FOUNDATIONAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLE

Autonomy:

Autonomy is the principle that individuals have the right to make their own decisions and
choices, guided by their own values, beliefs, and preferences. It emphasizes respecting and
valuing a person's capacity for self-governance and the right to make informed choices without
coercion or undue influence.

Rule 1: Respect the right of individuals to make their own decisions and choices.

Rule 2: Obtain informed consent before taking actions that affect others.

Rule 3: Provide relevant information to enable individuals to make informed decisions.

Rule 4: Avoid coercion or undue influence when seeking consent.

Beneficence:

Beneficence is the principle of doing good and promoting the well-being of others. It involves
taking actions that contribute positively to the welfare and improvement of individuals and
society. Practicing beneficence often entails actively seeking opportunities to prevent harm and
provide benefits to others.

Rule 1: Act in ways that promote the well-being and best interests of others.

Rule 2: Seek opportunities to prevent harm and enhance positive outcomes.

Rule 3: Prioritize actions that contribute to the improvement of the quality of life.

Rule 4: Balance the benefits of an action against potential risks and harms.

Nonmaleficence:
Nonmaleficence is the principle of "do no harm." It emphasizes the obligation to avoid causing
harm or inflicting unnecessary suffering. This principle guides ethical decision-making by
encouraging actions that minimize risks and potential harm, even when pursuing beneficial
outcomes.

Rule 1: Avoid causing harm or inflicting unnecessary suffering.

Rule 2: Take steps to prevent harm and minimize risks.

Rule 3: Be cautious when facing situations with potential negative consequences.

Rule 4: Choose the course of action that does the least harm while achieving a positive
outcome.

Justice:

Justice refers to fairness, equality, and the equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and
burdens in society. It involves treating all individuals with impartiality and without discrimination,
while ensuring that individuals are given what they deserve based on relevant criteria. The
principle of justice is concerned with creating a just and inclusive society where everyone is
treated fairly.

Rule 1: Treat all individuals fairly and impartially, without discrimination.

Rule 2: Ensure equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.

Rule 3: Uphold the rights of individuals and provide equal access to benefits.

Rule 4: Act in ways that contribute to the creation of a just and inclusive society.

Case Study 1: Social Media Dilemma

Background:

Lily, a 16-year-old high school student, is an active user of social media platforms. She has a
significant followers and is admired for her fashion sense and lifestyle. Lily's popularity has led
to opportunities for sponsored posts and collaborations with brands.

Scenario:

One day, a well-known fashion brand offers Lily a substantial amount of money to promote their
new clothing line on her social media platforms. However, Lily discovers that the clothing brand
has been involved in unethical labor practices in developing countries. The brand's clothes are
produced in factories where workers, including children, are subjected to poor working
conditions and extremely low wages.

Dilemma:

Lily faces a moral dilemma. On one hand, she could accept the lucrative offer and continue
promoting the brand, which could enhance her popularity and financial situation. On the other
hand, she is aware of the harm caused by the brand's practices and feels conflicted about being
associated with such unethical behavior.

Ethical Considerations:

Lily must weigh the principles of autonomy, beneficence, and justice. She needs to decide
whether her personal gain and popularity outweigh her responsibility to not contribute to harmful
practices. She must also consider the potential consequences of her decision on her reputation
and the broader social and ethical implications of promoting a brand with unethical practices.

Case Study 2: Academic Integrity Dilemma

Background:
John, an ambitious 18-year-old college student, is determined to excel in his studies and secure
a scholarship for further education. He is enrolled in a highly competitive course with a final
project that requires extensive research.

Scenario:

As the project deadline approaches, John finds himself overwhelmed and struggling to complete
the research. He discovers a paper online that is perfectly aligned with his project's
requirements. He considers copying parts of the paper without proper citation, as it would
greatly improve his own work and increase his chances of earning a high grade.

Dilemma:

John faces an ethical dilemma regarding academic integrity. He must decide whether to
plagiarize the online paper to achieve a better grade and potentially secure his scholarship, or
uphold his integrity by conducting original research and properly citing his sources.

Ethical Considerations:

John's decision involves principles of honesty, nonmaleficence, and justice. He needs to

consider the harm caused by plagiarism to his own educational development and the broader
academic community. He must also reflect on whether gaining an unfair advantage through
dishonest means aligns with his personal values and long-term goals.

In both of these case studies, young people are confronted with ethical dilemmas that require
careful consideration of their actions in light of fundamental ethical principles. These scenarios
highlight the complex challenges that young individuals may encounter as they navigate their
personal, academic, and social lives while striving to make ethical decisions.

