family members waiting
for a loved one undergoing major surgery.

11. Cross Cultural studies

 Cross-cultural psychology is the study of similarities and
differences in behavior among individuals who have developed in
different cultures.
 The search for relationships between cultural context and human
behavior is carried out within three general frames of reference.

12. Action Research

 It refers to a type of research methodology which works toward a
kind of change (whether social or professional).
 Because its goals are oriented toward change rather than
knowledge-gathering alone, active research studies are often based

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 in everyday issues, and concern themselves with the creation of
practical solutions to these problems.

13. Ethnographic Research

 Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers
observe and/or interact with a study's participants in their real-
life environment

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

1. Laboratory Experiments
 A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly
controlled conditions (not necessarily a laboratory), where
accurate measurements are possible. 
 The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at
what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and
using a standardized procedure.
2. Field Experiments
 Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life)
environment of the participants.
 The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable,
but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous
variables).

3. Natural Experiments
 Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real
life) environment of the participants, but here the
experimenter has no control over the independent variable as
it occurs naturally in real life.

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RESEARCH DESIGN

 The research design is the detailed plan of the investigation.

 The research design can be defined as the sequence of those
steps taken ahead of time to ensure that the relevant data will
be collected in a way that permits objective analysis of the
different hypotheses formulated with respect to the research
problems.

TYPES

1) Between group design

An experimental design which involves two (or more) groups of

participants simultaneously being tested. In the process, the effect of
treatments can be measured and assessed by comparing data between
groups.

2) Matched group design

 Matched group design (also known as matched subjects design)
is used in experimental research in order for different
experimental conditions to be observed while being able to
control for individual difference by matching similar subjects or
groups with each other.
 By using matched groups the researchers can see how the different
conditions were influential and know that the results were not
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 confounded by the individual differences because they had been
evenly distributed across the two groups. Example:
Suppose researchers want to know how a new diet affects weight
loss compared to a standard diet. Since this experiment only has
two treatment conditions (new diet and standard diet), they can
use a matched pairs design.
They recruit 100 subjects, then group the subjects into 50 pairs
based on their age and gender. For example:
 A 25-year-old male will be paired
with another 25-year-old male,
since they “match” in terms of age
and gender.
 A 30-year-old female will be paired
with another 30-year-old female
since they also match on age and
gender, and so on.
Then, within each pair, one subject will
randomly be assigned to follow the new
diet for 30 days and the other subject will
be assigned to follow the standard diet for
30 days. At the end of the 30 days,
researchers will measure the total weight
loss for each subject.

3) Within group design

In a within-subjects design, or a
within-groups design, all
participants take part in every
condition. It’s the opposite of a
between-subjects design, where
each participant experiences only
one condition.

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4) Developmental Designs
 Longitudinal Design : Longitudinal research involves beginning
with a group of people who may be of the same age and
background (cohort) and measuring them repeatedly over a
period of time.

 Cross Sectional Designs: The majority

of developmental studies use cross-
sectional designs because they are less
time-consuming and less expensive
than other developmental
designs. Cross-sectional
research designs are used to examine
behavior in participants of different
ages who are tested at the same point in
time

 Cross Sequential/ Sequential Cohort Designs: Sequential

research designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-
sectional research designs. Similar to longitudinal designs,
sequential research features participants who are followed over
time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential research
includes participants of different ages

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PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimenter bias

 Experimenter bias, also known as research bias, occurs when a

researcher unconsciously affects results, data, or a participant in an
experiment due to subjective influence.
 It is difficult for humans to be entirely objective which is not being
influenced by personal emotions, desires, or biases.
 For example, a researcher may inadvertently cue participants to behave
or respond in a particular way.

Placebo effect

 The placebo effect is when an improvement of symptoms is observed,

despite using a non-active treatment.
 It's believed to occur due to psychological factors like expectations or
classical conditioning.
 Research has found that the placebo effect can ease things like pain,
fatigue, or depression.
 In most cases, the person does not know that the treatment they are
receiving is actually a placebo. Instead, they believe that they are the
recipient of the real treatment.
 The placebo is designed to seem exactly like the real treatment, yet the
substance has no actual effect on the condition it purports to treat.
 An example of a placebo would be a sugar pill that's used in a control
group during a clinical trial.

Hawthorne effect

 Hawthorne effect, also called the observer effect, the effect on the
behavior of individuals of knowing that they are being observed or are
taking part in research.

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 To control for the Hawthorne effect, researchers use a control group
design, and observe both the control group and the experimental group.
 For instance, employees may work harder and more diligently knowing
their manager is closely watching, or children behave better because
they are being watched by their parents.

Demand characteristics

 A demand characteristic is a subtle cue that makes participants aware of

what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected
to behave.
 The assumption is that if subjects have an idea what the researcher
expects, they will perform as expected.
 For example, suppose a researcher is studying problem-solving skills.
The experimenter might get a baseline measurement of skill level and
then give one group training on problem-solving skills, and allow other
group to watch T.V. Subjects receiving the training might realize that the
experimenter expects them to do better on the second test and may try
to do well on the second test as a result.

Single blinding
 Single blinding is a procedure in which participants are unaware of the
experimental conditions under which they are operating.
 For example, imagine that researchers are doing a study to determine if
a certain type of medication causes people to feel more alert. If
participants knew that the researchers were testing a hypothesis that the
drug increased alertness, they might start acting more alert after
ingesting the medication.
 By using a single-blind procedure and not telling the participants what
they are looking for, the people who are in the study are less likely to
inadvertently bias the results.

Double blinding

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 Double blinding is a procedure in which both the participants and the
experimenters interacting with them are unaware of the particular
experimental conditions.
 For example, let's imagine that researchers are investigating the effects
of a new drug. In a double-blind study, the researchers who interact with
the participants would not know who was receiving the actual drug and
who was receiving a placebo.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out
research. Ethical issues in psychology are as follows:
 Informed Consent
 Debriefing
 Protection of Participants
 Deception
 Confidentiality
 Withdrawal

Informed Consent

 Informed consent is the process by which researchers working with

human participants describe their research project and obtain the
subjects' consent to participate in the research based on the subjects'
understanding of the project's methods and goals.
Psychologists must inform participants about

1) the purpose of the research, expected duration and procedures;

2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research
once participation has begun;
3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;

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4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their
willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort or adverse
effects;
5) any prospective research benefits;
6) limits of confidentiality;
7) incentives for participation; and
8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research
participants' rights.

Debriefing

 Debriefing is the procedure that is conducted in psychological research

with human subjects after an experiment or study has been concluded.
 It involves a structured or semi structured interview between the
researcher and the subjects whereby all elements of the study are
discussed in detail.
 During the debriefing process, subjects are informed about what the
hypothesis for the experiment was as well.

Protection of Participants

 Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will not be
caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm.
This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm
participants.
 The researcher must also ensure that if vulnerable groups are to be used
(elderly, disabled, children, etc.), they must receive special care.
 Researchers are not always accurately able to predict the risks of taking
part in a study and in some cases, a therapeutic debriefing may be
necessary if participants have become disturbed during the research (as
happened to some participants in Zimbardo’s prisoners/guards study).

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Deception

 Deception occurs as the result of investigators providing false or

incomplete information to participants for the purpose of misleading
research subjects.
 Types of deception include
i. deliberate misleading, e.g., using confederates, staged
manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions;
ii. deception by omission, e.g., failure to disclose full information about
the study, or creating ambiguity.

Confidentiality

 Confidentiality refers to the researcher's agreement to handle, store, and

share research data to ensure that information obtained from and about
research participants is not improperly divulged.
 Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous
unless they give their full consent.
 Individuals may only be willing to share information for research
purposes with an understanding that the information will remain
protected from disclosure outside of the research setting or to
unauthorized persons.

Withdrawal

 Participants should be able to leave a study at any time if they feel

uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data.
 They should be told at the start of the study that they have the right to
withdraw. When withdrawing from the study, the participant should let
the research team know that he/she wishes to withdraw.
 They should not have pressure placed upon them to continue if they do
not want to. Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw as this may
‘spoil’ the study.

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POPULATION AND SAMPLING

• Population: All items in any field of inquiry constitute a

population.
• Sample: A group of people, objects, or items that are taken from
a larger population for measurement. The sample should be the
representative group of the population to ensure that we can
generalise the findings from the research sample to the
population as a whole.
• The selected respondents is the sample and the selection process
is called sampling technique. The survey so conducted is known as
sample survey.
• Census: A complete enumeration of all items in the population is
known as census.
• Parameter: It is the single value obtained to describe in a
summary fashion, the characteristics about a population. OR
A population parameter can also be described as the statistical
representation of a population.
• Statistics: It is a single value obtained to describe in a summary
fashion, the characteristics of a sample.
• Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger
population. For example, if you are researching the opinions of
students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100
students.

METHODS OF SAMPLING

Sampling methods are

basically of two types

● Probability sampling
● Non-probability
sampling

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING

In probability sampling, each member of the population has a definable

probability of being selected for the sample. ie., the items will be chosen
strictly random.

1. Simple Random Sampling

•
• In simple random sampling, each
member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected as a
member of the sample.
• To select a random sample of 100
students from your school, for
instance, you could place all of their names in a large hat and pick
out 100.
• Major advantages include its simplicity and lack of personal bias
of the investigator.
• There are two problems with simple random sampling.
⮚ First, there may be systematic features of the population you
might like to have reflected in your sample.
⮚ Second, the procedure may not be practical if the population is
extremely large.

2. Systematic Sampling
• A type of probability sampling method formed by selecting one
unit at random and then selecting additional units at evenly
spaced intervals until the sample has been selected.
• Popularly used where a complete list of population from which
sample is to be drawn is available.
• This fixed, periodic interval called the sampling interval is
calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample
size.
K=𝑁
𝑛
K – Sampling interval

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 N – Universe size
n – Sample size

• The list may be prepared

alphabetical, geographical,
numerical or some other order.

3. Stratified Sampling
• If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is
generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample.
• Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into several
sub- populations called strata that are individually more
homogeneous than the total population and then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample.
• Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total
population, we are able to get more precise estimates for each
stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the component
parts, we get a better estimate of the whole.
• Stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed
information.

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 4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is often used to study
large populations, particularly those that
are widely geographically dispersed. In
cluster sampling, researchers divide a
population into smaller groups known as
clusters. They then randomly select
among these clusters to form a sample.

NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING

In which we do not provide every item in the universe with a known chance
of being included in the sample. The selection process is atleast partially
subjective. Items are selected according to the convenience of the
researcher.

1) Convenience Sampling/ Chunk

● A chunk refers to that fraction of population being investigated which
is selected neither by probability nor by judgment but by
convenience.
● A sample obtained from readily available lists such as automobile
registrations, telephone directories etc are a convenience sample and
not a random sample even if the sample is drawn at random from the
list.

2) Purposive Sampling
● Also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling, is a
form of non-probability sampling in which researchers rely on their
own judgment when choosing members of the population to
participate in their study.
● For instance, when Stanley Milgram first recruited participants for
his obedience studies, he placed ads in the local newspaper asking
for volunteers. He deliberately avoided using college students

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 because he was concerned, they might be too homogeneous a
group. He wanted a wide range of individuals drawn from a broad
spectrum of class backgrounds.

3) Snowball Sampling
• Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study
is very rare (e.g., people who have an infrequent condition or
disease) or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population.
This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After
observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance
from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of
interest.
• Once we have found individuals with the necessary characteristic,
we ask them whether they know of anyone else with that
characteristic who may be willing to take part in our research.

4) Quota Sampling
• Most commonly used non-probability sampling technique.
• Sampling in which researchers create a sample involving
individuals that represent a population. Researchers choose these
individuals according to specific traits or qualities.
• For example, you could divide a population by the state they live
in, income or education level, or sex. The population is divided
into groups (also called quota) and samples are taken from each
group.
• Care is taken to maintain the correct proportions representative of
the population.

ERRORS

The errors involved in the collection of data are classified into sampling and
non-sampling errors.

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Sampling errors

● The errors arising due to drawing inferences about the population on

the basis of few observations is termed as sampling errors.
● It is the difference between statistics and parameter and will only
occur in sampling survey.
Non-sampling errors

The errors which arise at the stage of collection and preparation of data and
thus are present in both the sample survey and census survey. Thus the
data obtained in census survey is free from sampling errors, however
subjected to non-sampling errors.

VARIABLES

Variable is a characterstic or property that varies in amount or kind that

can be measured.
By systematically varying some variables and measuring the effects on
other variables, researchers can determine if changes to one thing result in
changes in something else.

Classification of Variables
There are numerous different types of variable in psychology which may be
indicative of the importance of the concept in psychology.

Independent Variable
• The independent variable (IV) is the variable whose effect is being
studied the variable that the experimenter manipulates.
• For example, in an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation
on test performance, sleep deprivation would be the independent
variable.

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Dependent Variable

• The dependent variable (DV) is the response that is expected to

vary with differences in the independent variable.
• In our previous example, the scores on the test performance
measure would be the dependent variable.

Extraneous variables

• Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the

independent variable, but could affect the results of the experiment.
• The researcher wants to make sure that it is the manipulation of the
independent variable that has an effect on the dependent variable.
Hence, all the other variables that could affect the dependent
variable to change must be controlled. These other variables are
called extraneous variables.
Experimenters rule out the possible biasing effects of extraneous variables
by using four basic types of control.

a. Elimination: Control by elimination means that experimenters

remove the suspected extraneous variables by holding them constant
across all experimental conditions.

b. Randomization: This involves using a procedure (e.g., coin toss,

table of random numbers) that ensures that all participants have the
same probability of being assigned to each of the conditions. Random
assignment minimizes the likelihood that the participants in one
condition differ on average from those in another condition on
extraneous variables (e.g., intelligence, personality factors) that might
influence how they respond to the measurement of the dependent
variable.
c. Matching: This involves matching different groups of confounding
variables. Different confounding variables like gender, age, income
etc. could be distributed equally amongst the group.

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 d. Experimental control: This involves ensuring that participants in
the different experimental conditions are exposed to the same
environmental stimuli (e.g., room, experimenter, instructions) with
the exception of the independent variable.

Active variable

• An active variable is a variable that is manipulated by the

investigator.
• It's designed to shine light on some part of a question or problem,
and its usefulness comes in the way it can be controlled by a
researcher.
• Because of that, an active variable changes in a well-defined and
carefully manipulated way over the course of an experiment.
• An active variable is the opposite of an attribute or passive variable,
which cannot be manipulated.
• Examples of this type of variable are teaching methods, training
regimens, and the like, which can be altered to gauge their effect on
phenomena.

Attribute variables

• An attribute variable is a variable that cannot be manipulated.

• An example of an attribute variable is gender, race, psychological
condition, and or any characteristic that is inherent or pre-
programmed and cannot be altered.

Qualitative variables

• Qualitative variables are ones in which measurement consists of

categorising cases in terms of two or more named categories. They
are also known as nominal, category or categorical variables.
• The number of different categories employed is also used to
describe these variables:

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 ⮚ Dichotomous, binomial or binary variables: These are merely
variables which are measured using just two different values. For
example, one category could be ‘friend’ while the other category
would be strangers.
⮚ Multinomial variables: When a nominal variable has more than
two values it is described as a multinomial, polychomous or
polytomous variable. We could have the four categories of ‘friend’,
‘family member’, ‘acquaintance’ and ‘strangers’.

Quantitative variable

• Quantitative variable is a variable whose values result from

counting or measuring something.
• A simple example of a quantitative variable might be social class
(socio-economic status is a common variable to use in research).
Suppose that social class is measured using the three different
values of lower, middle and upper class. Lower class may be given
the value of 1, middle class the value of 2 and upper class the value
of 3. Hence, higher values represent higher social status.

Continuous variables

• Continuous variables are those that have an ordered sense of values

within a certain range, with a theoretical infinite number of values
within that range.
• An example of this type of variable is intelligence, which can be
designated high, medium, or low depending on scores on
achievement tests.

Discrete variables

• A discrete variable can only have finite values and comes from a
specifically defined set.

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 • An example of a discrete variable is how many pennies you have in
your wallet. You could have 0,1,2,3,4, or 100 pennies in your wallet-
but you cannot have 2.4 or 3.7 pennies in your wallet.

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is a tentative and testable explanation of the relationship

between two or more variables. It is a tentative answer to your research
question that has not yet been tested. OR

It is an assumption about a population parameter. This may or may not be

true.

For example: “Students who receive counselling will show a greater

increase in creativity than students not receiving counselling”

Characteristics of hypothesis

Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise.

2. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.
3. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to
be a relational hypothesis.
4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.
5. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so
that the same is easily understandable by all concerned.
6. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts.
7. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.
8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation.

Functions of a Hypothesis

● Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

● It becomes the starting point for the investigation.
● Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
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● It helps in directing the inquiries in the right directions.

Null hypothesis (H0)

• A type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that there is

no difference between certain characteristics of a population ie., a
hypothesis of no difference.
• For example, if we want to find out whether extra coaching has
benefited the students or not, we shall set up a null hypothesis
that “extra coaching has not benefited the students”.
• It is the opposite of the alternate hypothesis.
• Researchers work to reject, nullify or disprove the null hypothesis.

True hypothesis (Ha or H1)

• Alternative or true hypothesis defines there is a statistically

important relationship between two variables.
• In hypothesis testing, an alternative theory is a statement which a
researcher is testing.
• This statement is true from the researcher’s point of view and
ultimately proves to reject the null to replace it with an alternative
assumption.

STATISTICAL TESTS

Statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to make a decision
about whether the null hypothesis should be rejected or not. The numerical
value obtained from a statistical test is called the test value/ test statistics.

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BASIC CONCEPTS

Type I and Type II errors

In the context of testing of hypotheses,

there are basically two types of errors -
Type I errors and Type II errors.

Type I error (false positive)

A type 1 error occurs when we reject a

true null hypothesis when it is actually
correct/true.

Level of significance (α) - The

probability of making a type I error is denoted by α.

P (Type I error) = α

If α=0.10, it means that there is 10%

chance of rejecting a true null
hypothesis.

Statisticians generally agree on using 3

arbitrary significance levels: 0.10
(10%), 0.05 (5%) and 0.01 (1%)

Type II error (false negative)

A type II error occurs when we accept the null hypothesis when it is actually
false. Here a researcher concludes there is not a significant effect, when
actually there really is.

The probability of making a type II error is called Beta (β)

P (Type II error) = β

Power of a test/ Power of critical region = 1- β 1- β = P (taking

correct decision)
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 1- β = P (rejecting the Ho when it is actually false)

You can decrease your risk of committing a type II error by ensuring your
test has enough power.

Critical value (CV)

The value which separates the critical region from acceptance region is
known as critical value.

P value (exact level of significance)

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 ● It is the lowest significance level at which the
Ho can be rejected.
● It is also known as calculated probability.
● A p-value of 0.05 indicates that you are willing
to accept a 5% chance that you are wrong when
you reject the null hypothesis,
● A p value is considered convincing when it is less than 0.01 or 0.05.

Critical region/ Rejection region

The region of rejection is called the critical region.

One-tailed test and Two-tailed test

● Two-tailed test/ Non-directional hypothesis

If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be difference between
the two groups, then it is a non-directional hypothesis.

Example: “Smoking leads to lung cancer”

● One-tailed/ Directional hypothesis

If the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as ‘greater’,
‘less’, ‘increases’ or ‘decreases’, then it is a directional hypothesis
because it predicts that there will be a difference between the two
groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ.
Example: “Smoking will increase the chances of lung cancer in a
person than a person who do not smoke”

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 Basis of One-tailed test Two-tailed test
comparison

Meaning A statistical hypothesis test in A significance test in which

which alternative hypothesis has alternative hypothesis has two
only one end, is known as one ends, is called two-tailed test.
tailed test.

Hypothesis Directional Non-directional

Region of rejection Either left or right Both left and right

Determines If there is a relationship between If there is a relationship

variables in single direction. between variables in either
direction.

Result Greater or less than certain value. Greater or less than certain
range of values.

Sign in alternative > or < ≠

hypothesis

Degrees of freedom (df)

Degrees of freedom refers to the maximum number of logically

independent values, which are values that have the freedom to vary, in the

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data sample.

Significance tests

• A significance test is one tool researchers use to draw conclusions

about populations based upon research conducted on samples.
• With a significance test, the researcher is trying to show that one
hypothesis (the research hypothesis, or the alternate hypothesis) is
supported by the data by showing that other possible hypotheses
(represented by the null hypothesis) are inconsistent with the data
collected.

Processes

Step 1: Formulate alternative and null hypotheses based on your research

hypothesis.

Step 2: Decide on a criterion of significance (usually 5 percent).

Step 3: Collect data.

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Step 4: Perform significance test on your data in order to obtain the
significance level.

Step 5: Compare the obtained significance level to the criterion of

significance. lf the significance level is less than the criterion of significance,
the results are statistically significant. Otherwise the results are statistically
insignificant.

Step 6: lf the results are statistically significant, reject the null hypothesis.
lf the results are statistically insignificant, accept the null hypothesis.

t test

t test is a hypothesis-testing procedure in which the population variance is

unknown. It compares t scores from a sample to a comparison distribution
called a t distribution.

t test for a single sample:

t test for a single sample is a hypothesis testing procedure in which a

sample mean is being compared to a known population mean and the
population variance is unknown. It is also called a one-sample t test. It
works basically the same way as the Z test.

t test for dependent means:

t test for dependent means is hypothesis-testing procedure in which there

are two scores for each person and the population variance is not known. It
determines the significance of a hypothesis that is being tested using
difference or change scores from a single group of people.

Chi-square test

• Chi-square tests are significance tests that work with categorical,

rather than numerical data.

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 • When the data collected are not numbers, but names or categories,
such as male or female, and you are making inferences about data
of this type, we use chi-square test.

ANOVA

• Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a hypothesis-testing procedure for

studies with three or more independent groups.
• If a group of psychiatric patients are trying three different
therapies: counseling, medication and biofeedback and we want to
see if one therapy is better than the others, we use ANOVA.
• One-way or two-way refers to the number of independent variables
(IVs) in your Analysis of Variance test.
⮚ One-way has one independent variable (with 2 levels).
⮚ Two-way has two independent variables (it can have multiple levels).
Groups or levels are different groups within the same independent variable.
Suppose you are studying if an alcoholic support group and individual
counseling combined is the most effective treatment for lowering alcohol
consumption. You might split the study participants into three groups or
levels: medication only, medication and counseling, counseling only. Your
dependent variable would be the number of alcoholic beverages consumed
per day.

One Way ANOVA

• A one way ANOVA is used to compare means of three or more

levels of one independent variable using the F-distribution.
• For example, if a researcher is studying the effects of tea on weight
loss, he may form three groups: green tea, black tea, and no tea.
Two Way ANOVA

• A Two Way ANOVA is an extension of the One Way ANOVA.

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 • With a One Way, you have one independent variable affecting a
dependent variable. With a Two Way ANOVA, there are two
independent variables.

PARAMETRIC TESTS AND THEIR NON-PARAMETRIC

COUNTERPARTS

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

Classification of tests

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

RELAIBILITY

Reliability refers to the precision or accuracy of the measurement or score.

A well-made scientific instrument should yield accurate results both at
present as well as over time. I.e., such an instrument should give consistent
results.

Therefore, reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the

same persons when reexamined with the same test on different occasions,

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or with different sets of equivalent items, or under other variable examining
conditions.

High reliability means that the test measures are dependable, reproducible,
and consistent. We would expect that an individual would score about the
same when retested on the same test or a comparable form of the test. In
practice, no test is perfectly reliable.

TYPES OF RELIABILITY

1. Test-retest reliability
• Test–retest reliability involves administering the test twice to
the same group of respondents, with an interval between the two
administrations. This would yield two measures for the person, the
score on the first occasion and the score on the second occasion.
• A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient calculated on
these data would give us a reliability coefficient directly.
• Drawback: Subjects may recall their answers on the original test
and therefore artificially inflate the reliability coefficient.

2. Alternate form reliability

● Alternate form reliability, also known as parallel-forms reliability,
equivalent-forms reliability and the comparable-forms reliability,
occurs when an individual is given two different versions of
the same test at different times.
● The correlation between the scores obtained on the two forms
represents the reliability coefficient of the test.

3. Internal consistency reliability

● Internal consistency reliability indicates the homogeneity of the
test. If all the items of the test measure the same function or trait,
the test is said to be a homogeneous one and its internal
consistency reliability would be pretty high.

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 ● The most common method of estimating internal consistency
reliability is the split-half method in which the test is divided
into two equal or nearly equal halves. These halves will be
correlated with the help of the Pearson product–moment formula
and the reliability coefficient is called coefficient of internal
consistency.
● There are different methods to split the test into two equal halves.
⮚ Odd-items and even-items are scored separately and those are
considered as two separate halves.
⮚ Items ‘1’ and ‘2’ will go to the first score, Items ‘3’ and ‘4’ will go
to the second score, Items ‘5’ and ‘6’ will go to the first score,
Items ‘7’ and ‘8’ will go to the second score, and so on.
⮚ Divide the test into two halves is to consider the first 50 per
cent items as one half and the second 50 per cent items as the
other half.

4. Inter-rater reliability
● Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which two or more raters (or
observers, coders, examiners) agree.
● It addresses the issue of consistency of the implementation of a
rating system.
● High inter-rater reliability values refer to a high degree of
agreement between two examiners.
● Low inter-rater reliability values refer to a low degree of agreement
between two examiners.
● The evaluation of the consistency of clinician’s neuropsychological
diagnoses is an example for inter-rater reliability.

VALIDITY

● Validity of a test refers to the extent to which a test measures what

it claims to measure. A test is valid to the extent that inferences
made from it are appropriate, meaningful, and useful.

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 ● If research has high validity that means it produces results that
correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the
physical or social world.
● High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid.

TYPES OF VALIDITY

Content validity

● Content validity is determined by the degree to which the

questions, tasks, or items on a test are representative of the
universe of behavior the test was designed to sample.
● If the sample (specific items on the test) is representative of the
population (all possible items), then the test possesses content
validity.

Face validity

● Face validity is the mere appearance that a measure has validity.

● We often say a test has face validity if the items seem to be
reasonably related to the perceived purpose of the test.
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 ● It is really a matter of social acceptability and not a technical form
of validity in the same category as content, criterion-related, or
construct validity.
● In many settings, it is crucial to have a test that “looks like” it is
valid. These appearances can help motivate test takers because
they can see that the test is relevant. From a public relations
standpoint, it is crucial that tests possess face validity— otherwise
those who take the tests may be dissatisfied and doubt the value of
psychological testing.

Criterion validity

● Criterion-related validity is demonstrated when a test is shown to

be effective in estimating an examinee’s performance on some
outcome measure.
● In this context, the variable of primary interest is the outcome
measure, called a criterion. The test score is useful only insofar as
it provides a basis for accurate prediction of the criterion.
● For example, a college entrance exam that is reasonably accurate
in predicting the subsequent grade point average of examinees
would possess criterion-related validity.
● There are two types of criterion-related validity:
⮚ Concurrent validity
⮚ Predictive validity

Concurrent validity

⮚ In concurrent validity, the criterion measures are obtained at

approximately the same time as the test scores.
⮚ For example, the current psychiatric diagnosis of patients would
be an appropriate criterion measure to provide validation
evidence for a paper-and-pencil psycho diagnostic test.

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Predictive validity

⮚ In predictive validity, the criterion measures are obtained in the

future, usually months or years after the test scores are
obtained, as with the college grades predicted from an entrance
exam.

Construct validity

● Construct validity refers to how well performance on the test fits

into the theoretical framework related to what it is you want the
test to measure.
● Construct is a theoretical, intangible quality or trait in which
individuals differ.
● Examples of constructs include leadership ability, over controlled
hostility, depression, and intelligence.
● A test designed to measure a construct must estimate the existence
of an inferred, underlying characteristic (e.g., leadership ability)
based on a limited sample of behavior.
● Construct validity refers to the appropriateness of these inferences
about the underlying construct.
● Convergent and discriminant validity are the two subtypes of
validity that make up construct validity.

Convergent validity

⮚ Convergent validity refers to how closely the new scale is related to

other variables and other measures of the same construct.
⮚ Not only should the construct correlate with related variables but it
should not correlate with dissimilar, unrelated ones.

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Divergent validity

⮚ Divergent Validity is used to determine if a test is too

similar to another test.
⮚ If a test is found to correlate too strongly (or be too
similar) with another test then it suggests that the tests are
measuring the same thing and are too alike to be
considered different. It is also known as discriminant
validity.

NORMS

● Test norms consist of data that make it possible to determine the

relative standing of an individual who has taken a test.
● Norms provide a basis for comparing the individual with a group.
● Individual Test Score Is Interpreted In Two Ways:-
● Norm Referencing: - The first way is to compare an examinee’s test
score with the score of a specific group of examinees on that test. This
process is known as norm referencing.
● Criterion Referencing: - The second way of interpreting a test score is
to establish an external criterion and compare the examinee’s test
score with it. This process is known as criterion referenced test, there
is a fixed performance criterion.

Types of Norms: -

Age equivalent norms: -These norms are defined as the average

performance of a representative sample of a certain age level on the
measure of a certain trait or ability. Age norms are most suited to those
traits which increase systematically with age like Intelligence.

Grade Equivalent Norms: -

 These norms are defined as the average performance of a

representative sample of a certain grade or class. These are found by
computing the mean raw score obtained by children in each grade.
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  Like if the average number of problems solved correctly on an
arithmetic test by a fourth graders in the standard sample is 23 than a
raw score of 23 corresponding to a grade equivalent of fourth.

Within Group Norms: -

 In within group norms there are two types of norms. Percentiles

Standard score Norms

Percentiles: -

 Percentiles are expressed in terms of the percentage of persons in the

standardization sample.
 A percentile indicates the individual relative position in the
standardization sample.
 Percentiles are different from percentage scores; the percentage
scores are raw scores, which expressed in terms of percentage of
correct items and percentiles are derived scores, which expressed in
terms of percentage of a person.

Standard Score Norms: -

Standard scores express the individual’s distance from the mean in terms of
the standard deviation of the distribution.

Standard score is a derived score which has a fix mean and fixed standard
deviation.

There are several types of standard scores such as z score (also known as
sigma scores), T score, Sten score, Stanine score, deviation IQ etc.

ITEM ANALYSIS

● Item analysis refers to the process of statistically analyzing

assessment data to evaluate the quality and performance of
your test items.
● This is an important step in the test development cycle, not only
because it helps improve the quality of your test, but because it
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 provides documentation for validity: evidence that your test performs
well and score interpretations mean what you intend.
● Item Difficulty for dichotomous items as the proportion (P value)
of examinees that correctly answer it. If P = 0.95, that means the item
is very easy. If P = 0.35, the item is very difficult. Note that because
the scale is inverted (lower value means higher difficulty), this is
sometimes referred to as item facility.
● In psychometrics, discrimination is a POSITIVE. The entire point of
an exam is to discriminate amongst examinees; smart students
should get a high score and not-so-smart students should get a low
score. If everyone gets the same score, there is no discrimination and
no point in the exam! Item discrimination evaluates this concept.
● CTT uses the point-bi-serial item-total correlation (Rpbis) as its
primary statistic for this. It correlates scores on the item to the total
score on the test. If the item is strong and measures the topic well,
then examinees who get the item right tend to score higher on the
test. This means that the correlation will be 0.20 or higher. If it is
around 0.0, then the item is just a random data generator and
worthless on the exam.

FACTOR ANALYSIS
● Factor analysis is a statistical method used to
describe variability among observed variables in terms of fewer
unobserved variables called factors.
● The observed variables are modeled as linear combinations of the
factors, plus "error" terms.
● The information gained about the interdependencies can be used
later to reduce the set of variables in a dataset.

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 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

Abnormal psychology is concerned with understanding the nature,

causes, and treatment of mental disorders.

Mental disorder- According to DSM-5, a mental disorder is classified as a

syndrome that is present in an individual and that involves clinically
significant disturbance in behaviour, emotion regulation, or cognitive
functioning. These disturbances are thought to reflect a dysfunction in
biological, psychological, or developmental processes that are necessary
for mental functioning.

1. NORMALITY AND ABNORMALITY

INDICATORS OF ABNORMALITY

1. Subjective distress- if a person suffers or experience psychological

pain we are inclined to consider this as an indicative of abnormality. In
many cases, it is neither a sufficient condition nor even a necessary
condition to consider something as abnormal.

2. Maladaptiveness; maladaptive behaviour is often an indicator of

abnormality. Maladaptive behaviour interferes with our well-being and
with our ability to enjoy our work and our relationships. But not all
disorders involve maladaptive behaviour.

3. Statistical deviancy: the word abnormal literally means away from

the normal. This tells us that in defining abnormality we make value
judgments. If something is statistically rare and undesirable we are more
likely to consider it abnormal than something that is statistically rare
and highly desirable.

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4. Violation of the standards of the society: when people fail to
follow the conventional social or moral rules of cultural group, we may
consider their behaviour as abnormal. A behaviour is most likely to be
viewed as abnormal when it violates the standards of society and is
statistically deviant or rare.

5. social discomfort: social discomfort is another potential way that

we can recoginse abnormality. But again it depends on circumstances

6. Irrationality and unpredictability: If a person sitting next to you

suddenly began to scream and yell obscenities at nothing that behaviour
is abnormal. It would be unpredictable, and it would make no sense to
you. The disordered speech and the disorganized behaviour of patients
with schizophrenia are often irrational. Perhaps the most important
factor, however, is our evaluation of whether the person can control his
or her behaviour.

7. Dangerousness: someone who is a danger to him- or herself or to

another person must be psychologically abnormal.

2. HISTORICAL VIEWS

The Ancient World

 Hippocrates (460–377 b.c.) A Greek physician who believed that

mental disease was the result of natural causes and brain
pathology rather than demonology.
 Plato (429–347 b.c.)- A Greek philosopher who believed that
mental patients should be treated humanely and should not be
held responsible for their actions.
 Aristotle (384–322 b.c.) - A Greek philosopher and a pupil of
Plato who believed in the Hippocratic theory that various agents,
or humors, within the body, when imbalanced, were responsible

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 for mental disorders. Aristotle rejected the notion of psychological
factors as causes of mental disorders.
 Galen (a.d. 130–200)- A Greek physician who contributed much
to our understanding of the nervous system. Galen divided the
causes of mental disorders into physical and mental categories.

The Middle Ages

 Avicenna (980–1037) An ancient Persian physician who

promoted principles of humane treatment for the mentally
disturbed at a time when Western approaches to mental illness
were inhumane.
 Hildegard (1098–1179) A remarkable woman, known as the
“Sybil of the Rhine,” who used curative powers of natural objects
for healing and wrote treatises about natural history and medicinal
uses of plants.

The Sixteenth - Eighteenth Centuries

 Paracelsus (1490–1541) A Swiss physician who rejected
demonology as a cause of abnormal behavior. Paracelsus believed
in psychic causes of mental illness
 Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) A Spanish nun, since canonized,
who argued that mental disorder was an illness of the mind.
 Johann Weyer (1515–1588) A German physician who argued
against demonology and was ostracized by his peers and the
Church for his progressive views.
 Robert Burton (1576–1640) An Oxford scholar who wrote a
classic, influential treatise on depression, The Anatomy of
Melancholia, in 1621.

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 William Tuke (1732–1822) An English Quaker who established
the York Retreat, where mental patients lived in humane
surroundings.
 Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) A French physician who pioneered
the use of moral management in La Bicêtre and La Salpêtrière
hospitals in France, where mental patients were treated in a
humane way.
 Benjamin Rush (1745–1813) An American physician and the
founder of American psychiatry, who used moral management,
based on Pinel’s humanitarian methods, to treat the mentally
disturbed.

The Nineteenth - Early Twentieth Centuries

 Dorothea Dix (1802–1887) An American teacher who founded
the mental hygiene movement in the United States, which
focused on the physical well-being of mental patients in hospitals.
 Clifford Beers (1876–1943) An American who campaigned to
change public attitudes toward mental patients after his own
experiences in mental institutions.
 Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) An Austrian physician who
conducted early investigations into hypnosis as a medical
treatment.
 Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) A German psychiatrist who
developed the first diagnostic system..
 Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) The founder of the school of
psychological therapy known as psychoanalysis.
 Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) A German scientist who
established the first experimental psychology laboratory in
1879 and subsequently influenced the empirical study of abnormal
behavior.

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  J. McKeen Cattell (1860–1944) An American psychologist who
adopted Wundt’s methods and studied individual differences in
mental processing
 Lightner Witmer (1867–1956) An American psychologist who
established the first psychological clinic in the United States,
focusing on problems of mentally deficient children. He also
founded the journal The Psychological Clinic in 1907.
 William Healy (1869–1963) An American psychologist who
established the Chicago Juvenile Psychopathic Institute and
advanced the idea that mental illness was due to environmental, or
sociocultural, factors.
 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) A Russian physiologist who published
classical studies in the psychology of learning.
 John B. Watson (1878–1958) An American psychologist who
conducted early research into learning principles and came to be
known as the father of behaviorism.
 B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) An American learning theorist who
developed the school of learning known as operant conditioning
and was influential in incorporating behavioural principles into
influencing behavioral change.

3. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)
 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is used
by clinicians and psychiatrists to diagnose psychiatric illnesses. In
2013, a new version known as the DSM-5 was released.

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  The DSM is published by the American Psychiatric Association and
covers all categories of mental health disorders for both adults and
children.
 The DSM is utilized widely in the United States for psychiatric
diagnosis, treatment recommendations and insurance coverage
purposes.
 The manual is non-theoretical and focused mostly on describing
symptoms as well as statistics concerning which gender is most
affected by the illness, the typical age of onset, the effects of
treatment and common treatment approaches

DSM Updates:
The Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual has been revised a
number of times in its history.
1952: The DSM-I
1968: The DSM-II
1974: The DSM-II Reprint
1984: The DSM-III
1987: The DSM-III-R
1994: The DSM-IV
2000: The DSM-IV-TR
2013: The DSM-5

International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

 World Health Organization (WHO) - 1948
 diagnostic tool that is used to classify and monitor causes of injury
and death and that maintains information for health analyses, such
as the study of mortality (death) and morbidity (illness) trends.
 The ICD is designed to promote international compatibility in
health data collecting and reporting.

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  Each disease is detailed with diagnostic characteristics and given a
unique identifier that is used to code mortality data on death
certificates and morbidity data from patient and clinical records
 The core of the ICD-10 uses one single list of four-alphanumeric-
character codes from A00.0 to Z99.0
 There are 22 chapters in total (several letters are included in a
single chapter together).

4. MEANINGS OF TERMINOLOGIES
 Diagnosis - is an identification of a disease via examination.
 Prognosis -which is a prediction of the course of the disease as
well as the treatment and results.
 Epidemiology- the study of the distribution and determinants
of health-related states or events in specified populations, and
the application of this study to the control of health problems
 Prevalence- measures how much of a disease or condition there
is in a population at a particular point in time. Prevalence gives a
figure for a factor (disease, injury, health status etc) at a single
point in time (point prevalence) or time period (period
prevalence).
 Incidence- measures the rate of occurrence of new cases of a
disease or condition. Incidence is the number of instances of a
factor (disease, injury, health status etc) during a given period
(day, month, year, decade) in a specified population (age group,
community, country etc). Incidence can tell us how many cases of a
particular factor have been suffered by a specified population in a
given period of time.
 Differential diagnosis – it looks at the possible disorders that
could be causing your symptoms. It often involves several tests.
These tests can rule out conditions and/or determine if you need
more testing

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  Comorbidity - means more than one disease or condition is
present in the same person at the same time. Conditions described
as comorbidities are often chronic or long-term conditions.

5. CAUSAL FACTORS
Biological factors
The biological viewpoint focuses on mental disorders as disease. Mental
disorders are thus viewed as disorders of the central nervous system, the
autonomic nervous system, or the endocrine system, that are either
inherited or caused by some pathological process.

Neurotransmitter and Hormonal Imbalances

 There are four neurotransmitters that have been most extensively
studied in relationship to psychopathology: (1) norepinephrine ,
(2) dopamine, (3) serotonin, and (4) GABA.
 Norepinephrine plays an important role in the emergency
reactions. Dopamine has been implicated in schizophrenia
 Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine
glands in our bodies. Malfunction of this system has been
implicated in various forms of psychopathology.
 Sex hormones are produced by the gonadal glands, and imbalance
in these (such as the male hormones-the androgens) can also
contribute to maladaptive behavior.

Genetic Vulnerabilities
Substantial evidence shows that some mental disorders have a
hereditary component such as in depression, schizophrenia, and
alcoholism. The genetic transmission of traits or vulnerabilities from one
generation to the next is, by definition, a biological process.

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Chromosomal Abnormalities
Chromosomal abnormalities-irregularities in the chromosomal
structure-even before birth, thus making it possible to study their effects
on future development and behavior. Research in development genetics
has shown that abnormalities in the structure or number of the
chromosomes are associated with a wide range of malformations and
disorders.

Constitutional Liabilities
The term constitutional liability is used to describe any detrimental
characteristic that is either innate or acquired so early-often prenatally –
and in such strength that it is functionally similar to a genetic
characteristic. Physical handicaps and temperament are among the
many traits included in this category.

Temperament
 New borns differ in how they react to particular kinds of stimuli.
 These reactions differ from baby to baby and are example of
characteristic behaviors that appear to have been established
before any extensive interaction with the environment. Our early
temperament is thought to be substrate from which our personality
develops.

Brain Dysfunction and Neural Plasticity

Significant damage of brain tissue places a person at risk for
psychopathology, but specific brain lesions are rarely a primary cause of
psychiatric disorder.

Deprivation of basic Physiology Needs

The most basic human requirements are those for food, oxygen, water,
sleep, and the elimination of wastes. Insufficient rest, inadequate diet, or

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working too hard when ill, can all interfere with a person’s ability to cope
and predispose him or her to a variety of problems.

Psychosocial factors
Psychosocial factors are those developmental influences that may
handicap a person psychologically, making him or her less resourceful in
coping with events.
(1) early deprivation or trauma
(2) inadequate parenting styles
(3) marital discord and divorce structures
(4) maladaptive peer relationships.

Socio cultural causal factor The

Sociocultural Environment
 Subgroups within a general socio-cultural environment-such as
family, sex, age, class, occupational, ethnic, and religious groups-
foster beliefs and norms of their own, largely by means of social
roles that their members learn to adopt.
 When social roles are conflicting unclear, or uncomfortable, or
when an individual is unable to achieve a satisfactory role in a
group, healthy personality development may be impaired .

Low Socioeconomic Status and Unemployment

 an inverse correlation exists between socioeconomic status (SES)
and the prevalence of abnormal behavior-the lower the
socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of abnormal
behavior.

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 6. MENTAL DISORDERS

7. NEUROTIC DISORDERS
 Neurosis refers to a class of functional mental disorder involving
distress but not delusions or hallucinations, where behavior is not
outside socially acceptable norms. It is also known as
psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder.
 In ICD-10, ‘neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders
have been classified into the following types:
1. Phobic anxiety disorder
2. Other anxiety disorders
3. Obsessive compulsive disorder.

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 ANXIETY DISORDERS
Anxiety disorders all have unrealistic, irrational fears or anxieties of
disabling intensity as their principal and most obvious manifestation.
DSM-5 recognizes five primary types of anxiety disorders.
1. Specific phobia.
2. Social anxiety disorder (social phobia).
3. Panic disorder.
4. Agoraphobia.
5. Generalized anxiety disorder.

A. SPECIFIC PHOBIA
 Phobia - A phobia is a persistent and disproportionate fear of
some specific object or situation that presents little or no actual
danger and yet leads to a great deal of avoidance of these feared
situations.
 A person is diagnosed as having a specific phobia if she or he
shows strong and persistent fear that is triggered by the presence
of a specific object or situation such individuals also experience
anxiety if they anticipate they may encounter a phobic object or
situation and so go to great lengths to avoid encounters with their
phobic stimulus.
 This avoidance is a cardinal characteristic of phobias; it occurs
both because the phobic response itself is so unpleasant and
because of the phobic person’s irrational appraisal of the likelihood
that something terrible will happen.
 Phobic behavior tends to be reinforced because every time the
person with a phobia avoids a feared situation his or her anxiety
decreases.

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 the secondary benefits derived from being disabled, such as
increased attention, sympathy, and some control over the
behaviour of others, may also sometimes reinforce a phobia.

Prevalence, Age of Onset, and Gender Differences

 Specific phobias are quite common with a lifetime prevalence rate
of about 12 percent.
 phobias are always considerably more common in women than in
men.
 The average age of onset for different types of specific phobias also
varies widely.

DSM-5 Criteria for specific phobia

A. Marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation.
B. The phobic object or situation almost always provokes immediate
fear or anxiety.
C. The phobic object or situation is actively avoided or endured with
intense fear or anxiety.
D. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed
by the specific object or situation and to the sociocultural context.
E. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6
months or more.
F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress
or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of
functioning.
G. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of
another mental disorder, including fear, anxiety, and avoidance of
situations associated with panic-like symptoms or other
incapacitating symptoms; objects or situations related to

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 obsessions; reminders of traumatic events; separation from home
or attachment figures; or social situations

causal factors Psychological

causal factors
a) Psychoanalytic viewpoint:

 phobias represent a defense against anxiety that stems from

repressed impulses from the id. Because it is too dangerous to
“know” the repressed id impulse, the anxiety is displaced onto
some external object or situation that has some symbolic
relationship to the real object of the anxiety

b) Phobias as a learned behaviour:

 Wolpe and Rachman (1960) explain the development of phobic

behavior through classical conditioning.
 The fear response can readily be conditioned to previously neutral
stimuli when these stimuli are paired with traumatic or painful
events.

c) Vicarious conditioning:
 Simply watching a phobic person behaving fearfully with his or her
phobic object and watching a non-fearful person undergoing a
frightening experience can also lead to vicarious conditioning.

d) Individual difference
 Some life experiences may serve as risk factors and make certain
people more vulnerable to phobias than others, and other
experiences may serve as protective factors for the development of
phobias.

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  Individual’s prior familiarity with an object or situation is
important in determining whether a phobia develops following a
fear-conditioning experience. For example, children who have had
more previous non-traumatic experiences with a dentist are less
likely to develop dental anxiety after a bad and painful experience
than are children with fewer previous non-traumatic experiences.
 It has also been shown that our cognitions, or thoughts, can help
maintain our phobias once they have been acquired. For example,
people with phobias are constantly on the alert for their phobic
objects or situations and for other stimuli relevant to their phobia.

e) Evolutionary Preparedness for Learning Certain Fears

and Phobias
 People are much more likely to have phobias of snakes, water,
heights, and enclosed spaces than of motorcycles and guns, this is
because of Prepared learning that occurs, over the course of
evolution. Thus “prepared” fears are not inborn or innate but
rather are easily acquired or especially resistant to extinction. Guns
and motorcycles, by contrast, were not present in our early
evolutionary history and so did not convey any such selective
advantage.

Biological causal factors

 Genetic and temperamental variables affect the speed and strength
of conditioning of fear.
 Individuals who are carriers of one of the two variants on the
serotonin-transporter gene (the s allele, which has been linked to
heightened neuroticism) show superior fear conditioning relative
to individuals who do not carry the s allele.

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 behaviorally inhibited toddlers at 21 months of age were at higher
risk of developing multiple specific phobias by 7 to 8 years of age
than were uninhibited.
 modest genetic contribution are also a factor leading to
development of specific phobias. For example, a large female twin
study found that monozygotic (identical) twins were more likely to
share animal phobias and situational phobias (such as of heights or
water) than were dizygotic (non-identical) twins.
 Another study found that the heritability of animal phobias was
separate from the heritability of complex phobias such as social
phobia and agoraphobia.

B. SOCIAL PHOBIA
 Social phobia is characterized by disabling fears of one or more
specific social situations (such as public speaking, urinating in a
public bathroom, or eating or writing in public).
 In these situations, a person fears that she or he may be exposed to
the scrutiny and potential negative evaluation of others or that she
or he may act in an embarrassing or humiliating manner.
 Because of their fears, people with social phobias either avoid these
situations or endure them with great distress.
 Intense fear of public speaking is the single most common type of
social phobia.
 DSM-5 also identifies two subtypes of social phobia, one of which
centres on performance situations such as public speaking and one
of which is more general and includes non-performance situations.
 Indeed, people with the more general subtype of social phobia
often have significant fears of most social situations and often also
have a diagnosis of avoidant personality disorder.

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Prevalence, Age of Onset, and Gender Differences
 About 12 percent of the population will qualify for a diagnosis of
social phobia at some point in their lives.
 More common among women than men.
 Typically, begin during early or middle adolescence or early
adulthood.

A. DSM-5 Criteria for social phobia:Marked fear or anxiety

about one or more social situations in which the individual is
exposed to possible scrutiny by others.
B. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way or show anxiety
symptoms that will be negatively evaluated.
C. The social situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.
D. The social situations are avoided or endured with intense fear or
anxiety.
E. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual threat posed
by the social situation and to the sociocultural context.
F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6
months or more.
G. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress
or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of
functioning.
H. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not attributable to the
physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition.
I. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the
symptoms of another mental disorder, such as panic disorder,
body dysmorphic disorder, or autism spectrum disorder.

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B.2 causal factors
Psychological causal factors
a) Social phobia as a learned behaviour:
 simple instances of direct or vicarious classical conditioning such
as experiencing or witnessing a perceived social defeat or
humiliation, or being or witnessing the target of anger or criticism.
 56 to 58 percent of people with social phobia recalled and
identified direct traumatic experiences as having been involved in
the origin of their social phobias.
 92 percent of an adult sample of people with social phobia reported
a history of severe teasing in childhood, compared to only 35
percent in a group of people with obsessive-compulsive disorder.
 People with generalized social phobia also may be especially likely
to have grown up with parents who were emotionally cold, socially
isolated, and avoidant.

b) Social Fears and Phobias in an Evolutionary Context:

 social fears and phobias evolved as a by-product of dominance

hierarchies that are a common social arrangement among animals
such as primates. humans have an evolutionarily based
predisposition to acquire fears of social stimuli that, signal
dominance and aggression from other humans.
 people with social phobia show greater activation of the amygdala
in response to negative facial expressions (such as angry faces).

c) Perceptions of Uncontrollability and Unpredictability:

 Being exposed to uncontrollable and unpredictable stressful events

(such as parental separation and divorce, family conflict, or sexual
abuse) may play an important role in the development of social
phobia.

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d) Cognitive Biases
 People with social phobia tend to expect that other people will
reject or negatively evaluate them. This leads to a sense of
vulnerability when around people. These danger schemas lead
them to expect that they will behave in an awkward and
unacceptable fashion, resulting in rejection and loss of status.
 Such negative expectations lead to their being preoccupied with
bodily responses and with stereotyped, negative self-images in
social situations. Such intense self-preoccupation during social
situations, even to the point of attending to their own heart rate,
interferes with their ability to interact skill fully.
 Another cognitive bias seen in social phobia is a tendency to
interpret ambiguous social information in a negative rather than a
benign manner.

Biological causal factors

Genetic and Temperamental Factors:
 Behaviourally inhibited infants who are easily distressed by
unfamiliar stimuli and who are shy and avoidant show increased
risk of developing social phobia.
 These children, were nearly three times more likely to be
diagnosed with social phobia (22 percent) even in middle
childhood (average age of 10).
 Twins studies also shown that there is a modest genetic
contribution to social phobia; estimates are that about 30 percent
of the variance in liability to social phobia is due to genetic factor

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 C. PANIC DISORDER AND AGORAPHOBIA
Agoraphobia
 Agoraphobia was thought to involve a fear of the agora—the Greek
word for public places of assembly.
 In agoraphobia the most commonly feared and avoided situations
include streets and crowded places such as shopping malls, movie
theatres, and stores. Standing in line can be particularly difficult.
 Typically people with agoraphobia are also frightened by their own
bodily sensations, so they also avoid activities that will create arousal
such as exercising, watching scary movies, drinking, caffeine, and
even engaging in sexual activity.

Panic Disorder

 Panic disorder is defined and characterized by the occurrence of

panic attacks that often seem to come “out of the blue.”
 According to the DSM-IV-TR criteria for panic disorder, the person
must have experienced recurrent, unexpected attacks and must
have been persistently concerned about having another attack or
worried about the consequences of having an attack for at least a
month.
 For such an event to qualify as a full-blown panic attack, there
must be abrupt onset of at least 4 of 13 symptoms, most of which
are physical, although three are cognitive: (1) depersonalization or
derealization (2) fear of dying; or (3) fear of “going crazy”
or “losing control”.
 Panic attacks are fairly brief but intense, with symptoms
developing abruptly and usually reaching peak intensity within 10
minutes; the attacks usually subside in 20 to 30 minutes and rarely
last more than an hour.
it may be accompanied with or without Agorohobia

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 Symptoms during panic attack (4/13)
1. Palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate
2. Sweating
3. Trembling or shaking
4. Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering
5. Feeling of choking
6. Chest pain or discomfort
7. Nausea or abdominal distress
8. Feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded, or faint
9. Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being
detached from oneself)
10. Fear of losing control or going crazy
11. Fear of dying
12. Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)
13.Chills or hot flushes

Criteria for a Panic Disorder DSM IV-TR

Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia
A. Both (1) and (2):
1. Recurrent unexpected Panic Attacks
2. At least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 month (or more)
of one (or more) of the following:
a. Persistent concern about having additional attacks
b. Worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences
(e.g., losing control, having a heart attack, “going crazy”)
c. A significant change in behavior related to the attacks
B. The presence of Agoraphobia (absence in case of absence of
agorohobia )

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C. The Panic Attacks are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical
condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism)
D. The Panic Attacks are not better accounted for by another mental
disorder, such as Social Phobia, Specific Phobia, Obsessive- Compulsive
Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, or Separation Anxiety Disorder

Prevalence, Age of Onset, and Gender Differences

 Prevalence- approximately 4.7 percent of adult population (twice
prevalent in women)
 Average age of onset is 23 to 34 years.
 comorbid disorder- generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia,
specific phobia, PTSD, depression, and substance-use disorders

D. GENERALISED ANXIETY DISORDER

 Some people’s anxiety or worry about many different aspects of life
becomes chronic, excessive, and unreasonable. In these cases,
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (formerly known as free-
floating anxiety) may be diagnosed.
 DSM-5 criteria specify that the worry must occur on more days
than not for at least 6 months and that it must be experienced as
difficult to control.
 The worry must be about a number of different events or activities
 These people live in a relatively constant future oriented mood
state of anxious apprehension, chronic tension, worry, and diffuse
uneasiness that they cannot control.
 They also show marked vigilance for possible signs of threat in the
environment and frequently engage in subtle avoidance activities
such as procrastination, checking, or calling a loved one frequently
to see if he or she is safe.

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Prevalence, Age of Onset, and Gender Differences
 Approximately 3 percent of the population in any 1-year period
 GAD is approximately twice as common in women as in men.
 Age of onset is often difficult to determine.
 Generalized anxiety disorder often co-occurs with other anxiety
and mood disorders such as panic disorder, social phobia, specific
phobia, PTSD, and major depressive disorder.

DSM-5 criteria for GAD

A. Excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation), occurring
more days than not for at least 6 months, about a number of events
or activities (such as work or school performance).
B. The individual finds it difficult to control the worry.
C. The anxiety and worry are associated with three (or more) of the
following six symptoms (with at least some symptoms having been
present for more days than not for the past 6 months): Note: Only
one item is required in children.
1. Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge.
2. Being easily fatigued.
3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank.
4. Irritability.
5. Muscle tension.
6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or
restless, unsatisfying sleep).
D. The anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms cause clinically
significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning.
E. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical
condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism).

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 F. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental
disorder.

Causal factors
Psychological causal factors
 Unconscious conflict between ego and id impulses that is not
adequately dealt with because the person’s defence mechanisms have
either broken down or have never developed.
 people with GAD may be more likely to have had a history of trauma
in childhood.
 They have far less tolerance for uncertainty.
 Not only do people with GAD have frequent frightening thoughts,
they also process threatening information in a biased way, perhaps
because they have prominent danger schemas. Anxiety is associated
with an automatic attentional and interpretive bias toward
threatening information.
 generally anxious people tend to preferentially allocate their attention
toward threatening cues when both threat and non-threat cues are
present in the environment.
 Experience with unpredictable and/or uncontrollable life events may
create a vulnerability to anxiety and promote current anxiety.

Biological causal factors

Genetic Factors
 There does seem to be a modest heritability.
 The evidence is increasingly strong that GAD and major depressive
disorder have a common underlying genetic predisposition.
 This predisposition is best conceptualized as the basic personality
trait commonly known as neuroticism.

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Neurotransmitter and Neuro-hormonal Abnormalities
 Highly anxious people have a kind of functional deficiency in
GABA, which ordinarily plays an important role in the way our
brain inhibits anxiety in stressful situations.
 Serotonin is also involved in modulating generalized anxiety.
 An anxiety-producing hormone called corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH) has also been strongly implicated as playing an
important role in generalized anxiety.
 When activated by stress or perceived threat, CRH stimulates the
release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from the pituitary
gland, which in turn causes release of the stress hormone cortisol
from the adrenal gland; cortisol helps the body deal with stress.
 The CRH hormone may play an important role in generalized
anxiety through its effects on the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis
an extension of the amygdala; which is now believed to be an
important brain area mediating generalized anxiety.

E. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is defined by the occurrence
of unwanted and intrusive obsessive thoughts or distressing
images accompanied by compulsive behaviours performed to undo
or neutralize the obsessive thoughts or images or as a way of
preventing some dreaded event or situation.
 Obsessions Involve persistent and recurrent intrusive thoughts,
images, or impulses that are experienced as disturbing,
inappropriate, and uncontrollable. People who have such
obsessions actively try to resist or suppress them or to neutralize
them with some other thought or action.
 Compulsions can involve either overt repetitive behaviors that are
performed as lengthy rituals (such as hand washing, checking,

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 putting things in order over and over again). Compulsions may
also involve more covert mental rituals (such as counting, praying,
or saying certain words silently over and over again).
 A person with OCD usually feels driven to perform this compulsive,
ritualistic behavior in response to an obsession, and there are often
very rigid rules regarding exactly how the compulsive behavior
should be performed.
 The compulsive behaviors are performed with the goal of
preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event
or situation.
 Many obsessive thoughts involve contamination fears, fears of
harming oneself or others, and pathological doubt, concerns about
or need for symmetry (e.g., having magazines on a table arranged
in a way that is “exactly right”), sexual obsessions, and obsessions
concerning religion or aggression.
 There are five primary types of compulsive rituals: cleaning
(handwashing and showering), repeated checking, repeating,
ordering or arranging, and counting and many people show
multiple kinds of rituals.

Prevalence, Age of Onset, and Gender Differences

 Average lifetime prevalence of 2.3 percent.
 British epidemiological study found a gender ratio of 1.4 to 1,
women to men.
 The disorder generally begins in late adolescence or early
adulthood, it is not uncommon in children.
 Childhood or early adolescent onset is more common in boys than
in girls and is often associated with greater severity.
 frequently co-occurs with other mood and anxiety disorders,
,Depression , social phobia, panic disorder, GAD, PTSD and Body
dysmorphic disorder (BDD)

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 DSM-5 Criteria for OCD
A. Presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both:
Obsessions are defined by (1) and (2):
1. Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are
experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and
unwanted, and that in most individuals cause marked anxiety or
distress.
2. The individual attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts,
urges, or images, or to neutralize them with some other thought or
action.
Compulsions are defined by (1) and (2):
1. Repetitive behaviours or mental acts (e.g., praying, counting,
repeating words silently) that the individual feels driven to
perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that
must be applied rigidly.
2. The behaviours or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing
anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or situation
B. The obsessions or compulsions are time-consuming (e.g., take more
than 1 hour per day) or cause clinically significant distress or
impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of
functioning.
C. The obsessive-compulsive symptoms are not attributable to the
physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition.
D. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of another
mental

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 Causal factors psychological
causal factors OCD as a
learned behaviour

 Learning view of obsessive-compulsive disorder is derived from

Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance learning (1947).
 According to this theory, neutral stimuli become associated with
frightening thoughts or experiences through classical conditioning
and come to elicit anxiety.
 For example, touching a doorknob gets associated with the “scary” idea
of contamination. Once having made this association, the person may
discover that the anxiety produced by shaking hands or touching a
doorknob can be reduced by hand washing. Washing his or her hands
extensively reduces the anxiety, and so the washing response is
reinforced.OCD and Preparedness

 Some theorists have argued that the displacement activities that

many species of animals engage in under situations of conflict or
high arousal resemble the compulsive rituals seen in obsessive-
compulsive disorder.
 Displacement activities often involve grooming or nesting under
conditions of high conflict or frustration.
 They may therefore be related to the distress-induced grooming or
tidying rituals seen in people with OCD, which are often provoked
by obsessive thoughts that elicit anxiety.

Cognitive causal factors

Effects of Attempting to Suppress Obsessive Thoughts
 When normal people attempt to suppress unwanted thoughts they
may sometimes experience a paradoxical increase in those
thoughts later.

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  one factor contributing to the frequency of obsessive thoughts, and
the negative moods with which they are often associated, may be
these attempts to suppress them .

Appraisals of Responsibility for Intrusive Thoughts

 people with OCD often seem to have an inflated sense of

responsibility for the harm they may cause adds to the “perceived
awfulness of any harmful consequences” and also may motivate
compulsive behaviours such as washing and checking to reduce
the likelihood of any harmful happening.

Cognitive Biases and Distortions

 Research shows that their attention is drawn to disturbing material
relevant to their obsessive concerns, much as occurs in the other
anxiety disorders.
 People with OCD also seem to have difficulty blocking out negative,
irrelevant input or distracting information, so they may attempt to
suppress negative thoughts stimulated by this information.
 These people also have low confidence in their memory ability
which may contribute to their repeating their ritualistic behaviours
over and over again. People with OCD have deficits in their ability
to inhibit both motor responses and irrelevant information.

Biological causal factors

Genetic Factors

 twin studies reveals a moderately high concordance rate for

monozygotic twins and a lower rate for dizygotic twins.
 This is consistent with a moderate genetic heritability, although it
may be at least partially a nonspecific “neurotic” predisposition.

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  family studies have found 3 to 12 times higher rates of OCD in
first-degree relatives of OCD clients.

OCD and the Brain

 Abnormalities in certain cortical and subcortical structures like
basal ganglia, linked to the limbic system, which controls
emotional behaviors and high levels of activity in the subcortical
caudate nucleus, which is part of the basal ganglia.
 These circuits are involved in executing primitive patterns of
behavior such as those involved in sex, aggression, and hygiene
concerns.
 Improper functioning of cortico-basal-ganglionic-thalamic circuit
reslts in repeated sets of behaviors stemming from territorial social
concerns and from hygiene concerns.
 Thus the over activation of the orbital frontal cortex, which
stimulates “the stuff of obsessions,” combined with a dysfunctional
interaction among the orbital frontal cortex, the corpus striatum or
caudate nucleus, and the thalamus may be the central component
of the brain dysfunction in OCD.

Neurotransmitter Abnormalities
 Serotonine deficiency can contribute to OCD symptoms.

MOOD DISORDER
 Mood disorders are characterized by a serious change in mood that
cause disruption to life activities. Though many different subtypes
are recognized, three major states of mood disorders exist:
depressive, manic, and bipolar.
 Major depressive disorder is characterized by overall depressed
mood. Elevated moods are characterized by mania or hypomania.

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 The cycling between both depressed and manic moods is
characteristic of bipolar mood disorders.
 In addition to type and subtype of mood, these disorders also vary
in intensity and severity. For example, dysthymic disorder is a
lesser form of major depression and cyclothymic disorder is
recognized as a similar, but less severe form of bipolar disorder.

A.MANIA
 Manic moods are characterized by unusually high energy and
mood. Feelings of euphoria are often present. These elevated
moods typically last three days or more for most of the day.
 Classic mania symptoms include talking rapidly and/or
excessively, needing significantly less sleep than normal,
distractibility, poor judgment, impulsivity, and making reckless
decisions.

A.1 DSM:5-Criteria for Manic Episode:

A. A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated,
expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least one week and present
most of the day, nearly every day (or any duration if hospitalisation
is necessary)
B. During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the
following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only
irritable) and have been present to a significant degree
1. Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
2. Decreased need for sleep (e.g. feels rested after only three
hours of sleep)
3. More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
4. Flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are
racing

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 5. Distractibility
6. Increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work
or school, or sexually) or psychomotor agitation
7. Excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a
high potential for painful consequences (e.g. engaging in
unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish
business investments)
C. The symptoms do not meet criteria for a Mixed Episode
D. The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked
impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities
or relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalisation to
prevent harm to self or other, or there are psychotic features
E. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance or a general medical condition.

B. DEPRESSION OR UNIPOLAR DISORDERS

 Depression is a mood disorder characterized by persistently low
mood and a feeling of sadness and loss of interest. It is a persistent
problem, not a passing one, lasting on average 6 to 8 months.
Major depression, also known as unipolar or major depressive
disorder
 According to WHO, depression is the most common illness
worldwide and the 4th leading cause of disability worldwide. They
estimate that 350 million people are affected by depression,
globally

DSM-5 Criteria: Major Depressive Episode

A. Five or more of the following symptoms have been present and
documented during the same two-week period and represent a
change from previous functioning; at least one of the symptoms is
either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.

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 1. Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as
indicated by either subjective report or observation made by
others.
2. Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost
all, activities most of the day, nearly every day.
3. Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain or
decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day
4. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day
5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day
6. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
7. Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate
guilt (which may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely
self-reproach or guilt about being sick)
8. Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or
indecisiveness, nearly every day (either by subjective account
or as observed by others)
9. Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying),
recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a
suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide
B. The symptoms do not meet criteria for a mixed episode.
C. The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance or to another medical condition.
D. The occurrence of the major depressive episode is not better
explained by schizoaffective disorder, schizophrenia,
schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or other
specified and unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other
psychotic disorders.
E. There has never been a manic episode or a hypomanic episode

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C. BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS
Cyclothymia
Cyclothymic disorder is characterised by at least 2 years of frequently
occuring hypomanic symptoms that cannot fit the diagnosis of manic
episode and of depressive symptoms that cannot fit the diagnosis of
major depressive episode.

Bipolar I disorder

 The occurrence of one manic episode and one major depressive

episode is diagnosed with bipolar 1 disorder.
 The depressive episode must have occurred either before or after
the manic episode. The symptoms of a manic episode may be so
severe that you require hospital care.
 Manic episodes are usually characterized by the following:
o Restlessness
o Exceptional energy
o trouble concentrating
o feelings of euphoria (extreme happiness) risky behaviors
o poor sleep
 The symptoms of a manic episode tend to be so obvious and
intrusive that there’s little doubt that something is wrong.

Bipolar II disorder

 Bipolar 2 disorder involves a major depressive episode lasting at

least two weeks and at least one hypomanic episode.
 People with bipolar 2 typically don’t experience manic episodes
intense enough to require hospitalization.
 Bipolar 2 is sometimes misdiagnosed as depression. When there
are no manic episodes to suggest bipolar disorder, the depressive
symptoms become the focus.

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 Prevalance of Mood disorders
 major depressive disorder has the highest Iife time Prevalence (
almost 17 percent) of any psychiatric disorder.
 Other mood disorders prevalance are following
o Depression 5-7 population
o Cyclothymia 0.5 - 6.3
o Bipolar I disorder 0 - 2.4
o Bipolar II disorder 0.3 - 4.8
o Mania 2.6-7.8

Causal factors of mood disorders

Biological causal factors
Heridity
 Prevalence of mood disorders is approximately two to three times
higher among blood relatives of person with clinically diagnosed
unipolar depression.
 Monozygotic co-twins of a twin with unipolar major depression are
about twice as likely to develop major depression as are dizygotic
co-twins.
 31 to 42 percent of the variance in liability to major depression due
to the genetic influences.

Brain and Neurotransmitter

 bipolar disorder is partly caused by an underlying problem with

specific brain circuits and the functioning of neurotransmitters.
 brain chemicals - Noradrenaline and serotonin have been
consistently linked to psychiatric mood disorders such as
depression and bipolar disorder.
 The brain chemical serotonin is connected to many body functions
such as sleep, wakefulness, eating, sexual activity, impulsivity,

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 learning, and memory. Researchers believe that abnormal
functioning of brain circuits that involve serotonin as a chemical
messenger contributes to mood disorders.

Psychological causal factors

Stressors or Life Events
 Environmental factors such as life events especially a pileup of
stressful events in a short time period, may play a significant role
in producing an episode of depression.
 life events most often associated with development of depression
is losing a parent before age 11 years.
 The environmental stressors most often associated with the onset
of an episode of depression is the lose of a spouse.
 Another risk factor is unemployement; person out of work are
three times more likely to report symptoms of an episode of major
depression than those who are employed. Guilt may also play a
role.

Lack of Social Support

 The negative effects of life events related to close personal

relationship is made even stronger because it is usually
accompanied by a decrease in social support. Social support, the
belief that one is cared about by others who are also available to
provide help or emotional support when needed, is an important
protection from depression.
 Behaviours of others that convey criticism or imply that a person is
unworthy of love or friendship are more likely to be related to
depression than is the mere absence of support.

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Gender difference
 Manic episode are more common in men, and depressive episodes
are more Common in women. When manic episodes occur in
women, they are more likely than men to present a mixed picture (
eg: mania and depression)

Treatment of Mood Disorders

Pharmacotherapy (medication)
The typical medications that are prescribed for mood disorders include:

 Anticonvulsants- stabilize your mood chemically

 Antipsychotics
 Lithium- stabilizing mood and helps to break extreme emotional
highs and lows that characterize bipolar disorder.
 Antidepressants
 Benzodiazepines – eg: Valium, are usually prescribed to relax a
patient and improve sleep.
 Symbyax

Alternative Biological treatment

 Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Psychotherapy
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Treatment
 This treatment combines established cognitive and behavioral
theories into one method that focuses on your actions and
behaviors.
 learn to recognize distorted or self-defeating thought patterns, and
then actively work to replace them with healthier beliefs.

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  With the help of a therapist, the patient is able to uncover
unhealthy, negative beliefs and patterns such as:
o Black-and-white thinking patterns
o Generalizing all situations with a negative bias
o Exaggeration of circumstances
o Forming snap conclusions based on emotion
o Overlooking the positive side of situations
o Assuming the worst is about to happen

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)

 DBT involves learning skills to tolerate distress, manage strong and
upsetting emotions, decrease impulsive behaviors, including self-
harm, and improve relationships with friends and family

Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Adolescents (IPT-A)

 IPT-A is a time-limited treatment (12-16 sessions) originally
developed to treat adult depression that has been adapted for
adolescents.
 IPT-A addresses common issues involving romantic relationships,
communicating with parents and effectively interacting with peers.
 The treatment primarily includes individual therapy sessions, and
may also include some sessions with parents to learn about
depression, address parent-child relationship difficulties and help
support their child’s treatment.

Yoga and Meditation

 types of activities are lifestyle-based, and that may be why patients
who take part are far less likely to suffer from mood disorder
relapses

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DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER
 Dissociative disorders are a group of conditions involving
disruptions in a person’s normally integrated functions of
consciousness, memory, identity, or perception.
 The term dissociation refers to the human mind’s capacity to
engage in complex mental activity in channels split off from, or
independent of, conscious awareness.
 The concept of dissociation was first promoted by the French
neurologist Pierre Janet (1859–1947).
 Dissociation only becomes pathological when the dissociative
symptoms are “perceived as disruptive, invoking a loss of needed
information, as producing discontinuity of experience” or as
“recurrent, jarring involuntary intrusions into executive
functioning and sense of self”.
 people with dissociative disorders loss the integrated and well-
coordinated multichannel quality of human cognition thus making
them unable to access information that is normally in the forefront
of consciousness, such as his or her own personal identity or
details of an important period of time in the recent past.
 dissociative disorders appear mainly to be ways of avoiding anxiety
and stress and of managing life problems that threaten to
overwhelm the person’s usual coping resources.
 In the case of DSM-defined dissociative disorders, the person
avoids the stress by pathologically dissociating—in essence, by
escaping from his or her own autobiographical memory or
personal identity.
 The DSM-5 recognizes several types of pathological dissociation.
These include depersonalization/de realization disorder,

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 dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue (a subtype of dissociative
amnesia) and dissociative identity disorder.

A. DEPERSONALIZATION/ DEREALIZATION DISORDER

 In derealisation one’s sense of the reality of the outside world is
temporarily lost,
 In depersonalization one’s sense of one’s own self and one’s own
reality is temporarily lost.
 50-74 percent experiences it in mild form during periods of severe
stress, sleep deprivation, or sensory deprivation.
 But when episodes of depersonalization or derealization become
persistent and recurrent and interfere with normal functioning,
depersonalization/ derealization disorder may be diagnosed.
 In this disorder, people have persistent or recurrent experiences
of feeling detached from (and like an outside observer of) their
own bodies and mental processes.
 They may even feel they are, for a time, floating above their
physical bodies, which may suddenly feel very different—as if
drastically changed or unreal.
 Comorbidity: anxiety and mood disorders as well as avoidant,
borderline, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
 Onset: the disorder had an average age of onset of 23. In nearly
80 percent of cases, the disorder has a fairly chronic course.
 Prevalence: The lifetime prevalence of
depersonalization/derealization disorder is unknown but has
been estimated at 1 to 2 percent of the population.

DSM -5 criteria for depersonalization/derealization disorder

A. The presence of persistent or recurrent experiences of
depersonalization, derealization, or both:

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 1) Depersonalization: Experiences of unreality, detachment, or
being an outside observer with respect to one’s thoughts,
feelings, sensations, body, or actions.
2) Derealization: Experiences of unreality or detachment with
respect to surroundings (e.g., individuals or objects are
experienced as unreal, dreamlike, foggy, lifeless, or visually
distorted).
B. During the depersonalization or derealization experiences, reality
testing remains intact.
C. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
D. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance or another medical condition.
E. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental
disorder.

B. DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA AND DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE

 Dissociative amnesia is usually limited to a failure to recall
previously stored personal information (retrograde amnesia)
when that failure cannot be accounted for ordinary forgetting.
The gaps in memory most often occur following intolerably
stressful circumstances
 Amnesic episodes usually last between a few days and a few
years.
 In typical dissociative amnesic reactions, individuals cannot
remember certain aspects of their personal life history or
important facts about their identity. Yet their basic habit
patterns—such as their abilities to read, talk, perform skilled
work, and so on—remain intact, and they seem normal aside
from the memory deficit.

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  Thus the only type of memory that is affected is episodic or
autobiographical memory.
 Usually there is no difficulty encoding new information.
 Dissociative fugue: (fugue means “flight”),a person is not only
amnesic for some or all aspects of his or her past but also departs
from home surroundings. This is accompanied by confusion
about personal identity or even the assumption of a new identity.
 During the fugue, such individuals are unaware of memory loss
for prior stages of their life, but their memory for what happens
during the fugue state itself is intact
 Their behavior during the fugue state is usually quite normal and
unlikely to arouse suspicion that something is wrong.
 behavior during the fugue state often reflects a rather different
lifestyle from the previous one (the rejection of which is
sometimes fairly obvious).
 Days, weeks, or sometimes even years later, such people may
suddenly emerge from the fugue state and find themselves in a
strange place, working in a new occupation, with no idea how
they got there.
 In DSM-5 dissociative fugue is considered to be a subtype of
dissociative amnesia rather than a separate disorder as it was in
DSM-IV.

DSM -5 Criteria For Dissociative Amnesia

A. An inability to recall important autobiographical information,
usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is inconsistent with
ordinary forgetting.
B. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

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 C. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance or a neurological or other medical condition.
D. The disturbance is not better explained by dissociative identity
disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder,
somatic symptom disorder, or major or mild neurocognitive
disorder.

C.DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER (DID)

 Dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as

multiple personality disorder is a dramatic dissociative
disorder in which a patient manifests two or more distinct
identities that alternate in some way in taking control of
behavior.
 There is also an inability to recall important personal
information that cannot be explained by ordinary forgetting.
 Each identity may appear to have a different personal history,
self-image, and name, although there are some identities that
are only partially distinct and independent from other identities.
 Host Identity: the one identity that is most frequently
encountered and carries the person’s real name. Also in most
cases, the host is not the original identity, and it may or may not
be the best-adjusted identity.
 The alter identities may differ in striking ways involving
gender, age, handedness, handwriting, sexual orientation,
prescription for eyeglasses, predominant affect, foreign
languages spoken, and general knowledge.
 Needs and behaviors inhibited in the primary or host identity
are usually liberally displayed by one or more alter identities.
 Certain roles such as a child and someone of the opposite sex are
extremely common.

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  Alter identities take control at different points in time, and the
switches typically occur very quickly (in a matter of seconds),
although more gradual switches can also occur.
 DID is a condition in which normally integrated aspects of
memory, identity, and consciousness are no longer integrated.
 Additional symptoms of DID include depression, self-mutilation,
frequent suicidal ideation and attempts, erratic behaviour,
headaches, hallucinations, posttraumatic symptoms, and other
amnesic and fugue symptoms.
 Comorbidity: Depressive disorders, PTSD, substance use
disorders, and borderline personality disorder.
 Prevalence and onset: DID usually starts in childhood,
although most patients are in their teens, 20s, or 30s at the time
of diagnosis.
 three to nine times more females than males are diagnosed as
having the disorder, and females tend to have a larger number of
alters than do males.
 Some believe that this pronounced gender discrepancy is due to
the much greater proportion of childhood sexual abuse among
females than among males, but this is a highly controversial
point.

DSM-5 criteria for DID

A. Disruption of identity characterized by two or more distinct
personality states, which may be described in some cultures as an
experience of possession. The disruption in identity involves
marked discontinuity in sense of self and sense of agency,
accompanied by related alterations in affect, behavior,
consciousness, memory, perception, cognition, and/or sensory-

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 motor functioning. These signs and symptoms may be observed by
others or reported by the individual.
B. Recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal
information, and/ or traumatic events that are inconsistent with
ordinary forgetting.
C. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
D. The disturbance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted cultural
or religious practice. Note: In children, the symptoms are not
better explained by imaginary playmates or other fantasy play.
E. The symptoms are not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance or another medical condition.

Causal factors

 The major theory of how DID develops is posttraumatic theory.

 The vast majority of patients with DID (95%) report memories of
severe and horrific abuse as children.
 DID starts from the child’s attempt to cope with an
overwhelming sense of hopelessness and powerlessness in the
face of repeated traumatic abuse.
 Lacking other resources or routes of escape, the child may
dissociate and escape into a fantasy, becoming someone else.
 Sometimes the child simply imagines the abuse is happening to
someone else. If the child is fantasy prone, and continues to stay
fantasy prone over time, the child may unknowingly create
different selves at different points in time, possibly laying the
foundation for multiple dissociated identities.
 But children who are prone to fantasy and those who are easily
hypnotizable may have a diathesis for developing DID, when
severe abuse occurs.

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 socio-cognitive theory, which claims that DID develops when a highly
suggestible person learns to adopt and enact the roles of multiple
identities, mostly because clinicians have inadvertently suggested,
legitimized, and reinforced them and because these different
identities are geared to the individual’s own personal goals.

8. PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
 Psychotic disorders are a group of serious illnesses that affect the
mind. They make it hard for someone to think clearly, make
good judgments, respond emotionally, communicate effectively,
understand reality, and behave appropriately.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
 personality disorders (formerly known as a character disorder) are
chronic interpersonal difficulties, problems with one’s identity or
sense of self, and an inability to function adequately in society.
 For a personality disorder to be diagnosed, the person’s enduring
pattern of behaviour must be pervasive and inflexible, as well as
stable and of long duration.
 It must also cause either clinically significant distress or
impairment in functioning and be manifested in at least two of the
following areas: cognition, affectivity, interpersonal functioning, or
implies control.
 The DSM-5 personality disorders are grouped into three clusters.
1. Cluster A: Includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal
personality disorders. People with these disorders often seen
odd or eccentric, with unusual behaviour ranging from
distrust and suspiciousness to social detachment.

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 2. Cluster B: Includes histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial, and
borderline personality disorders. Individuals with these disorders
share a tendency to be dramatic, emotional, and erratic.
3. Cluster C: Includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive
compulsive personality disorders. In contrast to the other two
clusters, people with these disorders often show anxiety and
fearfulness.
 Personality disorders first appeared in the DSM in 1980 (in DSM-
III).

Cluster A
A. PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER
 Individuals with paranoid personality disorder have a pervasive
suspiciousness and distrust of others, leading to numerous
interpersonal difficulties.
 They tend to see themselves as blameless instead, blaming others
for their own mistakes and failures.
 Such people are chronically tense and “on guard,” constantly
looking for clues to validate their expectations, preoccupied with
doubts about the loyalty and are reluctant to confide in others.
 They commonly bear grudges, refuse to forgive perceived insults
and slights, and are quick to react with anger and sometimes
violent behaviour.

A.1 DSM-5 criteria for paranoid personality disorder

A. pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of others such that their
motives are interpreted as malevolent, beginning by early adulthood
and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of
the following:

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 1. Suspects, without sufficient basis, that others are exploiting,
harming, or deceiving him or her.
2. Is preoccupied with unjustified doubts about the loyalty or
trustworthiness of friends or associates.
3. Is reluctant to confide in others because of unwarranted fear
that the information will be used maliciously against him or
her.
4. Reads hidden demeaning or threatening meanings into
benign remarks or events.
5. Persistently bears grudges (i.e., is unforgiving of insults,
injuries, or slights).
6. Perceives attacks on his or her character or reputation that
are not apparent to others and is quick to react angrily or to
counterattack.
7. Has recurrent suspicions, without justification, regarding
fidelity of spouse or sexual partner.
B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a
bipolar disorder or depressive disorder with psychotic features, or
another psychotic disorder and is not attributable to the physiological
effects of another medical.

Causal Factors

 There is a modest genetic liability to paranoid personality disorder

itself. This may occur through the heritability of high levels of
antagonism (low agreeableness) and neuroticism (angry-hostility-
), which are among the primary traits in paranoid personality
disorder.
 Psychosocial causal factors that are suspected to play a role include
parental neglect or abuse and exposure to violent adults, although
any links between early adverse experiences and adult paranoid

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 personality disorder are clearly not specific to this one personality
disorder and may play a role in other disorders as well.
 Symptoms of paranoid personality disorder also seem to increase
after traumatic brain injury and are often found in chronic cocaine
users.

B. SCHIZOID PERSONALITY DISORDER

 Individuals with schizoid personality disorder are usually unable to

form social relationships and usually lack much interest in doing so
 Unable to express their feelings and are seen by others as cold and
distant.
 They often lack social skills and can be classified as introverts, with
solitary interests and occupations, although not all loners or
introverts have schizoid personality disorder
 People with this disorder tend not to take pleasure in many activities,
including sexual activity, and rarely marry.
 More generally, they are not very emotionally reactive, rarely
experiencing strong positive or negative emotions, but rather show a
generally apathetic mood.

Causal factors
 Schizoid personality traits have only a modest heritability.
 Cognitive theorists propose that these individuals exhibit cool and
aloof behaviour because of maladaptive underlying schemas that
lead them to view themselves as self-sufficient loners and to view
others as intrusive. Their core dysfunctional belief might be, “I am
basically alone” or “Relationships are messy and undesirable”
Unfortunately, we do not know why or how some people might
develop such dysfunctional beliefs.

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 B.1 DSM-5 Criteria for schizoid personality disorder
A. A pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a
restricted range of expression of emotions in interpersonal
settings, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following:
1. Neither desires nor enjoys close relationships, including being
part of a family.
2. Almost always chooses solitary activities.
3. Has little, if any, interest in having sexual experiences with
another person.
4. Takes pleasure in few, if any, activities.
5. Lacks close friends or confidants other than first-degree
relatives.
6. Appears indifferent to the praise or criticism of others.
7. Shows emotional coldness, detachment, or flattened affectivity.
B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a
bipolar disorder or depressive disorder with psychotic features,
another psychotic disorder, or autism spectrum disorder and is not
attributable to the physiological effects of another medical
condition.

C. SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

 Individuals with schizotypal personality disorder are excessively
introverted and have pervasive social and interpersonal deficits, but
in addition they have cognitive and perceptual distortions, as well as
oddities and eccentricities in their communication and behaviour.
 Although contact with reality is usually maintained, highly
personalized and superstitious thinking is characteristic of people

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 with schizotypal personality, and under extreme stress they may
experience transient psychotic symptoms.
 They often believe that they have magical powers and may engage in
magical rituals.
 Other cognitive–perceptual problems include ideas of reference, odd
speech, and paranoid beliefs.
 Oddities in thinking, speech, and other behaviours are the most
stable characteristics of schizotypal personality disorder and are
similar to those often seen in patients with schizophrenia.

C.2 DSM-5 criteria for schizotypal personality disorder

A. A pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits marked by
acute discomfort with, and reduced capacity for, close relationships
as well as by cognitive or perceptual distortions and eccentricities
of behaviour, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety
of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
1. Ideas of reference (excluding delusions of reference).
2. Odd beliefs or magical thinking that influences behaviour
and is inconsistent with subcultural norms (e.g.,
superstitiousness, belief in clairvoyance, telepathy, or “sixth
sense”; in children and adolescents, bizarre fantasies or
preoccupations).
3. Unusual perceptual experiences, including bodily illusions.
4. Odd thinking and speech (e.g., vague, circumstantial,
metaphorical, overelaborate, or stereotyped).
5. Suspiciousness or paranoid ideation.
6. Inappropriate or constricted affect.
7. Behaviour or appearance that is odd, eccentric, or peculiar.
8. Lack of close friends or confidants other than first-degree
relatives.

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 9. Excessive social anxiety that does not diminish with
familiarity and tends to be associated with paranoid fears
rather than negative judgments about self.
B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a
bipolar disorder or depressive disorder with psychotic features,
another psychotic disorder, or autism spectrum disorder.

C.1 Causal factors

 Prevalence: 2 to 3 percent in the general population.
 The heritability of schizotypal personality disorder is moderate.
 A genetic relationship to schizophrenia, this disorder appears to be
part of a spectrum of liability for schizophrenia that often occurs in
some of them first-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia
 It has also been proposed that there is a second subtype of
schizotypal personality disorder that is not genetically linked to
schizophrenia. This subtype is characterized by cognitive and
perceptual deficits and is instead linked to a history of childhood
abuse and early trauma

Cluster B
A. HISTRIONIC PERSONALITY DISORDER
 Excessive attention-seeking behaviour and emotionality are the key
characteristics of individuals with histrionic personality disorder.
 These individuals tend to feel unappreciated if they are not the
centre of attention.
 Their lively, dramatic, and excessively extraverted styles often
ensure that they can charm others into attending to them. But
these qualities do not lead to stable and satisfying relationships
because others tire of providing this level of attention.

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 In craving stimulation and attention, their appearance and
behaviour are often quite theatrical and emotional as well as
sexually provocative and seductive.
 They may attempt to control their partners through seductive
behaviour and emotional manipulation, but they also show a good
deal of dependence.
 Their speech is often vague and impressionistic, and they are
usually considered self-centred, vain, and excessively concerned
about the approval of others, who see them as overly reactive,
shallow, and insincere.
 The prevalence of histrionic personality disorder in the general
population is estimated at 2 to 3 percent, although the prevalence
of this disorder may be decreasing. Some (but not all) studies
suggest that this disorder occurs more often in women than in
men.

DSM-5 Criteria For Histrionic Personality Disorder

A. A pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attention
seeking, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
1. Is uncomfortable in situations in which he or she is not the
centre of attention.
2. Interaction with others is often characterized by
inappropriate sexually seductive or provocative behaviour.
3. Displays rapidly shifting and shallow expression of emotions.
4. Consistently uses physical appearance to draw attention to
self.
5. Has a style of speech that is excessively impressionistic and
lacking in detail.

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 6. Shows self-dramatization, theatricality, and exaggerated
expression of emotion.
7. Is suggestible (i.e., easily influenced by others or
circumstances).
8. Considers relationships to be more intimate than they
actually are.

Causal factors

 There is some evidence for a genetic link with antisocial personality

disorder
 The suggestion of some genetic propensity to develop this disorder is
also supported by findings that histrionic personality disorder may be
characterized as involving extreme versions of two common, normal
personality traits, extraversion and, to a lesser extent, neuroticism—
two normal personality traits known to have a partial genetic basis
 In terms of the five-factor model the very high levels of extraversion
of patients with histrionic personality disorder include high levels of
gregariousness, excitement seeking, and positive emotions
 Cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of maladaptive
schemas revolving around the need for attention to validate self-
worth.
 Core dysfunctional beliefs might include, “Unless I captivate people, I
am nothing” and “If I can’t entertain people, they will abandon me”.

B. NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISORDER

 Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder show an

exaggerated sense of self-importance, a preoccupation with being
admired, and a lack of empathy for the feelings of others
 Two subtypes of narcissism:

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  Grandiose narcissism - The grandiose presentation of
narcissistic patients, highlighted in the DSM-5 criteria, is
manifested by traits related to grandiosity, aggression, and
dominance. These are reflected in a strong tendency to
overestimate their abilities and accomplishments while
underestimating the abilities and accomplishments of others.
 Vulnerable narcissism - Vulnerable narcissists have a
very fragile and unstable sense of self-esteem, and for these
individuals, arrogance and a tendency to establish
superiority is merely a face for intense shame and
hypersensitivity to rejection and criticism
 Narcissistic are tend to be bossy, intolerant, cruel, argumentative,
dishonest, opportunistic, conceited, arrogant, and demanding,”
 But only those high on grandiosity were additionally described as
being “aggressive, hardheaded, outspoken, assertive, and
determined,” while those high on vulnerability were described as
“worrying, emotional, defensive, anxious, bitter, tense, and
complaining”
 Narcissistic personality disorder may be more frequently observed in
men than in women

DSM-5 Criteria for narcissistic personality disorder

A. A pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of
empathy, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by five of the following:
1. Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates
achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as
superior without commensurate achievements).
2. Is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power,
brilliance, beauty, or ideal love.

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 3. Believes that he or she is “special” and unique and can only
be understood by, or should associate with, other special or
high status people (or institutions).
4. Requires excessive admiration.
5. Has a sense of entitlement (i.e., unreasonable expectations of
especially favourable treatment or automatic compliance
with his or her expectations).
6. Is interpersonally exploitative (i.e., takes advantage of others
to achieve his or her own ends).
7. Lacks empathy: is unwilling to recognize or identify with the
feelings and needs of others.
8. Is often envious of others or believes that others are envious
of him or her.
9. Shows arrogant, haughty behaviours or attitudes.

Causal factors

 A key finding has been that the grandiose and vulnerable forms of
narcissism are associated with different causal factors.
 Grandiose narcissism has not generally been associated with
childhood abuse, neglect, or poor parenting. Indeed, there is some
evidence that grandiose narcissism is associated with parental
overvaluation.
 By contrast, vulnerable narcissism has been associated with
emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, as well parenting styles
characterized as intrusive, controlling, and cold.

C. ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

 Individuals with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) continually

violate and show disregard for the rights of others through

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 deceitful, aggressive, or antisocial behaviour, typically without
remorse or loyalty to anyone.
 They tend to be impulsive, irritable, and aggressive and to show a
pattern of generally irresponsible behaviour.
 This pattern of behaviour must have been occurring since the age
of 15, and before age 15 the person must have had symptoms of
conduct disorder, a similar disorder occurring in children and
young adolescents who show persistent patterns of aggression
toward people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or
theft, and serious violation of rules at home or in school.

DSM-5 Criteria for antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)

A. A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of
others, occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or more)
of the following:
1. Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful
behaviors, as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are
grounds for arrest.
2. Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or
conning others for personal profit or pleasure.
3. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.
4. Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical
fights or assaults.
5. Reckless disregard for safety of self or others.
6. Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to
sustain consistent work behaviour or honor financial
obligations.
7. Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or
rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another.
B. The individual is at least age 18 years.

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 C. There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age 15
years.
D. The occurrence of antisocial behaviour is not exclusively during the
course of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.

D. BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER

 People with borderline personality disorder (BPD) show a pattern
of behaviour characterized by impulsivity and instability in
interpersonal relationships, self-image, and moods.
 The central characteristic of BPD is affective instability, manifested
by unusually intense emotional responses to environmental
triggers, with delayed recovery to a baseline emotional state. This
often leads to erratic, self-destructive behaviours such as gambling
sprees or reckless driving. Suicide attempts when combined with
their impulsivity.
 People with BPD have a highly unstable self-image or sense of self,
which is sometimes described as “impoverished and/or
fragmented”.
 Their affective instability combined with unstable self-image, lead
to them having highly unstable interpersonal relationships.
 These relationships tend to be intense but stormy, involving over-
idealizations of friends or lovers that later end in bitter
disillusionment, disappointment, and anger. Their fears of
abandonment are so intense.
 Self-mutilation (such as repetitive cutting behaviour) is another
characteristic feature of borderline personality.
 As many as 75 percent of people with BPD have cognitive
symptoms.
 These include relatively short or transient episodes in which they
appear to be out of contact with reality and experience delusions or

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 other psychotic-like symptoms such as hallucinations, paranoid
ideas, or severe dissociative symptoms.
 Estimates are that only about 1 to 2 percent of the population may
qualify for the diagnosis of BPD.
 75 percent of individuals receiving this diagnosis in clinical settings
are women, such findings likely arise from a gender imbalance in
treatment seeking rather than prevalence of the disorder.
Comorbidity with Other Disorders
• BPD commonly co-occurs with unipolar and bipolar mood and
anxiety disorders (especially panic and PTSD), substance-use and
eating disorders.
• There is also substantial co-occurrence of BPD with other
personality disorders—especially histrionic.

DSM-5 Criteria for borderline personality disorder

A. A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships,
self-image, and affects, and marked impulsivity, beginning by
early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as
indicated by five (or more) of the following:
1. Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment.
2. A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships
characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization
and devaluation.
3. Identity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable
self-image or sense of self.
4. Impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-
damaging (e.g., spending, sex, substance abuse, reckless
driving, binge eating).
5. Recurrent suicidal behaviour, gestures, or threats, or self-
mutilating behaviour.

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 6. Affective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood (e.g.,
intense episodic dysphoria, irritability, or anxiety usually
lasting a few hours and only rarely more than a few days).
7. Chronic feelings of emptiness.
8. Inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger
(e.g., frequent displays of temper, constant anger, recurrent
physical fights).
9. Transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe
dissociative symptoms.

Causal factors
Genetic factors.
 Personality traits of affective instability and impulsivity, which are
both very prominent in BPD, are themselves partially heritable.
 There is also some preliminary evidence that certain parts of the 5-
HTT gene implicated in depression may also be associated with
BPD.
 Recent research also suggests a link with other genes involved in
regulating dopamine transmission.
 BPD often appear to be characterized by lowered functioning of the
neurotransmitter serotonin, which is involved in inhibiting
behavioural responses. This may be why they show impulsive-
aggressive behaviour, as in acts of self-mutilation; that is, their
serotonergic activity is too low to “put the brakes on” impulsive
behaviour.
 Patients with BPD may also show disturbances in the regulation of
noradrenergic neurotransmitters that are similar to those seen in
chronic stress conditions such as PTSD.

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  Research suggests certain structural brain abnormalities in BPD,
including reductions in both hippocampal and amygdala volume,
features associated with aggression and impulsivity.

Psychosocial causal factors

 childhood adversity and maltreatment is linked to adult BPD.about

90 percent of patients with BPD reported some type of childhood
abuse or neglect (emotional, physical, or sexual).
 Multi-dimensional diathesis-stress theory of BPD proposes that
people who have high levels of two normal personality traits—
impulsivity and affective instability—may have a diathesis to
develop BPD, but only in the presence of certain psychological risk
factors such as trauma, loss, and parental failure.

Cluster C Personality Disorders:

A. AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDERS
 Individuals with avoidant personality disorder show extreme social
inhibition and introversion, leading to lifelong patterns of limited
social relationships and reluctance to enter into social interactions.
 Because of their hypersensitivity to, and fear of, criticism, they do
not seek out other people, yet they desire affection and are often
lonely and bored
 Unlike schizoid personalities, people with avoidant personality
disorder do not enjoy their aloneness; their inability to relate
comfortably to other people causes acute anxiety and is
accompanied by low self-esteem and excessive self-consciousness
 The key difference between the loner with schizoid personality
disorder and the loner who is avoidant is that the latter is shy,
insecure, and hypersensitive to criticism, whereas someone with a

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 schizoid personality is more aloof, cold, and relatively indifferent
to criticism.
 The person with avoidant personality also desires interpersonal
contact but avoids it for fear of rejection, whereas in schizoid
personality disorder there is a lack of desire or ability to form
social relationships.

DSM-5 Criteria for Avoidant personality disorder:

A. A pervasive pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and
hypersensitivity to negative evaluation, beginning by early
adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four
(or more) of the following:
1. Avoids occupational activities that involve significant
interpersonal contact because of fears of criticism,
disapproval, or rejection.
2. Is unwilling to get involved with people unless certain of
being liked.
3. Shows restraint within intimate relationships because of the
fear of being shamed or ridiculed.
4. Is preoccupied with being criticized or rejected in social
situations.
5. Is inhibited in new interpersonal situations because of
feelings of inadequacy.
6. Views self as socially inept, personally unappealing, or
inferior to others.
7. Is unusually reluctant to take personal risks or to engage in
any new activities because they may prove embarrassing

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 Causal factors
 Some research suggests that avoidant personality may have its
origins in an innate “inhibited” temperament that leaves the infant
and child shy and inhibited in novel and ambiguous situations
 A large twin study in Norway has shown that traits prominent in
avoidant personality disorder show a modest genetic influence and
that the genetic vulnerability for avoidant personality disorder is at
least partially shared with that for social phobia
 Moreover, there is also evidence that the fear of being negatively
evaluated
 In some children who experience emotional abuse, rejection, or
humiliation from parents who are not particularly affectionate

B. DEPENDENT PERSONALITY DISORDER

 Individuals with dependent personality disorder show an extreme
need to be taken care of, which leads to depending and submissive
behaviour. They also show acute fear at the possibility of
separation or sometimes of simply having to be alone because they
see themselves as inept.
 These individuals usually build their lives around other people and
subordinate their own needs and views to keep these people
involved with them
 They often fail to get appropriately angry with others because of a
fear of losing their support, which means that people with
dependent personalities may remain in psychologically or
physically abusive relationships
 They tend to be overly depended to primary care givers and often
exhibiting behaviours of checking others love and support to them
 They have great difficulty making even simple, everyday decisions
without a great deal of advice and reassurance because they lack

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 self-confidence and feel helpless even when they have actually
developed good work skills or other competencies.
 Estimates are that dependent personality disorder occurs in 1 to 2
percent of the population and is more common in women than in
men
 This gender difference is not due to a sex bias in making the
diagnosis but rather to the higher prevalence in women of certain
personality traits such as neuroticism and agreeableness, which are
prominent in dependent personality disorder.

DSM-5 Criteria for dependent personality disorder

A. A pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of that leads to
submissive and clinging behaviour and fears of separation,
beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts,
as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
1. Has difficulty making everyday decisions without an excessive
amount of advice and reassurance from others.
2. Needs others to assume responsibility for most major areas of
his or her life.
3. Has difficulty expressing disagreement with others because of
fear of loss of support or approval. (Note: Do not include
realistic fears of retribution.)
4. Has difficulty initiating projects or doing things on his or her
own (because of a lack of self-confidence in judgment or
abilities rather than a lack of motivation or energy).
5. Goes to excessive lengths to obtain nurturance and support
from others, to the point of volunteering to do things that are
unpleasant.
6. Feels uncomfortable or helpless when alone because of
exaggerated fears of being unable to care for himself or herself.

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 7. Urgently seeks another relationship as a source of care and
support when a close relationship ends.
8. Is unrealistically preoccupied with fears of being left to take care
of himself or herself.

Causal Factors:

 Some evidence indicates that there is a modest genetic influence on

dependent personality traits.
 Moreover, several other personality traits such as neuroticism and
agreeableness that are also prominent in dependent personality
disorder also have a genetic component.
 It is possible that people with these partially genetically based
predispositions to dependence and anxiousness may be especially
prone to the adverse effects of parents who are authoritarian and
overprotective (not promoting autonomy and individuation in their
child but instead reinforcing dependent behaviour). This might
lead children to believe that they are reliant on others for their own
well-being and are incompetent on their own.
 Cognitive theorists describe the underlying maladaptive schemas
for these individuals as involving core beliefs about weakness and
competence and needing others to survive, such as, “I am
completely helpless” and “I can function only if I have access to
somebody competent”.

OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER(OCPD)

 Perfectionism and an excessive concern with maintaining order
and control characterize individuals with obsessive-compulsive
personality disorder (OCPD).

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  Their preoccupation with maintaining mental and interpersonal
control occurs in part through careful attention to rules, order, and
schedules.
 They are very careful in what they do so as not to make mistakes,
but because the details they are preoccupied with are often trivial.
 This perfectionism is also often quite dysfunctional in that it can
result in their never finishing projects.
 They also tend to be devoted to work to the exclusion of leisure
activities and may have difficulty in relaxing or doing anything just
for fun.
 At an interpersonal level, they have difficulty in delegating tasks to
others and are quite rigid, stubborn, and cold, which is how others
tend to view them.
 Research indicates that rigidity, stubbornness, and perfectionism,
as well as reluctance to delegate, are the most prevalent and stable
features of OCPD.
 It is important to note that people with OCPD do not have true
obsessions or compulsive rituals that are the source of extreme
anxiety or distress in people with obsessive- compulsive disorder.
Instead, people with OCPD have lifestyles characterized by over-
conscientiousness, high neuroticism, inflexibility, and
perfectionism but without the presence of true obsessions or
compulsive rituals.
 Indeed, only about 20 percent of patients with OCD have a
comorbid diagnosis of OCPD.

DSM-5 criteria for obsessive compulsive personality disorder:

A) A pervasive pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism,
and mental and interpersonal control, at the expense of flexibility,

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openness, and efficiency, beginning by early adulthood and present in a
variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following:
1. Is preoccupied with details, rules, lists, order, organization, or
schedules to the extent that the major point of the activity is lost.
2. Shows perfectionism that interferes with task completion (e.g., is
unable to complete a project because his or her own overly strict
standards are not met).
3. Is excessively devoted to work and productivity to the exclusion of
leisure activities and friendships (not accounted for by obvious
economic necessity).
4. Is over-conscientious, scrupulous, and inflexible about matters of
morality, ethics, or values (not accounted for by cultural or
religious identification).
5. Is unable to discard worn-out or worthless objects even when they
have no sentimental value.
6. Is reluctant to delegate tasks or to work with others unless they
submit to exactly his or her way of doing things.
7. Adopts a miserly spending style toward both self and others;
money is viewed as something to be hoarded for future
catastrophes.
8. Shows rigidity and stubbornness.

Causal factors:
1. Theorists who take a five-factor dimensional approach to
understanding OCPD note that these individuals have excessively
high levels of conscientiousness. This leads to extreme devotion to
work, perfectionism, and excessive controlling behaviour.
2. They are also high on assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and
low on compliance (a facet of agreeableness).

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 3. Another influential biological dimensional approach posits three
primary dimensions of personality: novelty seeking, reward
dependence, and harm avoidance.
4. Individuals with obsessive compulsive personalities have low levels
of novelty seeking (i.e., they avoid change) and reward dependence
(i.e., they work excessively at the expense of pleasurable pursuits)
but high levels of harm avoidance (i.e., they respond strongly to
aversive stimuli and try to avoid them).
5. Recent research has also demonstrated that the OCPD traits show
a modest genetic influence.

SCHIZOPHRENIA
 Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder that makes it difficult
for a person to distinguish between real and false perceptions and
beliefs.
 In 1896, Emil Kraepelin differentiated the major psychiatric
illnesses into two clinical types: Dementia praecox, and Manic
depressive illness.
 Under dementia praecox, he brought together the various
psychiatric illnesses (such as paranoia, catatonia and
hebephrenia), He recognised the characteristic features of
dementia praecox, such as delusions, hallucinations, disturbances
of affect and motor disturbances.
 Eugen Bleuler (1911), while renaming dementia praecox as
schizophrenia, recognised that this disorder did not always have a
poor prognosis as described by Kraepelin.
 He also recognised that schizophrenia consisted of a group of
disorders rather than being a distinct entity. Therefore, he used the
term, a group of schizophrenias

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  Kurt Schneider (1959) described symptoms which though not
specific of schizophrenia, were of great help in making a clinical
diagnosis of schizophrenia. These are popularly called as
Schneider’s first rank symptoms of schizophrenia (FRS or SFRS).

The DSM 5 criterion to diagnose schizophrenia

A. Two or more of the following for at least a one-month (or longer)

period of time, and at least one of them must be 1, 2, or 3:
1. Delusions
2. Hallucinations
3. Disorganized speech
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behaviour
5. Negative symptoms, such as diminished emotional
expression
B. Impairment in one of the major areas of functioning for a
significant period of time since the onset of the disturbance: Work,
interpersonal relations, or self-care.
C. Some signs of the disorder must last for a continuous period of at
least 6 months. This six- month period must include at least one
month of symptoms that meet criterion A and may include periods
of residual symptoms. During residual periods, only negative
symptoms may be present.
D. Schizoaffective disorder and bipolar or depressive disorder with
psychotic features have been ruled out:
E. No major depressive or manic episodes occurred concurrently with
active phase symptoms.
F. The disturbance is not caused by the effects of a substance or
another medical condition
G. If there is a history of autism spectrum disorder or a
communication disorder (childhood onset), the diagnosis of

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 schizophrenia is only made if prominent delusions or
hallucinations along with other symptoms, are present for at least
one month

Delusions

Faulty unshakeable beliefs that indicates an abnormality in the affected

person’s content of thought. The false belief is not accounted for by the
person’s cultural or religious background or his or her level of
intelligence.

1. Erotomanic: believes that another person, often someone

important of famous, is in love with him or her. The person might
attempt to contact the object of the delusion, and stalking behavior
is not uncommon.
2. Grandiose: A person with this type of delusional disorder has an
over-inflated sense of worth, power, knowledge, or identity. The
person might believe he or she has a great talent or has made an
important discovery.
3. Infedility: A person with this type of delusional disorder believes
that his or her spouse or sexual partner is unfaithful.
4. Persecutory: People with this type of delusional disorder believe
that they (or someone close to them) are being mistreated, or that
someone is spying on them or planning to harm them. It is not
uncommon for people with this type of delusional disorder to make
repeated complaints to legal authorities.
5. Somatic: A person with this type of delusional disorder believes
that he or she has a physical defect or medical problem.
6. Bizzare: things that could never happen in life

Hallucinations

An experience involving the apparent perception of something not

present.

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 1. Visual hallucinations: sees something that does not exist
2. Auditory hallucinations: This is the most common form of
hallucination in schizophrenics and refers to the perception of
non-existent sounds.
a. First person hallucinations/ Thought echo: the patient hears
his/ her thoughts spoken aloud.
b. Second person hallucinations: a voice appears to address the
patient in the second person.
c. Third person hallucinations: are patient may hear two or more
other peoples talking about him/her.

3. Olfactory hallucination: smelling odours that do not exist. The

odours are usually unpleasant such as vomit, urine, feces, smoke or
rotting flesh.

4. Tactile hallucination: a person senses that they are being touched

when they are not. One of the most common complaints is the sensation
of bugs crawling over the skin.

5. Gustatory hallucination: senses of taste that are often senses that

are often unpleasant mostly metallic.

positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia

 Positive sign or syndrome:

1. These syndromes are those in which something has been
added to a normal repertoire of behavior and experience.
2. The symtoms are hallucination, delusion, derailment of
association, bizarre behavior, minimal cognitive impairment,
sudden onset, and variable course.

 Negative signs or syndrome

1. Refers to an absence of or deficit of behaviours normally
present in an individual's repertoire. It is also known as Type

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 II schizophrenia. eg: Depression, Blunting of effect, Apathy,
Anhedonia, Poverty of speech, Inattention

A. PARANOID SCHIZOPHRENIA
 predominantly positive symptoms of schizophrenia, including
delusions and hallucinations.
 The clinical picture is dominated by relatively stable and often
persecutory delusions that are usually accompanied by
hallucinations, particularly of the auditory variety (hearing
voices), and perceptual disturbances.
 These symptoms can have a huge effect on functioning and can
negatively affect quality of life.
 Paranoid schizophrenia is a lifelong disease, but with proper
treatment, a person with the illness can attain a higher quality of
life.
 Symptoms:
 Delusion of reference
 Delusion of persecution
 Delusion of grandiosity
 Auditory and visual hallucinations
 Thought disorders

B. CATATONIC SCHIZOPHRENIA
 two kinds of behaviours are typically displayed: stupor and motor
rigidity or excitement. When people experience rigidity or stupor,
they are unable to speak, respond or even more.
 symptoms
 Stupor- no psychomotor activity, no interaction with the
environment.

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  Catalepsy- includes adopting unusual postures
 Waxy flexibility- if an examiner places the patient’s arm in a
position, they will maintain this position until it is moved
again.
 Mutism- limited verbal response.
 Auditory and visual hallucinations
 Bizzare delusions

C. HEBEPHRENIC OR DISORGANIZED SCHIZOPHRENIA

 characterized by disorganized behavior and speech and includes
disturbance in emotional expression.
 Hallucinations and delusions are less pronounced with
disorganized schizophrenia, though there is evidence of these
symptoms occurring.
 A person with disorganized schizophrenia is likely to have
difficulty beginning a specific task (eg: cooking a meal) or difficulty
finishing task. Independent functioning is exceptionally difficult
due to this gross disorganization.
 symptoms
 A decline in overall daily functioning
 Unpredictable or inappropriate emotional responses
 Lack of impulse control
 Behaviors that appear bizarre or lack purpose.
 Routine behaviors such as bathing, dressing or brushing
teeth can be severely impaired or lost.
 Hallucinations
 Bizarre delusions
 Wandering behavior
 Inappropriate emotions and emotional reactions

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  Catatonic symptoms

D. RESIDUAL SCHIZOPHRENIA

 When a person has a past history of at least one episode of

schizophrenia, but currently has no symptoms (delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior) they are
considered to have residual type schizophrenia.
 Displays mostly the negative symptoms of schizophrenia

 Hallucinations and delusional behaviors may not be visible.

E. UNDIFFERENTIATED SCHIZOPHRENIA
 Undifferentiated type schizophrenia is a classification used when a
person exhibits behaviors which fit into two or more of the other
types of schizophrenia, including symptoms such as delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior, catatonic
behavior.
 Mixture of schizophrenia

 It includes all the previous subtypes: Catatonic, disorganized,

paranoid, residual
 Difficult to make a definite diagnosis

F. CHILDHOOD SCHIZOPHRENIA
 Childhood schizophrenia is a schizophrenia spectrum disorder that
is characterized by hallucinations, disorganized speech, delusions,
catatonic behavior and “negative symptoms”, such as
inappropriate or blunted affect and avolition.
 Withdrawal from friends and family

 A drop in performance at school

 Trouble sleeping

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  Irritability or depressed mood

 Lack of motivation

 Strange behavior

 Substance abuse

Onset, Prevalance and Gender difference

 Schizophrenia most commonly strikes between the ages of 16 and
30, and males tend to show symptoms at a slightly younger age
than females
 Schizophrenia affects an estimated 1 percent of the population.
 Schizophrenia is equally prevalent in men and women.

Causal Factors
1. Genetic inheritance: If there is no history of schizophrenia in a
family, the chances of developing it are less than 1 percent. However,
that risk rises to 10 percent if a parent was diagnosed.
2. Chemical imbalance in the brain: Experts believe that an
imbalance of dopamine, a neurotransmitter, is involved in the onset of
schizophrenia.
3. Family relationships: There is no evidence to prove or even
indicate that family relationships might cause schizophrenia, however,
some patients with the illness believe family tension triggers relapses.
4. Environmental factors: trauma before birth and viral infections
may contribute to the development of the disease. Stressful experiences
often precede the emergence of schizophrenia. Before any acute
symptoms are apparent, people with schizophrenia habitually become
bad-tempered, anxious, and unfocused. This can trigger relationship
problems, divorce, and unemployment.
5. Drug induced schizophrenia: Marijuana and LSD are known to
cause schizophrenia relapses. Additionally, for people with a

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predisposition to a psychotic illness such as schizophrenia, usage of
cannabis may trigger the first episode.
OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
A. SCHIZOAFFECTIVE DISORDER:
 This diagnosis is conceptually something of a hybrid, in that it is
used to describe people who have features of schizophrenia and
severe mood disorder.
 The person not only has psychotic symptoms that meet criteria for
schizophrenia but also has marked changes in mood for a
substantial amount of time.

Criteria for Schizoaffective Disorder

A. An uninterrupted period of illness during which there is a major
mood episode (major depressive or manic) concurrent with
Criterion A of schizophrenia.
B. Delusions or hallucinations for 2 or more weeks in the absence of a
major mood episode (depressive or manic) during the lifetime
duration of the illness.
C. Symptoms that meet criteria for a major mood episode are present
for the majority of the total duration of the active and residual
portions of the illness.
D. The disturbance is not attributable to the effects of a substance
(e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition.

B. SCHIZOPHRENIFORM DISORDER
Schizophreniform disorder is a category reserved for schizophrenia-like
psychoses that last at least a month but do not last for 6 months and so
do not warrant a diagnosis .
Criteria for Schizophreniform Disorder

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A. Two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant
portion of time during a 1-month period (or less if successfully
treated). At least one of these must be (1), (2), or (3):
1. Delusions.
2. Hallucinations.
3. Disorganized speech
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior.
5. Negative symptoms
B. An episode of the disorder lasts at least 1 month but less than 6
months. When the diagnosis must be made without waiting for
recovery, it should be qualified as “provisional.”
C. Schizoaffective disorder and depressive or bipolar disorder with
psychotic features have been ruled out.
D. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical
condition.

C. DELUSIONAL DISORDER
 Patients with delusional disorder, hold beliefs that are considered
false and absurd by those around them. however, people given the
diagnosis of delusional disorder may otherwise behave quite
normally.
 Their behavior does not show the gross disorganization and
performance deficiencies characteristic of schizophrenia, and
general behavioral deterioration is rarely observed in this
disorder, even when it proves chronic.
 One interesting subtype of delusional disorder is erotomania.
Here, the theme of the delusion involves great love for a person,
usually of higher status.

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Criteria for Delusional Disorder
A. The presence of one (or more) delusions with a duration of 1
month or longer.
B. Criterion A for schizophrenia has never been met.
Note: Hallucinations, if present, are not prominent and are related to
the delusional theme (e.g., the sensation of being infested with insects
associated with delusions of infestation).
C. Apart from the impact of the delusion(s) or its ramifications,
functioning is not markedly impaired, and behavior is not
obviously bizarre or odd.
D. If manic or major depressive episodes have occurred, these have
been brief relative to the duration of the delusional periods.
E. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance or another medical condition and is not better explained
by another mental disorder, such as body dysmorphic disorder or
obsessive-compulsive disorder.

D. BRIEF PSYCHOTIC DISORDER

 It involves the sudden onset of psychotic symptoms or
disorganized speech or catatonic behavior. Even though there is
often great emotional turmoil, the episode usually lasts only a
matter of days.
 After this, the person returns to his or her former level of
functioning and may never have another episode again.
 Cases of brief psychotic disorder are infrequently seen in clinical
settings, perhaps because they remit so quickly. Brief psychotic
disorder is often triggered by stress.

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 Criteria for Brief Psychotic Disorder

A. Presence of one (or more) of the following symptoms. At least one

of these must be (1), (2), or (3):
1. Delusions.

2. Hallucinations.
3. Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence).
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior.
Note: Do not include a symptom if it is a culturally sanctioned
response.
B. Duration of an episode of the disturbance is at least 1 day but less
than 1 month, with eventual full return to premorbid level of
functioning.
C. The disturbance is not better explained by major depressive or
bipolar disorder with psychotic features or another psychotic
disorder such as schizophrenia or catatonia, and is not attributable
to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a
medication) or another medical condition.

9. STRESS

 The term stress was coined by Hans Selye.

 Selye took the word and used it to describe the difficulties and
strains experienced by living organisms as they struggled to cope
with and adapt to changing environmental conditions.
 Selye also noted that stress could occur not only in negative
situations but also in positive situations.
 He proposed two types of stress
a. Eustress: positive stress, a good kind of stress associated with
positive feeling and optimal health and performance.

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 b. Distress: negative stress, when stress exceeds optimal level.
People with distress feel burnout fatigued and exhausted.
 Stressors: environmental events that may be judged as threatening
or demanding that initiates stress.
 Stress tolerance: refers to a person’s ability to withstand stress
without becoming seriously impaired

Coping
 Coping means to invest one’s own conscious effort to solve
personal and interpersonal problems in order to try to master,
minimize or tolerate stress and conflict.
Coping strategies
 The psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed as
coping strategies or coping skills. The term coping generally refers
to adaptive (constructive) coping strategies.

 The effectiveness of the coping effort depends on the types of

stress, the individual and the circumstances. Coping responses are
partly controlled by the personality (habitual traits) but also by
social environment, particularly by the nature of the stressful
environment.
 Problem-focused coping involves taking action to manage a
problem that is creating stress. This type of coping might include
gathering information, comparing alternative courses of action,
making decisions, and resolving conflicts.

 Emotion-focused coping occurs when a person focuses on

managing emotional distress that results from a stressor rather
than trying to change the situation that creates stress.

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9.1 Stress disorders
A. ADJUSTMENT DISORDER
 An adjustment disorder is a psychological response to a common
stressor (e.g., divorce, death of a loved one, loss of a job) that results
in clinically significant behavioural or emotional symptoms.
 The stressor can be a single event, such as going away to college, or
involve multiple stressors, such as a business failure and marital
problems.
 People undergoing severe stress that exceeds their coping resources
may warrant the diagnosis of adjustment disorder.
 For the diagnosis to be given, symptoms must begin within 3
months of the onset of the stressor.
 In addition, the person must experience more distress that unable
him to function as usual.
 In adjustment disorder, the person’s symptoms lessen or disappear
when the stressor ends or when the person learns to adapt to the
stressor.
 In cases where the symptoms continue beyond 6 months, the
diagnosis is usually changed to some other mental disorder.
1. Adjustment Disorder Caused by Unemployment: Work-
related problems can produce great stress in employees. But
being unemployed can be even more stressful. Managing the
stress associated with unemployment requires great coping
strength, especially for people who have previously earned an
adequate living. Unemployment also takes its toll on other family
members, especially children.
2. Adjustment Disorder Caused by Divorce or Separation:
The deterioration or ending of an intimate relationship is a
potent stressor that is frequently cited as the reason why people
seek psychological treatment. Adjustment to a single life, perhaps
after many years of marriage, can be a difficult and lonely

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 experience. New friendships often need to be made, and new
romantic relationships may be difficult to find and require a great
deal of personal change. Even when the separation was relatively
amicable, new strength to adapt and cope is needed.

B. POST- TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)

 The diagnosis of PTSD first entered the DSM in 1980.
 In PTSD a traumatic event is thought to cause a pathological
memory that is at the centre of the characteristic clinical
symptoms associated with the disorder.
 These memories are often brief fragments of the experience and
often concern events that happened just before the moment with
the largest emotional impact.
 Although it is very common to experience psychological symptoms
after a traumatic event, these often fade with time.
 In DSM-5, the clinical symptoms of PTSD are grouped into four
main areas:
o Intrusion: Recurrent re-experiencing of the traumatic event
through nightmares, intrusive images, and physiological
reactivity to reminders of the trauma.
o Avoidance: Avoidance of thoughts, feelings or reminders of
the trauma.
o Negative cognitions and mood: This includes such
symptoms as feelings of detachment as well as negative
emotional states such as shame or anger, or distorted blame
of oneself or others.
o Arousal and reactivity: Hypervigilance, excessive
response when startled, aggression, and reckless behavior.

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B.1 Prevalence of PTSD in general population

• Lifetime prevalence of PTSD in the United States is 6.8 percent.

• Prevalence of PTSD is higher in women since they are more likely to be

exposed to certain kinds of traumatic experiences, such as rape

Acute Stress Disorder

 The diagnosis of PTSD requires that symptoms must last for at
least 1 month.
 Acute stress disorder is a diagnostic category that can be used
when symptoms develop shortly after experiencing a traumatic
event and last for at least 2 days.
 The existence of this diagnosis means that people with symptoms
do not have to wait a whole month to be diagnosed with PTSD.
Instead they can receive treatment as soon as they experience
symptoms.
 Moreover, if symptoms persist beyond 4 weeks, the diagnosis can
be changed from acute stress disorder to posttraumatic stress
disorder.
 Studies show that people who develop an acute stress disorder
shortly after traumatic event are indeed at increased risk of
developing PTSD.

DSM-5 Criteria For PTSD

Note: The following criteria apply to adults, adolescents, and children
older than 6 years
A. Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual
violence in one (or more) of the following ways:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s).
2. Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as it occurred to others.

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 3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a close
family member or close friend. In cases of actual or
threatened death of a family member or friend, the event(s)
must have been violent or accidental.
4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive
details of the traumatic event(s) (e.g., first responders
collecting human remains; police officers repeatedly exposed
to details of child abuse).
B. Presence of one (or more) of the following intrusion symptoms
associated with the traumatic event(s), beginning after the
traumatic event(s) occurred:
1. Recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories
of the traumatic event(s). Note: In children older than 6
years, repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects
of the traumatic event(s) are expressed.
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or
affect of the dream are related to the traumatic event(s).
3. Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the
individual feels or acts as if the traumatic event(s) were
recurring. (Such reactions may occur on a continuum, with
the most extreme expression being a complete loss of
awareness of present surroundings.) Note: In children,
trauma-specific reenactment may occur in play.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to
internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an
aspect of the traumatic event(s).
5. Marked physiological reactions to internal or external cues
that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic
event(s).

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C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic
event(s), beginning after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as
evidenced by one or both of the following:
1. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid distressing memories,
thoughts, or feelings about or closely associated with the
traumatic event(s).
2. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid external reminders (people,
places, conversations, activities, objects, situations) that
arouse distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about or
closely associated with the traumatic event(s).
D. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood associated with the
traumatic event(s), beginning or worsening after the traumatic
event(s) occurred, as evidenced by two (or more) of the following:
1. Inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic
event(s) (typically due to dissociative amnesia and not to
other factors such as head injury, alcohol, or drugs).
2. Persistent and exaggerated negative beliefs or expectations
about oneself, others, or the world (e.g., “I am bad,” “No one
can be trusted,” “The world is completely dangerous,” “My
whole nervous system is permanently ruined”).
3. Persistent, distorted cognitions about the cause or
consequences of the traumatic event(s) that lead the
individual to blame himself/herself or others.
4. Persistent negative emotional state (e.g., fear, horror, anger,
guilt, or shame).
5. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant
activities.
6. Feelings of detachment or estrangement from others.
7. Persistent inability to experience positive emotions (e.g.,
inability to experience happiness, satisfaction, or loving
feelings).

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 E. Marked alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with the
traumatic event(s), beginning or worsening after the traumatic
event(s) occurred, as evidenced by two (or more) of the following:
1. Irritable behavior and angry outbursts (with little or no
provocation) typically expressed as verbal or physical
aggression toward people or objects.
2. Reckless or self-destructive behavior.
3. Hypervigilance.
4. Exaggerated startle response.
5. Problems with concentration.
6. Sleep disturbance (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep or
restless sleep).
F. Duration of the disturbance (Criteria B, C, D, and E) is more than 1
month.
G. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
H. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., medication, alcohol) or another medical condition.

Causal Factors
1. Individual risk factors
 Risk factors that increase the likelihood of being exposed to trauma
include being male, having less than a college education, having
had conduct problems in childhood, having a family history of
psychiatric disorder.
 Other individual risk factors that have been identified by
researchers include lower levels of social support, neuroticism,
having pre-existing problems with depression and anxiety, as well
as having a family history of depression, anxiety, and also
substance abuse.

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2. Biological factors
 Women with PTSD do seem to have higher levels of baseline
cortisol than women without PTSD.
 levels of cortisol tend to be lower in people with PTSD who have
experienced physical or sexual abuse. In other words, the type of
trauma may be an important factor.
 Having the s-s form of the serotonin-transporter gene :- People
with this genotype may be especially susceptible to the effects of
traumatic stress, particularly if they also have low levels of social
support.
 Hippocampus (brain area related to memory)seems to be reduced
in size in people with PTSD.
 PTSD and depression are highly comorbid and co-occurring
disorders.
3. Socio- cultural factors

 Being a member of a minority group seems to place people at

higher risk for developing PTSD.
 Returning to a negative and unsupportive social environment can
also increase vulnerability to posttraumatic stress.

9 SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
 They are a group of conditions that involve physical symptoms
combined with abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in
response to those symptoms.
 Soma means “body,” and somatic symptom disorders involve
patterns in which individuals complain of bodily symptoms that
suggest the presence of medical problems but where there is no
obvious medical explanation that can satisfactorily explain the
symptoms such as paralysis or pain.

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 Despite a wide range of clinical manifestations, in each case the
person is preoccupied with some aspect of her or his health to the
extent that she or he shows significant impairments in functioning.
 Key to these disorders is the fact that the affected patients have no
control over their symptoms.
 They are also not intentionally faking symptoms or attempting to
deceive others. For the most part, they genuinely believe
something is terribly wrong with them.

A. SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDERS

 The old disorders of (1) hypochondriasis, (2) somatization
disorder, and (3) pain disorder have all now disappeared from
DSM-5. They are now diagnosed as somatic symptom disorder.
 In each case, individuals must be experiencing chronic somatic
symptoms that are distressing to them and they must also be
experiencing dysfunctional thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviours.
 Patients with somatic symptom disorder frequently engage in
illness behaviour that is dysfunctional, such as seeking additional
medical procedures or diagnostic tests when the physician fails to
find anything physically wrong with them.
 People with somatic symptom disorders tend to have a cognitive
style that leads them to be hypersensitive to their bodily
sensations. They also experience these sensations as intense,
disturbing, and highly aversive.
 Another characteristic of such patients is that they tend to think
catastrophically about their symptoms, often overestimating the
medical severity of their condition.

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A.1 DSM-5 CRITERIA FOR SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDER
A. One or more somatic symptoms that are distressing or result in
significant disruption of daily life.
B. Excessive thoughts, feelings, or behaviors related to the somatic
symptoms or associated health concerns as manifested by at least one of
the following:
1. Disproportionate and persistent thoughts about the seriousness
of one’s symptoms.
2. Persistently high level of anxiety about health or symptoms.
3. Excessive time and energy devoted to these symptoms or health
concerns.
C. Although any one somatic symptom may not be continuously present,
the state of being symptomatic is persistent (typically more than 6
months).

B. HYPOCHONDRIASIS
 In hypochondriasis the person is preoccupied either with fears of
contracting a serious disease or with the idea that of having that
disease even though they do not.
 These preoccupations and thoughts are based on a
misinterpretation of one or more bodily signs or symptoms (e.g.,
being convinced that a slight cough is a sign of lung cancer).
 A person is diagnosed only after a thorough medical evaluation
that has failed to find a medical condition that could account for
the signs or symptoms.
 Another typical feature of Hypochondriasis is that the person
cannot be reassured by the results of a medical evaluation.
 The condition has to persist for at least 6 months for the diagnosis
to be made.

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 People with hypochondriasis are generally resistant to the idea that
their problem is a psychological one that might be best treated by a
psychologist or psychiatrist.
 Prevalence - general medical practices of 2 to 7 percent.
 Hypochondriasis occurs about equally often in men and women
and can start at almost any age.
 Hypochondriasis is regarded as a persistent disorder if left
untreated, although its severity can fluctuate over time.
 Individuals with hypochondriasis often also suffer from mood
disorders, panic disorder, or other types of somatic symptom
disorders. This is one reason why hypochondriasis is now not
differentiated from other somatic symptom disorders in DSM-5.

Causal factors
 Cognitive-behavioural views of hypochondriasis are perhaps
most widely accepted. These have as a central tenet that it is a
disorder of cognition and perception. Misinterpretations of
bodily sensations play a causal role.
 It is believed that an individual’s past experiences with illnesses
lead to the development of a set of dysfunctional assumptions
about symptoms and diseases.
 These dysfunctional assumptions might include notions such as,
“Bodily changes are usually a sign of serious disease, or “If you
don’t go to the doctor as soon as you notice anything unusual,
then it will be too late.
 Because of these dysfunctional assumptions, individuals with
hypochondriasis seem to focus excessive attention on symptoms,
Although their physical sensations probably do not differ from
those in normal controls, they perceive their symptoms as more

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 dangerous than they really are and judge a particular disease to
be more likely or dangerous than it really is.
 Once they have misinterpreted a symptom, they tend to look for
confirming evidence and to discount evidence that they are in
good health. They also perceive their probability of being able to
cope with the illness as extremely low and see themselves as
weak and unable to tolerate physical effort or exercise.
 All this tends to create a vicious cycle in which their anxiety
about illness and symptoms results in physiological symptoms of
anxiety, which then provide further fuel for their convictions that
they are ill.
 Secondary reinforcements- special comforts and attention
are provided to sick people and, furthermore they are excused
from a number of responsibilities.

C. SOMATIZATION DISORDER
 Somatization disorder is characterized by many different physical
complaints.
 To qualify for the diagnosis, these had to begin before age 30, last
for several years, and not be adequately explained by independent
findings of physical illness or injury.
 They also had to have led to medical treatment or to significant life
impairment.
 The DSM-IV-TR criteria required that patients report a large
number of symptoms across a wide range of domains e.g., 4 pain
symptoms, two gastrointestinal symptoms, one sexual symptom
and one neurological-type symptom.
 Thus, to qualify for a diagnosis of somatization disorder, a patient
had to have experienced at least 8 out of 33 specified symptoms.

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  In DSM-5 the long and complicated symptom count is no longer
required and somatization disorder is now considered to be just
another variant of somatic symptom disorder.
 Somatization disorder usually begins in adolescence and is
believed by many to be about three to ten times more common
among women than among men.
 It also tends to occur more among less educated individuals and in
lower socioeconomic classes.
 The lifetime prevalence has been estimated to be between 0.2 and
2.0 percent in women and less than 0.2 percent in men.
 Somatization disorder very commonly co-occurred with several
other disorders including major depression, panic disorder, phobic
disorders, and generalized anxiety disorder.
 It has generally been considered to be a relatively chronic
condition with a poor prognosis, although sometimes the disorder
remits spontaneously

Causal Factors in Somatization Disorder

 There is evidence that somatization disorder runs in families and that

there is a familial linkage between antisocial personality disorder in
men and somatization disorder in women.
 one possibility is that some common, underlying predisposition,
probably at least partly genetically based, leads to antisocial behavior
in men and to somatization disorder in women.
 Moreover, somatic symptoms and antisocial symptoms in women
tend to co-occur. However, we do not yet have a clear understanding
of this relationship.
 One possibility is that the two disorders are linked through a common
trait of impulsivity.

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  It has also become clear that people with somatization disorder
selectively attend to, and show perceptual amplification of, bodily
sensations.
 They also tend to see bodily sensations as somatic symptoms. they
tend to catastrophize about minor bodily complaints (taking them as
signs of serious physical illness) and to think of themselves as
physically weak and unable to tolerate stress or physical activity.
 Note: Malingering the person is intentionally producing or grossly
exaggerating physical symptoms and is motivated by external
incentives such as avoiding work or military service or evading criminal
prosecution.

D. PAIN DISORDER
 Pain disorder is characterized by persistent and severe pain in one
or more areas of the body that is not intentionally produced or
feigned.

 Although a medical condition may contribute to the pain,

psychological factors are judged to play an important role.

 The pain disorder may be acute (duration of less than 6 months)

or chronic (duration of over 6 months).

 It is very important to remember that the pain that is experienced

is very real and can hurt as much as pain that comes from other
sources.

 The prevalence of pain disorder in the general population is

unknown. It is diagnosed more frequently in women than in men.

 Comorbid with anxiety or mood disorders, which may occur first

or may arise later as a consequence of the pain disorder.

PSYCHOCRASH
 People with pain disorder are often unable to work (they
sometimes go on disability) or to perform some other usual daily
activities.

 Their resulting inactivity (including an avoidance of physical

activity) and social isolation may lead to depression and to a loss of
physical strength and endurance.

 This fatigue and loss of strength can then exacerbate the pain in a
kind of vicious cycle.

 In addition, the behavioural component of pain is quite malleable

in the sense that it can increase when it is reinforced by attention,
sympathy, or avoidance of unwanted activities.

 Finally, there is suggestive evidence that people who have a

tendency to catastrophize about the meaning and effects of pain
may be the ones most likely to progress to a state of chronic pain.

E. CONVERSION DISORDER

 Conversion disorder involves a pattern in which symptoms or

deficits affecting the senses or motor behaviour that strongly
suggest that the patient has a medical or neurological condition.
However, upon a thorough medical examination, it becomes
apparent that the pattern of symptoms or deficits cannot be fully
explained by any known medical condition.

 A few typical examples include partial paralysis, blindness,

deafness, and pseudoseizures.

 The person is not intentionally producing or faking the symptoms,

Rather, psychological factors are often judged to play an important

PSYCHOCRASH
 role because symptoms usuallyeither start or are exacerbated by
preceding emotional or interpersonal conflicts or stressors.

Freud’s view

 Early observations dating back to Freud suggested that most

people with conversion disorder showed very little of the anxiety
and fear that would be expected in a person with a paralyzed arm
or loss of sight. This seeming lack of concern (known as la belle
indifférence—French for “the beautiful indifference”) in the way
the patient describes what is wrong was thought for a long time to
be an important diagnostic criterion for conversion disorder.

 The term conversion disorder is relatively recent. Historically this

disorder was one of several disorders that were grouped together
under the term hysteria.

 Freud used the term conversion hysteria for these disorders

(which were fairly common in his practice) because he believed
that the symptoms were an expression of repressed sexual energy—
that is, the unconscious conflict that a person felt about his or her
repressed sexual desires.

 In Freud’s view, the repressed anxiety threatens to become

conscious, so it is unconsciously converted into a bodily
disturbance, thereby allowing the person to avoid having to deal
with the conflict.

 Freud also thought that the reduction in anxiety and intra-psychic

conflict was the “primary gain” that maintained the condition, but
he noted that patients often had many sources of “secondary gain”
as well, such as receiving sympathy and attention from loved ones.

 Freud’s theory that conversion symptoms are caused by the

conversion of sexual conflicts or other psychological problems into

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 physical symptoms is no longer accepted outside psychodynamic
circles. However, many of Freud’s astute clinical observations
about primary and secondary gain are still incorporated into
contemporary views of conversion disorder.

 The primary gain for conversion symptoms is the escape or

avoidance of a stressful situation. Because this is all unconscious
(i.e., the person sees no relation between the symptoms and the
stressful situation), the symptoms go away only if the stressful
situation has been removed or resolved.

 The term secondary gain, has also been retained. Generally, it is

used to refer to any “external” circumstance, such as attention
from loved ones or financial compensation, which would tend to
reinforce the maintenance of disability.

Prevalence and demographics

 The prevalence in the general population is unknown, but even the

highest estimates have been around only 0.005 percent.

 Conversion disorder occurs two to three times more often in

women than in men.

 It can develop at any age but most commonly occurs between early
adolescence and early adulthood.

 Like most other somatic symptom disorders, conversion disorder

frequently occurs along with other disorders, especially major
depression, anxiety disorders, and other forms of somatic
symptom or dissociative conditions.

Sensory Symptoms or Deficits Conversion disorder- sensory

symptoms or deficits are most often in the visual system (especially

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blindness and tunnel vision), in the auditory system (especially
deafness), or in the sensitivity to feeling (especially the anaesthesia’s). In
the anesthesias, the person loses her or his sense of feeling in a part of
the body. One of the most common is glove anesthesia, in which the
person cannot feel anything on the hand in the area where gloves are
worn, although the loss of sensation usually makes no anatomical sense.

Motor Symptoms - Conversion paralysis is usually confined to a single

limb such as an arm or a leg, and the loss of function is usually selective
for certain functions. The most common speech-related conversion
disturbance is aphonia, in which a person is able to talk only in a
whisper although he or she can usually cough in a normal manner.
Organic laryngeal paralysis, both the cough and the voice are
affected. Another common motor symptom, called globushystericus,
is difficulty swallowing or the sensation of a lump in the throat.

Seizures - Conversion seizures, another relatively common form of

conversion symptom, involve pseudo seizures, which resemble epileptic
seizures in some ways but can usually be fairly well differentiated via
modern medical technology.

DSM-5 criteria for conversion disorder

A. One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory

function.

B. Clinical findings provide evidence of incompatibility between the

symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions.

C. The symptom or deficit is not better explained by another medical or

mental disorder.

D. The symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or

impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of
functioning or warrants medical evaluation.

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 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. DEFINITION GOAL AND SCOE

a) Definition
 Social psychology investigates the ways in which our thoughts, feelings, and
actions are influenced by the social environments in which we live—by other
people or our thoughts about them.
 Social psychology is defined as the scientific field that seeks to understand the
nature and causes of individual behavior, feelings, and thought in social
situations.
 Floyd Allport (1924) - “the scientific study of the experience and behaviour of
individuals in relation to other individuals, groups and culture”.
 Gordon W. Allport (1968) - “that attempts to understand and explain how the
thought, feeling and behaviour of an individual are influenced by the actual,
imagined or implied presence of others.”

b) Goals of social psychology

1. Social psychologists seek to understand the causes of social behavior and
thought.
2. To understand the actions and characteristics of others.
3. To understand the cognitive processes.
4. The environmental factors
5. The cultural context
6. The biological/evolutionary factors

c) Scope of social psychology

 Social stimuli and social stimulus situations

 Individuals reactions and experiences which arise from social situations
 Impact of social environment on the individuals social behavior is a result of
four factors.
1. Characteristics of the people.
2. cognitive processes.
3. Physical environment
4. Cultural context

 It tries to see how thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are

influenced by the actual imagined or implied presence of others. This includes
social perception, social interaction and many kinds of social influence like
trust, power and persuation.
  It tries to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behavior
of groups. This includes looking at things like group productivity in the
workplace and group decision making.
 Social psychology tries to understand groups itself as behavioral entities and
the relationships and influences that one group has upon another group.

2. HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

a) Early 20th century

 1908 and 1924
 Period during which social psychology become an independent field.
 In both these years books containing social psychology as their titles were
published.

William McDougall

 1908
 The first book which was based on the view that social behavior tends from
innate tendencies or instincts.
Floyd Allport

 published second volume of the book

 He argued that social behavior stems from many different factors including
the presence of others and their specific actions.
 The book emphasized the value of experimentation and contained discussions
of actual research that already been conducted on such topics as conformity,
the ability to recognize others emotions from their expression and the impact
of audiences on task performance.

b) Late 20th century

 By the middle of twenties, social psychology had appeared on the research field
and had begun to investigate many of the topics.

 1930s and early 1940s;

 Two decades after the publication of Allport’s book were marked by rapid growth.
 New issues were studied and new methods for investigating them were devised.

 1935
Muzafer Sherif And Kurt Lewin

 Muzafer sheriff studied the nature and impact of social norms and rules
indicating how individuals ought to behave and so contributed basic insights to
our understanding of pressures toward conformity.
 Kurt lewin and his colleagues carried out revealing research on the nature of
leadership and other group processes.
 Lewin’s influence on social psychology was profound, because many of his
students went on to become very prominent contributors in this field.
 By the close of the 1930s, social psychology was a growing field that had already
contributed much to our knowledge of social behaviour.

 1940 and 1950

 Social psychologists focused on attention on the influence that group and
group membership exert on individual behaviour(forsyth,1991)
 They examined the link between various personality traits and social
behaviour.

 1957
 Most important event during this period was the development of cognitive
dissonance theory by Leon Festinger.
 This theory proposed that human beings dislike inconsistency and strive to
reduce it. i.e, people seek to eliminate inconsistency between various attitudes
that they hold or between their attitudes and behaviour.

 1960;
 The time when social psychology came of age.
 So many lines of research either began or expanded during these years like
“interpersonal attraction and romantic love, repression, formation, attribution
and other aspects of social perception; many different aspects of social
influence such as obedience, conformity and compliance, the cause and
prevention of human aggression and effects of the physical environment on
many forms of social behaviour.

 1970-1990 - a maturing field

 Many lines on research began during the 1960s were expanded and several
new topics to prominence. The most important among that are:

1. Attribution: the process through which we seek to understand the

cause of others behaviour.
2. Gender differences and sex discrimination: investigation of the
extent to which the behaviour of women and men actually differs and
the impact of negative stereotypes concerning the traits supposedly
possessed by gender.
3. Environmental psychology: investigations of the effects of the
physical environment-noise, heat, crowding, air quality on social
behaviour.
 Social psychology reached maturity in both theory and method during the
1980s and 1990s. Modern researchers are interested in a variety of
phenomena, but attribution, social cognition, and self-concept are perhaps the
greatest areas of growth.
  Social psychologists have also maintained their applied interests, with
contributions in health and environmental psychology, as well as the
psychology of the legal system.

3. ATTITUDE
Allport- an attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized thought
experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individuals response
to all objects and situations with which it is related.
Robbin- an attitude is a manner of disposition, feeling or position with regard to a
person or thing , tendency or orientation especially in mind.

Components Of Attitude

1. Beliefs /cognition: an attitude is based on a set of cognition or knowledge

structures associated with the attitude object. Ie, the thoughts and beliefs that
people form about the attitude object.
2. Evaluation/affective component: an attitude also has an evaluative or
affective component.it is based more on people’s feelings and values that their
beliefs about the nature of an attitude object.
3. Behavioural predisposition: an attitude also involves a predisposition to
respond or a behavioral tendency toward the object. ‘it is boring’ interprets a
tendency to avoid the class.’ I like my job’ suggests an intention to go to work.
People who hold a specific attitude are inclined to behave in certain ways that are
consistent with the attitude.

Theories of attitude

A. COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY THEORY

1.Heider’s Balance Theory (1958)

This theory states that if people see a set of cognitive elements as being a system
and they will have a preference to maintain a balanced state among these elements. If
we are out of balance then we are motivated to restore a position of balance.

a) POX triangle
 P- Person, O- Other person, X- An object/person
 Cognitive balance is achieved when there are three positive links or two
negatives with one positive. Two positive links and one negative ]creates
imbalance or cognitive dissonance.
  Determining whether the triadic relationship is balanced or not:
 +++ = +: Balanced
 _+_ = _: Balanced
 _++ = _: Unbalanced

 Unit relations - Relation between any two elements of POX triangle.

 Sentiment relation – relation between person and other element in the
system
If the products of the signs in the sentiments and unit relations result in a positive
value , the consistency of the triad is balance

2. Theodore’s New Comb Abx Theory(1953)

Explains about the communication in a social relationship to maintain social
equilibrium within the social system.

● A – centre

● B - receiver

● X – topic, matter concern

When an incongruence occurs between A and B in X, then the X should be changed

in order to bring a congruency, between A and B.

3. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger, 1957)

It refers to the situation involving conflicting attitudes, belief or behaviours. This
produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alternation in one of the
attitude, belief or behavior to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.

 Free choice - when you have a choice between equally attractive alternatives
and after making a decision the attitude changes as you have to accept the
decision.
 Forced compliance – when someone is forced to do something they really
don’t want to do, dissonance is created between their cognition and their
behavior.
 Minimal justification effect / effort justification – to achieve some
goals, and this dissonance can be reduced by exaggerating the desirability of
the goal.
Dissonance is reduced by attitude or behavior change, trivialization, self-affirmation
and indirect method
4. Effective Cognitive Consistency Theory
 Rosenberg.
 The approach that people seek consistency in order to satisfy a general
motivation towards simplicity in cognition, adhere to norms, tradition,
customs or values that reinforce consistency in cognition and behavior. When
justification increases, dissonance decreases and when justification decreases,
dissonance increases.

5. Congruity Theory (Osgood And Tannen Baums)

This theory holds that incongruence (like imbalance) is unpleasant and motivates
audiences to change to change their attitude.

● Refined Heider’s balanced theory

 The attitude object(x) → concept

 The other person (o) → source
 The person (p) → mass
Concept is either positive or negative

B. FUNCTIONAL THEORIES
1. Katz And Stotland’s Theory

 4 functions of attitude were explained

i. Utilitarian/instrumental function-aroused by the activation of a
need or cues, that are associated with an object and arouse
favourable or unfavourable feeling.
ii. Ego defensive – aroused by internal or external threat,
frustrating threats, appeals or to the buildup or repressed
impulses and suggestions by authoritarian sources.
iii. Value orientation – attitudes are held because they express a
person’s value or enhance his self-identity.
iv. Knowledge functions – based on a person’s need to maintain a
stable, organized and meaningful structure of the world.

2. Functional Attitude Theory (Smith, Brunner, White)

This theory states that although two people might have an attitude with the exact
same valence, that attitude might serve very different functions for each persons.
There are 5 functions:-

i. Utilitarian attitudes
ii. Social adjustive- facilitate the ability to interact with desirable social group
members or to impress attractive others.
 iii. Value expressive- facilitate the ability to voice and remain consistent with
their values.
iv. Ego-defensive
v. Knowledge

C. MISCELLANEOUS THEORY

1. Kelman’s Social Influence Theory (1958)

Three process influences human attitude:

i. Compliance: Individual accept influence and adopt the induced behavior to

gain rewards and avoid punishment.
ii. Identification: Individual’s adopt the induced behavior in order to create or
maintain a desired and beneficial relationship with another.
iii. Internalization
Individuals accept influence after perceiving the content of the induced behavior is
rewarding in which the content indicates the opinion and actions of others.

2. Assimilation Contrast Theory (Sheriff , Tob And Howeland)

 A theory of judgement and attitude change
 The person’s current belief serves as an internal reference point to which the
persuasion attempt is compared.
 People’s approach to a conflict depends on any of 3 latitude:-
i. Latitude of acceptance- assimilation effect
ii. Latitude of rejection- contrast effect
iii. Latitude of non-commitment
 Latitude of acceptance leads to assimilation effect- one will find some degree
of acceptance of information which is not really that close to what one
believes.
 Latitude of rejection leads to contrast effect – one finds information
unacceptable even that is fairly close to what one believes.

3. Adaptation Level Theory ( Harry Helson)

 Adaptation level for a class of stimuli is determined by members of the class
already sampled.
 Subjective judgements are relative to the prevailing norms or adaptation
level.

4. Mere Exposure Effect-Zajonc

• The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people
tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with
them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes called the familiarity
principle.
5. Life - Stance Hypothesis (Visser And Cross Nick)
• Attitude change is high in younger and elderly adults.
• Middle age adults show resistance to attitude change.
• Strength of attitude is determined by information, knowledge and
involvement.

6. Social Comparison Theory.

• Social comparison theory was first proposed in 1954 by psychologist Leon
Festinger and suggested that people have an innate drive to evaluate
themselves, often in comparison to others.
• People make all kinds of judgments about themselves, and one of the key
ways that we do this is through social comparison, or analyzing the self in
relation to others.
1. Upward Social Comparison
• This takes place when we compare ourselves with those who we believe are
better than us. These upward comparisons often focus on the desire to improve
our current status or level of ability. We might compare ourselves to someone
better off and look for ways that we can achieve similar results.2
2. Downward Social Comparison
• This takes place when we compare ourselves to others who are worse off than
us. Such downward comparisons are often centered on making ourselves feel
better about our abilities or traits. We might not be great at something, but at
least we are better off than someone else.

7. Theory Of Planned Behaviour ( Fishben And Ajzen)

• Behavior intentions are determined by 3 factors :-

i. Attitudes – beliefs about consequences and evaluation of that consequences

ii. Subjective norms- normative beliefs and motivation to comply to those beliefs
iii. Perceived control- self efficacy

8. Elaboration Likelyhood Model- Petty And Cacioppo

• dual process theory describing the change of attitudes developed by Richard E.
Petty and John Cacioppo in 1980
• The model aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are
used, and their outcomes on attitude change.
• The ELM proposes two major routes to persuasion: the central route and the
peripheral route.
central route: persuasion will likely result from a person's careful and
thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented in
support of an advocacy. The central route involves a high level of message
elaboration in which a great amount of cognition about the arguments are
generated by the individual receiving the message. The results of attitude change
will be relatively enduring, resistant, and predictive of behavior.
 peripheral route: persuasion results from a person's association with positive
or negative cues in the stimulus or making a simple inference about the merits of
the advocated position. The cues received by the individual under the peripheral
route are generally unrelated to the logical quality of the stimulus. These cues will
involve factors such as the credibility or attractiveness of the sources of the
message, or the production quality of the message. The likelihood of elaboration
will be determined by an individual's motivation and ability to evaluate the
argument being presented.

9. Hovald Message Learning Theory

• First proposed by U.S. psychologist Carl I. Hovland (1912 - 1961)
• A theory that conceptualizes attitude change as a type of learning process
in which the extent of attitude change is determined by how well the
arguments in a persuasive message are learned.
• A change in attitude can be likened to a message learning process, in that
an attitude can be changed but only if the message stimulating this
change is clear.
• There is five steps to this process- exposure, attention, comprehension,
yielding and retention, all of which are important for overall success.

10 . Bem’s Self Perception Theory.

• Self-perception theory (SPT) is an account of attitude formation developed

by psychologist Daryl Bem.
• It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their
own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it.

Characteristics of attitude

● Attitude is learned, not inherited

● Give direction

● Relatively permanent

● Related to feelings and beliefs about people

● Changes with time and situation

Factors of attitude formation

● Need Satisfaction

● Social Learning
● Classical Conditioning

● Instrumental Conditioning

● Observational Learning

● Group Affiliation

● Cultural Facts

● Personality Factors

● Stereotypes

● Given Information

Measurement of attitude

i. Thurstone scale
• The Thurstone scale measures a respondent's attitude by using a series
of “agree-disagree” statements of various weights. These statements help
determine not only how a respondent feels, but how strongly they feel
that way.

ii. Likert scale

• A Likert scale assumes that the strength/intensity of an attitude is
linear, i.e. on a continuum from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and
makes the assumption that attitudes can be measured

iii. Bogardus scale

• Bogardus social distance scale is defined as a scale that measures
varying degrees of closeness in people towards other members of
diverse social, ethnic or racial groups.
• This scale was developed by Emory Bogardus in 1924 and named after
him. It is one of the oldest and still in use, psychological attitude scales.

iv. Guttman scale

• In the social sciences, the Guttman or “cumulative” scale measures
how much of a positive or negative attitude a person has
towards a particular topic. The Guttman scale is one of the three
major types of uni dimensional measurement scales. The other two are
the Likert Scale and the Thurstone Scale.

4. STEREOTYPE
• Fixed over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people.
• Cognitive component of attitude towards social group
 • Includes both negative and positive traits
• Gender stereotypes- beliefs about the characteristics of genders
• Gender stereotyping- a socialization process, culturally approved notion of
being and becoming a ‘man’ or woman’.
• Glass ceiling - The term “glass ceiling” refers to invisible barriers that keep
some people from advancing in the workplace. The glass ceiling keeps people
from getting certain jobs, despite being well qualified and deserving. It's a
phenomenon that affects career trajectory, status, and lifetime earning potential
• Glass cliff effect - The glass cliff effect describes a real world phenomenon in
which women are more likely to be appointed to precarious leadership positions
in poorly performing organizations, while men are more likely to be appointed to
stable leadership positions in successful organizations.
• Subjective and objective scales are used to rate stereotypes.

5. PREJUDICE
• Affective component of attitude(emotional)
• An unjustified or incorrect attitude towards an individual based solely on the
individual’s social group.
• ‘The Nature Of Prejudice’(1954)- described prejudice as antipathy
• Prejudices can be either positive or negative
• Sources of Prejudice :-
i. Social sources- social inequalities/ social status, conformity, ingroup bias,
social identity
ii. Cognitive sources- categories, stereotypes, attribution, distinctiveness
iii. Motivational sources- frustration and aggression(scape goat theory)

Types of prejudice
• Racism- a pervasive behavior pattern that causes a person or society to
discriminate against persons of other races or ethnic/social groups that the
racist person or group considers inferior.
• Xenophobia- refers to a generalized and irrational dislike, fear or hatred of
outsiders or persons who are of different cultures or ethnic groups.
• Sexism - Sexism is discrimination based on gender and preferential treatment of
one sex over another.
• Religious prejudice
• Ageism- Ageism is a clear-cut bias, prejudice against, or stereotyping of
individuals of an age group.
• Nationalism

Manifestation of prejudice

a. Withdrawl

b. Avoidance

c. Discrimination
d. Lynching

e. Extermination

Reducing Prejudice

• Contact hypothesis - Contact hypothesis refers to the belief that prejudices

can be lessened or eliminated by direct contact between groups
• Anti-prejudice propaganda
• Social legislation- laws designed to improve and protect the economic and
social position of those groups in society which because of age, sex, race,
physical or mental defect or lack of economic power cannot achieve health and
decent living standards for themselves.
• Self-esteem hypothesis- relate to in-group bias in two ways
• Cooperation hypothesis
• Personality change technique

6. DISCRIMINATION
• The behaviour or action usually negative towards an individuals or group of
people.
• Behavioural component of attitude
• Examples like racial discrimination, gender discrimination etc.
• Essences – biologically based features that were used for discrimination

7. SOCIAL CONFLICT
Social conflict or group conflict occurs when two or more actors oppose each
one another in social interaction, reciprocally exerting social power in an
effort to attain scarce or incompatible goals and prevent the opponent from
attaining them. Group conflict or social conflict is a social relationship
wherein the action is oriented intentionally for carrying out the actor’s own
will against the resistance of other party or parties.

7.1 Forms of Social Conflict

Overt Conflict - In this form social conflict is open and explicit. Competition
between both the parties is fierce and direct. For example, negotiation between
management representatives and labour union or war between two countries. A more
simple example of it is debate, in which one speaker emphasises and justifies his own
point while questioning the validity of opponents point of view. The explicit aim is to
defeat the opponent and ensure ones victory.

Objective Conflict - Objective conflict occurs when one group tries to gain
advantage over another group or groups. Thus by objective social conflict we mean a
social situation inherently benefits some while causing loss to others. For example, it
is often seen that when government takes some welfare steps, some people are more
benefitted but some others receive less than expected benefits and still some others
are at loss. This gives rise to a kind of social conflict known as objective social conflict

Subjective Conflict - When a person identifies or perceives a situation involving

struggle it is known as subjective conflict. Sometimes a person remains in a state of
subjective struggle without bringing it to overt level.

8. GROUP
 “A group is an organized system of more individuals who are related to one
another so that it performs some functions; it has a standard of role
relationship and has a set of norms that regulate the function of the
group.” – Mc David
 Sheriff and sheriff (1969) define a group as follows: “A group is a social
unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in role and status
relationship to one another stabilized in some degree at the time and who
possess a set of value or norms of their own regulating their behaviour at
least in matter of consequence to the group”.
 Group is defined by Baron and Byrne (1988) as follows: “Group consist of
two or more persons engaged in social interaction who have some stable
structure relationship with one another, are independent, share common
goals and perceive that they are in fact part of a group”. Thus when two or
more individuals gather together to serve a common purpose or common
motive it is called a group.

Charecteristics of Group

a. We feeling
b. Common interest
c. Unity
d. Related to each other
e. Affected by group characteristics
f. Common Values
g. Common group
h. Obligation
i. Exception.

Group formation

Stages.
i. Forming: The forming stage involves a period of orientation and getting
acquainted. Uncertainty is high during this stage, and people are looking for
 leadership and authority. A member who asserts authority or is
knowledgeable may be looked to take control.

ii. Storming: It is a period marked by conflict and competition as individual

personalities emerge. Team performance may actually decrease in this stage
because energy is put into unproductive activities. Members may disagree on
team goals, and subgroups and cliques may form around strong personalities
or areas of agreement. To get through this stage, members must work to
overcome obstacles, to accept individual differences, and to work through
conflicting ideas on team tasks and goals.

iii. Norming: Conflict is resolved and some degree of unity emerges. In the
norming stage, consensus develops around who the leader or leaders are, and
individual member’s roles. Interpersonal differences begin to be resolved, and
a sense of cohesion and unity emerges. Team performance increases during
this stage as members learn to cooperate and begin to focus on team goals.

iv. Performing: Consensus and cooperation have been well-established and the
team is mature, organized, and well-functioning. There is a clear and stable
structure, and members are committed to the team’s mission. Problems and
conflicts still emerge, but they are dealt with constructively.

v. Adjourning: Most of the team’s goals have been accomplished. The

emphasis is on wrapping up final tasks and documenting the effort and
results. As the work load is diminished, individual members may be
reassigned to other teams, and the team disbands. There may be regret as the
team ends, so a ceremonial acknowledgement of the work and success of the
team can be helpful.

Theories of group formation.

1. Classic theory
Homan's theory of group formation is based on three elements,
namely, activities, interaction and sentiments. According to Homan, these
three elements are directly related to each other. The required activities are
the assigned tasks to people to work. The required interaction takes place
when any person's activity takes place or is influenced by the activity of any
other person. As regards sentiments, these are the feelings or attitudes of a
person towards others, i.e., his likes or dislikes, approval or disapproval.

2. Social exchange theory

Exchange theory of group formation suggests that an individual will (or will
not) join a group on the basis of outcomes of reward and cost. Reward for
joining a group is in the form of gratifying the needs while cost is in the form
 of anxiety, frustration, embarrassment, and fatigue. It reward is equal to, or
more than cost the individual will join the group. In reverse case he will not
join the group. Propinquity, interaction and common attitudes all have roles
in the exchange theory.

3. Social identity theory

Social identity theory was developed to explain how individuals create and
define their place in society. According to the theory, three psychological
processes are central in that regard: social categorization, social comparison,
and social identification.
Social categorization refers to the tendency of people to perceive themselves
and others in terms of particular social categories—that is, as relatively
interchangeable group members instead of as separate and unique
individuals.

Types of group

PRIMARY GROUP

 A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close,
personal, enduring relationships.
 Primary groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and
culture, and long periods of time spent together. They are psychologically
comforting and quite influential in developing personal identity.
 Families and close friends are examples of primary groups.
 The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather
than achieving some other purpose.
SECONDARY GROUP

 Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and
goal oriented; their relationships are temporary.
 Secondary groups include groups in which one exchanges explicit
commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, and such. They
also include university classes, athletic teams, and groups of co-workers.
IN-GROUPS

 In-groups are social groups to which an individual feels he or she belongs,

while an individual doesn’t identify with the out-group.
 In- group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for one’s in-group over
the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
 One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-
esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to
prove to themselves why their group is superior.
OUT-GROUP

 An out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

FORMAL GROUPS

 Formal groups are formulated when two or more members of an organization

are assembled by the management with the purpose of achieving a specific
goal.
 There exist rules and regulations within a formal group with an official leader
who is supposed to enforce the laws and regulations while at the same time
offering direction and guidance to the group.

INFORMAL GROUPS

 Informal groups are formed by two or more members with the purpose of
satisfying their personal and psychological needs.
 An informal group does not follow a defined pattern, rules, or guidelines and
no official leader controls the group. Any person can assume leadership at any
given time.

ORGANISED GROUPS

 The group which are formed for specific purpose and are carefully planned is
called organized groups. The family, the school etc. are called organized
groups.

SPONTANEOUS GROUPS

 The groups are formed without any careful planning. An example is the
audience in a theater. Audience may be considered as spontaneous group
when they come to listen to a speech or watch a play.

COMMAND GROUPS

 Command groups are specified by the organizational chart. It consists of a

supervisor and the subordinates who report to the supervisor.
TASK GROUPS

 This consists of a group of people who have come together to achieve a

common task. In many situations there is a specified time period. This can be
referred to as task forces.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

 Functional group is generally created by the organization to accomplish

specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional group generally
exists after achievement of current goals and objects.

INTEREST GROUPS

 These groups usually continue over a period of time and may last longer than
general informal groups. It is seen that members’ interest may not be part of
the same organizational department but they are bound by some common
interest

FRIENDSHIP GROUPS

 These may be of different types. These groups are formed by the members
who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values and other
common bonds.

REFERENCE GROUPS

 This is the group against which other groups and group members as well as
others evaluate themselves. Reference groups have a strong influence on
members’ behaviour.

Group structure

Group structure is defined as the layout of a group. It is a combination of group roles,

norms, conformity, workplace behavior, status, reference groups, status, social
loafing, cohorts, group demography and cohesiveness.

 Group Roles − The different roles a person plays as a part of the group.

 Norms − The typical standard set by the group collaboratively that every
member has to follow.
 Status − The designation of members in the group.
 Cohesiveness − Extent of belongingness towards each other in the group

Group Bias
In-group Bias
o It is the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others
who belong to the same group that they do.
o This bias shows up even when people are put into groups randomly,
making group membership effectively meaningless.

Intergroup bias
o refers generally to the systematic tendency to evaluate one's own
membership group (the in-group) or its members more favorably than
a non-membership group (the out-group) or its members.

Realistic conflict theory-sheriff

o Realistic group conflict theory (RGCT) states that competition between
groups for finite resources leads to intergroup stereotypes, antagonism,
and conflict.
o Such competition creates incompatible goals for members of different
groups because one group's success in obtaining those resources
prevents the other group from obtaining them.
o Such conflicts of interest lead to the development of ingroup norms
that foster negative reactions to the outgroup, backed by punishment
and rejection of those ingroup members who deviate from those norms.

Social identity theory

o It was proposed in social psychology by Tajfel and his colleagues.
o Social identity refers to the ways that people's self-concepts are based
on their membership in social groups.
o Social identities are most influential when individuals consider
membership in a particular group to be central to their self-concept and
they feel strong emotional ties to the group. Affiliation with a group
confers self-esteem, which helps to sustain the social identity.

Conformity
 A type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or
behavior to adhere to existing social norms.
 A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group
pressure.
 Conformity, in other words, refers to pressures to behave in ways
consistent with rules indicating how we should or ought to behave. These
 rules are known as social norms, and they often exert powerful effects on
our behavior.
 Social norms: Rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave
in specific situations.
 We can say that conformity is at times bad (when it leads someone to drive
drunk or to join in racist behavior), at times good (when it inhibits people
from cutting into a theater line).
 Conformity is not just acting as other people act; it is also being affected by
how they act. It is acting or thinking differently from the way we would act
and think if we were alone. Thus, conformity is a change in behavior or
belief to accord with others.
 Muzaffer sheriff (1935, 1937) observed that others’ judgments influenced
people’s estimates of the movement of a point of light that actually did not
move (autokinetic phenomenon)

Groupthink
Groupthink is the tendency for a close-knit group to emphasize consensus at
the expense of critical thinking and rational decision-making. In a groupthink
situation, group members squash dissent, exert pressure to conform, suppress
information from outside the group, and focus selectively on information that
agrees with the group’s point of view.
Groupthink is more likely to occur when groups have certain characteristics:

• High cohesiveness. Group cohesiveness is the strength of the liking and

commitment group members have toward each other and to the group.
• Isolation from outside influences
• A strong leader
• The intent to reach a major decision

Charecteristics Of Group Thinking

1. Denial of vulnerability – group members may not be willing to acknowledge
their own fallibility or vulnerability
2. Rationalization of decisions to minimize objections
3. Belief in the absolute goodness of the group
4. Intense dislike of outsiders – stereotyped and misleading portrayals of
outside members and those who have left the group
5. Group protectors – the spontaneous emergence of individual members who
protect the group from conflicting information and perceived threats
 6. Strong peer pressure on all group members, particularly those who question
group decisions
7. Censorship of any disagreements within the group
8. Belief that the group is unanimous and cohesive, even when some members
object to the behavior of the group

9. SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Social Influence
Efforts by one or more persons to change the behavior, attitudes, or feelings of one or
more others.

Social facilitation

• Social facilitation is an improvement in the performance of a task in the

presence of others (audience, competitor, co-actor) compared to their
performance when alone. Term was coined by Floyd Allport
• Social interference- decrease in performance in the presence of others.
i. Zajonc drive theory- improvement occurs in highly skilled task and if
not skilled, interference occurs in performing.
ii. Evaluation apprehension theory- performance is disrupted
apprehending that others may evaluate.
iii. Zajonc distraction conflict theory- a cognitive load (attending to
task and audience) results in a tendency to restrict one’s attention on
essential stimuli.
iv. Social inhibition theory- the tendency for behaviors that are exhibited
when one is alone to be minimized in the presence of others

Social loafing/ Ringleman effect (Ringleman)

The tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group.
Because all members of the group are pooling their effort to achieve a common goal,
each member of the group contributes less than they would if they were individually
responsible.

• Factors- motivation, diffusion of responsibility, group size and expectation.

• Experimented in Tug wa
• Sucker effect- a phenomenon in which individuals reduce their personal
investment in a group endeavor because of their expectation that others will
think negatively of them for working too hard or contributing too much.
• Deindividuation- an experiential state characterized by loss of self-awareness,
altered perceptions, and a reduction of inner restraints that results in the
performance of unusual and sometimes antisocial behavior.
 Social norms (Muzafer Sherif)

• He conducted a classic experiment on social norm and conformity, testing

subjects to watch a pinpoint of light and report how far it moved.
• Autokinetic effect is a visual phenomenon where a stationary light in a dark
room appears to move.

Conformity
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in
order to fit in with a group. This change is in response to real (involving the physical
presence of others) or imagined (involving the pressure of social norms /
expectations) group pressure. Jenness (1932) was the first psychologist to study
conformity. Other experimenters are Muzafer Sherif and Solomon Asch.

Solomon Asch Study

• In the 1950s, the psychologist Solomon Asch did a famous study that
demonstrated that people often conform.
• Asch recruited male undergraduate subjects for the study and told them that he
was doing research on visual perception. He placed each subject in a room with
six accomplices. The subject thought that the six were also subjects. The seven
people were then given a series of easy tasks. In each task, they looked at two
cards, one with a single line on it and the other with three lines of different
lengths. The people were asked to decide which line on the second card was the
same length as the line on the first card. On the first two tasks, the accomplices
announced the correct answer to the group, as did the subject. On the next
twelve tasks, the accomplices picked a line on the second card that was clearly a
wrong answer. When put in this situation, more than one-third of the subjects
conformed to the choices made by their group.

Factors influencing conformity

1) Group size: Asch (1956) and other early researchers found that conformity
increases with group size, but only up to about 3 or 4 members; beyond that
point, it appears to level off or even decrease. The larger the group – the
greater the number of people who behave in some specific way – the greater
our tendency to conform and “do as they do”.
2) Social norms: Rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave in
specific situations.
 Descriptive norms are ones that simply describe what most people do in a
given situation. They influence behavior by informing us about what is
generally seen as effective or adaptive in that situation.
  In contrast, injuctive norms specify what ought to be done – what is
approved or disapproved behavior in a given situation.
3) Group unanimity: conformity is reduced if the modeled behavior or belief
is not unanimous.
 People will usually voice their own convictions if just one other person has
also differed from the majority.
 Observing someone else’s dissent – even when it is wrong – can increase
our own independence.
4) Social status: The higher the status of those modeling the behavior or belief,
the greater the likelihood of conformity.
 Junior group members – even junior social psychologists – acknowledge
more conformity to their group than do senior group members.
5) Public response: people also conform most when their responses are public
(in the presence of the group).
• In experiments, people conform more when they must respond in front of
others rather than writing their answers privately. It is much easier to
stand up for what we believe in the privacy of the voting booth than
before a group.
6) Prior commitment: A prior commitment to a certain behavior or belief
increases the likelihood that a person will stick with that commitment rather
than conform.

Compliance
• Compliance refers to changing one's behavior due to the direct request
from one person to another person.
• It is going along with the group or changing a behavior to fit in with the
group, while still disagreeing with the group.
• Unlike obedience, in which the other individual is in a position of
authority, compliance does not rely upon being in a position of power or
authority over others.

Stategies of compliance

1. The "Door-in-the-Face" Technique

 A procedure for gaining compliance in which requesters begin with a large
request and then, when this is refused, retreat to a smaller one.
 In this approach, marketers start by asking for a large commitment. When
the other person refuses, they then make a smaller and more reasonable
request.
 For example, imagine that a business owner asks you to make a large
investment in a new business opportunity. After you decline the request, the
business owner asks if you could at least make a small product purchase to
help him out. After refusing the first offer, you might feel compelled to
comply with his second appeal.
2. The "Foot-in-the-Door" Technique .
 A procedure for gaining compliance in which requesters begin with a small
request and then, when this is granted, escalate to a larger one.
 In this approach, marketers start by asking for and obtaining a small
commitment.
 Once you have already complied with the first request, you are more likely to
also comply with a second, larger request.
 For example, your co-worker asks if you fill in for him for a day. After you
say yes, he then asks if you could just continue to fill in for the rest of the
week.

3. The "Lowball" Technique .

 This strategy involves getting a person to make a commitment and then
raising the terms or stakes of that commitment.
 For example, a salesperson might get you to agree to buy a particular cell
phone plan at a low price before adding on a number of hidden fees that
then make the plan much more costly.

4. The "That's-Not-All" Technique.

 A technique for gaining compliance in which requesters offer additional
benefits to target people before they have decided whether to comply with or
reject specific requests.
 Have you ever found yourself watching a television infomercial? Once a
product has been pitched, the seller then adds an additional offer before the
potential purchaser has made a decision. "That's not all," the salesperson
might suggest, "If you buy a set of widgets now, we'll throw in an extra
widget for free!" The goal is to make the offer as appealing as possible.

5. Reciprocity

 People are more likely to comply if they feel that the other person has
already done something for them.
 We have been socialized to believe that if people extend a kindness to us,
then we should return the favor.
 Researchers have found that the reciprocity effect is so strong that it can
work even when the initial favor is uninvited or comes from someone we
do not like.

6. Scarcity

 In general, we value, and try to secure, outcomes or objects that are scarce
or decreasing in availability. As a result, we are more likely to comply with
 requests that focus on scarcity than ones that make no reference to this
issue.

Obedience
 Obedience is a form of social influence in which one person orders one or
more others to do something, and they do so. It is, in a sense, the most
direct form of social influence.
 Obedience is compliance with commands given by an authority figure.
 Obedience is less frequent than conformity or compliance because even
people who possess authority and could use it often prefer to exert
influence in less obvious ways – through requests rather than direct
orders.

Milgram’s Obedience Study

 It showed that people have a strong tendency to comply with authority
figures.
 Milgram told his research subjects that
they were participating in a study about
the effects of punishment on learning.
 Each subject was told that his task was to
help another subject like himself learn a
list of word pairs. Each time the learner
made a mistake, the teacher was to give
the learner an electric shock by flipping a
switch. The teacher was told to increase
the shock level each time the learner made
a mistake, until a dangerous shock level was reached.
 Throughout the experiment, the experimenter firmly commanded the
teachers to follow the instructions they had been given. In reality, the
learner was not an experiment subject but Milgram’s accomplice, and he
never actually received an electric shock. However, he pretended to be in
pain when shocks were administered.
 Milgram found that two-thirds of the teachers did administer even the
highest level of shock, despite believing that the learner was suffering great
pain and distress. Milgram believed that the teachers had acted in this way
because they were pressured to do so by an authority figure.

Social role
Social roles are the part people play as members of a social group. With each
social role you adopt, your behavior changes to fit the expectations both you and
others have of that role. Each social role carries expected behaviors called
norms.
Zimbardo’s Prison study
The Stanford prison experiment (SPE) was a social psychology experiment
influenced by the Milgram experiment that attempted to investigate
the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle
between prisoners and prison officers. It was conducted at Stanford University on the
days of August 14–20, 1971, by a research group of college students led by psychology
professor Philip Zimbardo. In the study, volunteers were assigned to be either
"guards" or "prisoners" by the flip of a coin, in a mock prison, with Zimbardo himself
serving as the superintendent. Several "prisoners" left mid-experiment, and the
whole experiment was abandoned after six days. Early reports on experimental
results claimed that students quickly embraced their assigned roles, with some
guards enforcing authoritarian measures and ultimately subjecting some prisoners
to psychological torture, while many prisoners passively accepted psychological
abuse and, by the officers' requests, actively harassed other prisoners who tried to
stop it. The experiment has been described in many introductory social psychology
textbooks, although some have chosen to exclude it because its methodology and
ethics are sometimes questioned.

Social perception

• The process through which we seek to know and understand other people.
• This process can be done through both verbal and non-verbal communication

A. Non-Verbal Communication
 Communication between individuals that does not involve the content of spoken
language. It relies instead on an unspoken language of facial expressions, eye
contact, and body language.
 Information that is provided not through any spoken language, but by facial
expression, eye contact, body movements, postures and even by changes in body
chemistry which are communicated through tiny amounts of substances released
into air.

1) facial expression
 Feelings and emotions are often reflected in the face and can be read there in
specific expressions.
 It is possible to learn much about others’ current moods and feelings from their
facial expressions.
 It appears that five different basic emotions are represented clearly, and from a
very early age, on the human face: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust.
 Facial expression are universal and have few exceptions.
 It has been found that certain facial expressions such as smiles, frowns, and other
signs of sadness are recognized as representing basic underlying emotions (e.g.,
happiness, anger, sadness) in many different cultures.
 Cultural differences certainly do exist with respect to the precise meaning of facial
expression.

2) Eye contact
 ancient poets often described the eyes as “windows to the soul”
 We do often learn much about others’ feelings from their eyes. For example, we
interpret a high level of gazing from another as a sign of liking or friendliness. In
contrast, if others avoid eye contact with us, we may conclude that they are
unfriendly, don’t like us, or are simply shy.
 If another person gazes at someone continuously regardless of what the recipient
is do, such eye contact can be said to be staring often interpreted as a sign of
anger or hostility.
 in adult to adult communication, if one avoids looking at others eyes, it is
considered as evasion of truth.

3) Body language
 Cues provided by the position, posture, and movement of others’ bodies or body
parts. Body language often reveals others’ emotional states.
 Large numbers of movements, especially ones in which one part of the body does
something to another part suggest emotional arousal. The greater the frequency
of such behaviour, the higher the level of arousal or nervousness.
 Larger patterns of movements, involving the whole body, can also be informative.
 More specific information about others’ feelings is often provided by gestures.
These fall into several categories, but perhaps the most important are emblems:
body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture.
 Gender difference in the use and perception of various gestures do appear to
exist.

4) Touching
 Touching depends mainly on three factors:
1. Who does the touching (a friend or a stranger or a member of your own
gender or the other gender)
2. Nature of the physical contact (if the touch is prolonged or brief, if it is
gentle or rough, which part of the body is being touched.)
3. The context in which the touching takes place ( if it is on a business setting
or social setting or at a doctor’s office)
 Depending on such factors, touch can suggest affection, sexual interest,
dominance, caring, or even aggression.
 Existing evidence indicates that when touching is considered appropriate, it often
produces positive reactions in the person being touched.
 One acceptable way in which people in many different cultures touch strangers is
through handshaking.
B. ATTRIBUTION
The process through which we link behavior to causes, to intentions, dispositions and
events that explain why people act the way they do.

1) CORRESPONDENT INTERFERENCE THEORY (Edward Johns and Keith

E Davis)
Describes the conditions under which we make dispositional attributes to behavior
we perceive as intentional. Davis used the term correspondent inference to refer to
an occasion when an observer infers that a person's behavior matches or corresponds
with their personality. 3 factors contribute to attribution-

▪ Individual’s degree of choice

▪ Expectedness of behavior

▪ Intentions or motives behind the effect or consequences

2) KELLY’S COVARIATION MODEL (Harold Kelly)

It is also known as Causal attribution theory. We use social perception to attribute
behaviour to internal or external factors.

It has 3 core elements.

▪ Consensus- do all or generalization

▪ Distinctiveness- unique or strangeness

▪ Consistency- a person behaves in a certain manner every-time

B.1 Attribution biases

a. Correspondent bias/fundamental attribution error (Lee Ross, 1970s)

The correspondence bias (CB) is a related tendency to draw correspondent trait
inferences from situationally constrained behavior. The fundamental attribution
error (FAE) suggests that social perceivers attribute other people's behavior
primarily to dispositional causes, rather than to situational causes

b. Actor observer bias (Johns and Nissbett)

Tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other
people's behaviors to internal causes. It is a type of attributional bias that plays a role
in how we perceive and interact with other people.
c. Self-serving bias
Tendency of a individual to take credit for positive events or outcomes, but blaming
outside factors for negative events. This can be affected by age, culture, clinical
diagnosis, and more.

9.10 Social cognition

It focuses on how people process, store and apply information about other people
and social situation.

1. schemas
Cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
Schemas are shared in cultures. Different types of schemas include person schema,
object schema, self-schema and event schema.

2. heuristics
Simple rules for making complex decisions or inferences. Types of heuristics include

i. Representative heuristics- on the extend to which events resemble

others.
ii. Availability heuristics- based on available information
iii. Anchoring and adjustment- Based on the tendency to use a number or
value as a starting point and to which one makes and adjustment. A
Cognitive heuristic where a person starts off with an initial idea and
adjusts their beliefs based on this starting point.

10. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

• The connections and interactions, especially ones that are socially and
emotionally significant, between two or more people is called interpersonal
relations
• It is the pattern or patterns observable in an individual’s dealings with other
people.

Social exchange theory [George Homans]

• A theory envisioning social interactions as an exchange in which the participants

seek to maximize their benefits (the rewards they receive minus the costs they
incur) within the limits of what is regarded as fair or just.
• Focus of this theory is on interaction between people
• This theory proposes that we seek out and maintain those relationships in which
the reward exceeds the cost. The exchanged goods can be either material
 (money, food, etc.) or nonmaterial (social influence, affection, information, etc.).
For example, teachers exchange information for money. Husband and wife
exchange work and affection with each other.
• States that people are basically hedonists and they exchange rewards for
maintaining their well- being.
• Earliest versions of this theory (George Homans, 1958) state that all social
relationships are like economic bargains in which each party places a value on
the goods they exchange with one another.
• Reward and cost cannot be viewed in isolation as the possibility of an alternative
relationship determines whether people will stay in a relation or not (Thibaut &
Kelly, 195). This is the reason why people sometime stay in very dissatisfying or
harmful relations.

Reciprocity hypothesis

• Theorists have concerned themselves with the reasons we affiliate with or are
attracted to some people, but not others. According to the reciprocity
hypothesis, we tend to like people who indicate that they like us.
• The inverse is also hypothesized: we tend to dislike those who dislike us.
Reciprocity suggests that our attractions are a two-way street.
• We don't merely evaluate a person's qualities and arrive at a like or a dislike: we
take into account the other person's evaluation of us.

Gain-loss principle

• Aronson and Linder hypothesized a twist to the reciprocity hypothesis known as the
gain- loss principle.

• The principle states that an evaluation that changes will have more of an impact
than an evaluation that remains constant.

• Therefore we will like someone more if their liking for us has increased (shown a
gain) than someone who has consistently liked us. Similarly, we will generally dislike
a person more whose liking for us has decreased (shown a loss) than someone who
has consistently disliked us.

Social penetration theory (Altman and Taylor, 1973)

• a model stating that relationships grow closer with increasingly intimate self-
disclosures
• The development of a relationship is associated with communication moving
gradually from a discussion of superficial topics to more intimate exchanges
 1. Orientation stage: Here, we play safe with small talk and simple, harmless
cliches like ‘Life’s like that’, following standards of social desirability and
norms of appropriateness
2. Exploratory affective stage: We now start to reveal ourselves, expressing
personal attitudes about moderate topics such as government and education.
This may not be the whole truth as we are not yet comfortable to lay ourselves
bare. We are still feeling our way forward. This is the stage of casual
friendship, and many relationships do not go past this stage
3. Affective stage: Now we start to talk about private and personal matters. We
may use personal idioms. Criticism and arguments may arise. There may be
intimate touching and kissing at this stage.
4. Stable stage: The relationship now reaches a plateau in which personal things
are shared and each can predict the emotional reactions of the other person.
5. Depenetration: When the relationship starts to break down and costs exceed
benefits, then there is a withdrawal of disclosure which leads to termination of
the relationship.

Adam’s Equity theory

• It explains relationships based on what individuals are likely to view as a fair

return from activities involving themselves and a number of other people.
• The theory posits that people compare the ratio of the outcome of the activity—
that is, the benefits they receive from relations to their inputs
• Outcomes are equitable only when people receive benefits that are proportional
to their inputs
• Similar in some respects to social exchange theory, except – Equity is assumed
to be a powerful norm
• People wish to avoid imbalances, of two sorts
• Under-benefited vs. Over-benefited – As one might expect, being under-
benefited is more unpleasant than being over-benefited.

Rusbult’s investment model

• A theory explaining commitment to a relationship in terms of one’s satisfaction

with, alternatives to, and investments in the relationship
• According to the model, commitment is a function of not only a comparison of
the relationship to the individual’s expectations but also the quality of the best
available alternative and the magnitude of the individual’s investment in the
relationship;
• the investment of resources serves to increase commitment by increasing the
costs of leaving the relationship.
• Although originally developed in the context of romantic associations and
friendships and used to explain why people stay in abusive relationships, the
investment model has since been extended to a variety of other areas, including
employment and education.
 Harlow’s attachment theory

• Harlow’s explanation was that attachment develops as a result of the mother

providing “tactile comfort/ contact comfort” suggesting that infants have an
innate (biological) need to touch and cling to something for emotional comfort.
• Study conducted in new born rhesus monkeys

Attachment style

Secure attachment

Secure attachment style refers to the ability to form secure, loving relationships with
others. A securely attached person can trust others and be trusted, love and accept
love, and get close to others with relative ease. They're not afraid of intimacy, nor do
they feel panicked when their partners need time or space away from them. They're
able to depend on others without becoming totally dependent. About 56% of adults
have a secure attachment type, according to foundational attachment research by
social psychologists Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver in the 1980s. All other
attachment styles that are not secure are known as insecure attachment styles.

Anxious attachment

Anxious attachment style is a form of insecure attachment style marked by a deep

fear of abandonment. Anxiously attached people tend to be very insecure about their
relationships, often worrying that their partner will leave them and thus are always
hungry for validation. Anxious attachment is associated with "neediness" or clingy
behavior, such as getting very anxious when your partner doesn't text back fast
enough and constantly feeling like your partner doesn't care enough about you.
Anxious attachment is also known as anxious-preoccupied attachment, and it
generally aligns with the anxious-ambivalent attachment style or anxious-resistant
attachment style observed among children. Some 19% of adults have the anxious
attachment type, according to Hazan and Shaver's research.

Avoidant attachment

Avoidant attachment style is a form of insecure attachment style marked by a fear of

intimacy. People with avoidant attachment style tend to have trouble getting close to
others or trusting others in relationships. They typically maintain some distance
from their partners or are largely emotionally unavailable in their relationships,
preferring to be independent and rely on themselves.
Avoidant attachment is also known as dismissive-avoidant attachment, and it
generally aligns with the anxious-avoidant attachment style observed among
children. Some 25% of adults have the avoidant attachment type, according to Hazan
and Shaver.

Fearful-avoidant attachment

Fearful-avoidant attachment style is a combination of both the anxious and avoidant

attachment styles. People with fearful-avoidant attachment both desperately crave
affection and want to avoid it at all costs. They're reluctant to develop a close
romantic relationship, yet at the same time, they have a dire need to feel loved by
others.

Fearful-avoidant attachment is also known as disorganized attachment, and it's very

rare and not well-researched. But we do know it's associated with significant
psychological and relational risks, including heightened sexual behavior, an
increased risk for violence in their relationships, and difficulty regulating emotions in
general.

Sternberg’s triangular theory of love

• Robert Sternberg developed the triangular theory of love. In the context of

interpersonal relationships, the three components of love, according to the
triangular theory, are an intimacy component, a passion component, and a
decision/commitment component.
1) Intimacy – Which encompasses feelings of attachment, closeness,
connectedness, and bondedness.
2) Passion – Which encompasses drives connected to both limerence and sexual
attraction.
3) Commitment – Which encompasses, in the short term, the decision to remain
with another, and in the long term, plans made with that other.
The amount of love one experiences depends on the absolute strength of these three
components, and the type of love one experiences depends on their strengths relative
to each other. Different stages and types of love can be explained as different
combinations of these three elements; for example, the relative emphasis of each
component changes over time as an adult romantic relationship develops. A
relationship based on a single element is less likely to survive than one based on two
or three elements.
 Personal space-Hall

Hall is most associated with proxemics, the study of the human use of space within
the context of culture.

Hall developed his theory of proxemics, arguing that human perceptions of space,
although derived from sensory apparatus that all humans share, are molded and
patterned by culture

Hall's most famous innovation has to do with the definition of the informal, or
personal spaces that surround individuals:

• Intimate space—the closest "bubble" of space surrounding a person. Entry into

this space is acceptable only for the closest friends and intimates.
• Social and consultative spaces—the spaces in which people feel comfortable
conducting routine social interactions with acquaintances as well as strangers.
• Public space—the area of space beyond which people will perceive interactions
as impersonal and relatively anonymous.

11. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

 Prosocial behaviors are those intended to help other people.
 Prosocial behavior is characterized by a concern about the rights, feelings and
welfare of other people.
 Behaviors that can be described as prosocial include feeling empathy and
concern for others and behaving in ways to help or benefit other people.
 Daniel C. Batson explains that prosocial behaviors refer to "a broad range of
actions intended to benefit one or more people other than oneself - behaviors
such as helping, comforting, sharing and cooperation”.

Theories of Altruism

a. Kin selection theory

 A theory suggesting that a key goal for all organisms – including human
beings – is getting our genes into the next generation; one way in which
individuals can reach this goal is by helping others who share their genes.
 In general, we are more likely to help others to whom we are closely related
than people to whom we are not related.
 b. Reciprocal Altruism Theory

• Altruism refers to behaviors that are performed for the sake of benefiting
others at a cost to oneself. Reciprocal altruism is when altruistic behaviors are
performed because they increase the likelihood of repayment in the future

c. Negative-state relief model

 The negative-state relief model is based on the logic that the potential helper
is in a negative mood when he/she comes across an emergency situation faced
by the needy.
 The prosocial behaviour is motivated by the bystander’s desire to reduce his or
her own uncomfortable negative emotions or feelings.
 The helper, through the helping behaviour attempts to manage one’s own
negative mood. In other words, we do good things in order to stop feeling bad.
 The knowledge that others are suffering, more generally, witnessing those in
need can be distressing. To decrease this distress in ourselves, we help others.

d. Empathy-altruism hypothesis
 The empathy-altruism hypothesis posits that there is dominant role of the
feeling of potential helper’s empathy – that is aroused in an emergency
situation faced by the needy – in the helping behaviour. ie., some prosocial
acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need.
 Such motivation can be sufficiently strong that the helper is willing to engage
in unpleasant, dangerous and even life-threatening activities.
 According to the hypothesis, when empathy is aroused, the potential helper
actually gets a positive feeling by helping the needy.

Determinants Of Prosocial Behaviour

• Bystander effect refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the number
of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress. When
an emergency situation occurs, observers are more likely to take action if there
are few or no other witnesses. Being part of a large crowd makes it so no single
person has to take responsibility for an action
• Pluralistic ignorance refers to the fact that because none of the bystanders
respond to an emergency, no one knows for sure what is happening and each
depends on the others to interpret the situation. This inhibiting effect is much
less if the group consists of friends rather than strangers, because friends are
likely to communicate with one another about what is going on.
11.3 Altruism stages

Lantane and Darley have suggested that five key things must happen in order for a
person to take action. An individual must:

1) Notice what is happening- it includes noticing, or failing to notice, that

something unusual is happening.
2) Interpret the event as an emergency
 The presence of multiple witnesses may inhibit helping not only because of the
diffusion of responsibility, but also because it is embarrassing to misinterpret
a situation and to act inappropriately.

1. Experience feelings of responsibility

 It involves deciding that it is your responsibility to provide help.

 In many instances, the responsibility for helping is clear.
 If responsibility is not clear, people assume that anyone in a leadership role
must take responsibility – for instance, adults with children, professors with
students.

2. Believe that they have the skills to help

 It involves deciding whether you have the knowledge and/or skills to act.
 When emergencies require special skills, usually only a portion of the
bystanders are able to help.If not, the best you can do is offer to call for
assistance.

3. Make a conscious choice to offer assistance

 Helping at this final point can be inhibited by fears (often realistic ones) about
potential negative consequences.
 In effect, potential helpers engage in “cognitive algebra” as they weigh the
positive versus the negative aspects of helping.

The rewards for being helpful are primarily provided by the emotions and beliefs of
the helper, but there are a great many varieties of potential costs.

12 AGGRESSION
• Intentional effort to harm others physiologically or psychologically. Anger is
oriented at overcoming target, but not necessarily through harm or destruction
Types of aggression

• Violence- refers to aggression that has extreme physical harm such as injury or
death as its goal
• Emotional or impulsive aggression- refers to aggression that occurs with only a
small amount of intent and that is determined primarily by impulsive emotion
 • Instrumental aggression- it is aimed at hurting someone to gain something
• Physical aggression- involves harming others physically
• Hostile aggression- violent attitudes or actions that are associated with anger
and desire to dominate a situation of others.
• Passive aggression- it involves acting indirectly aggressive rather than directly
being aggressive
• Active aggression- a threat or overt act of an assault.

Theories of aggression

1. Excitation transfer theory (Dolf Zillman)

Emotional responses can be intensified by arousal from other stimuli not directly
related to the stimulus that originally provoked the response. The residual arousal of
previously exposed anger may be expressed later to some other stimuli.

2. Social interaction theory (Tedeschi and Felson)

An actor uses coercive action to produce some change in the target’s behavior.

3. Bandura social learning theory (Bandura)

Aggression is learned by observing others (bobo-doll experiment)

4. Instinct theory (Freud)

Aggression is death instinct for violent behavior.

5. Frustration- aggression hypothesis (Dollard and Miller)

Frustration is blocking of the goal directed behavior which leads to anger.

6. Relative deprivation theory

Experience of being worser than others leads to anger and resentment and it further
leads to hostile action.

7. Evolutionary theory (Konrad Lorenz)

He conducted studies in ethology (animal behavior). He states that aggression is an

innate behavior that can’t be modified.

13. LEADERSHIP

 Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving

a common goal.
 He or she is the person in the group that possesses the combination of
personality and leadership skills that makes others want to follow his or her
direction.
 Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who
intend real changes and reflect their mutual purpose.
 With this definition, we accept the following attributes of leadership
 Leadership is not an act or set of acts, it is a process.
 Leadership is not just influence, yet it involves influencing others
through the leadership. While between the leader and the followers, the
influence is mutual, together they influence the environment around
them in some way.
 Leadership goes beyond goals. There is a purpose or cause which is
broad enough to create a vision that connects followers who might have
different individual goal.

Kurt Lewin's three leadership styles

Kurt Lewin's three leadership styles or behaviors, described below, influence the
leader-follower relationship, group success, group risk-taking, group problem-
solving strategies, group morale, and group relations.

1. Authoritarian Leadership
 Authoritarian leaders, also referred to as autocratic leaders, are
characterized as domineering.
 Autocratic leadership take the ultimate control of taking decisions without
consulting others. An autocratic leader possess high level of power and
authority and imposes its will on its employees.
 proves to be useful where close level of supervision is required. It is gained
through punishment, threat, demands, orders, rules, and regulations.
 Creative employees morale goes down because their output is not given
importance and is often detest by employees.
 The functions of authoritarian leadership include unilateral rule-making,
task-assignment, and problem solving while the roles of authoritarian
followers include adhering to the leader's instructions without question or
comment.
 Authoritarian leadership is appropriate in settings with a constant stream
of new employees, limited decision-making time or resources, and the
need for large-scale coordination with other groups and organizations.
 Authoritarian leadership is not suited to environments in which members
desire to share their opinions and participate in decision-making
processes. Critics of authoritarian leadership argue that the leadership
style leads to high member dissatisfaction, turnover, and absenteeism.
 2. Democratic Leadership
• Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership or shared
leadership, in which members of the group take a more participative role in
the decision-making process.
• This type of leadership can apply to any organization, from private businesses to
schools to government.
• Everyone is given the opportunity to participate, ideas are exchanged freely, and
discussion is encouraged.
• While the democratic process tends to focus on group equality and the free flow
of ideas, the leader of the group is still there to offer guidance and control.
• The democratic leader is charged with deciding who is in the group and who gets
to contribute to the decisions that are made.
• Characteristics of democratic leadership include:
o Group members are encouraged to share ideas and opinions, even
though the leader retains the final say over decisions.
o Members of the group feel more engaged in the process.
o Creativity is encouraged and rewarded.
• Researchers suggest that good democratic leaders possess specific traits that
include honesty, intelligence, courage, creativity, competence, and fairness.
Strong democratic leaders inspire trust and respect among followers.3
• These leaders are sincere and make decisions based on their morals and values.
Followers tend to feel inspired to take action and contribute to the group.

3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
 Laissez-faire leaders are characterized as uninvolved with their followers and
members; in fact, laissez-faire leadership is an absence of leadership style.
 Leaders of this style make no policies or group-related decisions. Instead,
group members are responsible for all goals, decisions, and problem solving.
 Laissez-faire leaders have very little to no authority within their group
organization.
 The functions of laissez-faire leadership include trusting their members or
followers to make appropriate decisions and bringing in highly trained and
reliable members into the group or organization.
 The roles of laissez-faire followers include self-monitoring, problem solving,
and producing successful end products.
 Laissez-faire leaders are most successful in environments with highly trained
and self-directed followers.
 Laissez-faire leadership is appropriate in particular settings such as science
laboratories or established companies with long term employees.
 Laissez-faire leadership is not suited to environments in which the members
require feedback, direction, oversight, flexibility, or praise.

Ohio State Studies

• Ohio State Leadership Studies is Behavioral Leadership Theory. A series of
studies on leadership was done by Ohio State University in 1945 to identify
observable behaviors of leaders instead of focusing on their traits.
• They found two critical characteristics of leadership either of which could be
high or low or independent of one another.
• Initiating Structure Behavior: The behavior of leaders who define the
leader-subordinate role so that everyone knows what is expected, establish
formal lines of communication, and determine how tasks will be performed.
• Consideration Behavior: The behavior of leaders who are concerned for
subordinates and attempt to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate.

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton Managerial Grid

• According to Blake and Mouton, the leadership styles can be identified on the
basis of manager’s concern for people and production.

• Impoverished Management: this leadership style exert minimum effort to

get the work done by the subordinates. They have minimal concern for both the
people and production, and they function merely to preserve their jobs and
seniority. Therefore, the disharmony, dissatisfaction, disorganization arises
within the organization.

• Task Management: leader is more concerned with the production and lay
less emphasis on the personal needs of his subordinates. also called as a
dictatorial or perish style, where the subordinates are required to perform the
task as directed by the superiors. In this leadership style, the output in the
short run may increase drastically, but due to stringent rules and procedures,
there could be a high labor turnover.

• Middle of the Road: The manager with this style tries to keep a balance
between the organizational goals and the personal needs of his subordinates.
Here, the leader focuses on an adequate performance through a balance
between the work requirements and satisfactory morale. Both the people and
production needs are not completely met, and thus the organization land up to
an average performance.

• Country Club: the leader lays more emphasis on the personal needs of the
subordinates and give less attention to the output. The manager adopts this
style of leadership with the intent to have a friendly and comfortable working
environment for the subordinates, who gets self-motivated and work harder on
their own. But however, less attention to the production can adversely affect
the work goals and may lead to the unsatisfactory results.

• Team Management: it is the most effective leadership style wherein the

leader takes both people and production hand in hand. the employees are
 believed to be committed towards the goal achievement and need not require
manager’s intervention at every step. The leader with this style feels that
empowerment, trust, respect, commitment helps in nurturing the team
relationships, which ultimately results in the increased employee satisfaction
and overall production of the organization.

13. 5 Contingency Theories

 Contingency theories of leadership state that effective leadership
comprises of all the three factors, i.e. traits, behavior and situation. A
leader’s behavior varies as per the situation. To support this theory of
leadership various models were developed, and multiple studies were
conducted in this direction.
 Contingency theories of leadership (1960s’) focus on particular variables
related to the environment that might determine which particular style of
leadership is best suited for the situation.
 According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.
 Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership
style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.
 The theory argues that there is no single way of leading and that every
leadership style should be based on certain situations, which signifies that
there are certain people who perform at the maximum level in certain
places; but at minimal performance when taken out of their element.

Power

The capacity to influence others when they try to resist the influence.

Types of power

• Coercive power- use of force to express power by punishing others for

noncompliance
• Reward power- use of rewards to express power by withholding rewards for non-
compliance
• Legitimate power- power based on structural position
• Charismatic power
• Expert power
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at

conception and continues throughout the lifespan.

Developmental psychology/ Science is the scientific study of

progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age.

Lifespan development is the field of study that examines patterns of

growth, change and stability in the behavior that occurs throughout the
entire life span.

Child development is part of a larger, interdisciplinary field known as

Developmental Science, which includes all changes we experience
throughout the lifespan

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

The word “domain” refers to specific aspects of growth and change. Major
domains of development include physical, cognitive, and emotional and
social.

1. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 biological changes that occur in the body and brain including
changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor
activities and development of fine and gross motor skills.
 Physical development in children follows a directional pattern.
Muscles in the body's core, legs and arms develop before those in
the fingers and hands.
 Children learn how to perform gross (or large) motor skills such as
walking before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills
such as drawing.

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  Muscles located at the core of the body become stronger and
develop sooner than those in the feet and hands. Physical
development goes from the head to the toes.

2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
changes in the way we think, understand and reason about the world.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development illustrate a child's growth.

3. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 It is defined as the changes in the way we connect to other
individuals and express and understand emotions.
 The core features of emotional development include the ability of a
child to identify and understand their own feelings, to accurately
read and comprehend emotional states of others, to manage strong
emotions and their expression in a beneficial manner, to regulate
their own behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish
and maintain relationships.

PERIODS/ STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The most widely used classification of developmental periods is:

1. The Prenatal period: from conception to birth.

2. Infancy and Toddlerhood: from birth to 2 years.
3. Early childhood: from 2 to 6 years.
4. Middle and late childhood: from 6 to 11 years.
5. Adolescence: from 11 to 18 years.
6. Early adulthood: from 18 to 25 years (begins in the early 20s and
last through 30s).
7. Middle adulthood: from 40 years of age to about 60.
8. Late adulthood: begins in the 60s or 70s and lasts until death.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

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Developmental psychology as a discipline in the later part of 19th century.
In early years, developmental psychology was primarily concerned with
child and adolescent development. With further advancement more
importance was gained by adult development and aging. Developmental
psychology began as a correlational science focusing on observation and not
on experimentation and thus differed from traditional research psychology.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

• Psychoanalytic theories
 Psychosexual theory – Sigmund Freud
 Psychosocial theory – Erik Erikson

• Behavioural and Social learning theories

 Classical conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
 Fear conditioning – J.B Watson
 Operant conditioning – B. F Skinner
 Social learning theory – Albert Bandura

• Cognitive theories
 Cognitive developmental theory – Jean Piaget
 Socio- Cultural theory – Lev Vygotsky

 System theory
 Bio-ecological / Ecological theory – Urie Bronfenbrunner

 Ethology theory – Konrad Lorenz

 Attachment theories
 Harry Harlow
 John Bowlby
 Mary Ainsworth

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  Moral development theories
 Lawrence Kohlberg – Levels of Moral development
 Carol Gilligan – Stage of ethics of care theory

 Parenting theory – Diana Baumrind

 Language development theory – Noam Chomsky

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY – JEAN PIAGET

 Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child

constructs a mental model of the world (cognitive constructivism).
 He was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development.
 Piaget stressed that children actively construct their own cognitive
worlds; information is not just poured into their minds from the
environment.

PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. SCHEMA: Schemas are actions or mental representations that organize

knowledge. A schema describes both the mental and physical actions
involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of
knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

2. COGNITIVE ADAPTATION: Piaget thought that, just as our physical

bodies have structures that enable us to adapt to the world, we build
mental structures that help us to adapt to the world.
 Adaptation involves adjusting to new environmental demands.
 Adaptation involves two complementary processes: assimilation and
accommodation.
A. Assimilation: The process of taking in new information into our
already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is
somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and
information slightly to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs.

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 B. Accommodation: Accommodation involves modifying or altering
existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new
experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

3. ORGANIZATION: Organization in Piaget’s theory is the grouping of

isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system. Continual
refinement of this organization is an inherent part of development.

A boy who has only a vague idea about how to use a hammer may also have
a vague idea about how to use other tools. After learning how to use each
one, he relates these uses, grouping items into categories and organizing his
knowledge.

4. EQUILIBRATION: is the search for “balance” between self and the

world, and involves the matching of the child's adaptive functioning to
situational demands.

Equilibration is a mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children

shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children
experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the
world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or
equilibrium, of thought.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (roughly birth – 2 years)
• In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by
coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with
physical, motoric actions (crawling, grasping, pulling)
• At the end of the sensorimotor stage, 2-year-olds can produce
complex sensorimotor patterns and use primitive symbols.
• Other feature involve:
 Object permanence : is the understanding that objects and
events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or
touched.
 According to Piaget, infants develop object permanence in a series
of substages that correspond to the six substages of sensorimotor
development.
 After a child has mastered the concept of object permanence, the
emergence of "directed groping" begins to take place.

6 Sub-stages:

1) Simple reflexes (0-1 months)

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 • In this substage, sensation and action are coordinated primarily
through reflexive behaviors, such as the rooting and sucking reflexes.
Soon the infant produces behaviors that resemble reflexes in the
absence of the usual stimulus for the reflex.
• For example, a newborn will suck a nipple or bottle only when it is
placed directly in the baby’s mouth or touched to the lips. But soon the
infant might suck when a bottle or nipple is only nearby.

2) First habits and primary circular reactions (1-4 months)

• In this substage, the infant coordinates sensation and two types of
schemes: habits and primary circular reactions.
• A habit is a scheme based on a reflex that has become completely
separated from its eliciting stimulus. For example, infants in substage
1 suck when bottles are put to their lips or when they see a bottle.
Infants in substage 2 might suck even when no bottle is present.
• A circular reaction is a repetitive action.
• A primary circular reaction is a scheme based on the attempt to
reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance. For example,
suppose an infant accidentally sucks his fingers when they are placed
near his mouth. Later, he searches for his fingers to suck them again,
but the fingers do not cooperate because the infant cannot coordinate
visual and manual actions.

3) Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)

• In this substage, the infant becomes more object-oriented, moving
beyond preoccupation with the self. By chance, an infant might shake
a rattle. The infant repeats this action for the sake of its fascination.
• The infant also imitates some simple actions, such as the baby talk or
burbling of adults, and some physical gestures. However, the baby
imitates only actions that he or she is already able to produce.

4) Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months)

 Infants readily combine and recombine previously learned schemes in
a coordinated way.

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  They might look at an object and grasp it simultaneously, or they
might visually inspect a toy, such as a rattle, and finger it
simultaneously, exploring it tactilely.

5) Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity (12-18

months)
 In this substage, infants become intrigued by the many properties of
objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects.
 A block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and slide across
the ground.
 Tertiary circular reactions are schemes in which the infant purposely
explores new possibilities with objects, continually doing new things
to them and exploring the results.

6) Internalization of schemes (18-24 months)

• In this substage, the infant develops the ability to use primitive
symbols.
• For Piaget, a symbol is an internalized sensory image or word that
represents an event.
• Primitive symbols permit the infant to think about concrete events
without directly acting them out or perceiving them.

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2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE ( roughly 2 – 7 years)
• Preoperational thought is the beginning of the ability to reconstruct
in thought what has been established in behavior.
• In this stage, children begin to represent the world with words,
images, and drawings. Symbolic thought goes beyond simple
connections of sensory information and physical action.
• Stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges, egocentrism
is present, and magical beliefs are constructed.
• Preoperational thought can be divided into substages: the symbolic
function substage and the intuitive thought substage.

 Symbolic function substage (roughly 2-4 years)

In this substage, the young child gains the ability to mentally
represent an object that is not present. This ability vastly expands
the child’s mental world.

 Intuitive thought substage (roughly 4-7 years)

In this substage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and
want to know the answers to all sorts of questions.

Major features are:

a) Egocentrism
 Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from
another person's point of view. Children’s thoughts and
communications are typically egocentric (i.e., about themselves).
 At the beginning of this stage, you often find children engaging in
parallel play. i.e., to say they often play in the same room as other
children but they play next to others rather than with them.

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b) Symbolic representation

This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for
something other than itself. For example, a child is able to use an object to
represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse.

c) Symbolic play

As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and children

begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games and “let’s
pretend “play becomes more important.

d) Animistic thinking

This is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have
human feelings and intentions.

e) Artificialism

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This is the belief that certain aspects of the environment are manufactured
by people (e.g., clouds in the sky).

f) Irreversibility

This is the inability the reverse their thinking.

g) Centration

Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect (length, time,

volume) of a situation at one time. When a child can focus on more than
one aspect of a situation at the same time, they have the ability to decentre.
During this stage children have difficulties thinking about more than one
aspect of any situation at the same time.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (roughly 7-11 years)

• Operations are reversible mental actions. Mentally adding and
subtracting numbers are examples of operations.
• Children acquire certain logical structures that allow them to perform
various mental operations, which are internalized actions that can be
reversed.
• One important skill that characterizes children in the concrete
operational stage is the ability to classify things and to consider their
relationships.
• One of the most important developments in this stage is an
understanding of reversibility or awareness that actions can be
reversed
• Another key development at this stage is the understanding that when
something changes in shape or appearance it is still the same, a concept
known as conservation. Kids at this stage understand that if you

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 break a candy bar up into smaller pieces it is still the same amount at
when the candy was whole.

• The concrete operational stage is also marked by decrease in

egocentrism.
• One of the key characteristics of the concrete-operational stage is the
ability to focus on many parts of a problem. They are able to engage in
what is known as "decentration."
• Children gain the abilities of conservation (number, area, volume,
orientation), reversibility, seriation, transitivity and
classification.
• Seriation is the ordering of stimuli along a quantitative dimension
(such as length).
• Transitivity involves the ability to reason about and logically combine
relationships.

For example, consider three sticks (A, B, and C) of differing lengths. A is the
longest, B is intermediate in length, and C is the shortest. Does the child
understand that if A is longer than B, and B is longer than C, then A is
longer than C? In Piaget’s theory, concrete operational thinkers do;
preoperational thinkers do not.

• However, although children can solve problems in a logical fashion,

they are typically not able to think abstractly or hypothetically.

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• Other features include the Horizontal décalage.
 Horizontal decalage is Piaget’s concept that similar abilities do not
appear at the same time within a stage of development.
 During the concrete operational stage, conservation of number
usually appears first and conservation of volume last.
 Also, an 8-year-old child may know that a long stick of clay can be
rolled back into a ball but not understand that the ball and the stick
weigh the same.
 At about 9 years of age, the child recognizes that they weigh the
same, and eventually, at about 11 to 12 years of age, the child
understands that the clay’s volume is unchanged by rearranging it.
 Children initially master tasks in which the dimensions are more
salient and visible, only later mastering those not as visually
apparent, such as volume.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (roughly 11-15 years)

• In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think
in abstract and more logical ways.
• As part of thinking more abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal
circumstances. They might think about what an ideal parent is like and
compare their parents to their ideal standards.
• They begin to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated
with what they might become.
• The concrete operational thinker needs to see the concrete elements A,
B, and C to be able to make the logical inference that if A = B and B = C,
then A = C. The formal operational thinker can solve this problem
merely through verbal presentation.
• Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to
solve problems and systematically testing solutions. They use
hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop
hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude,
which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.
• Adolescent egocentrism is the heightened self-consciousness of
adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as

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 interested in them as they are in themselves, and in their sense of
personal uniqueness and invincibility.
• Elkind proposes that adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two
typesof social thinking—imaginary audience and personal fable.
• The imaginary audience refers to the aspect of adolescent
egocentrism that involves attention-getting behavior—the attempt to be
noticed, visible, and―onstage.
• Personal fable is the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an
adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.
• Adolescents’ sense of personal uniqueness makes them feel that no one
can understand how they really feel. For example, an adolescent girl
thinks that her mother cannot possibly sense the hurt she feels because
her boyfriend has broken up with her.

SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY – LEV VYGOTSKY (1896 - 1934)

 Stresses the fundamental role of social interaction and culture in the

development of cognition.
 Vygotsky brought about a sociocultural approach to cognitive
development theory.
 According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, social interaction
between children and more knowledgeable members of their culture
leads to ways of thinking and behaving essential for success in that
culture.
 Vygotsky believed that as adults and more expert peers help children
master culturally meaningful activities, the communication between
them becomes part of children's thinking.
 As children internalize the essential features of these dialogues, they
develop abilities that can use a language within them to guide their
own thought and actions and to acquire new skills.
 In Vygotsky’s theory, children undergo certain stage wise changes.
For example, when they acquire language, their ability to participate
in dialogues with others is generally enhanced, and mastery of
culturally valued competencies surges forward.

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  Knowledge is not generated from within the individual but rather is
constructed through interaction with other people and objects in the
culture, such as books.
 This suggests that knowledge can best be advanced through
interaction with others in cooperative activities.

3 major components of socio-cultural theory

1. More knowledgeable other (MKO)

Person who has more knowledge or skill regarding a task, it can be a
parent or teacher, or more skilled peer, computer assist learner to do
a task which is beyond his or her reach - Provide verbal instruction,
model behaviour, guides, give hints, asking guiding questions etc.

2. Zone of proximal Development (ZPD)

A range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the
help of adults and more skilled peers.

Scaffolding refers to providing support and resources to help a child learn

new skills, and then gradually removing the support as the child improves.

3. Role of language in cognitive development

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 According to Vygotsky, children use speech not only for social
communication, but also to help them solve tasks. This use of
language for self regulation is called private speech.

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social

interactions, for communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed
language as man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the
outside world. According to him, the language has two major roles in
the areas of development
 It is the means by which adults transmit information to
children
 It is a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation

SYSTEM THEORY – URIE BRONFENBRENNER

 Urie Bronfenbrenner – Bio ecological theory/ Ecological Theory

 Ecological system theory views the child as developing with in a
complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment.
1. The Microsystem

The innermost level of the environment, the microsystem, consist of

activities, interactions and patterns in the child's immediate surroundings.
Bronfenbrenner emphasized that to understand child development at this
level, we must keep in mind that all relationships are bidirectional.

Adults affect children’s behavior, but children’s biologically and socially

influenced characteristics – their physical attributes, personalities and
capacities –also affect adults’ behavior. When these reciprocal interactions
occur often over time, they have an enduring impact on development.

2. The Mesosystem

The second level of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the mesosystem, encompasses

connections between microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood,

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and child care center. Each relationship is more likely to support
development when there is links in the form of visits and cooperative
exchanges of information, between home and child care.

3. The Exosystem

The exosystem consist of social settings that do not contain children but
that nevertheless affect children's experiences in immediate setting.

There can be formal organizations, such as parent’s work places. For

example, parents work settings can support child rearing and, indirectly,
enhance development through flexible work schedules, paid maternity and
paternity leave, and sick leave for parents whose children are ill.

Exosystem support also can be informal, such as parents’ social networks –

friends and extended –family members who provide advice,
companionship, end even financial assistance.

4. The Macrosystem

The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the macrosystem, consists

of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. The priority that the
macrosystem gives to children’s needs affect the support they receive at
inner levels of the environment.

Example: children in war torn areas will experience a different kind of

development than children in peaceful environments.

5. The chronosystem

Bronfenbrenner called the temporal dimension of his model the

Chronosystem. Changes in life events can be imposed on the child, which
demonstrate the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s
environment. The chronosystem may include change in family structure,
address, parent’s employment status, as well as immense society changes
such as economic cycles and wars.

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ETHOLOGY THEORY - KONRAD LORENZ

Ethology is concerned with the adaptive or survival value of behaviour and

its evolutionary history. Two European zoologists, Konrad Lorenz
and Niko Tinbergen laid its modern foundation.

They came up with imprinting by observing animals in their natural

habitat having behaviours that promote survival.

Critical period: it refers to a limited time during which a child is

biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviours but need the
support of an appropriately stimulating environment. One of the most
famous examples of “critical period” for human children is the acquisition
of language..

A sensitive period is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to

emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental

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influence. However, its boundaries are less well defined than those of a
critical period. Development can occur later, but it is hard to induce.

ATTACHMENT THEORIES

Attachment is a strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our

lives that lead us to experience pleasure and joy when we interact with them
and to be confronted by their nearness in times of stress.

Freud emphasized that infants become attached to the person or object that
provides oral satisfaction. For most infants, this is the mother, since she is
most likely to feed the infant. But a study conducted by Harry Harlow
clearly demonstrated that feeding is not the crucial element in the
attachment process and that contact comfort is important. Physical comfort
also plays a role in Erik Erikson’s view of the infant’s development.

1. Harry Harlow Experiment

Using methods of isolation and maternal deprivation, Harlow showed the

impact of contact comfort on primate development.

Harlow took infant monkeys from their biological mothers and gave them
two inanimate surrogate mothers: one was a simple construction of wire
and wood, and the second was covered in foam rubber and soft terry cloth.
The infants were assigned to one of two conditions:

• Condition 1: The wire mother had a milk bottle and the cloth mother did
not.
• Condition 2: The cloth mother had the food while the wire mother had
none.

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In both conditions, Harlow found that the infant monkeys spent
significantly more time with the terry cloth mother than they did with the
wire mother. When only the wire mother had food, the babies came to the
wire mother to feed and immediately returned to cling to the cloth
surrogate.

Harlow’s work showed that infants also turned to inanimate surrogate

mothers for comfort when they were faced with new and scary situations.
When placed in a novel environment with a surrogate mother, infant
monkeys would explore the area, run back to the surrogate mother when
startled, and then venture out to explore again.

2. John Bowlby’s Ethological theory of attachment

 John Bowlby stresses the importance of attachment in the first year of
life and the responsiveness of the caregiver.
 According to Bowlby, the infant’s relationship with the parent begins
as a set of innate signals that call the adult to the baby’s side. The
immediate result is to keep the primary care giver nearby; the long-
term effect is to increase the infant’s chances of survival.
 Over time a true affectionate bond forms, supported by new
emotional and cognitive capacities as well as by a history of warm
sensitive care.
 Attachment does not emerge suddenly but rather develops in a series
of phases, moving from a baby’s general preference for human beings
to a partnership with primary caregivers.

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Attachment develops in 4 phases:

A) Phase 1 - Pre attachment phase (birth – 2 months): Infants

instinctively direct their attachment to human figures. Strangers,
siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the
infant.

B) Phase 2 - “Attachment in the making phase” (2-7 months) :

Attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary
caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to distinguish familiar from
unfamiliar people.

C) Phase 3 - “clear cut” attachment phase (7-24 months): Specific

attachments develop. With increased locomotor skills, babies actively
seek contact with regular caregivers, such as the mother or father. Shows
separation anxiety – becoming upset when their trusted caregiver
leaves.

D)Phase 4 - Formation of the reciprocal relationship (from 24

months on): Children become aware of others’ feelings, goals, and
plans and begin to take these into account informing their own actions.
 Bowlby argued that infants develop an internal working model of
attachment, a simple mental model of the caregiver, their
relationship, and the self as deserving of nurturing care.
 The infant’s internal working model of attachment with the caregiver
influences the infant’s and later the child’s subsequent responses to
other people.
 The internal model of attachment also has played a pivotal role in the
discovery of links between attachment and subsequent emotional
understanding, conscience development, and self-concept.

3. Strange Situation Test - Mary Ainsworth

Mary Ainsworth created the Strange Situation, an observational measure of

infant attachment in which the infant experiences a series of introductions,

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separations, and reunions with the care giver and an adult stranger.
Observing infant’s responses to these episodes, researchers identified a
secured attachment pattern and three patterns of insecurity.

a. Secure attachment: these infants use the caregiver as a secure base

from which to explore the environment. When in the presence of their
caregiver, infants explore the room and examine toys that have been
placed in it. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might
mildly protest, and when the caregiver returns these infants reestablish
positive interaction with her, perhaps by smiling or climbing on her lap.
Subsequently, they often resume playing with the toys in the room.

b. Insecure Avoidant/ Avoidant Attachment: these infants seem

unresponsive to the parent when she is present. When she leaves, they
usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the
same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to
greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling.

c. Insecure Resistant/ Resistant attachment: Before separation,

these infants seek closeness to the caregiver and often fail to explore.
When the parents leave, they are usually distressed, and on her return
they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behaviour, struggling when
held and sometimes hitting and pushing. Many continue to cry and cling
after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily.

d. Insecure Disorganized/ disoriented attachment: this pattern

reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show confused,
contradictory behaviours- for example, looking away while the parent is
holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion.
Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly
after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT - LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

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  Kohlberg believed that people progressed in their ability to reason
morally through six stages with in three levels largely by social
interaction and our ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our
ability to understand and reason logically.
 He found out that the process of attaining moral maturity is long and
slow.
 He also believes that children form ways of thinking through
experience (which include understandings of moral concepts such as:
Justice, Rights, Equality, and Human Welfare.)

Level 1: Pre-conventional reasoning (Stage 1-2)

Moral reasoning is based on the consequences or result of the act, not on

whether the act itself is good or bad.

Stage 1 – Obedience and Punishment/ Heteronomous morality

Moral thinking is tied to punishment. For example, children think that they
must obey because they fear punishment for disobedience. He will act in
order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 – Mutual Benefit

Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the second stage of

pre-conventional reasoning. At this stage, individuals reason that it is okay
to pursue one’s own interests but let others do the same. Thus, they think
that what is right involves an equal exchange. ie., One is motivated to act by
the benefit that one may obtain later. "You scratch my back, I'll scratch
yours."

Level 2: Conventional reasoning (Stage 3-4)

Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or "norms" of society. This

may include approval of others, law and order.

Stage 3 – Social Approval

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Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal
conformity is kohlberg’s third stage of moral development. One is
motivated by what others expect in behavior - good boy, good girl. The
person acts because he/she values how he/she will appear to others.
He/she gives importance on what people will think or say.

Stage 4 – Law and Order/ Social Systems Morality

Moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice,
and duty. This person will follow the law because it is the law.

Level 3: Post conventional reasoning (Stage 5-6)

Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just

recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law.

The individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options

,and then decides on a personal moral code.

Stage 5 - Social contract or utility and individual rights

A person evaluates the validity of actual laws, and social systems can be
examined in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect
fundamental human rights and values.

Stage 6 - Universal ethical principles

This is associated with the development of one's conscience. The person has
developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced
with a conflict between laws and conscience, the person will follow
conscience, even though the decision might involve personal risk. Eg:
Mother Teresa and Martin Luther King Jr.

STAGE OF ETHICS OF CARE THEORY - CAROL GILLIGAN

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Gilligan proposed the Stages of the Ethics of Care theory, which addresses
what makes actions 'right' or 'wrong'. Gilligan's theory focused on both
care-based morality and justice-based morality.

a) Care-based morality is based on the following principles:

 Emphasizes interconnectedness and universality.
 Acting justly means avoiding violence and helping those in need.
 Care-based morality is thought to be more common in girls because
of their connections to their mothers.
 Because girls remain connected to their mothers, they are less
inclined to worry about issues of fairness.

b) Justice-based morality is based on the following principles:

 Views the world as being composed of autonomous individuals who
interact with another.
 Acting justly means avoiding inequality.
 Is thought to be more common in boys because of their need to
differentiate between themselves and their mothers.
 Because they are separated from their mothers, boys become more
concerned with the concept of inequality.

Gilligan's reply was to assert that women were not inferior in their personal
or moral development, but that they were different.

They developed in a way that focused on connections among people (rather

than separation) and with an ethic of care for those people (rather than an
ethic of justice). Gilligan lays out in this ground breaking book this
alternative theory.

Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care

Approximat
Stage Goal
e Age
Range
not listed Preconventio Goal is individual

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 nal survival
Transition is from selfishness -- to --
responsibility to others
not listed Conventional Self-sacrifice is
goodness
Transition is from goodness -- to -- truth that
she is a person too
maybe Postconventi Principle of nonviolence: do not
never onal hurt others orself

PARENTING THEORIES

PILLAR THEORY - DIANA BAUMRIND

Baumrind developed her Pillar Theory, which draws relationships between

basic parenting styles and children's behaviour.

Baumrind came up with three major parenting styles:

 Authoritarian-which is too hard

 Permissive-which is too soft
 Authoritative-which is just right

1. Authoritative Parenting

Characterized by a combination of expectations and warmth. Authoritative

parents present themselves as authority figures and expect their children to
behave but they are also caring, loving and responsive.

These parents set rules and enforce boundaries by having open discussion,
providing guidance and using reasoning. These parents provide their kids
with reasoning and explanation for their action. Explanations allow
children to have a sense of awareness and teach kids about values, morals,
and goals. Their disciplinary methods are confrontive, i.e. reasoned,
negotiable, outcome- oriented, and concerning with regulating behaviours.

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2. Authoritarian Parenting

Is a style of child rearing that is very demanding and rigid. Authoritarian

parents are extremely strict and expect their orders to be obeyed.

Authoritarian parents show low levels of warmth or responsiveness,

meaning they are not very attentive to children's needs. They also tend to
punish their children by withholding love and affection from them when
they do wrong.

3. Permissive Parenting

A parent who is not strict at all. Contrary to the authoritarian parent, the
permissive parent is extremely responsive to a child's needs and does not
enforce many rules or punishments. The term spoiled is often used to
describe the children of permissive parents.

Permissive parents tend not to impose guidelines or limits on their children

and are very warm and loving. Nor do they expect their children to be very
responsible. Permissive parents tend not to portray themselves as authority
figures.

4. Neglectful Parenting

Neglectful parents do not set firm boundaries or high standards. They are
indifferent to their children’s needs and uninvolved in their lives.

These uninvolved parents may have mental issues themselves such as

depression, or physical abuse or child neglect when they were kids.

Children rose by neglectful parents: Are more impulsive, Cannot self-

regulate emotion, Encounter more delinquency and addictions problems,
Have more mental issues — e.g. suicidal behaviour in adolescents.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THEORY – NOAM CHOMSKY

Linguist Noam Chomsky (1957) proposed a nativist theory that regards

language as a unique human accomplishment, etched into the structure of
the brain.

Chomsky reasoned that the rules of sentence organization are too complex
to be directly taught to young children.

Chomsky said that the children have a language acquisition device (LAD) –
an innate system that permits them, once they have acquired sufficient
vocabulary.

That is to say that we are born with a set of rules about language in our
heads which he refers to as the 'Universal Grammar'. The universal
grammar is the basis upon which all human languages build.

TEMPERAMENT

The basic foundation of personality, usually assumed to be biologically

determined and present early in life, including such characteristics as
energy level, emotional responsiveness, demeanour, mood, response
tempo, behavioural inhibition, and willingness to explore.

Temperament has an emotional basis, but while emotions such as fear,

excitement and boredom come and go, temperament is relatively consistent
and enduring

Temperament can be modulated by environmental factors; parental

response.

ALEXANDER THOMAS AND STELLA CHESS

Thomas and chess’s model consists of nine dimensions, yielding three

types of children:

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a) Easy child: Are generally happy, active children from birth and adjust
easily to new situations and environments.
b) Slow-to-warm child: Are generally mellow, less active babies from
birth, and can have some difficulty adjusting to new situations.
c) Difficult child: They have irregular habits and biological routines
(e.g., eating, sleeping), have difficulty adjusting to new situations, and
often express negative moods very intensely.

MODELS OF TEMPERAMENT

1. Rothbart Model of Temperament

2. Temperament and Child Rearing: The goodness-of-fit

model

• The goodness of fit model proposed by Thomas and Chess(1977)

• Goodness of fit, as used in psychology and parenting, describes the

compatibility of a person's temperament with the features of their
particular social environment.

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• All environments, i.e. family, lifestyle, workplace, etc. have differing
characteristics and demands

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

4. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal development refers to the process in which a baby develops from a

single cell after conception into an embryo and later a fetus.

Typical prenatal development begins with fertilization and ends with birth,
lasting between 266 and 280 days (from 38 to 40 weeks).

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During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a
full-term baby. The zygote’s development is based on two principles,

a) Cephalocaudal (head to tail)

b) Proximodistal (near to far)

• PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Cephalocaudal direction
2. Proximodistal direction
3. General to specific

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• STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
o Germinal stage
o Embryonic stage
o Foetal stage

 Germinal Stage (Period of Zygote)

 From conception to 2 weeks
 It includes the creation of the fertilized egg (zygote), followed by cell
division and attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
 The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage,
first into two identical cells called blastomeres, which further divide
up to 800 billion cells.
 About sixty hours after fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have
formed to what is called a morula; three days after fertilization, the
morula enters the uterus. the group of cells gradually form a hollow,
fluid-filled ball called the blastocyst.
 Blastocyst consists of
 An inner mass of cells (embryonic disk) that will
eventually develop into the embryo.
 Trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that later provides
nutrition and support for the embryo.
h) At this stage, the blastocyst consists of 200 to 300 cells and is ready
for implantation.
i) Implantation, the process in which the blastocyst implants into the
uterine wall, occurs approximately 6-7 days after conception, if
implantation fails as it is quite common, the pregnancy terminates.

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4. Implantation marks the end of the germinal stage and the beginning
of the embryonic stage.

 Embryonic Stage (2-8 week)

5. begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception.
6. By the end of the 2nd week, cells of the trophoblast form another
protective membrane – the chorion, which surrounds the amnion.
From the chorion, the hair like villi, or blood vessels emerge. As these
villi burrow into the uterine wall, placenta develops.
7. Embryo has three layers of cells from which body parts eventually
develop.

1. Endoderm - The inner layer of cells, which will develop into

the digestive system, respiratory system, urinary tract and
glands – primarily produces internal body parts.
2. Mesoderm - The middle layer, which will become the
circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and
reproductive system – primarily produces parts that surround
the internal areas.
3. Ectoderm - The outermost layer, which will become the
nervous system and brain, sensory receptors (ears, nose, and
eyes, for example), and skin parts (hair and nails, for example)
– primarily produces surface parts.

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8. life-support systems for the embryos develop rapidly. These life-
support systems include the amnion, the umbilical cord, and
the placenta.
i. Amnion - Like a bag or an envelope and contains a clear
fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
ii. The amniotic fluid provides an environment that is
temperature and humidity controlled. It provides a
cushion against any jolts caused by the woman’s
movements as well as shockproof.
iii. Placenta - A temporary fetal organ that begins
developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation.
It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste
exchange between the physically separate maternal and
fetal circulations, and is an important endocrine organ
producing hormones that regulate both maternal and fetal
physiology during pregnancy.
iv. Umbilical cord – It contains two arteries and one vein,
and connects the baby to the placenta.
5. Organogenesis - Organ formation that takes place during the first
two months of prenatal development. A yolksac emerges that
produces blood cells until the liver, spleen and bone marrow are
mature enough to take over this situation.
6. All the major organs form, and the embryo becomes very fragile. The
biggest dangers are teratogens, which are agents such as viruses,
drugs, or radiation that can cause deformities in an embryo or foetus.
9. By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal
structures have been formed. The embryo is now referred to as a
foetus. There are higher chances for the occurrence of spontaneous
abortion (miscarriages) during this stage.

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3.Fetal Stage (8-38 Week)

10. longest prenatal period lasting about 7 months.

11. During this “growth and finishing” phase, the organism increases
rapidly in size.
12. embryo becomes a fetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3
centimetres in length from crown to rump and weighs about 3 grams.
13. By the time the foetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation,
foetus may be 50 centimetres or 3.3 kilograms.
14. organ systems continue to develop and grow during the fetal stage
Trimester
Prenatal development are also divided into equal periods of three
months, called trimesters. The germinal and embryonic periods
occur in the first trimester. The fetal period begins toward the
end of the first trimester and continues through the second and
third trimesters.

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• TERATOGENS

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Teratogens are environmental agents such as drug, chemical, virus, or other
factor that can cause physical or functional damage to the developing fetus
during prenatal period which produces a birth defect.

Derived from the Greek word “Teratos”, meaning ‘monster’.

The study of abnormalities of physiological development OR The

field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects is called
teratology.

Some exposures to teratogens do not cause physical birth defects but can
alter the developing brain and influence cognitive and behavioral
functioning, in which case the field of study is called behavioral
teratology.

The harm caused by teratogens is depending on many factors:

 Dose - The greater the dose of an agent, such as a drug, the greater
the effect.
 Genetic susceptibility - The type or severity of abnormalities
caused by a teratogen is linked to the genotype of the pregnant
woman and the genotype of the embryo or fetus. Some individual are
able to better to than others to withstand harmful environment.
 Time of exposure - Teratogens do more damage when they occur at
some points in development than at others. Damage during the
germinal period may even prevent implantation. In general, the
embryonic period is more vulnerable than the fetal period.
They cause physical malformations, problems in emotional and behavioral
development, decreased IQ in the child as well as complications in
pregnancies like pre-term labor, spontaneous abortions or miscarriages.

• REFLEXES
A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous
movement in response to a stimulus which are automatic and beyond the
newborn’s control. Reflexes are genetically carried survival mechanisms.

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They allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment before they
have had the opportunity to learn.

1) Eye Blink
The first and most reliable component of the startle reflex in humans.
The blink reflex is an involuntary blinking of the eyelids elicited when
the cornea is stimulated by touch, bright light, loud sound, or other
peripheral stimuli.

2) Rooting reflex
• The rooting reflex occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked or the
side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns its head
toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find
something to suck or eat (food source).
• Age of disappearance- 3 weeks (becomes voluntary head turning at
this time) – At this time, reflexes are suppressed by the
development of the frontal lobe.
• Function- helps infants find the nipple

3) Sucking reflex
 The sucking reflex occurs when newborn’s automatically suck an
object placed in their mouth. This reflex enables newborn’s to get
nourishment before they have associated a nipple with food and
also serves as a self-soothing or self-regulating mechanism.
 Age of disappearance- replaced by voluntary sucking after 4
months
 Function- permits feeding
Rooting and sucking reflexes – Primitive reflexes which have survival value
for newborn mammals, who must find a mother’s breast to obtain
nourishment.

4) Moro reflex

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 a. Moro reflex is an infantile reflex that develops between 28-32 weeks of
gestation and disappears between 3-6 months of age. It is a response
to a sudden loss of support (a way of grabbing for support while
falling) and involves three distinct components
5. Spreading out the arm
6. Pulling the arms
7. Crying

a. Stimulation- hold infant horizontally on back and let head drop

slightly, or produce a sudden loud sound against surface supporting
infant.
b. Response- infant makes an “embracing” motion by arching back
extending legs, throwing arms outward, and then bringing arms in
toward the body’
c. Age of disappearance – 6 months
d. Function- in humans evolutionary past, may have helped infant cling
to mother

5) Grasping reflex/ Darwinian reflex

• Stimulation – when something touches the infant’s palms.
• Response – infant responds by grasping tightly.
• Disappearance – By the end of the third month, the grasping reflex
diminishes, and the infant shows a more voluntary grasp.

6) Postural reflex
As the higher brain centers become active during the first two to four
months, infants begin to show postural reflexes: reactions to changes
in position or balance. For example, infants who are tilted downward
extend their arms in the parachute reflex, an instinctive attempt to
break a fall.

7) Swimming reflex

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 E) Infant swimming is the phenomenon of human babies and toddlers
reflexively moving themselves through water and changing their rate
of respiration and heart rate in response to being submerged. The
slowing rate of heart rate and breathing is called the bradycardic
response.it is not true that babies are born with the ability to swim,
though they have reflexes that make it look like they are
F) Stimulation- occurs when infants face down in pool of water
G) Response- baby gaddles and kicks in swimming motion
H) Age of disappearance- 4-6 month
I) Function- helps infant survive if dropped into water

8) Babinski reflex
• It is one of the normal reflexes in infants. Babinski reflex occurs after
the sole of the foot has been firmly stroked. The big toe then moves
upward or toward the top surface of the foot. The other toes fan out.
• Stimulation- stroke sole of foot from toe toward heel
• Response – toes fan out and curl as foot twists in
• Age of disappearance- 8-12 month
• Function- unknown

9) Palmar grasp reflex

 Palmar grasp reflex is a primitive reflex found in infants of humans
and most primates. When an object is placed in an infant’s hand and
palm of the child is stroked, the fingers will close reflexively, as the
object is grasped via palmar grasp.
 Stimulation- place finger in infants’ hands and press against palm
 Response- infant spontaneously grasps finger
 Age of disappearance- 3-4 month
 Function- prepares infants for voluntary grasping

10) Tonic neck reflex

 When a baby's head is turned to one side, the arm on that side
stretches out and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This is often
called the fencing position.

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  Stimulation-turn baby’s head to one side while infants is lying awake
on back
 Response- infant lies in a “fencing position”.one arm is extended in
front of eyes on side to which head is turned, other arm is flexed.
 Age of disappearance- 4 month
 Functions- may prepare infants for voluntary reaching

11) Stepping reflex

 Is also known as the "walking" or "dancing reflex". This reflex can be
seen when a baby is held upright or when the baby's feet are touching
the ground.
 Stimulation- hold infants’ underarms, and permit bare feet to touch a
flat surface
 Response- infants lifts one foot after another in stepping response
 Age of disappearance- 2 months in infants who gain weight quickly
sustained in lighter infants
 Function- prepares infants for voluntary walking

5. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

• PHYSICAL GROWTH
Two growth patterns describe the changes in body proportion: -

 Cephalocaudal trend
 Proximodistal trend

 In the prenatal period, the head, chest and trunk grow first, then the
arms and legs, finally the hands and feet.
 During infancy and childhood, the arms and legs continue to grow
somewhat ahead of the hands and feet.
 During puberty growth proceeds in the reverse direction. The hands,
legs and feet accelerate first, followed by the torso, which accounts for
most of the adolescent height gain.

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 • MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

 Sequence of Motor Development

• Gross Motor Development refers to control over actions that help
infants get around in environment, such as crawling, standing and
walking.
• Fine Motor Development involves small movements, such as
reaching and grasping.
• Reaching and Grasping are the two main fine motor skills of infancy.
Among these, reaching play the greatest role in infant cognitive
development.
• Reaching is largely controlled by proprioception-our sense of
movement and location in space, arising from stimuli within the
body.
• Reaching improves as depth perception advances and as infants gain
greater control of body posture and hand movements.

 Development of Grasping
Once infants can reach, they modify their grasp. The newborns grasp
reflex is replaced by:

i. Ulnar grasp- a clumsy motion in which the babies finger close

against the palm.
ii. Pincer grasp- infants use the thumb and index fingers in a well-
co-ordinated way

6. EARLY SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR

1. EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS
• Vocalization
• Body movements
• Facial expressions

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• Examples: Infants do show signs of fear- drawing back and refusing
to crawl. Blind infants’ express emotions through finger movements,
parents become more interactive
• Babies’ earliest emotional life consists of little more than two global
arousal states :
a. Attraction to pleasant stimulation
b. Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation

• Basic emotions are universal in humans and other primates and

have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival.
• Children coordinate separate skills into more effective, emotionally
expressive system as the central nervous system develops and the
child's goals and experiences change.
• With age, face, gaze, voice, and posture start to form organized
patterns that vary meaning fully with environmental events.
• Happiness- between 6 to 10 weeks, the parent's communication
evokes a broad grin called the social smile. Social smiling becomes
better organized and stable babies learn to use it to evoke and sustain
pleasurable face-to-face interaction.
• Anger and Sadness- Newborn babies respond with generalized
distress to a variety of unpleasant experiences, including: hunger,
painful medical procedures, changes in body temperature, and too
much or too little stimulation. From 4-6 months into the second year,
angry expressions increase in frequency and intensity.
• Sadness-Sadness also occur in response to pain, removal of an
object, and brief separation, they are less common than anger.
Sadness occurs when infants are deprived of a familiar, loving
caregiver or when caregiver -infant communication is seriously
disrupted.
• Fear-Fear rises during the second half of the first year into the
second year. Infant's most frequent expression of fear is to unfamiliar
adults, a response called stranger anxiety. Factors depending fear-
Temperament, past experiences with strangers, current situation.
Infants use the familiar caregiver as a secure base to explore,

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 venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional
support.

7. LATE ADULTHOOD

 Gerontology is the study of the social, cultural, psychological,

cognitive, and biological aspects of ageing (word coined by IlyaIlyich
Mechnikov).
 Geriatrics is a medical specialty focused on care and treatment of
older persons.
 Facing death and loss – Approaching death
Physical and Psychological issues:

Psychological changes often begin to take place even before there are overt
physiological signs of dying. Terminal drop in intellectual functioning often
appears at this time. Terminal drop is sometimes attributed to chronic
ailments that sap mental energy and motivation. It affects abilities that are
relatively unaffected by age, such as vocabulary, and it is seen in people
who die young as well as those who die at a more advanced age.Personality
changes also show up during the terminal period.

Kubler-Ross five stage theory Of Adjustment to death

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a pioneer in the study of death and dying, suggested

that people pass through five stages as they adjust to the prospect of death:
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Although research
shows that people who are dying do not necessarily pass through each of
these stages in the exact order, all of these reactions are commonly
experienced.

Stage 1: Denial

Denial is thought to be a person’s initial reaction on learning of the

diagnosis of terminal illness. Denial is a defense mechanism by which
people avoid the implications of an illness. They may act as if the illness
were not severe, it will shortly go away, and it will have few long-term

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implications. In extreme cases, the patient may even deny that he or she
has the illness, despite having been given clear information about the
diagnosis. Denial, then, is the subconscious blocking out of the full
realization of the reality and implications of the disorder.

Denial early on in adjustment to life threatening illness is both normal and

useful because it can protect the patient from the full realization of
impending death. Usually it lasts only a few days. When it lasts longer, it
may require psychological intervention.

Stage 2: Anger

A second reaction to the prospect of dying is anger. The angry patient is

asking, “Why me? Considering all the other people who could have gotten
the illness, all the people who had the same symptoms but got a favorable
diagnosis, and all the people who are older, dumber, more bad-tempered,
less useful, or just plain evil, why should I be the one who is dying?”

The angry patient may show anger toward anyone who is healthy, such as
hospital staff, family members, or friends. Angry patients who cannot
express their anger directly by being irritable may do so indirectly by
becoming embittered. Bitter patients show resentment through death jokes,
cracks about their deteriorating appearance and capacities, or pointed
remarks about all the exciting things that they will not be able to do because
those events will happen after their death.

Anger is one of the harder responses for family and friends to deal with.
They may feel they are being blamed by the patient for being well. The
family may need to work together with a therapist to understand that the
patient is not really angry with them but at fate; they need to see that this
anger will be directed at anyone who is nearby, especially people with
whom the patient feels no obligation to be polite and well behaved.
Unfortunately, family members often fall into this category.

Stage 3: Bargaining

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Bargaining is the third stage of Kübler Ross’s formulation. At this point, the
patient abandons anger in favor of a different strategy: trading good
behavior for good health. Bargaining may take the form of a pact with God,
in which the patient agrees to engage in good works or at least to abandon
selfish ways in exchange for better health or more time. A sudden rush of
charitable activity or uncharacteristically pleasant behavior may be a sign
that the patient is trying to strike such a bargain.

Stage 4: Depression

Depression, the fourth stage in Kübler-Ross’s model, may be viewed as

coming to terms with lack of control. The patient acknowledges that little
can now be done to stay the course of illness. This realization may be
coincident with a worsening of symptoms, tangible evidence that the illness
is not going to be cured. At this stage, patients may feel nauseated,
breathless, and tired. They may find it hard to eat, to control elimination, to
focus attention, and to escape pain or discomfort.

Kübler-Ross refers to the stage of depression as a time for “anticipatory

grief,” when patients mourn the prospect of their own deaths. This grieving
process may occur in two stages, as the patient first comes to terms with the
loss of past valued activities and friends and then begins to anticipate the
future loss of activities and relationships. Depression, though far from
pleasant, can be functional in that patients begin to prepare for the future.
Depression can nonetheless require treatment, so that symptoms of
depression can be distinguished from symptoms of physical deterioration.

Stage 5: Acceptance

The final stage in Kübler-Ross’s theory is acceptance. At this point, the

patient may be too weak to be angry and too accustomed to the idea of
dying to be depressed. Instead, a tired, peaceful, though not necessarily
pleasant calm may descend. Some patients use this time to make

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preparations, deciding how to divide up their remaining possessions and
saying goodbye to old friends and family members.

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 COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY

A. COUNSELLING DEFINITION
 Counselling is an interactive process between the counsellor and the counselee
to help the counselee’s needs.
 Roger (1961) defined a helping relationship as one in which at least one of the
parties has the intent of promoting the growth, development, maturity,
improved functioning and improved coping with the life of the other.
 Burks & Stefflre (1979): “Counselling denote a professional relationship
between a trained counsellor and a client. This relationship is usually person
to person, although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It is
designed to help clients to understand and clarify their views of their life space,
and to learn to reach their self-determined goals through meaningful, well-
informed choices and through resolutions of problems of emotional or
interpersonal nature.”
 Counselling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care and
concern towards the person with a problem, and facilitates that person's
personal growth and brings about change through self-knowledge.

B. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

1. PSYCHOANALYTIC COUNSELING
 Psychoanalytic therapy is a form of talking therapy based on the theories of
Sigmund Freud.
 The approach explores how the unconscious mind influences thoughts and
behaviors, with the aim of offering insight and resolution to the person seeking
therapy.

Key Concepts
 Structure of personality (ID, Ego and Super ego)
 Level of consciousness (Unconscious, Pre conscious and Conscious)
 Psycho sexual stages of development (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital)
 Defense mechanisms (Repression, Regression, Reaction formation,
Rationalization, Denial, Sublimation, Displacement and Projection).

Therapeutic goals
1) To make unconscious motives conscious
TEAM PSYCHOCRASH
 2) To strengthen the Ego to be more aligned with reality and lessen dependence
on the instinctual cravings of the Id or the irrational guilt provided by the
Superego.

Techniques
The therapy proceeds from the client‘s talk to catharsis (or expression of emotion) to
insight to working through unconscious material. This work is done to attain the
goals of intellectual and emotional understanding and reeducation, which then leads
to personality change.
1. Free Association

This is where the client, without censorship, will be encouraged to say whatever is
on their mind. The therapist will sit by and listen well on what the client says,
listening for significant resistances which may mean that there are anxiety-
arousing material or surfaced unconscious material which will lead to discovering
the root problem.
2. Interpretation

A technique where therapists use to explain, point out, and even teach the
meaning of gathered unconscious material, free association themes, manifests of
dreams, and even the relationship of the client and therapists.
3. Dream Analysis

Freud describes dreams as ―The Royal Road to Unconsciousness. While asleep,

the person‘s defenses are lowered and repressed feelings and emotions arise in
dreams. Material in dreams may show a person‘s unconscious needs, wishes and
fears. Clients are asked to describe the Content of their dreams, and then through
Free Association, the therapist then helps and finds the client‘s associations with
the manifest content to uncover the latent content.
4. Analysis and Interpretation of Resistance

This technique identifies the client‘s restriction, refusal, and reluctance to bring
surface of awareness any unconscious material that is repressed. Resistance of
any kind coming from Free Association gets into the way of the progress, and
through interpretation, the therapist should make it clear to the client that he/she
is to unbar any restrictions, as he/she has to confront the problem in reality than
keeping it repressed.

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 5. Analysis and Interpretation of Transference

It is important that the therapist analyze and properly interpret the transference
relationship they hold. This holds one of the crucial solutions for the client to
understand what exactly made them fixated and deep-rooted on such anxiety.

Applications

 Psychoanalytic therapy is a gradual process that takes time, yet the results are
said to be life changing.
 Psychoanalytic work is better suited to more general concerns such
as anxiety, relationship difficulties, sexual issues or low self-esteem. Phobias,
social shyness and difficulties sleeping are further examples of areas that may
be effectively managed with the help of psychoanalytic therapy.
 Psychoanalytic therapy can also be applied in a group setting. This is
called group analysis. This form of therapy brings together psychoanalytic
techniques with interpersonal functions.

2. BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING
 According to Seligman (2006) behavioural therapy focuses on the present not
the past, observable behaviours rather that unconscious forces and short-term
treatment, clear goals, and rapid change.
 The traditional behavioural approach is no longer used as it once was. It has
moved towards a more collaborative treatment with cognitive therapy and as
such this has meant a more applicable approach.

Steps in Treatment
1) Identify the problem- This involves investigating what the problem is and
its history.
2) Identify goals- Identifying goals involves selecting goals related to the
problem that are realistic, specific, and measurable.
3) Strategies- The counsellor should teach new skills, provide relevant
information and implement behavioural strategies to help the client to
change.
4) Implement the plan- This involves the plan that has been developed being
implemented for the process of change to occur.
5) Assess progress- The progress of the plan is assessed and the plan is
evaluated.
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6) Continue the process- This is the process is continued by ensuring plans
are continued and that plans include preventing relapse of problems.

Techniques
 Techniques in behavioural therapies apply the learning principles to change
maladaptive behaviours. These do not focus on clients achieving insights into
their behaviour, rather the focus is just on changing the behaviour.

1. Systematic Desensitization – was developed by Joseph Wolfe and was

designed for clients with phobias. This treatment follows a process of “counter-
conditioning” meaning the association between the stimulus and the anxiety is
weakened. The process of systematic desensitization is applied to an example
of a client with a fear of spiders:

Step 1: Build a hierarchy of the anxiety-arousing stimuli including the degree of

fear experienced from 5 to 100.
The client lists all anxiety arousing stimuli for example-
1. Looking at a spider.
2. Holding a spider in hands.

Step 2: Train the client in deep muscle relaxation

Relaxation techniques taught to client

Step 3: Client works through hierarchy while using relaxation techniques

Talks about anxiety of spiders and practices relaxation techniques

Step 4: (used in some cases) Client confronts real fear

Client is presented with a real spider and holds it in his/her hands

2. Exposure Therapies - designed to expose the client to feared situations

similar to that of systematic desensitization. The therapies included are in-vivo
desensitisation and flooding.

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  In vivo desensitization - the client being exposed to real life anxiety
provoking situations. The exposure is brief to begin with and eventually the
client is exposed for longer periods of time to the fearful situation.
 Flooding - the client being exposed to the actual or imagined fearful situation
for a prolonged period of time. There may be ethical issues in using these
techniques with certain fears or traumatic events and the client should be
provided with information on the techniques before utilising them so he or she
understands the process.

3. Aversion Therapy - This treatment involves pairing the aversive behaviour

(such as drinking alcohol) with a stimulus with an undesirable response (such
as a medication that induces vomiting when taken with alcohol). This is
designed to reduce the targeted behaviour (drinking alcohol) even when the
stimulus with the undesirable response is not taken (medication).

4. Social Skills Training - A treatment that involves improving interpersonal

skills such as communication and how to act in a social setting through the
techniques modelling, behavioural rehearsal, and shaping.
 Modelling involves encouraging the client to watch friends and
colleagues in their social settings to see how to act appropriately.
 Behavioural rehearsal involves clients rehearsing their social skills
in the therapy session and eventually moving to real-life situations.
 Shaping involves the client gradually building up to handling difficult
social situations.

5. Biofeedback
 Biofeedback involves the therapist getting feedback of the client’s bodily
functions and in turn providing the information to clients to help him or her
engage in relaxation techniques.
 For example, during a therapy session the client is hooked up to an Electro
myograph (EMG) to measure the skeletal-muscular tension in the body. This
information is then used for the client to help control their physiological
responses and implement relaxation techniques.

Applications
 Behavioural therapy can be used to treat many psychological disorders
including anxiety disorders, sexual disorders, depression, interpersonal and

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 marital problems, chronic mental conditions, childhood disorders, eating and
weight disorders as well as prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease.

3. COGNITIVE COUNSELLING
 Cognitive therapy is usually more focused on the present, more time-limited,
and more problem-solving oriented. Indeed, much of what the patient does is
solve current problems. In addition, patients learn specific skills that they can
use for the rest of their lives. These skills involve identifying distorted
thinking, modifying beliefs, relating to others in different ways, and changing
behaviors.

1. Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (Rebt)

 REBT is the pioneering form of cognitive behaviour therapy developed by
Dr. Albert Ellis in 1955. REBT is an action-oriented approach to managing
cognitive, emotional, and behavioural disturbances. According to REBT, it
is largely our thinking about events that leads to emotional and
behavioural upset.
 When people hold irrational beliefs about themselves or the world,
problems can result. The goal of REBT is to help people recognize and alter
those beliefs and negative thinking patterns in order to overcome
psychological problems and mental distress.
 Essential to Ellis’s theory is the A-B-C sequence. This sequence describes
the relationship between experience, beliefs and reactions.

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The A-B-C Sequence
 According to Ellis, we experience Activating Events (A) every day that prompts
us to look at, interpret, or otherwise think about what is occurring. Our
interpretation of these events results in specific Beliefs (B) about the event, the
world and our role in the event. Once we develop this belief, we experience
Consequences (C) based solely on our belief.

2. Beck’s Cognitive Therapy

 Cognitive therapy by Aaron Beck is based on the cognitive model, which states
that thoughts, feelings and behaviour are all connected, and that individuals
can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by
identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic
behaviour, and distressing emotional responses.
 This involves the individual working with the therapist to develop skills for
testing and changing beliefs, identifying distorted thinking, relating to others
in different ways, and changing behaviours.

Applications
 Cognitive approaches emphasise the role of thought in the development and
maintenance of unhelpful or distressing patterns of emotion or behaviour.
 Beck originally applied his cognitive approach to the treatment of depression.
Cognitive therapy has also been successfully used to treat such conditions as
anxiety disorders, obsessive disorders, substance abuse, post-traumatic stress,
eating disorders, dissociative identity disorder, chronic pain and many other
clinical conditions. In addition, it has been widely utilised to assist clients in
enhancing their coping skills and moderating extremes in unhelpful thinking.

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4. PERSON-CENTERED COUNSELLING
 The person-centered approach was developed from the concepts of humanistic
psychology.
 The person-centered approach was originally focused on the client being in
charge of the therapy which led to the client developing a greater understanding
of self, self-exploration, and improved self-concepts.
 The focus then shifted to the client‘s frame of reference and the core conditions
required for successful therapy such as ensuring the therapist demonstrates
empathic understanding in a non-judgmental way.

Key Concepts

 Congruence: Congruence is whether or not therapists are genuine and

authentic in what they say and do.

 Unconditional positive regard: Unconditional positive regard refers to the

therapist accepting, respecting and caring about clients.

 Empathy: Empathy is the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes and
relate to their experience. Empathy is different to sympathy in that sympathy
is often seen as feeling sorry for the client whereas empathy shows
understanding and allows the client to further open up.

 Actualization: People have the tendency to work towards self-actualization.

Self-actualization refers to developing in a complete way. It occurs throughout
the lifespan.

 Conditions of worth
o Conditions of worth influence the way in which a person‘s self-concept is
shaped from important people in his or her life.
o When an individual has conditions of worth imposed on him or her, self-
image is often low. Also, if the individual is exposed to overprotective or
dominating environments, this can also have a negative impact on self-
image.

 The fully functioning person

o The fully functioning person is an individual who has ideal emotional
health. Generally, the fully functioning person will be open to

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 experience, lives with a sense of meaning and purpose, and trusts in self
and others.
o One of the main goals of person-centered therapy is to work towards
becoming fully functioning.

 Phenomenological perspective: The phenomenological approach refers to

the unique perception by each individual of his or her own world. Person-
centred therapy focuses on the individual‘s own experience informing how
treatment will work.

Goals of Therapy
1. To facilitate client‘s trust and ability to be in the present moment. This allows
the client to be honest in the process without feeling judged by the therapist.
2. To promote client‘s self-awareness and self-esteem.
3. To empower the client to change.
4. To encourage congruence in the client‘s behavior and feelings.
5. To help people to gain the ability to manage their lives and become self-
actualized.

Techniques

1. Non-directiveness: Non-directiveness refers to allowing clients to be the

focus of the therapy session without the therapist giving advice or
implementing strategies or activities.

2. Reflection of feelings: Another part of active listening is verbally

responding to what is being said. In person-centered therapy, you do not try
and change the meaning but rather simply reflect to the client in an effort to
further understanding.

3. Open Questions: In person-centered psychotherapy, open-ended

questions are superior. They are not leading, allowing the client to remain
in control of their session. In addition, open-ended questions tend to elicit
more information.

4. Paraphrasing: It is quite easy to misunderstand a client’s meaning. The

goal in active listening is to clarify what is being said so you know you are
hearing what they want you to hear. One way of doing this is to paraphrase
their comments to ensure you understand their meaning.
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 5. Accept negative emotions: Remaining positive, supportive, and non-
judgmental with a client can be difficult. There are times when a client is
going to express negative emotions that elicit a reaction. A therapist needs
to learn to not take words personally, especially from a client that is
experiencing personal issues.

6. Active listening: Active listening is not just listening. It is listening in

such a way as to let the client know that you understand what is being said.

7. Body language: One way to show a client you are paying attention is
through body language. You want to maintain eye contact, lean slightly
forward, and keep an open style of communication.

Applications

 The person-centred approach can be applied to working with individuals,

groups and families.
 The person-centred approach has been successful in treating problems
including anxiety disorders, alcoholism, psychosomatic problems, agoraphobia,
interpersonal difficulties, depression, and personality disorders.
 It could also be used in counseling people with unwanted pregnancy, illness or
loss of a loved one.
 When compared with other therapies such as goal-focused therapies, person-
centred therapy has been shown to be as effective as them.

5. ECLECTIC COUNSELING
 Eclectic counselling is defined as the synthesis and combination of directive
and non-directive counselling.
 In eclectic counseling, the counsellor is neither too active as in the directive
counseling nor too passive as in the non-directive counseling. He just follows
the middle path between these two.
 In eclectic counseling, the needs of a person and his personality are studied by
the counsellor. After this the counsellor selects those techniques, which will be
useful for the person. The main techniques used are reassurance giving
information, case history, testing etc.
 The counsellor may start with the directive technique. When the situation
demands, he may switch over to the non-directive counseling and vice-versa.

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 An attempt is made to adjust the technique to the requirements of the
situation and the individual.
 In sum, it is an approach that keeps the best benefit of client growth in focus.
 Based on client‘s needs, eclecticism combines more than one theoretical
concepts, principles and techniques in the whole counseling process.

Steps in Eclectic counselling

1) Diagnosis of the cause.
2) Analysis of the problem.
3) Preparation of a tentative plan for modifying factors.
4) Securing effective conditions for counselling.
5) Interviewing and stimulating the client to develop his own resources and to
assume its responsibility for trying new modes of adjustment.
6) Proper handling of any related problems which may contribute to adjustment.

According to an important protagonist of eclectic point of view, Thorne (1950),

eclecticism is the most practicable and apt approach to counselling. He points to the
fact that there are wide personality differences and no single theory of personality
can justifiably encompass all phenomena. Therefore, it is necessary that the therapy
be individualized. It must be such that it is relevant to the problem and the client.

6. GESTALT COUNSELLING
 Gestalt therapy is an existential, phenomenological, and process-based
approach created on the premise that individuals must be understood in the
context of their ongoing relationship with the environment.
 The initial goal is for clients to gain awareness of what they are experiencing
and how they are doing it. Through this awareness, change automatically
occurs.
 The approach is phenomenological because it focuses on the client’s
perceptions of reality and existential because it is grounded in the notion that
people are always in the process of becoming, remaking, and rediscovering
themselves.
 As an existential approach, Gestalt therapy gives special attention to existence
as individuals experience it and affirms the human capacity for growth and
healing through interpersonal contact and insight.
 Gestalt therapy stresses dialogue and relationship between client and
therapist, sometimes called relational Gestalt therapy.

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Key Concepts
1. View of Human Nature
 A basic assumption of Gestalt therapy is that individuals have the capacity to
self-regulate when they are aware of what is happening in and around them.
 Therapy provides the setting and opportunity for that awareness to be
supported and restored. If the therapist is able to stay with the client’s present
experience and trust in the process, the client will move toward increased
awareness, contact, and integration
 The Gestalt theory of change posits that the more we work at becoming who or
what we are not, the more we remain the same.

2. Holism
 All of nature is seen as a unified and coherent whole, and the whole is different
from the sum of its parts.
 Because Gestalt therapists are interested in the whole person, they place no
superior value on a particular aspect of the individual. Gestalt practice attends
to a client’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors, body, memories, and dreams.
Emphasis may be on a figure (those aspects of the individual’s experience that
are most salient at any moment) or the ground (those aspects of the client’s
presentation that are often out of his or her awareness).

Therapeutic Goals
Through a creative involvement in Gestalt process, Zinker (1978) expects clients will
do the following:
o Move toward increased awareness of themselves
o Gradually assume ownership of their experience (as opposed to making
others responsible for what they are thinking, feeling, and doing)
o Develop skills and acquire values that will allow them to satisfy their
needs without violating the rights of others • Become more aware of all
of their senses
o Learn to accept responsibility for what they do, including accepting the
consequences of their actions
o Be able to ask for and get help from others and be able to give to others

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C. SCOPE OF COUNSELLING

1) Problems with lifespan development focus: Helping for “developmental

problems” to make a person more self-actualizing in a continuous (lifespan)
growth process.

2) Imbalance of cognitive aspects: Contemporary perceptual approach – “the

here and now” problems in terms of client’s unique outlook with regard to his
life or his cognitive and phenomenological approach, cognitive or thought
modidfication.

3) Behavioural problems and behavioural modification focus: The

behavioural focus for identifying and correcting behaviour problems or
behavioural modification with understanding of basic behavioural concepts as
conditioning, reinforcement, de-conditioning, de-sensitization and transfer of
learning.

4) Specific problem focus: (eg: marriage, divorce, family, child, adolescent

focus, crisis focus): All the problems related to child counselling, marriage
counselling, interpersonal relation adjustment problems, age related problems,
family counselling, group counselling, person-centered counselling and crisis
intervention counselling.

5) General focus and all prevailing education, job, health focus: Scope of
counselling is also providing in various fields of life- eg: education career related
counselling in offices and industries.

6) Life challenge focus: These are as sexual harassment, alcoholism and

substance abuse, counselling the disabled and their families, counselling
suicide-prone persons, counselling the terminally ill person.

D. GOALS OF COUNSELLING

1. Relating with others: Becoming better able to form and maintain meaningful
and satisfying relationships with other people: for example, within the family or
workplace.

2. Self-awareness: Becoming more aware of thoughts and feelings that had been
blocked off or denied, or developing a more accurate sense of how self is
perceived by others.
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3. Self-acceptance: The development of a positive attitude towards self, marked
by an ability to acknowledge areas of experience that had been the subject of self-
criticism and rejection.

4. Self-actualization or individuation: Moving in the direction of fulfilling

potential or achieving an integration of previously conflicting parts of self.

5. Enlightenment: Assisting the client to arrive at a higher state of spiritual

awakening.

6. Problem-solving: Finding a solution to a specific problem that the client had

not been able to resolve alone. Acquiring a general competence in problem
solving.

7. Psychological education: Enabling the client to acquire ideas and techniques

with which to understand and control behavior.

8. Acquisition of social skills: Learning and mastering social and interpersonal

skills such as maintenance of eye contact, turn-taking in conversations,
assertiveness or anger control.

9. Cognitive change: The modification or replacement of irrational beliefs or

maladaptive thought patterns associated with self-destructive behavior.

10. Behavior change: The modification or replacement of maladaptive or self

destructive patterns of behavior.

11. Systemic change: Introducing change into the way in that social systems (e.g.
families) operate.

12. Empowerment: Working on skills, awareness and knowledge that will enable
the client to take control of his or her life.

13. Restitution: Helping the client to make amends for previous destructive
behavior.

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E. CONDITIONS FACILITATING EFFECTIVE COUNSELING

The successful outcomes in counseling are associated with the counselor client
relationship which is the outcome of all therapeutic efforts. There are two necessary
conditions. They are:
1. Counselor-offered conditions: The core conditions for successful counseling
are:
 Empathic understanding -Empathic understanding as a process that
involves communicating a sense of caring and understanding.
 Unconditional positive regard - Counselor communicating to clients
that they are of value and worth as individuals.
 Congruence -Behaving in a manner consistent with how one thinks and
feels.
 Respect -focuses on the positive attributes of the client.
 Immediacy -direct, mutual communication.
 Confrontation -Pointing out discrepancies in what the client is saying
and doing.
 Concreteness -Helping clients discuss themselves in specific terms.
 Self-disclosure -Making the self-known to others.

2. Counselor-and client offered conditions

The working alliance is another concept that can be used to describe the counselling
relationship. It goes beyond focusing on counsellor-offered conditions and includes
counselor and client-offered conditions.
The working alliance is composed of three parts. They are:
 Agreement between the counselor and client in terms of the goals of
counseling.
 Agreement between the counselor and client in terms of the tasks of
counseling.
 Emotional bond between the counselor and client.

F. CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUNSELLOR

Several skills need to be brought into a counselling session. These include:

1. Attitudinal skills: There is probably nothing which has a greater impact on the
outcome of a counselling session than the counsellor’s attitude. Attitudes can be
positive or reactive. They include:
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  Respect, for oneself as well as for the client, expressed by praising the
client’s individuality and structuring the counselling to the needs,
capacities and resources of the individual.

 Genuineness/congruence: It is the consistency or harmony between

what the counsellor says, and what he/she is. This condition reflects
honesty, transparency, and trust.

 Unconditional positive regard which makes clients feel welcomed and

valued as individuals.

 Empathy: the ability to understand what the client experiences, and to

communicate this kind of feeling. Carl Rogers (1980), defined it as
perceiving the internal frame of reference of another person.

 Self-disclosure: It helps the client to communicate easily and to reveal

something about him/herself, creating mutual trust, and disarming the
client, so that he/she feels free and talks openly.

 Confrontation, which uses the client’s behaviour, or words, to point out

inconsistencies between what is said and what is done. When handling a
response, confrontation, or challenging attitudes, is a healthy development
in counselling.

2. Listening skills: Being a good listener entails receiving and sending

appropriate messages. Listening to clients is not just a matter of receiving what
they say, but also receiving how they say it. Sometimes how they communicate is
much more revealing that what they actually say, which may be more concealing
than revealing.
3. Verbal communication skills: The use of words in counselling is a skill
which, like any other skill, requires practice to master. Verbal communication
takes place first in the literal or content phase. If inappropriate vocabulary is
used, rapport and understanding will be hindered. When this happens,
miscommunication occurs.

In addition to the literal phase of verbal communication, there is also the emotional
phase. This refers to other attributes involved in vocal interactions, such as volume,
the emotional edge, and other non-verbal cues such as gestures. Counsellors must be
sensitive to both the literal and emotional phases of verbal communication.

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4. Giving leads: Leads may be defined as statements that counsellors use in
communication with the clients. Leads have been classified into categories of
techniques, namely:
a) Restatement of Content: Attempts to convey understanding by repeating
or rephrasing the communication.
b) Questioning: Seeks further information and asks the person counselled to
elaborate a point.
c) Reflection of Feeling: Understanding from the client's point of view and
communicating that understanding.
d) Reassurance: Serves as a reward or reinforcing agent. It is often used to
support the client's exploration of ideas and feelings or test different
behaviour.
e) Interpretation: Explains meaning behind the client's statements.

G. EGAN’S SKILLED HELPER MODEL

 The Egan Skilled Helper approach encourages clients to become active
interpreters of the world, giving meanings to actions, events and situations,
facing and overcoming challenges, exploring problem issues, seeking new
opportunities and establishing goals.
 The Skilled Helper aims to help their clients develop the skills and the
knowledge necessary to solve both their current problems issues and ones that
may arise in the future.
 The Skilled Helper facilitates the client by helping them to formulate a plan of
action, helping them accept their responsibility for becoming a more effective
person and helping them to develop their own inner resources.
 It is a three stage model in which each state consists of specific skills that the
therapist uses to help the client move forwards.

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EGAN STAGE 1: EXPLORING SKILLS
 The purpose of Stage I is to build a non-threatening counselling relationship and
help the client explore their situation and then focus on chosen issues.
 In this stage, the Skilled Helper helps the client to identify and clarify problems
and opportunities and assess their resources.

1a – An expansive part

 The helper encourages the speaker to tell their story, and by using good active
listening skills and demonstrating the core conditions, helps them to explore
and unfold the tale, and to reflect. For some, this is enough, for others it is just
the beginning. “….as you summarised what I said, all the jumble began to
make sense.”
 Skills in Stage 1a:- active listening, reflecting, paraphrasing, checking
understanding, open questions, summarising.

1b – A challenging part

 With the help of empathic reflections and challenges, the speaker uncovers blind
spots or gaps in their perceptions and assessment of the situation, of others and
of themselves – their patterns, the impact of their behavior on the situation, their
strengths. “I’d never thought about how it might feel from my colleague’s point of
view.”
 Skills: Challenging; different perspectives, patterns and connections, shoulds and
oughts, negative self-talk, blind spots (discrepancies, distortions, incomplete
awareness, things implied, what’s not said), ownership, specifics, strengths.

1c -Focusing and moving forward

 People often feel stuck; that is why they want to talk. In this stage, the helper
seeks to move the speaker from stuckness to hope by helping them choose an area
that they have the energy to move forward on, that would make a difference and
benefit them. “I see now the key place to get started is my relationship with K”
 Skills: Facilitating focusing and prioritizing an area to work on.
 Stage 1 can be 5 minutes or 5 years; it may be all someone needs.

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EGAN STAGE 2 - UNDERSTANDING SKILLS
 The purpose of Stage II is to help facilitate the client in developing a more in-
depth and objective understanding of their situation.
 The Skilled Helper establishes what the client really wants and needs and the
client is encouraged to consider new possibilities and perspectives, choosing ones
that are realistic, consistent with their values and for which there are adequate
incentives.
 The Skilled Helper facilitates the client in developing rational decision-making
based upon healthy data collection, analysis and action planning.

2a – A creative part

 The helper helps the speaker to brainstorm their ideal scenario; ‘if you could wake
up tomorrow with everything, just how you want it, like your ideal world, what
would it be like?’ The speaker is encouraged to broaden their horizon and be
imaginative, rather than reflect on practicalities. For some people this is scary, for
some liberating. “At first it was really difficult but after a while I let my imagination
go and began to get really excited about what we could achieve in the department”.
 Skills: Brainstorming, facilitating imaginative thinking, i.e.
 Write down ideas verbatim, don’t analyse or judge
 Keep prompting – ‘what else?’
 Don’t hurry, allow lots of time

2b – A reality testing part

 From the creative and visionary brainstorm, the speaker formulates goals which
are specific, measurable, achievable/appropriate (for them, in their
circumstances), realistic (with reference to the real world), and have a time frame
attached, i.e. SMART goals. Goals which are demanding yet achievable are
motivating.
“It feels good to be clear that I want a clear understanding with my colleagues about
our respective roles and responsibilities.”
 Skills: facilitating selecting and reality checking with respect to internal and
external landscape.

2c – moving forward

 This stage aims to test the realism of the goal before the person moves to action,
and to help the speaker check their commitment to the goal by reviewing the costs

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 and benefits to them of achieving it. Is it worth it? “It feels risky but I need to
resolve this.”
 Skills: facilitation of exploring costs and benefits, and checking commitment to
goal.

EGAN STAGE 3 - ACTING SKILLS

 Stage III skills assist clients to take appropriate action by defining goals, changing
ways of relating and working through issues using problem solving or decision
making methods, while providing support and encouragement.
 Stage III skills help the client to cope with current problems and assist in the
learning of new skills that will enable them to live more effectively in the future.
In stage III the Skilled Helper facilitates the client in finding ways of achieving
their goals.

3a – Another creative part

 The speaker is helped to brainstorm strategies – 101 ways to achieve the goal –
again with prompting and encouragement to think widely. What people, places,
ideas, organizations could help?
 The aim is to free up the person to generate new and different ideas for action,
breaking out of old mind-sets.
“There were gems of possibilities from seemingly crazy ideas”.
 Skills: Facilitation of brainstorming

3b – Focusing in on appropriate strategies

 What from the brainstorm might be selected as a strategy that is realistic for the
speaker, in their circumstances, consistent with their values? Force field
analysis can be used here to look at what internal and external factors
(individuals and organizations) are likely to help and hinder action and how these
can be strengthened or weakened respectively. “I would feel comfortable trying to
have a conversation with him about how he sees things”.
 Skills for Stage 3b: Facilitation of selecting and reality checking.

3c – Moving to action

 The aim is to help the speaker plan the next steps. The strategy is broken into
bite-size chunks of action. The helper works with them to turn good intention into
specific plans with time scales.

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 Whilst being encouraging, it’s also important not to push the speaker into saying
they’ll do things to please the helper.
 “I will make sure we have time together before the end of the month. I will book a
meeting, so that we can be sure of quiet uninterrupted time. I will organize this
before Friday”.
 Skills: Facilitation of action planning.

If the end point of producing an action plan has been reached, the experience of
trying it out could be the starting point for a follow-up mentoring/co-mentoring
session. The work would start in stage 1 again, telling a new story. If an action plan
had not been reached, that’s fine too, and the model can be used over a series of
sessions.

H.SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

1. NON- VERBAL BEHAVIOR SKILLS

 Nonverbal communication plays a significant role in our lives, as it can
improve a person’s ability to relate, engage, and establish meaningful
interactions in everyday life. A better understanding of this type of
communication may lead people to develop stronger relationships with others.
 Often referred to as body language, nonverbal communication can take many
forms and may be interpreted in multiple ways by different people, especially
across cultures.
 Even a lack of such nonverbal cues can be meaningful and, in itself, a form of
nonverbal communication.

2. RAPPORT

Rapport refers to the relationship between client and therapist. Unless a client feels
a sense of rapport, they will be unlikely to be able to work well with the counsellor.
To establish rapport with the client, the counsellor needs to think about:
 Being well prepared for the session, unrushed, calm, ready and
prepared to be there for the client, putting their own issues and problems out
of the way, for the duration of the session.

 Making a safe and trusting environment, including taking the trouble

to make the setting appealing; offering a restful, clean, uncluttered and
pleasant setting; providing comfy seating and perhaps a cup of tea and
ensuring there are absolutely no intrusions, and that the room is
soundproofed.
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  Being aware of who the client is, including (for second and follow-on
sessions) knowing the client's name, and remembering key things about their
issues (through taking the time to read last week’s notes).

 Offering empathy, making an effort to be there with and for the client, and
trying to see how the client feels about and sees things (which is likely to be
different from the counsellor's perception).

 Having an accepting manner, including remaining unshocked, whatever

the client brings; being non-judgemental, however much the client's
behaviour surprises or appals us offering unconditional positive regard (UPR)
to the client, however they have been behaving and maintaining respect for
the person (though not always condoning the behaviour).

 Being unrushed, allowing the client time; letting the client stay with
whatever feelings come up, without trying to solve all the problems at that
moment; and being patient with clients who find it hard to talk about
themselves.

 Being congruent: being honest, in a well-considered and kindly way; and

not being 'brutally honest' in a confrontational or rude way, but gently
challenging dysfunctional beliefs and behaviours, when the time is right.

If rapport is established, the client will grow to trust the counsellor, and a good
foundation is laid for real growth and healing to occur.

3. ACTIVE LISTENING

Active listening means using a set of skills that encourage the person, counsellor are
listening to talk, to help them feel heard and understood. It is called ‘active’ because
counsellor intentionally do things to help them feel able to talk, and because
counsellor engage with all your attention on what the speaker is saying, how they are
acting, and how they are feeling.
Some active listening skills are -
1. Using minimal encouragers - small signals or words that let the speaker
know you listening and understanding - words like ‘uh-huh’, ‘yes’, ‘no’,
‘mmm’, and little actions like nodding that show you are engaged in listening.
2. Using open body language - helping make the speaker feel comfortable
and safe with you.
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 3. Repeating back some of the speaker’s words, or a phrase, to help prompt
them to say more.
4. Paraphrasing - putting what the speaker says into your own words.
5. Summarizing - putting in a nutshell, in a sentence or two, what the speaker
has been talking about over an extended period.
6. Mirroring the speaker - adopting aspects of their body language, voice
tone and language to develop rapport and help them feel more at ease.
7. Reflecting - picking up on the speaker’s feeling or mood and feeding your
perceptions back to them.
8. Using silence - so that the speaker has a respectful space to stay with their
feelings and to work up to what they want to say.
9. Questioning skills - when and how to use questions to help the speaker to
open up and tell you more.

Four skills of Active listening

1. Listening to and understanding the client’s verbal messages.
2. Listening to and interpreting the client’s nonverbal messages.
3. Listening to and understanding the client in context.
4. Listening with empathy.

4. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
 Questions during the counselling session can help to open up new areas for
discussion. They can assist to pinpoint an issue and they can assist to clarify
information that at first may seem ambiguous to the counsellor.
 Open Questions: An open question is likely to receive a long answer.
Although any question can receive a long answer, open questions deliberately
seek longer answers. Open questions encourage the client to speak and offer
an opportunity for the counsellor to gather information about the client and
their concerns.
 Hence, open questions have the following characteristics -
 They ask the respondent to think and reflect.
 They will give you opinions and feelings.
 They hand control of the conversation to the respondent.

5. SILENCE IN COUNSELLING
 Silence in counselling allows the client to speak about their issues without
interruption (sometimes a new experience for them).

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 Silence also enables the client space to process their thoughts and feelings
without distraction. This helps them gain clarity on the difficulties they face and
consider a possible way forward.

Silences occur for a number of reasons

1. Silence for counsellor:
 A deliberate use of silence to encourage the client’s self-exploration
 A deliberate use of silence to encourage the client to “carry the burden” of
the conversation
 An organisational use of silence enabling the counsellor to collect her/his
own thoughts

2. Silence for client:

 A time to make connections, to wait for words or images to occur
 A space in which feelings can be nurtured and allowed to develop
 A space in which the client is able to recover from “here and now”
emotions
 An attempt to elicit a response from the counsellor, such as satisfying a
need for approval or advice
 An organisational use of silence enabling the client to collect her/his own
thoughts, remember events, assess values and reflect on feelings

6. FOCUSING
 Focusing is a counselling skill that involves actively listening to what the client
is bringing, and then choosing an area to focus down on.
 Focusing is like zooming into a detail in a photograph. The counsellor zooms
in on the emotions behind the story, or narrative, that the client is bringing.

7. PARAPHRASING
 Paraphrasing means re-wording (not the same words) speakers’ verbal
utterances.
 Paraphrasing occurs when the counselor states what the client has just said,
using fewer words but without changing the meaning of what the client said.
 A good paraphrase can provide mirror reflections that are clearer and more to
the point than original statements. If so, clients may show appreciation with
comments such as “That’s right”.

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 Purposes of Paraphrasing
 To convey that you are understanding him/her.
 Help the client by simplifying, focusing and crystallizing what they said.
 May encourage the client to elaborate.
 Provide a check on the accuracy of your perceptions.

When to Use paraphrasing

 When the client is in a decision making conflict.
 When the client has presented a lot of material and you feel confused.

8. REFLECTING

Reflecting is the process of paraphrasing and restating both the feelings and
words of the speaker. The purposes of reflecting are:

 To allow the speaker to 'hear' their own thoughts and to focus on what they say
and feel.
 To show the speaker that you are trying to perceive the world as they see it and
that you are doing your best to understand their messages.
 Reflecting does not involve you asking questions, introducing a new topic or
leading the conversation in another direction.
 Speakers are helped through reflecting as it not only allows them to feel
understood, but it also gives them the opportunity to focus their ideas. This in
turn helps them to direct their thoughts and further encourages them to
continue speaking.

9. PROBING
 Probing involves statements and questions from the counselor that enable
clients to explore more fully any relevant issue of their lives.
 Probes can take the form of statements, questions, requests, single word or
phrases and non-verbal prompts.
 In broad terms, probing questions often begin with “What” or “How” because
they invite more detail.

Probes serve the following purposes -

 To encourage non-assertive or reluctant clients to tell their stories
 To help clients to remain focused on relevant and important issues;

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  To help clients to identify experiences, behaviors and feelings that gives a
fuller picture to their story, in other words, to fill in missing pieces of the
picture.

10. SUMMARIZING
 Summarizing means that the counselor concisely reiterates several of the major
highlights from the client’s discussion.
 By tying together the different elements from a client’s session, summarizing can
help a counselor review overall progress.
 Summarizing can also allow the counselor and the client to recognize a theme in
what the client is saying.

Purposes of a Summary
 To clarify emotions for both the helper/counselor and the client.
 To tie together multiple elements of client messages.
 To review the work done so far, and to take stock.
 To bring a session to a close, by drawing together the main threads of the
discussion.
 To interrupt excessive rambling.
 To start a session.
 To end a session.
 To pace a session.
 To review progress.
 To serve as a transition when changing topics.
 To move the counseling process forward.

11. STRUCTURING
 When the individual enters counseling, the counselor should discuss the agenda
for the day with their client, the activities, and the processes that they will go
through.
 This technique in counseling will help the client understand their counselor’s
train of thought into determining how this routine will work for them.
 Soon enough, the client will get used to the routine, and this establishes comfort
and trust in counseling.
 The functions of structuring in initial sessions include: reducing anxiety by
clarifying roles, explaining the purpose of the initial session, establishing the
expectancy that clients will work on rather than just talk about problems,
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 providing an introductory rationale for working within the life skills counselling
model, establishing the possibility of change, and, if necessary, communicating
limitations concerning the counselling relationship such as any restrictions on
confidentiality.

12. ACCEPTANCE TECHNIQUES

Rogers, the founder of person-centred therapy, believed that complete acceptance

combined with accurate empathy could lead clients to an expanding awareness or
insight into previously unknown parts of the self.
An accepting attitude involves respecting clients as separate human beings with
rights to their own thoughts and feelings. Such an attitude entails suspending
judgment on clients’ goodness or badness.
Unconditional positive regard is also referred to as acceptance, respect, or prizing. It
involves an emphasis on valuing the client as a separate person or organism whose
thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and entire being are openly accepted, without any
conditions.

Acceptance showing techniques

1. By keeping appointments, by asking how your clients like to be addressed and
then remembering to address them that way, and by listening sensitively and
compassionately, you establish a relationship characterized by affection and
respect.
2. By allowing clients freedom to discuss themselves in their natural manner, you
communicate respect and acceptance.
3. By demonstrating that you hear and remember specific parts of a client’s story,
you communicate respect and acceptance. This usually involves using
paraphrases, summaries, and sometimes interpretations.
4. By responding with compassion or empathy to clients’ emotional pain and
intellectual conflicts, you express concern and acceptance.
5. Clinical experience and research both indicate that clients are sensitive to an
interviewer’s intentions. Thus, by clearly making an effort to accept and
respect your clients, you are communicating a message that may be more
powerful than any therapy technique.

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 13. STRUCTURING TECHNIQUES
 Initial structuring: It is probably best to do initial in two statements, an
opening statement and a follow-up statement. If trainees offer the whole
explanation at once, they may fail to respond to client’s emotional release or are
desperate to share information.

 Two-part structuring: In which, the opening statement provides the first

occasion for structuring. Here trainees can establish time boundaries and give
clients permission to talk. After trainees have used their active listening skills to
enable clients to say why they have come, they may summarize the main points
for clients and check the accuracy of their summaries. Then trainees can briefly
and simply explain the remainder of the helping process to clients.

14. LEADING TECHNIQUES

Giving leads: Leads may be defined as statements that counsellors use in

communication with the clients.
Leading Questions: Leading questions are questions where the counsellor guides
the client to give the answer they desire. These questions are usually judgmental.
For example - You came to consider this, didn’t you? You are enjoying your job,
aren’t you?
It is also important to note that the wrong types of questioning techniques, at the
wrong time, in the hands of an unskilled interviewer or counsellor, can cause
unnecessary discomfort and confusion to the client.
Leads have been classified into categories of techniques, namely:
a) Restatement of Content: Attempts to convey understanding by repeating
or rephrasing the communication.
b) Questioning: Seeks further information and asks the person counselled to
elaborate a point.
c) Reflection of Feeling: Understanding from the client's point of view and
communicating that understanding.
d) Reassurance: Serves as a reward or reinforcing agent. It is often used to
support the client's exploration of ideas and feelings or test different behavior.
e) Interpretation: Explains meaning behind the client's statements.

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15. REASSURANCE AND SUGGESTION
 A supportive approach in counseling. It encourages clients to believe in them
and in the real possibility of improvement.
Reassurance is also useful in diminishing anxiety by explaining to a client that
the feeling of anxiety or tension is temporary and not to be considered
unexpected.
 When we were small and were in difficulty, we ran to our parents or elders for
support. As we grow old, we still need someone to support us in our crisis.
When we realize that someone is supporting us, our problem may begin to
disappear, or at least lessen in its gravity.

16. CHALLENGING SKILLS

 Challenging is an alternative, and gentler word for confronting.
 Challenges focus on acknowledging and reflecting discrepant, inconsistent and
mixed messages.

Challenging clients to speak for themselves

 Frequently clients require help in speaking for themselves.
 Ways in which clients avoid speaking for themselves include making
statements starting with words like ‘You’, ‘People’, ‘We’, and ‘It’. Counselling
trainees need to challenge clients to speak for themselves.

Challenging possible distortions of reality

When clients talk in counselling, they may make statements like the following.
‘I have no friends.’
‘I’m a terrible mother.’
‘She/he doesn’t love me anymore.’
 All of the above may be examples of unrealistic perceptions that can harm
rather than help clients. Clients’ perceptions are not always accurate.
 Sometimes counselling trainees need either to challenge such perceptions
directly or else help clients test the reality of their own perceptions.

Challenging by reframing
 Counselling trainees may also challenge clients’ existing perceptions by
offering new perspectives.
 Sometimes skilful counsellors can change the way clients perceive events or
situations by ‘reframing’ the pictures that they have painted. The facts remain
the same, but the picture may look different in a new frame.
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17. INTERPRETATION AND CONFRONTATION

Confrontation as a counselling skill is an attempt by the counsellor to gently bring

about awareness in the client of something that they may have overlooked or
avoided.
There are three steps to confrontation in counselling.
1. The first step involves the identification of mixed or incongruent messages
(expressed through the client’s words or non-verbals).
2. The second step requires the counsellor to bring about awareness of these
incongruities and assist the client to work through these.
3. Finally, step three involves evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention
evidenced by the client’s change and growth.

Interpretation/reframing: Through interpretation/reframing, the client is

encouraged to perceive their experience in a more positive fashion. The counsellor
encourages this shift by offering alternative ways of viewing their experience.

For example, a client who is upset about having to move away from home is likely to
be focusing on the loss of her support network and the familiarity of her community.
The counsellor, while acknowledging the client’s loss, could reframe the event to be
perceived as an opportunity to experience new places, people and things: an
opportunity for growth.

 Interpretation/reframing encourage the client to view life situations from

an alternative frame of reference

 In interpretation the counselor is providing new meaning, reason, or

explanation for behaviors, thoughts, or feelings so that they can see problems
in a new way.

18. PACING
 Pacing allows the therapist to track and monitor the intensity of a client’s
emotional upset.
 It also helps increase the client’s awareness about how they are genuinely
reacting to what’s unfolding in session.
 When either the therapist or the client recognizes that the session is starting to
feel like a “runaway train” there is an opportunity to temporarily “put on the
brakes”. This allows for de-escalation so the client can pause and then
continue to move ahead, feeling safe in the work as they do so.

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19. ADVANCED EMPATHY

Advanced empathy enables the client to see new perspectives on their behaviours,
experiences and feelings.

 The intense listening, probing and clues from clients expressions and body
language or how they view their experiences or their behaviours allows the
counsellor to see or sense feelings or meanings that the client is scaresly aware
of.

 An advanced empathic response may be a tentative questioning response ‘I

think what I’m hearing is...’ While this indicates real understanding it can also
challenge as well.

 What the counsellor reflects to the client is not her opinion of what is going on
but is securely based in what is flowing from the client at that time, it is a
sensing.

 It may enable the client to see themes, help them to give expression to their
feelings or see the bigger picture. It encourages clarity.

 The real therapeutic value of advanced empathy is helping the client to

become aware of feelings and meanings. The challenging and new perspectives
that emerge with the use of this skill depend of the formation of a trusting
relationship where the client feels cared for and understood.

20. DIVERGENT THINKING

 Divergent thinking refers to a way of solving problems wherein a variety

of possible solutions are proposed in an effort to find one that works.

 This is in contrast to convergent thinking, which relies on focusing on a

finite number of solutions rather than proposing multiple solutions.

Techniques to Stimulate Divergent Thinking

1. Brainstorming

 Brainstorming is a technique which involves generating a list of ideas in a

creative, unstructured manner.
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  The goal of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible in a short
period of time.
 During the brainstorming process, all ideas are recorded, and no idea
is disregarded or criticized. After a long list of ideas is generated, one can
go back and review the ideas to critique their value or merit.

2. Keeping a Journal

 Journals are an effective way to record ideas that one thinks of spontaneously.
 By carrying a journal, one can create a collection of thoughts on various
subjects that later become a source book of ideas.

3. Free-writing

 When free-writing, a person will focus on one particular topic and write non-
stop about it for a short period of time without stopping to proofread or revise
the writing.
 This can help generate a variety of thoughts about a topic in a short period of
time, which can later be restructured or organized following some pattern of
arrangement.

4. Mind or Subject Mapping

 Mind or subject mapping involves putting brainstormed ideas in the form of a

visual map or picture that shows the relationships among these ideas.
 One starts with a central idea or topic, then draws branches off the main topic
which represent different parts or aspects of the main topic.
 This creates a visual image or "map" of the topic which the writer can use to
develop the topic further.

21. GOAL SETTING IN COUNSELLING

 It is essential to recognize that a person seeking help always has an aim, or a
goal, in entering a counselling relationship.

 A counselling goal can be defined as a preferred state of affairs, or outcome, that

the person seeking help and their counsellor have agreed to work towards.

 Life goals reflect personal issues that permeate all aspects of a person’s life or
social niche. For instance, ‘moving beyond the memory of abuse’ may

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 be associated with difficulties and tensions in intimate and work relationships
in the capacity to be alone, and in the capacity to make plans for the future.

 A personal goal is always phrased in an active and positive way, whereas

problem language talks of burdens and inadequacies.

 A goal can be regarded as similar to a personal quest – a question that the person
is trying to explore and answer.

 It can be useful, therefore, for a counsellor who is talking with a person about
their goals to try to use active, positive language which reinforces the person’s
strengths, so that counselling goals are not perceived as indicators of failure but
as opportunities for development and connection.

22. DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

There are many techniques that have been developed by counselors,

psychotherapists, psychologists, management consultants and others to facilitate
and support processes of problem-solving, planning and decision-making.
 The single most useful method that can be employed in relation to decision-
making is probably ‘just talking’.
 An initial period of exploratory discussion, making it possible for a person to
look at a choice from all angles, and explore how they feel about all the
options, in a situation where the listener has no preconceived ideas about
which course of action is right or wrong, is enormously helpful.
 However, it can also be that sometimes the person circles endlessly around a
problem or decision without arriving at any conclusions.
There are many common-sense cultural resources that can be used to structure
conversations around decision-making and problem-solving.
 Some people find it helpful to construct some kind of ‘balance sheet’ and then
weighted in terms of which is the most important.
 In some situations; for example, when a person is thinking about a career choice,
a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis may be
valuable.
 Another useful strategy in relation to decision-making is to introduce the concept
of implications. Using a brainstorming approach or a mapping technique, the
person can be encouraged to look beyond the immediate consequences of a
decision, and consider the long-term consequences.

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 Alternatively, it may be that some imagined catastrophic long-term consequences
(‘if I quit this job I’ll never find another one’) can be seen as being not too awful
once they are openly discussed with a counsellor.
 A further widely used strategy is to prioritize aspects of the issue; for example,
identify the satisfaction of the possible solutions that have been generated in
respect of a problem.

23. ROLE PLAY

 Role-playing refers to the changing of one's behaviour to assume a role, either

unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act out an adopted role.

 Role-play” is used in various session contracts. Depending on what is agreed,

roles can be played by either the Client, Counsellor or both.

 What is meant with ‘role’ can vary widely from freedom to improvise to very
limited and specific behaviour, for example the other person improvises the
mother’s behaviour, or they are given very specific words and actions to follow.

 By acting scenarios like these out, the client can explore how other people are
likely to respond to different approaches and can get a feel for approaches that
are likely to work, and for those that might be counter-productive.

 Also, by preparing for a situation using role-play, client build up experience and
self-confidence with handling the situation in real life, and can develop quick and
instinctively correct reactions to situations.

24. INFORMATION GIVING

Information giving involves providing the client with factual information that may
assist them in some way. Sometimes clients are not sure where to start to look for
the information they need, so counsellors can help their clients find that starting
point.

Supplying data, opinions, facts, resources or answers to questions. Explore with

client possible problems which may delay or prevent their change process. In
collaboration with the client identify possible solutions and alternatives.

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 25. TERMINATION
 It is the final stage of counseling and marks the close of the relationship.
Termination is the counselor and the client ending the therapeutic alliance.
 If the termination leaves on a sour note, then the client may look back on the time
as a waste of effort and resources. If the termination goes well, then this has a
multiplying effect, as the former client sees that their time was well spent and this
will be one more person who is helping reduce the stigma of mental health.
 The follow up involves communicating with the client to ensure stability and well-
being. It's no different than a doctor's office calling in and checking up on you.
 If the relationship was not established or the client is afflicted by an issue that is
beyond the skill of the counsellor, then a referral is needed. A referral is a
recommendation to the client to seek services from a suggested counsellor
familiar with the concern.

Terminations are of different types:

1. Client-Initiated Termination
 A client may initiate termination when it is determined that the goals that he
or she set out to accomplish have been adequately met, or when he or she feels
that problematic symptoms have been reduced or eliminated.

2. Forced-termination
 It is termination of the counselling relationship before the work of therapy has
been fully accomplished.
 In some situations, you may meet with clients who are not receiving services
because there are simply not enough professionals to offer service to meet the
needs of the site. In these situations, transition may not always be possible.

3. Counsellor-Initiated Termination
 This can occur when the counsellor sees that the client has made progress
toward achieving goals, notices a reduction in or elimination of symptoms,
sees that the client has gained enough insight to deal with future recurring
symptoms and has resolved transference issues, and determines that the client
has the ability to work, enjoy life and play.
 Once the counsellor has determined that there is little left to continue working
on in therapy, it is time to introduce the reality of termination to the client.

I. TYPES OF COUNSELLING

School counselors provide counseling programs in three critical areas: academic,

personal/social, and career. Their services and programs help students resolve
emotional, social or behavioral problems and help them develop a clearer focus or

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sense of direction. Effective counseling programs are important to the school climate
and a crucial element in improving student achievement.
Objectives of counseling in schools:
1. To develop in students an awareness of opportunities in the personal, social and
vocational areas by providing them with appropriate, useful information.
2. To help students develop the skills of self-study, self-analysis and self
understanding.
3. To help all students in making appropriate and satisfactory personal, social
educational choices.
4. To help students develop positive attitudes to self, to others, to appropriate
national issues, to work and to learning.
5. To help students acquire the skills of collecting and using information.
6. To help students who are underachieving, use their potentials to the maximum.
7. To assist students in the process of developing and acquiring skills in problem
solving and decision making.
8. To help build up/or sharpen the child’s perception of reality, development of a
sense of autonomy and to whip up the motivation for creativity and productivity.
9. To identify students with learning problems, so that different individualized
methods can be used for effective teaching and learning.
10. To work with significant others in the life of the child, helping them to
understand the needs and problems of the child.
11. To help route the nations human resources into appropriate useful and beneficial
channels
 School Counselors provide comprehensive programmes and services that help
students develop their personal, social, and work lives.
 School Counselors involve parents, teachers, other school personnel, and
members of the community in assisting students' development into effective
members of the community.

1. CAREER COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE

CAREER COUNSELLING

 Career counseling is ongoing face-to-face interaction performed by individuals

who have specialized training in the field to assist people in obtaining a clear
understanding of them (e.g., interests, skills, values, personality traits) and to
obtain an equally clear picture of the world of work so as to make choices that
lead to satisfying work lives.
 Parsons (1909) is generally acknowledged to have been the originator of career
counseling, a process that was then called “vocational guidance.”
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Career
 The word “career” is used to refer to one’s progress through his/her working
life, particularly in a certain profession or line of work. The goals that one has
for one’s working life are called “career goals,” and planning how we will reach
them is called setting a “career path.”

Vocation
 In its most usual use, the word “vocation” refers to a strong feeling within an
individual that they are meant to do a certain job. The word “vocation” can
also be used to refer to a trade or profession.

Vocational guidance

 Vocational guidance is the process through which an individual is helped to

choose a suitable occupation, make the necessary preparations for it (such as
enrolling in a training programme), enter into it, and develops in it. This is a
continuous process since an individual is likely to re-evaluate the career choice
at various points in his/her life.

THE ELEMENTS OF CAREER GUIDANCE

 Career information: covering systematic labor market information,
(occupational outlook) as projections of the labor market, Jobs on demand, labor
market survey, numbers and ratios of unemployment, future career and job
opportunities, courses and occupations.
 Career education: as part of the educational curriculum, assists students to
make decisions at key transition points, aims to develop the career management
competencies to equip students to manage their career pathways and
opportunities throughout life.
 Career Counseling: conducted on a one-to-one basis or in small groups, in
which attention is focused on the distinctive career issues faced by individuals.

GOALS OF CAREER COUNSELING

 Supports people to face career related challenges.
 Through their expertise in career development and labor market, career
counselors can put a person’s qualifications, experience, strengths and weakness
in a broad perspective considering their desired salary, personal hobbies, interest,
location, job market and educational possibilities.

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 Support people in gaining a better understanding of what really matters for them
personally, how they can plan their careers autonomously, help making tough
decisions.
 Supporting students in finding suitable placements and jobs

2. COLLEGE COUNSELING

Beginning of adult life for most involve understanding how college students of all
ages learn, grow, and develop. Developmental struggle during this period is
autonomy, identity and intimacy.
Lewing and Cowger (1982) identified 9 counseling functions for college counselors:
1. Academic and educational counseling.
2. Vocational counseling (career guidance).
3. Personal counseling (personal problems such as emotional, social, etc.)
4. Testing (psychological assessments).
5. Supervision and training.
6. Research.
7. Teaching.
8. Professional development.
9. Administration.

Major concerns are:

 Personal and social adjustment: It involves relationship difficulties, self-
esteem, existential concerns, depression other psychological issues, sexual
harassment and above, alcohol and drug problems.
 Academic and career concerns: It involves poor study skills, low grades and
decreased school performance etc.
 Stress and anxiety problems, eating disorders, impulsivity, anger management,
poor communication etc.
 Clients with different needs: Older students, married students and with
children, students with disabilities, minority culture students.

3. PREMARITAL COUNSELLING
 Premarital counseling is a specialized type of therapy that helps couples
prepare for marriage. By participating in premarital counseling prior to their
wedding, couples can begin to build a healthy, strong relationship that helps
provide a healthier foundation for their union.
 Premarital counseling can help couples of any gender, race, or religion identify
and address potential areas of conflict in their relationship. Additionally,
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 counseling can prevent small issues from escalating into serious concerns at
some point in the future.
 Premarital therapy also helps couples identify their expectations for the
marriage and address any significant differences they might have.

Goals and Objectives of Premarital Counseling

1. Change the view of the relationship – During the therapeutic process, the
counselor helps each partner examine the relationship in a more objective
manner and assists the couple in learning how to perceive their interactions in
a positive light.

2. Understand how cultural issues affect a relationship – Family-of-

origin and cultural beliefs affect how the partners understand all the
relationships in their lives.

3. Eliminate dysfunctional behavior – Premarital counseling helps couples

identify and correct dysfunctional behaviors, such as issues with dominance
and control and addiction.

4. Improve communication – Effective communication is one of the most

important factors in a healthy relationship.

5. Identify strengths – A premarital counselor can help the couple identify

strengths in the relationship as a whole or in each individual partner.

6. Decrease emotional isolation and avoidance – A premarital therapist

assists the couple in learning how to express their feelings in a way that draws
them together rather than further apart.

4. HIV/AIDS COUNSELLING

 AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, a disorder in which

immune system is gradually weakened and eventually disabled by the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
 HIV testing and counseling services are a gateway to HIV prevention, care and
treatment.
 Counseling in HIV and AIDS concentrates specifically on emotional and social
issues related to possible or actual infection with HIV and to AIDS.

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  With the consent of the client, counselling can be extended to spouses, sex
partners and relatives (family level counselling, based on the concept of shared
confidentiality).
 HIV and AIDS counseling can have two general aims:
1) Prevention of HIV transmission
2) Provision of counselling services to the AIDS patients and their family.

Counselling to HIV Affected Persons

 The counselor need to be very sensitive about the feelings of the patients’ and
should have empathic and positive attitude towards AIDS patients.
 A good rapport must be made which will help in breaking the diagnostic news of
HIV in a positive way.
 The counselor must discuss and remove the misunderstandings about HIV
transmission.
 Help to developing a strong self- image, to cope with the hard ship of life without
taking recourse to faulty methods of finding happiness or depression.
 Counseling should be given to prevent further deterioration or onset of full
blown AIDS, so as to remain healthy and live longer, by taking good personal
care in terms of food, medicines etc.
 Whenever a person comes for HIV testing, there should be a pre test and post
test counseling.

5. COUNSELING FOR THE TERMINALLY ILL

 A terminal illness is a disease that cannot be cured or treated and is thus likely
to cause death within no more than a few years. A person diagnosed with a
terminal illness is often likely to experience a wide range of emotions, such as
grief, regret, or sadness, among others.
 Family members, romantic partners, and friends are also often affected by an
individual's diagnosis, and it may be beneficial for both the individual with the
illness and the members of their support system to seek the help of a
professional counselor to discuss their feelings and otherwise come to terms
with the diagnosis.
 One of the most difficult areas for counselors to work is in hospital settings
with individuals who are dying. Tasks of counselors include helping the dying
individual prepare for the reality of death.
 This is done through education and supportive therapeutic interventions about
the dying process that address the physical, emotional, social, spiritual, and
practical needs
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Physical needs
 Pain management is one of the most important concerns of hospice care.
 The loss of functional ability as the illness progresses is important for
counselors to address.
 As the illness progresses, the body often undergoes changes that are either a
normal part of the dying process or a reaction to treatment; these changes can
affect body integrity, the ability of the body to function normally

Emotional needs
 Dying individuals cope with intense emotions such as anger, fear, guilt, and
grief.
 Issues of anticipatory grief include helping clients redefine life as it currently is.

Social needs
 The dying individual needs social involvement as much as he or she did before
the illness
 . Interventions by a counselor can facilitate the ability of friends and family to
enable the dying individual to maintain a social life in the face of physical
limitations
 Counselors working with dying children need to be aware of the unique social
needs of children to provide developmentally appropriate care.

6. GROUP COUNSELLING
 It is a face to face interaction between the counselor and counselee.
 Group counseling involves resolving problems through social process of group
dynamics and social facilitation and communication between members is
encouraged and maintained.
 Group counseling is also done with individuals with similar problems and
counselors may find it as more profitable. They help the counselee to realize
others have same problems which results in low resistance and tension relax.

Goals and purposes of groups:

• To grow in self-acceptance and learn not to demand perfection.
• To learn how to trust oneself and others.
• To foster self-knowledge and the development of a unique self-identity.
• To lessen fears of intimacy, and learn to reach out to those one would like to be
closer to.

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 • To move away from meeting other's expectations, and decide for oneself the
standards by which to live.
• To increase self-awareness, and increase the possibilities for choosing and
acting.
• To become aware of choices and to make choices wisely.
• To become more sensitive to the needs and feelings of others.
• To clarify values and decide whether, and how, to modify them.
• To find ways of understanding, and resolving, personal problems.

Process of group counseling

In addition to pre-planning, effective group counseling leaders recognize that groups
go through five stages.

1. Forming: This process gives members an opportunity to explore who they

are in the group and to begin establishing trust.

2. Storming: Conflicts that exist in the members are sorted. Each member
attend to initiate by putting out their feelings and problems. Making a friendly
behavior with the therapist.

3. Norming: Bringing out a cohesive group after the conflict is being resolved in
order to have a good and healthy group bringing closeness in members.

4. Performing: Group members are able to assume a wide variety of

constructive roles and work on personal issues.

5. Termination: Celebrating the accomplishment of goals is a primary focus

within this stage. Knowing about their gains and losses and giving them time
to have or engage into a follow-up session.

J. VALUES IN COUNSELLING

The core values of the counsellor are a set of attitudes and skills which have a special
regard for the integrity, authority and autonomy of the client and are firmly based on
the counsellor having total respect for universal human rights and for the person
and cultural differences.
There are eight attitudes that put ethical principles into practice. They are:
1. Respect: Counsellors have the responsibility to conduct themselves with
unconditional acceptance of clients including being fully aware of any personal
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 and cultural differences, however, it does not mean necessarily the acceptance of
all of their behavior.

2. Integrity: A counsellor bound by a code of ethics must never exploit a client but
accept and honor the client’s right to support their physical and emotional
boundaries.

3. Authority: Whether a counselling relationship is initiated by a direct or indirect

assignment the counsellor recognizes that the responsibility for entering into that
relationship is vested in the client.

4. Autonomy: Acting within the boundaries of a shared respect for universal

human rights and cultural differences, the counsellor must always give the client
the freedom to express themselves as well as their needs and their beliefs.

5. Privacy: At all times the counsellor must make sure that the counselling
relationship is protected against uncontracted or inappropriate observation,
including interference or intrusion by others.

6. Confidentiality: It is the counsellor’s responsibility that the client has the

confidence that everything in the counselling relationship is built on a foundation
of trust that their personal or any other disclosed information is protected from
inappropriate disclosure to others.

7. Responsibility: The counsellor must actively make sure the observance of these
key philosophical principles in the service provided through the counseling
relationship.

8. Competence: It is required that the counsellor only provides services and

techniques for which they have received adequate and qualified education and
training or experience and that they keep up high standards of practice in their
work.

K. ETHICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF COUNSELING

Counseling is a challenging endeavor. Every person who chooses to be a counselor is

bound to exist at the complex intersection of various ethical and legal norms. To a
large extent, everything that is considered unethical in counseling can readily result
in serious legal consequences for the counselor.

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Ethics are normative in nature and focus on principles and standards that govern
relationship between counselors and clients.
Morality, on the other hand, involves judgment and evaluation of action. It is
associated with such words as good, bad, right, wrong, ought and should.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELING

Kitchener (1984) has identified five moral principles which often help to clarify the
issues involved in a given situation.
The five principles are:
1) Being trustworthy (fidelity): It involves the notions of loyalty,
faithfulness, and honoring commitments. Being trustworthy is regarded as
fundamental to understanding and resolving ethical issues.

2) Autonomy: This principle emphasizes the importance of developing a

client’s ability to be self-directing within therapy and all aspects of life.

3) Beneficence: Beneficence reflects the counselor’s responsibility to

contribute to the welfare of the client. Simply stated it means to do good, to be
proactive and also to prevent harm when possible.

4) Non maleficence: This principle reflects both the idea of not inflicting
intentional harm, and not engaging in actions that risk harming others.

5) Justice: The principle of justice requires being just and fair to all clients and
respecting their human rights and dignity.

ETHICS IN COUNSELING
1. Anonymity: personal identity of the counselee must be kept hidden and
guarded and should not be disclosed without the counselee’s expressed
permission.

2. Confidentiality: whatever contents the counselee shares must be kept

confidential.

3. Counselee’s right as consumers, optimum benefits must be received by

counselee in proportionate exchange of the time spend, expenditure
increased and expectations unmet.
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 4. No exploitation: No sexual/physical/emotional abuse.

5. Equality relationship: counseling relationship must be equal.

6. Legal issue: sharing information incidents and actions by counselee is

legally ‘privileged communication’ and none of it, in full or in past should be
ethically or legally shared, disclosed or made public.

7. Credentiality and licensure: counselor should have proper education,

training and credentiality. Licensure is obtained from the proper authority

PROFESSIONAL CODES OF ETHICS

ACA Code of ethics
A professional code of ethics is a set of standards of conduct based upon on agreed
set of values followed by professionals in a given occupation such as counseling or
psychology.
The American Counseling Association (ACA) is a nonprofit professional and
educational organization dedicated to the growth and enhancement of the
counseling profession. Founded in 1952, ACA is the world’s largest association
representing professional counselors in various practice settings. There are five main
purposes and eight major sections of standards.
The five purposes are:
1. The Code enables the association to clarify to current and future members, and
to those served by members, the nature of the ethical responsibilities held in
common by its members.
2. The Code helps support the mission of the association.
3. The Code establishes principles that define ethical behaviour and best
practices of association members.
4. iv)The Code serves as an ethical guide designed to assist members in
constructing a professional course of action that best serves those utilizing
counseling services and best promotes the values of the counseling profession.
5. The Code serves as the basis for processing of ethical complaints and inquiries
initiated against members of the association.

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Rehabilitation Council of India Code of Ethics for Counsellors
 RCI Code of Ethics Adopted July 17, 2001 Revised March 28, 2006. The
standards contained in this Code of Ethics are statements of ethical principles
having broad applicability to members and registrants of RCI.
 Members and registrants of RCI should also recognize that their profession
and their practice may be governed by various laws and regulations regarding
professional registration and the conduct of trade.
 General Obligations Members and registrants shall maintain and further their
knowledge of the science and profession of roofing, waterproofing, and the
building envelope, and shall maintain the highest possible standard of
professional judgment and conduct.

Obligations to the Public

 Members and registrants should uphold the letter and spirit of the ethical
standards governing their professional affairs and should consider the full
impact of their actions on the community at large.

Obligations to the Client

 Members and registrants shall conduct themselves in a fashion which brings
credit to themselves, their employers and their profession.

Obligations to the Profession and Building Industry Ethics in Counseling

Members and registrants shall:
1. Recognise the value and contributions of others engaged in the design and
construction process,
2. Encourage professional education and research.
3. Further, the following practices are not in themselves unethical,
unprofessional, or contrary to any policy of RCI, and RCI members and
registrants are free to decide for themselves whether to engage in any of these
practices:
a. Submitting competitive bids or price quotations, including in
circumstances where price is the sole or principle consideration in the
selection of a consultant;
b. Providing discounts;
c. Providing free services

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 ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology is the branch of psychology

concerned with human behavior in the work environment.

I/O psychologists assist organizations in important areas such as

motivating employees, alleviating job stress, hiring the best workers, and
combating safety problems.

A. SUBFIELDS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY

1. Industrial psychology/ Personnel psychology: It deals with the

how-to side of I/O psychology, including how to select individuals for
the right positions, how to evaluate their job performance, how to
train them, and how to compensate them.
This is the oldest of the three subfields. The broad areas of job
analysis, job evaluation, test validation, employee selection (including
interviewing), employee training, legal issues including employment
discrimination in the organization, and performance evaluation are
included in this subfield.

2. Organizational psychology: It is concerned with how employees

are integrated into the work environment from both emotional and
social perspectives.
Some of the areas covered include job satisfaction, job stress, work
motivation, leadership, organizational culture, teamwork, and
organizational development.

3. Human factors/ Human engineering psychology/

Ergonomics: It examines the ways in which work, systems, and
system features can be designed or changed to most effectively
correspond with the capabilities and limitations of individuals, often
with a focus on the human body.
 Examples of issues in this area include redesigning machines to be
easier on the systemic aspects of the body, changing the positions of
controls on machines to reduce the number of accidents, modifying
displays so that the user can quickly determine the information
presented, and making the job more interesting by increasing the
types of skills needed to perform the work.

B. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in

organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the
organization, and the organization itself.

Importance of OB

• Understanding the relationship between an organisation and its

employees
• Motivating employees
• Improving industrial/ labour relations
• Predicting human behaviour
• Improving the goodwill of the organization

Organisational Behavior Models

1. Autocratic Model
• The basis of this model is the power of the boss.
• Organisation with an autocratic environment is authority
oriented.
• The employees in this model are oriented towards obedience
and discipline. They are dependent on their boss.
• The major drawbacks of this model are people are easily
frustrated, insecurity, dependency on the superiors, minimum
performance because of minimum wage.

2. The Custodial Model:

 The root level of this model is economic resources with a managerial
orientation of money. The employees in this model are oriented
towards security and benefits provided to them. They are dependent
on the organization. The employee requirement that is met is
security.

3. Supportive model
• The Supportive Model depends on leadership instead of power
or money.
• The employees in this model are oriented towards their job
performance and participation. The employee requirement that
is met is status and recognition. The performance result is
awakened drives.

4. The Collegial Model

• This model is based upon the partnership between employees
and the management.
• This model creates a favourable climate in the organisation as
the workers feel that they are the partners in the organisation.
• They don’t see the managers as their bosses but as joint
contributors. Both the management and workers accept and
respect each other.

Organizational structure

An organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally divided,

grouped, and coordinated. Managers need to address six key elements
when they design their organization’s structure:

1. Work specialization/ division of labour:

Work Specialization is the element in which the task is broken up into
separate jobs that someone within a group or team can handle. It
gives employees specific duties and roles they are expected to perform
within the company, factoring in their qualifications and skills.
 2. Departmentalization
• Once jobs have been divided through work specialization, they must
be grouped so common tasks can be coordinated.
• The basis by which jobs are grouped is called departmentalization.
• Organizations using functional structures group jobs based on
similarity in functions. Such structures may have departments such
as marketing, manufacturing, finance, accounting, human resources,
and information technology.
• In organizations using divisional structures, departments represent
the unique products, services, customers, or geographic locations the
company is serving. In other words, each unique product or service
the company is producing will have its own department.

3. Chain of Command
• It ensures that each employee has a clear directive of who they should
be reporting to within the company.
• The manager responsible for a particular employee will assign them
tasks, provide deadlines and motivation, and communicate important
messages. If their staff member has an issue, the manager can take
this higher up the chain of command for more support if necessary
and to provide a resolution.
• A clear chain of command ensures messages are being communicated
effectively between the relevant staff members.

4. Span of control/ Span of management

• It refers to the number of people a manager directly manages.

• In a wider span of control, a manager has many subordinates who
report to him. In a narrow span of control, a manger has fewer
subordinates under him.

5. Centralization and Decentralization

 • Centralization refers to the degree to which decision making is
concentrated at a single point in the organization.
• Decentralization is a systematic delegation of authority which allows
all level of management to share their input on the goals and visions
of the wider company, which will then help to improve their
individual teams.

6. Formalization

• Formalization refers to the degree to which jobs within the

organization are standardized.
• Formalized structures are those in which there are many written rules
and regulations.

Types of organizational structure

1. Simple structure
• An organization structure characterized by a low degree of
departmentalization, wide span of control, authority centralized in a
single person, and little formalization.
• The simple structure is most widely adopted in small businesses in
which the manager and the owner are one and the same.

2. Bureaucracy
• A bureaucratic organization is one where there are high levels of
centralization, specialization and formalization.
• The span of control is usually narrow and decision making follows a
strict chain of command.
• Most government offices like banks, income tax offices, fire stations
follow a bureaucratic structure..

3. Matrix organisational structure

• The matrix organizational structure is a combination of two or more
types of organizational structures.
 • Universities and advertising agencies often adopt a matrix structure.
Employees do not report to only one boss. Rather they have 2 or even
more bosses.

4. Virtual structure
• Virtual organization (also sometimes called the network, or modular,
organization), is basically a small-scale organization, which has
outsourced many of its business functions.
• It is highly centralized and has no or few departments. Several web
development organizations have this structure.

4. Learning Organizations
• A learning organization is one where acquiring knowledge and
changing behavior as a result of the newly gained knowledge are part
of an organization’s design.
• In these structures, experimenting, learning new things, and
reflecting on new knowledge are the norms. At the same time, there
are many procedures and systems in place that facilitate learning at
the organizational level.

C. EMPLOYEE SELECTION

The process many employers use now to hire employees is very detailed,
typically consisting of five components: job analysis, testing, legal issues,
recruitment, and the selection decision.

1. Job analysis is the complete examination of activities in a job.

I/O psychologists have helped devise effective strategies for
determining three basic aspects of any job:
a) What tasks and behaviors are essential to the job?
b) What knowledge, skills, and abilities are needed to perform the
job?
c) What are the conditions (such as stress, safety, and
temperature) under which the job is performed
 2. Testing and Other Employee Selection Procedures
The next step in personnel selection is assessing whether job
candidates have the attributes required for specific jobs that are
available. Employers use quite a variety of employee selection tools,
including individual and panel interviews, standardized paper and-
pencil tests of abilities and knowledge, assessments of personality
traits, such as conscientiousness, and honesty tests.

3. Legal Issues
These are variety of laws and regulations that govern selection and
assessment testing which are designed to prohibit unfair
employment.

4. Recruitment
• Recruitment is the process organizations use to identify potential
employees for a job.
• Recruitment and selection is the process of sourcing, screening,
shortlisting and selecting the right candidates for the filling the
required vacant positions.

5. Making the Hiring Decision

• When selecting employees, employers are looking for a good match
between the employee and the organization.
• They would like to match the requirements for excellent job
performance with the person’s own knowledge, skills, abilities,
personality, and motivation. They attempt to accomplish this by using
the various selection tools.

 Organizational psychologists often work with HR specialists to design

a. Recruitment processes
 b. Personnel selection systems

Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates

in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organisation.
The process includes developing job announcements, placing ads, defining
key qualifications for applicants, and screening out unqualified applicants.

Personnel selection is the process used to hire [or less commonly,

promote] individuals. In this respect, selected prospects are separated from
rejected applicants, with the intention of choosing the person who will be
the most successful and make the most valuable contributions to the
organization.

Steps in selection process

Selection is usually a series of hurdles or steps. Each one must be

successfully cleared before the applicant proceeds to the next

Errors In Interviews

• Poor Planning – This often results in unstructured interviews, with

minimal information to accurately compare candidates. The more
unstructured the interview is, the less valid and reliable it is.
• Snap Judgment – First impressions are key, but should not be used
to judge an applicant. Often at times interviewers will make a “snap
judgment” within minutes of meeting the applicant or even when they
review their test scores or resume.

• Halo Effect – This is when a positive first impression of an

applicant causes the interviewer to view them with a positive bias,
which distorts their ability to accurately rate the candidate. For
example if the candidate has a nice smile or firm handshake they may
be viewed in a positive light before the interview even starts.

• Poor Knowledge of the Job – If the interviewer is not familiar

with what the job entitles they will not know what type of person that
would be best suited for the position.

• Contrast (Candidate-Order) Error – The order that a person is

interviewed can affect their rating. For example, a candidate may be
viewed more favourably than they actually are if they were
interviewed after a series of unfavourable candidates.

• Influence of Nonverbal Behaviour – Nonverbal behaviour, such

as more eye contact, head moving, or smiling can positively influence
the interviewer’s view of the candidate, and can account for more
than 80% of their rating. Studies show that the attractiveness and
gender can also affect their ratings – the more attractive a person is,
the more suitable they seem are for the position.
D. TRAINING

Training and development is the field which is concerned with

organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of Individuals
and groups in organizational setting.

Before training design issues are considered, a careful need analysis is

required to develop a systematic understanding of where training is
needed, what needs to be trained and who will be trained.

Need analysis involves a three step process, that includes:

1. Organisational analysis
2. Task analysis
3. Person analysis

• Organisational analysis examines organisational goals, available

resources, and the organizational environment to determine where
training should be directed. This analysis identifies the training needs
of different departments or subunits and also takes into account the
climate of the organisation and its subunits.
• Task analysis uses the results from job analysis to determine what
is needed for successful job performance and then determines what
the content of training should be.
• It can consist of developing task statements, determining
homogenous task clusters, identifying KSAOs [knowledge, skills,
abilities, other characteristics] required for the job.
• With organisations increasingly trying to identify core competencies
that are required for all jobs, task analysis can also include an
assessment of competencies.
• Person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization
should receive training and what kind of instruction they need.
• Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that
identify weaknesses that training and development can address.
• The need analysis make it possible to identify the training program’s
objectives, which in turn represents the information for both the
 trainer and trainee about what is to be learned for the benefit of the
organisation.

E. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

• It refers to the process of measuring an individual’s or a group’s work

behaviours and outcomes against the expectations of the job.
• It is frequently used in promotion decision, to help design and
validate personnel selection, procedures, and for performance
management.
• Performance management is the process of providing performance
feedback relative to expectations and improvement information [eg.
Coaching, mentoring]. It also includes documenting and tracking
performance information for organization level evaluation purposes.

Methods Of Performance Appraisal

1. Self-evaluation
The self-evaluations in appraisal process help a company to understand
how the employees carry out the tasks given to them, how they perceive
themselves about their performance in comparison with others, what
trainings they believe they need and grades they deserve.

2. Peer evaluation
Here, an employee is assessed based on the feedback given by his/her
colleagues or people within his/her close working environment.

3. Ranking Method
• It is the oldest and simplest formal systematic method of
performance appraisal in which employee is compared with all others
for the purpose of placing order of worth.
 • The employees are ranked from the highest to the lowest or from the
best to the worst.

4. Paired Comparison
• In this method, each employee is compared with other employees on
one- on one basis, usually based on one trait only.
• The rater is provided with a bunch of slips each coining pair of names,
the rater puts a tick mark against the employee whom he considers
the better of the two. The number of times this employee is compared
as better with others determines his or her final ranking.

5. Forced-Choice Method
• The forced-choice method is developed by J. P. Guilford.
• It contains a series of groups of statements, and rater rates how
effectively a statement describes each individual being evaluated.
• Common method of forced-choice method contains two statements,
both positive and negative.

6. Graphic Rating Scale Method

• The graphic rating scale is one of the most popular and simplest
techniques for appraising performance.
• It is also known as linear rating scale. In this method, the printed
appraisal form is used to appraise each employee. The form lists traits
(such as quality and reliability) and a range of job performance
characteristics (from unsatisfactory to outstanding) for each trait. The
rating is done on the basis of points on the continuum. The common
practice is to follow five points scale.

7. Essay method
It is the simplest one among various appraisal methods available. In
this method, the rater writes a narrative description on an employee’s
 strengths, weaknesses, past performance, potential and suggestions for
improvement.

8. Critical Incidents Method

The critical incident method involved identifying and describing specific
events (or incidents) where the employee did something really well or
something that needs improvement. It's a technique based on the
description of the event, and does not rely on the assignment of ratings
or rankings, although it is occasionally coupled with a ratings type
system.

Modern methods

9. Management by Objectives (MBO):

• The use of management objectives was first widely advocated in
the 1950s by the noted management theorist Peter Drucker.
• MBO methods of performance appraisal are results-oriented. That
is, they seek to measure employee performance by examining the
extent to which predetermined work objectives have been met.
• Usually the objectives are established jointly by the supervisor
and subordinate. An example of an objective for a sales manager
might be: Increase the gross monthly sales volume to $250,000
by 30 June.
• Once an objective is agreed, the employee is usually expected to
self-audit; that is, to identify the skills needed to achieve the
objective. Typically they do not rely on others to locate and specify
their strengths and weaknesses. They are expected to monitor
their own development and progress.

10. Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)

• BARS developed by Smith and Kendall focuses on behaviors that
are determined to be important for completing a job task or doing
 the job properly, rather than looking at more general employee
characteristics (e.g. personality, vague work habits).
• It combines the benefits of narratives, critical incidents, and
quantified ratings by anchoring a quantified scale with specific
narratives of performance ranging from good, satisfactory and
poor performance.

11. 360 – Degree Appraisal

• Under 360 – degree appraisal, performance information such as
employee’s skills, abilities and behaviours, is collected “all
around” an employee, i.e., from his/her supervisors, subordinates,
peers and even customers and clients.
• In other words, in 360-degree feedback appraisal system, an
employee is appraised by his supervisor, subordinates, peers, and
customers with whom he interacts in the course of his job
performance. All these appraisers provide information or
feedback on an employee by completing survey questionnaires
designed for this purpose.

12. Cost Accounting Method

• This method evaluates an employee’s performance from the
monetary benefits the employee yields to his/her organisation.
• This is ascertained by establishing a relationship between the
costs involved in retaining the employee, and the benefits an
organisation derives from him/her.

F. ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Organizational development is an ongoing process of implementing

effective change in how an organization operates.

Change refers to any alteration which occurs in over all work environment
of an organization
Lewin’s 3-stage model of change

 Kurt Lewin developed a change model involving three steps:

unfreezing, changing and refreezing.
 In the Unfreeze stage, there is usually a motivating event which
creates a need for change to occur, such as falling profits, a lawsuit
or simply employee dissatisfaction. Once the decision has been
made that change is needed, a change management strategy has to
be communicated throughout the organization to prepare
employees for the change.
 The second stage is the change process itself, which involves
adjusting the tasks, structures and technology in the organisation,
and also changing the people who are doing work, by giving them
different responsibilities and appropriate retraining.
 The third stage is that of refreezing- consolidating the changes
which have taken place, by allowing the changes to work for a period
of time, modifying as required and evaluating its effectiveness.

Types of Organisational change

Changes are of 2 types:

• Proactive change is change that is initiated by an organisation

because it is desirable to do so.
• Reactive change is change initiated in an organisation because it is
made necessary by outside forces.
• For instance, introduction of a new employee benefit scheme is
proactive as the management strongly believes that it enhances the
satisfaction and motivation of employees. The change would be
reactive if the benefit plan was introduced because of demands made
by the employees.

Force Field Analysis

When a decision to implement change has been taken, it is necessary to
identify and understand as to what forces are likely to push change and
what forces are likely to restrain it. The process of identifying the number
and strength of driving and restraining force is called the force field
analysis. If the analysis indicated that the restraining force is strong, steps
may be required to reduce their strength or increase the strength of the
driving force. This may be carried out by briefing sessions, meetings and
conveying a point informally.

Organizational development involves an ongoing, systematic, long-

range process of driving organizational effectiveness, solving problems, and
improving organizational performance.

Organisational development process involves the following steps:

1. Problem identification and definition.

2. Collection of necessary data.
3. Diagnosis.
4. Planning of change and its implementation.
5. Evaluation of feedback

G. JOHARI WINDOW

The ‘Johari’ window model is a technique that helps people better

understand their relationship with themselves and others for
understanding and enhancing communication between the members in a
group. American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
developed this model in 1955.

This model is based on two ideas- trust can be acquired by revealing

information about you to others and learning yourselves from their
feedbacks. Each person is represented by the Johari model through four
quadrants or window pane.
1. Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the person,
his attitudes, behaviour, emotions, feelings, skills and views will be
known by the person as well as by others. ‘Feedback solicitation’ is a
process which occurs by understanding and listening to the feedback
from another person. Through this way the open area can be
increased by horizontally decreasing the blind spot. The size of the
arena can also be increased downwards and thus by reducing the
hidden and unknown areas through revealing one’s feelings to other
person.

2. Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves that

others know in a group but you will be unaware of it. Others may
interpret yourselves differently than you expect. The blind spot is
reduced for an efficient communication through seeking feedback
from others.

3. Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you but

will be kept unknown from others. This can be any personal
information which you feel reluctant to reveal. This includes feelings,
past experiences, fears, secrets etc. we keep some of our feelings and
information as private as it affects the relationships and thus the
hidden area must be reduced by moving the information to the open
areas.
 4. Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to yourselves
as well as others. This includes the information, feelings, capabilities,
talents etc. This can be due to traumatic past experiences or events
which can be unknown for a lifetime. The person will be unaware till
he discovers his hidden qualities and capabilities or through
observation of others.Open communication is also an effective way to
decrease the unknown area and thus to communicate effectively

Work Redesign Options

• Job Rotation: The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to

another, with the purpose of familiarizing him with all the verticals
of an organization.
• Job Enlargement: The horizontal expansion of jobs. ie., to
increase the tasks of an employee performed by him in a single job. It
is an attempt of management to decrease the monotony of the
repetitive task. Under this technique, few tasks are added to the
existing job which is similar in nature.
• Job Enrichment/ Enhancement: The vertical expansion of jobs.
It is the addition to a job of tasks that increase the amount of
employee control or responsibility. Examples of job enrichment
include adding extra tasks (also called job enlargement), increasing
skill variety, adding meaning to jobs, creating autonomy, and giving
feedback.

H.CONFLICT

Conflict is the process that begins when one party perceives another party
has or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about. It
describes that point in any ongoing activity when an interaction crosses
over to become an interparty conflict.

Types
 1. Intrapersonal conflict (role conflict, goal conflict, conflict from
frustration)
2. Interpersonal conflict: conflict between two individuals
3. Intergroup conflict: conflict between two groups
4. Inter organisational conflict: conflict between two organisations

I. ATTITUDES

Attitudes are evaluative statements—either favorable or unfavorable—about

objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something

3 components: Cognitive, Affective, Behavioural

Types of organisational attitudes

1. Job satisfaction
• Job satisfaction is the collection of feelings and beliefs people have
about their current jobs.
• In addition to attitudes about a job as a whole, people can have
attitudes about various aspects of their jobs, such as the kind of
work, coworkers, or pay.
• It is an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job.
• A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the
job and vice versa.

2. Job involvement
• It is the measure of the degree to which a person identifies
psychologically with his/her job and considers his/her perceived
performance level important to self-worth.
• High levels of job involvement is thought to result in fewer absences
and lower resignation rates.
• Job involvement more consistently predicts turnover than
absenteeism
3. Organizational commitment
• It is an individual's psychological attachment to the organization.
The basis behind many of these studies was to find ways to improve
how workers feel about their jobs so that these workers would
become more committed to their organizations
• Meyer and Allen's (1991) three-component model of commitment :
 Affective commitment [AC] is defined as the employee's
positive emotional attachment to the organization.
 Continuance commitment is the "need" component or the
gains versus losses of working in an organization
 Normative commitment- The individual commits to and
remains with an organization because of feelings of obligation,
the last component of organizational commitment
 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

HEALTH
 World Health Organization (1948) defined health as “a complete state
of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.”
 Many use the term wellness to refer to this optimum state of health.
 According to Taylor “health psychology is this area with in psychology
devoted to understanding psychological influences on health, illness and
responses to those states, as well as the psychological origins and
impacts of health policy and health intervention"
 Health psychology includes psychologies contribution to the
enhancement of health, prevention and treatment of illness, the
identification of health risk factors, improvement of health care system
and shaping of public opinion with regards to health - Brannon and
Fiest (2000)
 Marks et.al in 2005 defined health psychology as an interdisciplinary
field concerned with the application of psychological knowledge and
techniques in health, illness and health care.

NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

 Changing patterns of illness

Health psychology tries to understand the changing patterns of illness at

present. The current trend shows that acute disorders decrease while
chronic disorders keep on increasing. Health psychology studies the
psychological issues that arise in management of people with chronic
illness, people that require medication and in self-monitoring of symptoms.
Health psychology also contributes to developing interventions to help
people learn regimes and other to them.
Until the 20th century, the major causes of illness and death in the USA
were acute disorders- especially tuberculosis, pneumonia and other
infectious diseases. Acute disorders are short-term illnesses often the result
of a viral or bacterial invader and usually curable
Now, however, chronic illnesses especially heart disease, cancer and
diabetics are the main contributors to disability and death particularly in
industrial iced countries for chronic illness are slowly developing diseases
with which people live for many years and that typically cannot be cured
but only managed by patient and healthcare providers

 Advances in technology and research.

Advancement in healthcare field now enables better treatment and health

facilities. The technological advancements include certain treatments and
devices which increases life expectancy. Usage of certain technologies may
also result in some uncomfortability resulting in decreased quality of life.
The role of health psychologist here is to ask the patience regarding their
life quality and satisfaction and with such measures provide them with
necessary guidance and counseling.

 Expanded health care services

Healthcare services are one of the largest service industries. It emphasizes

on prevention by modifying behavior and designs a user-friendly healthcare
system. Healthcare employs millions of people and everyone is a recipient
of healthcare system. Other factors contributing to the rise of health
psychology involved in the expansion of healthcare services which enables
most of the people to access the health care facilities

 Increased medical acceptance

Another reason for the development of health psychology is increased

acceptance of health psychologists with the medical community. Health
psychologist developed many short term interventions to address health
related problems. There are several technologies that may take a few hours
to teach which can produce years of benefits. Health psychology as a field
have developed for other from the realization that psychology and social
factors contribute to health and illness that demonstrate importance of
psychological interventions to improving people's health and the rigorous
methodological contributions of health psychology researchers.

 Health psychology research

Health psychologists make important methodological contributions to the

study of health and illness. Many issues that arise in medical settings
demand rigorous research and investigation.
The methods used by health psychologist are experiments, correlational
studies, prospective designs, retrospective research.

HEALTH BEHAVIORS

• Health behaviors are undertaken by people to enhance or maintain

their health.
• Generally health behaviors are regarded as behaviors that are related
to the health status of the individual.
• It can be also defined as the activity undertaken by individuals for the
purpose of maintain or enhancing their health, preventing health
problems or achieving positive body image.
• Health behaviors have been defined as ‘overt behavioral patterns,
actions and habits that relate to health maintenance, to health
restoration and to health improvement’ (Gochman, 1997).
• It is not limited to healthy people who trying to stay healthy but also
includes the physically handicapped and persons with chronic diseases
who seek to control, minimize, or contain their affliction through
positive forms of health behavior, such as diet, exercise, and avoiding
smoking.
 • It has been observed that successful modification of health behaviors
can have several beneficial effects:

 First, it will reduce deaths due to lifestyle-related diseases.

 Second, it may delay time of death, thereby increasing general
life expectancy.
 Third and most important, the practice of good health behaviors
may expand the number of years during which a person may
enjoy life free from the complications of chronic disease.

HEALTH HABITS

• A health habit is a health behavior that is firmly established and often

performed automatically, without awareness. These habits usually
develop in childhood and begin to stabilize around age 11 or 12.
• Example: Wearing a seat belt, brushing one’s teeth, eating a healthy
diet etc.
• Although a health habit may develop initially because it is reinforced
by positive outcomes, such as parental approval, it eventually becomes
independent of the reinforcement process and is maintained by the
environmental factors with which it is customarily associated.
• For example, you may brush your teeth automatically before going to
bed. As such, habits can be highly resistant to change. Consequently, it
is important to establish good health behaviors and to eliminate poor
ones early in life.

Several important health habits

 Sleeping 7 to 8 hours a night.
 Not smoking
 Eating breakfast each day
 Having no more than one or two alcoholic drinks each day
 Getting regular exercise
 Being no more than 10 percent overweight
 • Research study indicates that the more good health habits people
practiced, the fewer illnesses they had, the better they had felt, and the
less disabled they had been.
• Also it was found that mortality rates were dramatically lower for
people practicing the 7 health habits.

Factors influencing health habit and healthy life

1. Demographic Factors

Younger, better-educated people with low levels of stress and high levels
of social support typically practice better health habits than people
under higher levels of stress with fewer resources.

2. Age

Health habits are typically good in childhood, deteriorate in adolescence

and young adulthood, but improve again among older people.

3. Values

Values affect the practice of health habits. For example, exercise for
women may be considered desirable in one culture but undesirable in
another.

4. Personal Control

People who regard their health as under their personal control, practice
better health habits than people who regard their health as due to
chance.
The health locus of control scale measures the degree to which people
perceive their health to be under personal control, control by the health
practitioner, or chance.
5. Personal goal

Health habits are tied to personal goals. If personal fitness is an

important goal, a person is more likely to exercise.

6. Social Influence

Family, friends, and workplace companions influence health-related

behaviors, sometimes in a beneficial direction, other times in an adverse
direction. For example, peer pressure often leads to smoking in
adolescence but may influence people to stop smoking in adulthood.

7. Perceived Symptoms

Some health habits are controlled by perceived symptoms. For example,

a smoker who wakes up with a smoke’s cough and raspy throat may cut
back in the belief that he or she is vulnerable to health problems at that
time.

8. Access to the Health Care Delivery System

Access to the health care delivery system affects health behaviors.

For example, obtaining regular mammograms, and receiving
immunizations for childhood diseases depend on access to health care.
Other behaviors, such as losing weight and stopping smoking, may be
indirectly encouraged by the health care system through lifestyle advice.

9. Knowledge and Intelligence

The practice of health behaviors is tied to cognitive factors, such as

knowledge and intelligence.
More knowledgeable and smarter people typically take better care of
themselves.
 People who are identified as intelligent in childhood have better health-
related biological profiles in adulthood, which may be explained by their
practice of better health behaviors in early life.

Barriers to modifying poor health behaviours

1) Instability of health behavior

• Health habits are only modestly related to each other. That is the
person who exercises faithfully does not necessarily wear a seat belt.
Health habits are unstable over time.
• For e.g. a person may stop smoking for a year but take it up again
during a period of high stress. There are many reasons that lead to the
instability of health behavior.
 First, different health habits are controlled by different factors. For
example, smoking may be related to stress, whereas exercise depends
heavily on ease of access to athletic facilities.
 Second, different factors may control the same health behavior for
different people. One person’s overeating may be “social and she may
eat primarily in the presence of other people, whereas another person
may overeat only when under stress.
 Third, factors controlling a health behavior may change over the
history of the behavior, For example, although peer group pressure
(social factors) is important in initiating smoking, over time, smoking
may be maintained because it reduces feelings of stress.
 Fourth, factors controlling a health behavior may change across a
person‟s lifetime. In childhood, regular exercise is practiced because
it is built into the school curriculum, but in adulthood, this behavior
must be practiced intentionally.
2) Emotional factors

Emotions may lead to or perpetuate unhealthy behaviors. These

behaviors can be pleasurable, automatic, addictive, and resistant to
change.
3) Intervening with children and adolescence

• Health habits are strongly affected by early socialization especially the

influence of parents as role model.
• The habits learn from childhood last for long and become automatic.
• For example Brushing teeth regularly, wearing seat belt etc. children
with separated parents and destructed family may not able to learn
such habits properly.
• In certain cases as children move into adolescence, they ignore the
early training they received from their parents.
• In addition, adolescents are exposed to alcohol consumption, smoking,
drug use, and sexual risk taking, particularly if their parents aren’t
monitoring them very closely and their peers practice these behaviors.
4) Using teachable moment

• Teachable moment refers to the fact that certain times are better than
others for teaching particular health practices.
• Many teachable moments are arise in early childhood
• For example wearing seat belt, crossing road, drinking milk etc…
• Identifying teachable moment is crucial for maintain health.
5) Closing the window of vulnerability

• Junior high school appears to be a particularly important time for the

development of several health-related behaviors. For example
choosing food choices.
• Middle school is an important time for learning several health-related
habits, For example, food choices, snacking, and dieting all crystallize
around this time.
 • There is also a window of vulnerability for smoking and drug use
during middle school, when students are first exposed to these habits
among their peers.

6) Ethnic and gender difference in health habits

• There are ethnic and gender differences in vulnerability to particular

health risks.
• For example Alcohol consumption high in men than women, Anglo
and African-American women smoke more than Hispanic women

7) Intervening with At-Risk People

• Health promotions efforts are mainly focus on two vulnerable

populations include children and adolescents.
• Another vulnerable group consists of people who are at risk for
particular health problems.

8) Adolescent Health Behaviors and Adult Health

• An important reason for intervening with adolescents is that

precautions taken in adolescence may affect disease risk after age 45
more than do adult health behaviors.
• The health habits a person practices as a teenager or college student
may determine the development of chronic disorder in adulthood.
• For adults who make changes in their lifestyle, it may already be too
late. Health habits in childhood and adolescence strongly affect later
health and illness.

CHANGING HEALTH HABITS

Attitude Change and Health Behavior

 Poor health habits are ones that can be changed over time. This can be
achieved through many ways. One such way is through attitude change.
  Attitudinal approaches to health behaviour change, assume that, if we
give people correct information about their poor health habits, they
will be motivated to change those habits.
 Attitude change campaigns may induce the desire to change behaviour
but may not be successful in teaching people exactly how to do so.

Educational Appeals
 Educational appeals make the assumption that people will change their
health habits if they have good information about their habits.
 Early and continuing efforts to change health habits have consequently
focused heavily on education and changing attitudes.

Fear Appeals
 Attitudinal approaches to changing health habits often make use of
fear appeals.
 This approach assumes that if people are afraid that a particular habit
is hurting their health, they will change their behavior to reduce their
fear.
 However, this relationship does not always hold.
 Persuasive messages that elicit too much fear may actually undermine
health behavior change.

Message Framing
 Any health message can be phrased in positive or negative terms.
 For example, a reminder card to get a flu immunization can stress the
benefits of being immunized or stress the discomfort of the flu itself.
 Messages that emphasize problems seem to work better for behaviors
that have uncertain outcomes, for health behaviors that need to be
practiced only once, such as vaccination and for issues about which
people are fearful
 Messages that stress benefits are more persuasive for behaviors with
certain outcomes.
 COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

• Cognitive-behavior approaches to health habit modification focus on the

target behavior itself, the conditions that elicit and maintain it, and the
factors that reinforce it.
• The most effective approach to health habit modification often comes from
cognitive-behavior therapy.
• CBT interventions use several complementary methods to intervene in the
modification of a target problem and its context.
• CBT may be implemented individually, through therapy in a group setting,
or even on the Internet.

Self Monitoring
 Many programs of cognitive-behavioural modification use self-monitoring
as the first step toward behaviour change.
 The rationale is that a person must understand the dimensions of the poor
health habit before change can begin.
 Self-monitoring assesses the frequency of a target behaviour and the
antecedents and consequences of that behaviour.
 The first step in self-monitoring is learning to discriminate the target
behaviour.
 A smoker obviously can tell whether he or she is smoking. However, an urge
to smoke may be less easily discriminated; therefore, the person may be
trained to monitor internal sensations closely so as to identify the target
behavior more readily.
 A second stage in self-monitoring is charting the behaviour.
 For example, a smoker may keep a detailed record of smoking-related events,
including when a cigarette is smoked, the time of day, the situation in which
the smoking occurred, and the presence of other people (if any). She may also
record the subjective feelings of craving that existed prior to lighting the
cigarette, the emotional responses that preceded the lighting of the cigarette
(such as anxiety or tension), and the feelings that were generated by the
actual smoking of the cigarette. In this way, she can begin to get a sense of
the conditions under which she is most likely to smoke. Each of these
 conditions can be a discriminative stimulus that is capable of eliciting the
target behaviour.
 For example, the sight and smell of food act as discriminative stimuli for
eating. The sight of a pack of cigarettes or the smell of coffee may act as
discriminative stimuli for smoking. The discriminative stimulus is important
because it signals that a positive reinforcement will subsequently occur. CBT
aims to eliminate or modify these discriminative stimuli.
 Although self-monitoring is usually only a beginning step in behaviour
change, it may itself produce some behaviour change.

Stimulus Control
 Once the circumstances surrounding the target behaviour are well
understood, the factors in the environment that maintains poor health habits
such as smoking, drinking, and overeating, can be modified.
 Stimulus control interventions involve ridding the environment of
discriminative stimuli that evoke the problem behaviour, and creating new
discriminative stimuli, signalling that a new response will be reinforced.
 For example, eating is typically under the control of discriminative stimuli,
including the presence of desirable foods and activities (such as watching
television). People desiring to lose weight can be encouraged to eliminate
these discriminative stimuli for eating, such as ridding their home of
rewarding and fattening foods, restricting their eating to a single place in the
home, and avoiding eating while engaged in other activities, such as watching
television.
The Self Control of Behavior
 Cognitive-behavior therapy focuses heavily on the beliefs that people
hold about their health habits.
 People often generate internal monologues that interfere with their
ability to change their behavior.
 For example, a person who wishes to give up smoking may derail the
quitting process by generating self-doubts (“I will never be able to give
up smoking”). Unless these internal monologues are modified, the
person will be unlikely to change a health habit and maintain that
change over time.
  Recognition that people’s cognitions about their health habits are
important in producing behavior change.
 Clients need to actively monitor their own behaviors and apply the
techniques of cognitive-behavioral therapy to bring about change. As
such, CBT emphasizes self-control.
 The person acts as his or her own therapist and, together with outside
guidance, learns to control the antecedents and consequences of the
target behavior.

Cognitive restructuring
 Cognitive restructuring train people to recognize and modify their
internal monologues to promote health behavior change. Sometimes
the modified cognitions are antecedents to a target behavior.
 For example, if a smoke’s urge to smoke is preceded by an internal
monologue that he is weak and unable to control his smoking urges,
these beliefs are targeted for change. The smoker would substitute a
monologue that would help him stop smoking (for example, “I can do
this” or “I‟ll be so much healthier”).
 Cognitions can also be the consequences of a target behavior.
 For example, an obese woman trying to lose weight might undermine
her weight-loss program by reacting with hopelessness to every small
dieting setback. She might learn, instead, to engage in self-reinforcing
cognitions following successful resistance to temptation and
constructive self-criticism following setbacks (“Next time, I’ll keep
those tempting foods out of my refrigerator”).

Self Reinforcement
 Self-reinforcement involves systematically rewarding oneself to
increase or decrease the occurrence of a target behavior.
 Positive self-reward involves rewarding oneself with something
desirable after successful modification of a target behavior, such as
going to a movie following successful weight loss.
 Negative self-reward involves removing an aversive factor in the
environment after successful modification of the target behavior.
 For example, suppose Mary smokes 20 cigarettes a day. She might first
define a set of reinforces that can be administered when particular
smoking reduction targets are met, reinforcements such as going out
to dinner or seeing a movie. Mary may then set a particular reduction
in her smoking as a target (such as 15 cigarettes a day). When that
target is reached, she would administer reinforcement (the movie or
dinner out). The next step might be reducing smoking to 10 cigarettes
a day, at which time she would receive another reinforcement. The
target then might be cut progressively to 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and none. Through
this process, the target behaviour of abstinence would eventually be
reached.
 Like self-reward, self-punishment is of two types. Positive self-
punishment involves the administration of an unpleasant stimulus to
punish an undesirable behaviour.
 For example, a person might self-administer a mild electric shock each
time he or she experiences a desire to smoke.
 Negative self-punishment consists of withdrawing a positive reinforce
in the environment each time an undesirable behaviour is performed.
 For example, a smoker might rip up money each time he or she has a
cigarette that exceeds a predetermined quota.
 Self-punishment is effective only if people actually perform the
punishing activities. If self-punishment becomes too aversive, people
often abandon their efforts.
 One form of self-punishment that is effective in behaviour modification
is contingency contracting.
 In contingency contracting, an individual forms a contract with
another person, such as a therapist or one’s spouse, detailing what
rewards or punishments are contingent on the performance or non-
performance of a behaviour.
  For example, a person who wants to stop drinking might deposit a sum
of money with a therapist and arrange to be fined each time he or she
has a drink and to be rewarded each day that he or she abstained.

Behavioural Assignments
 A technique for increasing client involvement is behavioural
assignments, home practice activities that support the goals of a
therapeutic intervention.
 Behavioural assignments are designed to provide continuity in the
treatment of a behavior problem.
 For example, if an early session with an obese client involved training
in self-monitoring, the client would be encouraged to keep a log of his
eating behavior, including the circumstances in which it occurred. This
long could then be used by the therapist and the patient at the next
session to plan future behavioral interventions. Note that it includes
homework assignments for both client and therapist.
 This technique can ensure that both parties remain committed to the
behaviour-change process and that each is aware of the other’s
commitment.
 The chief advantages of behavioural assignments are that
(1) The client becomes involved in the treatment process.
(2) The client produces an analysis of the behaviour that is useful in
planning further interventions.
(3) The client becomes committed to the treatment process through a
contractual agreement to discharge certain responsibilities.
(4) Responsibility for behaviour change is gradually shifted to the
client.
(5) The use of homework assignments increases the client’s sense of
self control.

HEALTH BELIEF MODEL (HBM)

• The health belief model was developed initially by Rosenstock and

further by Becker and colleagues in order to predict preventive health
 behaviors and also the behavioral response to treatment in acutely and
chronically ill patients.
• However, over recent years, the health belief model has been used to
predict a wide variety of health-related behaviors. This model is a
framework for motivating people to take positive health actions that
uses the desire to avoid negative health consequences as the prime
motivation
• According to this model, whether a person practices a health behavior
depends on two factors:
1) Whether the person perceives a personal health threat
2) Whether the person believes that a particular health practice will be
effective in reducing that threat.

Perceived Health Threat

The perception of a personal health threat is influenced by at least three
factors:
1) General health values, which include interest in and concern about
health
2) Specific beliefs about personal vulnerability to a particular disorder
3) Beliefs about the consequences of the disorder, such as whether they
are serious.
Example-people may change their diet to include low cholesterol foods if
they value health, feel threatened by the possibility of heart disease, and
perceive that the personal threat of heart disease is severe.

Perceived Threat Reduction

Whether a person believes a health measure will reduce threat has two
subcomponents
1) Whether the person thinks the health practice will be effective
2) Whether the cost of undertaking that measure exceeds its benefits

Taking preventive action is essentially dependent on four factors:

1) Susceptibility
 2) Severity
3) Benefits
4) Barriers

Susceptibility
 Adequate knowledge about the risk factors.
 For example; Ram is very careful with his diet and regularly engages in
physical activities like walks, exercise etc… since he had seen how his
mother, a diabetic, suffer from complications arising.
Severity
 If people know and believe that the consequences of an illness is very
dangerous.
 Like experiencing severe pain, disfigurement, or even death.
 For example; the knowledge that smoking could lead to cancer, which
could be very painful.

Benefits

 Adherence to health behavior is also related to one‟s belief that this

would be beneficial in reducing the risk of a particular disease.
 For example; people believe that reducing smoking will cut the risk of
lung cancer.

Barriers
 Socio- economic conditions of a person are often barriers in health
behavior.
 Many find cost of medical diagnosis and treatment prohibitive;
therefore decline from visiting a doctor, getting a medical checkup or
following the prescriptive treatments.
THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR (TPB)

• The theory was proposed by Ajzen.

• According to this theory, a health behavior is the direct result of a
behavioral intention.
• Behavioral intentions are themselves made up of three components:
1) Attitudes towards the specific action
2) Subjective norms regarding the action
3) Perceived behavioral control

Attitude towards the behavior

 A behavior is composed of both a positive or negative evaluation of a
particular behavior and beliefs about the outcome.
 For example; if I change my diet, I will lose weight, improve my health,
and be more attractive.

Subjective norm regarding the action

 This Refers to what one believes are social opinion on one‟s behaviour,
and what is the extent of social rejection or social acceptance of his
behaviour.
 For example; My family and friends think I should change my diet.

Perceived behavioral control

 Perceived behavioral control is the perception that one can perform the
action and these factors combine to produce a behavioral intention and
behavior change.
 For example; I will be able to change my diet.

Example- Theory of planned behavior for alcohol consumption

 An individual believed that reducing their alcohol intake would make
their life more productive and be beneficial to their health (attitude to
the behavior)
  Believed that the important people in their life wanted them to cut
down (subjective norm)
 In addition believed that they were capable of drinking less alcohol due
to their past behavior and evaluation of internal and external control
factors (high behavioral control)
 Then this would predict high intentions to reduce alcohol intake
(behavioral intentions).

THE TRANS THEORETICAL MODEL OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE

• The Trans theoretical model of behavior change was developed by Prochaska

and Collegues.
• It suggests that changing a bad health habit does not take place all at once.
• People go through stages while they are trying to change their health
behaviors.
• It is now more commonly known as the stages of change model.
• The model also examines how the individual weighs up the costs and benefits
of a particular behavior.
• The stage of change model has been applied to several health-related
behaviors, such as smoking, alcohol use, exercise and screening behavior.
Precontemplation (not intending to make any changes.)

Contemplation (considering a change.)

Preparation (making small changes.)

Action (actively engaging in a new behaviour.)

 Maintenance (sustaining the change over time.

Precontemplation

 The precontemplation stage occurs when a person has no intention of

changing his or her behavior.
 Many people in this stage are not aware that they have a problem,
although families, friends, neighbors, or coworkers may well be aware.
 An example is the problem drinker who is very violent and aggressive
at home.
 Sometimes people in the precontemplative phase seek treatment if
they have been pressured by others. But these people have the
tendency to back their old behaviors and so make poor targets for
intervention.

Contemplation
 Contemplation is the stage in which people are aware that they have a
problem and are thinking about it but have not yet made a
commitment to take action.
 Many people remain in the contemplation stage for years.
 Interventions aimed at increasing receptivity to behavior change can
be helpful at this stage.
 For example, a smoker knows that he should stop smoking but not yet
made any commitment to do so.
 During the contemplation people think about the pros and cons of
changing behavior

Preparation
 In the preparation stage, people intend to change their behavior but
have not yet begin to do so.
 This is because of they delay the action until they feel any stressful
period of time.
  In some cases, they have modified the target behavior somewhat, such
as smoking fewer cigarettes than usual, but have not yet made the
commitment to eliminate the behavior altogether.

Action

 The action stage occurs when people modify their behavior to

overcome the problem.
 Action requires the commitment of time and energy to making real
behavior change.
 It includes stopping the behavior and modifying one‟s lifestyle and
environment to rid one‟s life of cues associated with the behavior.

Maintenance
 In the stage of maintenance, people work to prevent relapse and to
consolidate the gains they have made.
 For example, if a person is able to remain free of an addictive behavior
for more than 6 months, he or she is assumed to be in the maintenance
stage.

Change model for smoking cessation

 Pre-contemplation: “I am happy being a smoker and intend to

continue smoking”.
 Contemplation: “I have been coughing a lot recently, perhaps I should
think about stopping smoking”.
 Preparation: “I will stop going to the pub and will buy lower tar
cigarettes”
 Action: “I have stopped smoking”.
 Maintenance: “I have stopped smoking for four months now”.

Spiral model of the stage of change

A person may take action, attempt maintenance, relapse, and return to
the pre-contemplation phase, cycle through the subsequent stages to
action, repeat the cycle again, and do so several times until they have
eliminated the behavior.
Uses of stage model of change
• The model suggests that particular interventions may be more valuable
during one stage than other.
• It emphasize on the importance of giving intervention and appropriate
information to move from one stage to another.
• Interventions mainly include self -reinforcement, social support,
coping skills, stimulus control etc.
• The models help to understand why many people are unsuccessful in
changing their behavior.

THE PROTECTION MOTIVATION THEORY (PMT)

• Rogers developed the protection motivation theory.

• The protection motivation theory claimed that health-related
behaviors are a product of four components:
1) Severity – For example: Bowel cancer is a serious illness
2) Susceptibility – For example : My chances of getting bowel
cancer are high
3) Response effectiveness – For example: Changing my diet
would improve my health
4) Self-efficacy – For example: I am confident that I can change my
diet
• Rogers has also suggested a role for a fifth component, fear (e.g. an
emotional response)
The PMT describes severity, susceptibility and fear as relating to threat
appraisal (i.e. appraising to outside threat) and response effectiveness and
self-efficacy as relating to coping appraisal (i.e. appraising the individual
themselves.
 Coping appraisal
Threat appraisal
Response effectiveness
Severity
Self-efficacy
Susceptibility
Fear

• According to the PMT, there are two types of sources of information,

environmental (e.g. verbal persuasion, observational learning) and
intrapersonal (e.g. prior experience).
• This information influences the five components of the PMT (self-
efficacy, response effectiveness, severity, susceptibility, fear) which
then elicit either an „adaptive‟ coping response (i.e. behavioral
intention) or a „maladaptive‟ coping response (e.g. avoidance, denial).

Perceived Perceived
s=e=v+e+rity Response efficacy

+
Threat Coping +

Perceived Perceived
vulnerability self-efficacy

Intention

Behavior
Example: Protection motivation theory for dietary change.

 Information about the role of a high fat diet in coronary heart disease
would increase fear.
 Increase the individual‟s perception of how serious coronary heart
disease (perceived severity)
 Increase their belief that they were likely to have a heart attack
(perceived susceptibility)
 If the individual also felt confident that they could change their diet
(selfefficacy)
 Believe that this change would have beneficial consequences (response
effectiveness).
 Then they would report high intentions to change their behavior
(behavioral intentions).

SOCIAL ATTRIBUTION THEORY

• This theory developed by Kelly.

• According to this, people attempt the find the cause of others behavior
based on three factors;
1) Consensus - Extend to which behavior by one person is shown by
others as well.
2) Consistency – Extend to which a specific person shows similar
behavior to a given stimuli across time.
3) Distinctiveness - Extend to which a given person react in the same
manner to different stimuli or situation.

Since its original formulation, attribution theory has been developed

extensively and differentiations have been made between self-
attributions (i.e. attributions about one’s own behavior) and other
attributions (i.e. attributions made about the behavior of others).
 Consensus low

Consistency high internal cause

Distinctiveness low

Consensus high

Consistency high external cause

Distinctiveness high

In addition, the dimensions of attribution have been redefined as follows:

 Internal versus external (e.g. my failure to get a job is due to my poor

performance in the interview versus the interviewer’s prejudice).
 Stable versus unstable (e.g. the cause of my failure to get a job will
always be around versus was specific to that one event).
 Global versus specific (e.g. the cause of my failure to get the job
influences other areas of my life versus only influenced this specific job
interview).
 Controllable versus uncontrollable (e.g. the cause of my failure to get a
job was controllable by me versus was uncontrollable by me).

Health locus of control

 Internal versus external dimension of attribution theory has been
specifically applied to health in terms of the concept of a health locus
of control.
 Individuals differ as to whether they tend to regard events as
controllable by them (an internal locus of control) or uncontrollable
by them (an external locus of control).
 It evaluates whether an individual regards their health as controllable
by them (e.g. “I am directly responsible for my health”)
  Whether they believe their health is not controllable by them and in
the hands of fate (e.g. “whether I am well or not is a matter of luck”)
Or Whether they regard their health as under the control of powerful
others (e.g. “I can only do what my doctor tells me to do”).
Unrealistic optimism
 Unrealistic optimism is one of the reasons why people continue to
practice unhealthy behaviors is due to inaccurate perceptions of risk
and susceptibility their unrealistic optimism.
 Four cognitive factors that contribute to unrealistic optimism:
1) Lack of personal experience with the problem
2) The belief that the problem is preventable by individual action
3) The belief that if the problem has not yet appeared, it will not appear
in the future
4) The belief that the problem is infrequent.

SOCIAL COGNITION THEORY (SCT)

• Social cognition theory is an interpersonal level theory developed by

Albert Bandura that emphasizes the dynamic interaction between
people (personal factors), their behavior, and their environments.
They continually interact.
• Social cognitive theory posits that people acquire attitudes through
various sources in their immediate social network as well as by
observing people presented in the media.
• It states that behaviors are performed if people believe that they have
control over the outcome, perceive few external barriers towards
reaching their goals and have confidence in their ability to achieve it.
• Direct modeling occurs when people observe others in their social
networks engaging in particular behavior. Whereas symbolic
modeling occurs when we observe people portrayed in the media,
including magazines, newspapers, and on television.
 • However, whether these attitudes lead to behavior is a function of
people’s beliefs about their own ability to engage (or not engage) in a
particular behavior as well as their beliefs about the consequences of
engaging (or not engaging) in a particular behavior.
• It suggests that behavior is governed by expectancies, incentives and
social cognitions.

1. Expectancies include:

 Situation outcome expectancies: The expectancy that a behavior may

be dangerous. (e.g. “smoking can cause lung cancer”)
 Outcome expectancies: The expectancy that a behavior can reduce the
harm to health. (e.g. “stopping smoking can reduce the chances of lung
cancer”)
It is an individual’s belief about whether engaging in a particular
behavior will have a desired outcome.
Outcome expectancies can be learned through direct experience with
a behavior, or by observing the consequence someone else
experiences as a result of that behavior.
 Self-efficacy expectancies: The expectancy that the individual is
capable of carrying out the desired behavior. (e.g. “I can stop smoking
if I want to”).
Strategies for increasing self-efficacy include: setting incremental
goals (eg: exercising for 10 minutes each day); behavioral contracting
(a formal contract, with specified goals and rewards); and monitoring
and reinforcement (feedback from self-monitoring or record
keeping).

2. The concept of incentives suggests that a behavior is governed by its

consequences.

 For example, smoking behavior may be reinforced by the experience of

reduced anxiety, having a cervical smear may be reinforced by a feeling
of reassurance after a negative result.
3. Social cognitions are a central component of social cognition models.

 This model regards individuals as information processors, it include

measures of the individual’s representations of their social world.
 Accordingly, social cognition models attempt to place the individual
within the context both of other people and the broader social world.
 This is measured in terms of their normative beliefs (e.g. “people who
are important to me want me to stop smoking”).

MODELS OF PREVENTION

Prevention, as it relates to health, is really about avoiding disease before it

starts. It has been defined as the plans for, and the measures taken, to
prevent the onset of a disease or other health problem before the
occurrence of the undesirable health event. In general, preventive care
refers to measures taken to prevent diseases instead of curing or treating
the symptoms.

Levels of prevention

There are three distinct levels of prevention.

1. Primary prevention

 Primary prevention aims to prevent disease or injury before it ever

occurs. This is done by preventing exposures to hazards that cause
disease or injury, altering unhealthy or unsafe behaviors that can lead to
disease or injury, and increasing resistance to disease or injury.

 It includes those preventive measures that prevent the onset of illness or

injury before the disease process begins.

 Examples include immunization and education about healthy and safe

habits (e.g. eating well, exercising regularly, not smoking)
2. Secondary prevention

 Secondary prevention aims to reduce the impact of a disease or injury

that has already occurred.

 This is done by detecting and treating disease or injury as soon as

possible to halt or slow its progress, encouraging personal strategies to
prevent re-injury or recurrence, and implementing programs to return
people to their original health and function to prevent long-term
problems.

 Includes those preventive measures that lead to early diagnosis and

prompt treatment of a disease, illness or injury to prevent more severe
problems developing.

 Secondary prevention is very important because in many cases people

have more treatment options and a better likelihood of curing their
problem if it is caught early. For example, a woman who practices
regular self-exams and finds a small cancerous lump in her breast may
have the option of having this lump removed in a simple operation
before cancer spreads to other parts of her body.

 Examples include regular exams and screening tests to detect disease in

its earliest stages (e.g. mammograms to detect breast cancer)

3. Tertiary prevention

 Tertiary prevention aims to soften the impact of an ongoing illness or

injury that has lasting effects. This is done by helping people manage
long-term, often-complex health problems and injuries (e.g. chronic
diseases, permanent impairments) in order to improve as much as
possible their ability to function, their quality of life and their life
expectancy.
 Includes those preventive measures aimed at rehabilitation following
significant illness.

 Examples include cardiac or stroke rehabilitation programs, chronic

disease management programs (e.g. for diabetes, arthritis, depression,
etc.), support groups that allow members to share strategies for living
well, vocational rehabilitation programs to retrain workers for new jobs
when they have recovered as much as possible etc.

Application

 Health Education can be applied at all three levels of disease prevention

and can be of great help in maximizing the gains from preventive
behavior.

 For example at the primary prevention level — you could educate people
to practice some of the preventive behaviors, such as having a balanced
diet so that they can protect themselves from developing diseases in the
future.

 At the secondary level, you could educate people to visit their local
health center when they experience symptoms of illness, such as fever,
so they can get early treatment for their health problems.

 At the tertiary level, you could educate people to take their medication
appropriately and find ways of working towards rehabilitation from
significant illness or disability.

STRESS
Stress is a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable
biochemical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioural changes that are
directed either toward altering the stressful event or accommodating to its
effects.
Any event or circumstance that strains or exceeds an individual ability to
cope is called stress.

Stress is simply a fact of nature forces from the inside or outside world
affecting the individual. The individual responds to stress in different ways
according to the way they interpret or the way that affect the individual as
well as their environment.

In our daily lives, we are exposed to situations that produce stress like
relationship issues, work overload, family issues, health related problems
etc. Stress is normal parts of life that can help us either learn and grow or
can cause us significant problems.

Because of the excess of stress in our modern lives, we usually think of

stress as a negative experience, but from a biological point of view, stress
can be a neutral, negative, or positive experience.

 Eustress- it is the kind of positive stress. It results in motivation,

improves performance, feeling of excitements and so on. For
example: receiving a promotion at work, marriage, starting a new job
etc.

 Distress- the stress that results from negative experiences. It causes

anxiety; decrease performance and can lead to mental and physical
exhaustion. For example: death of a spouse, unemployment, sleep
problem, interpersonal conflicts

Events or situations in our environment that causes stress are called

stressors.

While stress is the feeling we have when we are under pressure, stressors
are the things in our environment that we are responding to.

Stressors can be as simple as background noise in our environment or as

complex as a social situation such as going out on a date.
Stressors can involve a physical threat such as a car speeding toward you or
an emotional threat such as being rejected by your boyfriend or girlfriend.

Stressors can be classified in to

1. Frustration- occurs when a person find it difficult to achieve a goal
2. Conflicts- occur when an individual is to choose between multiple
options.
3. Pressure- stress stem from pressures to achieve specific goals or to
behave in particular ways.

There are two main type of stress

1) Acute Stress: This is short term stress that goes away quickly.
All people have acute stress at one time or another.
Example: Fight with partner.

2) Chronic Stress: This is stress that lasts for a longer period of

time.
Stress that goes on for weeks or months.
Example: Financial problem, Unhappy Marriage.

THEORECTICAL CONTRIBUTION TO STRESS

FIGHT OR FLIGHT

 The earliest contribution to stress research was Walter Cannon’s

(1932) description of the fight-or-flight response.
 Cannon proposed that when an organism perceives a threat, the body
is rapidly aroused and motivated via the sympathetic nervous system
and the endocrine system.
 This concerted physiological response mobilizes the organism to
attack the threat or to flee; hence, it is called the fight-or-flight
response.
  Fight refers to aggressive responses to stress, such as getting angry or
taking action etc…
 Flight is reflected in social withdrawal or withdrawal through
substance use or distracting activities.
 Fight-or-flight response is adaptive because it enables the organism
to respond quickly to threat.

SELYE’S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

 Hans Selye’s work on the general adaptation syndrome.

 Selye exposed rats to a variety of stressors, such as extreme cold and
fatigue, and observed their physiological responses. All of them are
produced the same pattern of physiological changes. They all led to an
enlarged adrenal cortex, shrinking of the thymus and lymph glands,
and ulceration of the stomach and duodenum.
 From these observations, Selye (1956) developed the general
adaptation syndrome.
 He argued that when a person confronts a stressor, it mobilizes itself
for action. The person will respond with the same physiological
pattern of reactions.
 The general adaptation syndrome consists of three phases.

1) Alarm Phase:
 This stage is similar to flight or fight response.
 The person becomes mobilized to meet the threat.
 When a stress is perceived, the hypothalamus activates both the
sympathetic and the endocrine system.
 The sympathetic nervous system signals the adrenal gland to release
the catecholamines like epinephrine and nor epinephrine.
 These changes prepare the body to react to threat. Oxygen is brought
to the muscles, pupil dilates and palms sweat.
 The pituitary gland releases ACTH that causes adrenal glands to
release cortisol which in turn increases the production of energy
 from glucose and inhibits the swelling around injuries and
infections.

2) Resistance Phase:
 The person makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through
confrontation.
 The stage requires energy, so the heart rate, BP, breathing rate are
still rapid to help deliver oxygen quickly.
 Non- essential functions like digestion, growth and reproduction
may operate at a slower pace than normal and no new energy is
stored during this time.
 The drain of energy in this stage is lesser than the alarm stage, but
the body continues to work harder to resist the stressor. If the threat
persists, the physiological arousal may persist, eventually taking a
negative toll on the body, thus leading to the next stage

3) Exhaustion Phase:
 Occur if the person fails to overcome the threat and depletes
physiological resources in the process of trying.
 The persisting stress creates a situation of imbalance that results in
considering wear and tear of the body.
 In this stage, the body resources are depleted, and it becomes very
susceptible to physiological damage and illness.
 Moreover, if epinephrine and cortisol stay at high levels it will
damage the heart and blood vessels and supress the immune system

Criticisms of the General Adaptation Syndrome

 It assigns a very limited role to psychological factors.
 The model assumes that response to stress is always the same
 Stress was assessed as an outcome or endpoint of the GAS
 Does not clarify whether the exhaustion of physical resources or
continuous activation of bodily systems is most involved in stress
TEND- BEFRIEND
 S. E. Taylor and colleagues developed a theory of responses to stress
termed tend and-befriend.
 The theory maintains that, in addition to fight or flight, people and
animals respond to stress with social affiliation and nurturing
behaviour toward offspring. These responses to stress may be
especially true of women.
 During the time responses to stress evolved, men and women faced
somewhat different adaptive challenges.
 Whereas men were responsible for hunting and protection, women
were responsible for foraging and child care. These activities were
largely sex segregated; with the result those women’s responses to
stress would have evolved so as to protect not only the self but
offspring as well.
 These responses are not distinctive to humans. The offspring of most
species are immature and would be unable to survive, were it not for
the attention of adults. In most species, that attention is provided by
the mother.
 Tend-and-befriend have an underlying biological mechanism, in
particular, the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin is a stress hormone,
rapidly released in response to some stressful events, and its effects
are especially influenced by estrogen, suggesting a particularly
important role in the responses of women to stress.

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPRAISAL & STRESS

Stress is the consequence of a person’s appraisal processes.

1) Primary Appraisal
2) Secondary Appraisal

Primary appraisal
 Primary appraisal occurs as a person is trying to understand what the
event is and what it will mean.
 Events may be appraised for their harm, threat, or challenge.
  Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done.
Example: Fired from a job.
 Threat is the assessment of possible future damage, as a person
anticipates the problems that loss of income will create for him and
his family. But events may also be appraised in terms of their
challenge, that is, the potential to overcome or even profit from the
event.
 For example: A man who lost his job may regard his unemployment
as an opportunity to try something new. Challenge assessments lead
to more confident expectations that one can cope with the stressful
event, more favorable emotional reactions to the event, and lower
blood pressure, among other benefits.

Secondary appraisals
 Secondary appraisal assess whether personal resources are sufficient
to meet the demands of the environment.
 When a person’s resources are more than adequate to deal with a
difficult situation, he or she may feel little stress and experience a
sense of challenge instead.
 When the person perceives that his or her resources will probably be
sufficient to deal with the event but only with a lot of effort, he or she
may feel a moderate amount of stress. When the person perceives
that his or her resources will probably not be sufficient to overcome
the stressor, he or she may experience a great deal of stress.

LIFE STRESSORS
Some characteristics of events make them more likely to be appraised as
stressful.

Negative Events
 Negative events produce more stress than do positive events.
 Example: Unexpected job promotion, and getting married are all
positive events that draw off time and energy. Nonetheless, these
positive experiences are less stressful than negative or undesirable
events, such as getting a traffic ticket, trying to find a job, and coping
 with a death in the family, getting d divorced or experiencing daily.
Negative events produce more psychological distress and physical
symptoms than positive ones do.

Uncontrollable Events
 Uncontrollable or unpredictable events are more stressful than
controllable or predictable ones especially if they are also unexpected.
 When people feel that they can predict, modify, or terminate an
aversive event or feel they have access to someone who can influence
it, they experience less stress, even if they actually can do nothing
about it.
 Feelings of control not only mute the subjective experience of stress
but also influence biochemical reactions to it, including
catecholamine levels and immune responses.

Ambiguous Events
 Ambiguous events are more stressful than clear-cut events.
 When a potential stressor is ambiguous, a person cannot take action,
but must instead devote energy to trying to understand the stressor,
which can be a time-consuming, resource sapping task.
 Clear-cut stressors, on the other hand, let the person get on with
finding solutions and do not leave him or her stuck at the problem
definition stage.
 The ability to take confrontative action is usually associated with less
distress and better coping.

Overload
 Overloaded people experience more stress than people with fewer
tasks to perform.
 For example, one of the main sources of work-related stress is job
overload, the perception that one is responsible for doing too much in
too short a time.
Daily Stress
 In addition to major stressful life events, researchers have studied
minor stressful events, or daily hassles, and their cumulative impact
on health and illness. Such hassles include being stuck in traffic,
waiting in a line, doing household chores, having difficulty making
small decisions, and daily conflict.
 Daily minor problems produce psychological distress, adverse
physiological changes, physical symptoms, and use of health care
services.

Ambiguity and Role Conflict

 Role conflict and role ambiguity are associated with stress.
 Role ambiguity occurs when a person has no clear idea of what to do
and no idea of the standards used for evaluating work.
 Role conflict occurs when a person receives conflicting information
about work tasks or standards from different individuals.
 For example, if a college professor is told by one colleague to publish
more articles, is advised by another colleague to publish fewer papers
but of higher quality, and is told by a third to improve teaching
ratings, the professor may experience role ambiguity and conflict.
 Chronically high blood pressure and elevated heart rate have been
tied to role conflict and role ambiguity.
 When people receive clear feedback about the nature of their
performance, they report lower levels of stress.

Social Relationships
 The inability to develop satisfying social relationships at work has
been tied to job stress, to psychological distress at work and to poor
physical and mental health.
 Having a poor relationship with one’s supervisor predicts job distress
and may increase a worker’s risk for coronary heart disease.

Unemployment
  Unemployment is a major life stressor.
 It increases psychological distress, physical symptoms, physical
illness, alcohol abuse, difficulty achieving sexual arousal, low birth
weight of offspring, elevated inflammation and compromised
immune functioning.

COPING
 Coping can be defined as the actual effort that is made in the attempt
to render a perceived stressor more tolerable and to minimize the
distress induced by the situation.
 Coping is defined as the thoughts and behaviors used to manage the
internal and external demands of situations that are appraised as
stressful.
 Coping has several important characteristics.

1) First, the relationship between coping and a stressful event is a

dynamic process. Coping is a series of transactions between a
person who has a set of resources, values, and commitments and a
particular environment with its own resources, demands, and
constraints. Thus, coping is not a onetime action that someone
takes but rather a set of responses, occurring over time, by which
the environment and the person influence each other.

2) A second important aspect of coping is its breadth. Emotional

reactions, including anger or depression, are part of the coping
process, as are actions that are voluntarily undertaken to confront
the event.

 According to Folkman and Lazarus there are two types of coping

strategies. They include problem focused and emotion focused
coping.
 Problem focused coping is often used when something constructive
can be done to help solve the problem, at least make the situation
better.
  Emotion focused coping is aimed at reducing or managing the
emotional distress that is associated with the situations.

PROBLEM FOCUSED COPING

 Problem-focused coping aims at problem solving or doing something to
alter the source of stress.
 Problem-focused coping tends to predominate when people feel that
something constructive can be done.
 According to Folkman& Lazarus, (1980) problem focused coping
involves active coping, social supports for instrumental reason, restraint
coping, acceptance, planning, suppression of competing activities and
positive reinterpretation and growth.

There are seven categories under problem focused coping,

1. Active coping- Active coping is the process of taking active steps to
remove the stressor. This involves taking additional or direct action to
get rid of a problem and concentrating on the task at hand.
2. Social supports for instrumental reason- Social supports for
instrumental reason is seeking advice, assistance or information. This
is a problem focused coping. Here the person talks to one’s advisor
about how to deal with the issues.
3. Restraint coping- This means waiting until an appropriate
opportunity comes, holding oneself back and not acting prematurely.
Individuals who use this method hold on doing things till the right
time approach and they do not engage in activities without giving a
second thought.
4. Acceptance- Acceptance is a functional coping response, in that a
person who accepts the reality of a stressful situation would seem to
be a person who is engaged in the attempt to deal with the situation.
Here the person accepts the fact that something has happened and
tries to get adjusted with the present situations.
5. Planning- This involves coming up with active strategies, thinking
about what steps to take and how best to handle the problem.
 6. Suppression of competing activities- This means putting other
projects aside, trying to avoid becoming distracted by other events,
even letting other things side, if necessary in order to deal with the
stressor.
7. Positive Reinterpretation and Growth- This involves seeing
things in a positive manner and learning from experiences.

EMOTION FOCUSED COPING

Emotion focused coping tend to predominate when people feel that the
stressor is something that must be endured.

Seven categories are identified under emotion focused coping,

1. Social supports for emotional reasons -Seeking social support for
emotional reasons is getting moral support, sympathy or
understanding.
2. Denial or avoidance – Denial here means refusal to believe that the
stressor exists or of trying to act as though the stressor is not real. This
involves simply not thinking about the problem.
3. Venting of emotions- Here the individual has the tendency to focus
on whatever distress or upset one is experiencing and to ventilate those
feelings.
4. Turning to religion- One might turn to religion when under stress
for widely varying reasons: religion might serve as a source of emotional
support.
5. Mental disengagement- One of the dysfunctional coping which
comes under emotion focused coping is mental disengagement. This
includes using alternative activities to take one’s mind off a problem a
tendency opposite to suppression of competing activities, day dreaming,
escaping through sleep or escape by immersion in T.V etc.
6. Behavioral disengagement- Second dysfunctional coping means in
many circumstances is behavioral disengagement. This comes under
emotion focused coping. In behavioral disengagement one reduces
 one’s effort to deal with the stressor even giving up the attempt to attain
goals with in which the stressor is interfering.
7. Alcohol disengagement – Here one reduces their effort to deal with
a stressor by using alcohol as a means to forget their stress element.
Individuals who use alcohol and drugs are high on using this strategy.

DEATH

 Death is the end of life in an organism.

 All biological and living activity of the organisms is stopped. Including
the mind the senses.
 The permanent ending of vital processes in a cell or tissue.

Causes of death
• Infants are born prematurely or die at birth; the problems can
frequently be traced to poor prenatal care for the mother.
• During the first year of life, the main causes of death are congenital
abnormalities and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The causes
of SIDS are not entirely known, the infant simply stops breathing, but
epidemiologic studies reveal that it is more likely to occur in lower-
class urban environments, when the mother smoked during her
pregnancy, and when the baby is put to sleep on its stomach or side.
• After the first year, the main cause of death among children under age
15 is accidents. In early childhood, accidents are most frequently due
to accidental poisoning, injuries, or falls in the home. In later years,
automobile accidents take over as the chief cause of accidental death.
• Cancer, especially leukemia, is the second leading cause of death in
youngsters age 1–15, and its incidence is rising. Leukemia is a form of
cancer that strikes the bone marrow, producing an excessive number
of white blood cells and leading to severe anemia and other
complications. Because of advances in treatment, including
chemotherapy and bone marrow transplants, over 80 percent of those
treated for cancer survive the disease for 5 years or more.
 • Unfortunately, these procedures, especially bone marrow transplants,
can be painful and produce unpleasant side effects. Overall, the
mortality rates for most causes of death in infants and children have
declined.

STAGES TO ADJUSTMENT TO DYING

Kübler-Ross’s Five-Stage Theory

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a pioneer in the study of death and dying, suggested
that people pass through five stages as they adjust to the prospect of death:
1) Denial
2) Anger
3) Bargaining
4) Depression
5) Acceptance

Although research shows that people who are dying do not necessarily
pass through each of these stages in the exact order, all of these reactions
are commonly experienced.

1) Denial

 Denial is thought to be a person’s initial reaction on learning of the

diagnosis of terminal illness.
 Denial is a defense mechanism by which people avoid the implications
of an illness.
 They may act as if the illness was not severe, it will shortly go away, and
it will have few long-term implications.
 In extreme cases, the patient may even deny that he or she has the
illness, despite having been given clear information about the
diagnosis.
 Denial, then, is the subconscious blocking out of the full realization of
the reality and implications of the disorder.
2) Anger

 A second reaction to the prospect of dying is anger. The angry patient

is asking, “Why me?
 Considering all the other people who could have gotten the illness, all
the people who had the same symptoms but got a favorable diagnosis,
and all the people who are older, dumber, more bad-tempered, less
useful, or just plain evil, why should I be the one who is dying?”
 The angry patient may show resentment toward anyone who is
healthy, such as hospital staff, family members, or friends.
 Angry patients who cannot express their anger directly by being
irritable may do so indirectly by becoming embittered.
 Anger is one of the harder responses for family and friends to deal
with.
 They may feel they are being blamed by the patient for being well.
 The family may need to work together with a therapist to understand
that the patient is not really angry with them but at fate; they need to
see that this anger will be directed at anyone who is nearby, especially
people with whom the patient feels no obligation to be polite and well
behaved. Unfortunately, family members often fall into this category.

3) Bargaining

 Bargaining is the third stage of Kübler Ross’s formulation.

 At this point, the patient abandons anger in favor of a different
strategy: trading good behavior for good health.
 Bargaining may take the form of a pact with God, in which the patient
agrees to engage in good works or at least to abandon selfish ways in
exchange for better health or more time.
 A sudden rush of charitable activity or uncharacteristically pleasant
behavior may be a sign that the patient is trying to strike such a bargain.
4) Depression

 Depression, the fourth stage in Kübler-Ross’s model, may be viewed as

coming to terms with lack of control.
 The patient acknowledges that little can now be done to stay the course
of illness.
 This realization may be coincident with a worsening of symptoms,
tangible evidence that the illness is not going to be cured.
 At this stage, patients may feel nauseated, breathless, and tired. They
may find it hard to eat, to control elimination, to focus attention, and
to escape pain or discomfort.
 Kübler-Ross refers to the stage of depression as a time for “anticipatory
grief,” when patients mourn the prospect of their own deaths.
 This grieving process may occur in two stages, as the patient first comes
to terms with the loss of past valued activities and friends and then
begins to anticipate the future loss of activities and relationships.
 Depression, though far from pleasant, can be functional in that patients
begin to prepare for the future.
 Depression can nonetheless require treatment, so that symptoms of
depression can be distinguished from symptoms of physical
deterioration.

5) Acceptance

 The final stage in Kübler-Ross’s theory is acceptance.

 At this point, the patient may be too weak to be angry and too
accustomed to the idea of dying to be depressed. Instead, a tired,
peaceful, though not necessarily pleasant calm may descend.
Some patients use this time to make preparations, deciding how to divide up
their remaining possessions and saying goodbye to old friends and family
members
INDIVIDUAL COUNSELLING WITH THE TERMINALLY ILL

• Many dying patients need the chance to talk to a counselor to share

how they feel about themselves, their lives, their families and death and
they need an opportunity to regain a sense of control ovrt their lives.
• Therapy is typically short-term and the nature and timing of the visits
typically depend on the desires and energy level of the patient.
Moreover, in working with the dying, patients typically set the agenda.
• Therapy with the dying is different from typical psychotherapy in
several respects.
• First, for obvious reasons, it is likely to be short term.
• The format of therapy with the dying also varies from that of traditional
psychotherapy.
• The nature and timing of visits must depend on the inclination and
energy level of the patient, rather than on a fixed schedule of
appointments.
• The agenda should be set at least partly by the patient. And if an issue
arises that the patient clearly does not wish to discuss, this wish should
be respected.
• Terminally ill patients may also need help in resolving unfinished
business. Uncompleted activities may prey on the mind, and
preparations may need to be made for survivors, especially dependent
children. Through careful counseling, a therapist may help the patient
come to terms with the need for these arrangements, as well as with the
need to recognize that some things will remain undone.
• Some Thanatologists - Those who study death and dying, have
suggested that behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapies can be
constructively employed with dying patients.

FAMILY THERAPY WITH THE TERMINALLY ILL

• Dying does not happen in a vaccum but is often a family experience.

• As a consequence, family therapy can be an appropriate way to deal
with the most common issues raised by terminal illness –
 communication, death-related plans and decisions and the need to find
meaning in life while making a loving and appropriate separation.
• Sometimes, the therapist will need to meet separately with family
members as well as with the patient.
• Family and patient may be mismatched in their adjustment to the
illness. For example, family members may hold out hope, but the
patient may be resigned to the prospect of death.
• Moreover, the needs of the living and the dying can be in conflict, with
the living needing to maintain their resources and perform their daily
activities at the same time that the patient needs a great deal of
support.
• A therapist can help family members find a balance between their own
needs and those of the patient.
• For many families, terminal illness can be a time of great closeness and
sharing. It may be the only time when the family sets aside time to say
what their lives within the family have meant.

THE MANAGEMENT OF TERMINALL ILLNESS IN CHILDREN

 Working with terminally ill children is perhaps the most stressful of all
terminal care.
 As a result, family members, friends, and even medical staff may be
reluctant to talk openly with a dying child about his or her situation.
 Terminally ill children often know more about their situation.
 Children use cues from their treatments and from the people around
them to infer what their condition must be. As their own physical
condition deteriorates, they develop a conception of their own death
and the realization.
 It may be difficult to know what to tell a child. Unlike adults, children
may not express their knowledge, concerns, or questions directly. They
may communicate the knowledge that they will die only indirectly, they
may suddenly stop talking about their future plans.
 Counseling with a terminally ill child may be required and typically
follows some of the same guidelines as is true with dying adults, but
 therapists can take cues about what to discuss from the child, talking
only about those issues the child is ready to discuss.
 Parents, too, may need counseling to help them cope with the
impending death. They may blame themselves for the child’s illness or
feel that there is more they could have done.
 The needs of other children may be passed over in the process of
dealing with the dying child’s situation. A counselor working with the
family can help restore balance.
 Parents of dying children experience an enormous stress burden to the
degree that they sometimes have the symptoms of post-traumatic
stress disorder.
 The emotional distress of parents with dying children may require
supportive mental health services and meetings with the physician to
help the patients make sense of and derive meaning from the child’s
terminal illness, especially during the first few months after the child’s
diagnosis and death.