THREE STEPS IN ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING:

Identify the Ethical Dilemma:

Recognize and define the ethical issue or dilemma you are facing. Clearly understand the
conflicting values, responsibilities, or choices involved in the situation. Determine if the situation
involves ethical principles such as honesty, fairness, or the well-being of individuals.

Evaluate Options and Consequences:

Consider different courses of action and evaluate their potential outcomes and consequences.
Analyze how each option aligns with ethical principles and values. Assess the potential benefits,
harms, and implications for all stakeholders involved.

Choose and Justify a Decision:

Select the course of action that best upholds ethical principles and aligns with your values.
Provide a clear and rational justification for your decision based on the ethical analysis.
Consider how the decision respects the rights and well-being of individuals and contributes to a
just and ethical outcome.

Case Studies

Social Media Pressure and Body Image:

Sarah, a 16-year-old high school student, struggles with low self-esteem due to body image
issues. She sees her peers on social media sharing edited and filtered photos that present an
unrealistic standard of beauty. Sarah feels pressured to conform to these ideals to gain
acceptance and likes on her posts. She contemplates digitally altering her own images to fit in.

Peer Pressure and Substance Use:

John, a 17-year-old, is invited to a party by his friends where alcohol and drugs will be available.
Although he is aware of the potential risks and his parents' strict rules against substance use, he
fears being seen as "uncool" by his friends if he refuses to partake.

Cyberbullying and Online Harassment:

Alex, a 15-year-old, discovers that a group of classmates has created an anonymous social
media account to make hurtful comments and spread rumors about other students. Alex is
unsure whether to report the account to school authorities, as it might lead to confrontations with
the bullies.

EXPLORING REPRODUCTIVE ETHICS

CARE AT THE BEGINNING OF LIFE

The way life is brought into existence (reproductive technology) and the way in which the nature
of future human lives are intervened with (like, embryonic stem cell research, human cell line
and commodification) reflect this age of consumer mentality and market ethics. Babies have to
come at the appropriate time, number and space. For a service fee, then, sex were selected,
genes were improved. Children therefore were made to satisfy the desire market (like baby
making parent, supplier or baby breaking experimenters). Though this may sound economically
good yet its not done for the common good. Commercialization had led to the continued use
and abuse of human life and human person. Issue at the beginning of life is peculiar because it
involves: mother/woman, father/man and fetus that cannot give consent, has no wishes and
cannot defend itself. Nurses in this regard must be able to inculcate in the minds of those
proxies to act in and for the best interest.

Natural reproduction

The female ovaries expel the mature egg towards the Fallopian tubes every 28 days. The
male’s testes produce the sperms which are expelled at ejaculation. With the conjugal act the
perms are deposited in the vaginal canal. The sperm travel up the uterus into the uterus into the
Fallopian tubes and there fertilize the egg. The fertilize egg (mean the embryo) travels down to
the uterus where it is implanted, develops, grow (embryo, fetus) after 9 months the baby is born.

Principles

The principles involved and promoted in the reproductive issue are:

Inviolability of Life
All humans from the moment of conception (fertilization) and through all subsequent stages is
sacred. Thus, all have the duty to affirm, respect, love and defend it. Violation of this principle
occurs like in: abortion, in vitro-fertilization and stem cell research.
Stewardship. Man must take care, cultivate, creatures within the creature’s innate nature and
teleology and within man’s knowledge and understanding. Violations arises in: surgical sterility,
substitution of reproduction, use of hormones, intra-uterine devices (IUD) donation of sperm or
egg genetic manipulation.

Double Effect

A foreseen evil effect may be allowed if the foreseen intended good effect is greater than and
does not result from the evil effect. This is applied into maternal-fetal conflict, removal of
diseased organ like in ectopic pregnancy, anencephalic ifants.

Nonmaleficence.

Do no and risk no harm. This is applied into: sterilization, hormones psychological harm
psychological and financial effect of new technologies.

Beneficence:

Do good and provide a benefit. This applies when removing diseased organs, facilitating
pregnancy, educating on responsible parenthood.

Respect for Person.

1) Not to be denatured/destroyed. Issues/ and violation arises in: artificial methods of

reproduction (like: IVF and AID or AIH), cloning.

2) to be an end and not a means to an end. This happens in contraceptions, commodifications

of sperm/egg, uterus dysfunction, and embryonic manipulation.

Assisted reproduction

The right to procreate is limited by man’s nature. Artificial methods that help the conjugal
act and ultimately reproduction are praiseworthy. Like, the use of folic acid, sex education,
fertility awareness and planning, fertility drugs or hormones, viagra (for sexual dysfunction)
microsurgery to correct reproductive organ defects, delivery with forceps, these assisted
reproduction abide with the bioethical principles.

Artificial insemination by AIH/AID including zygote implantation into fallopian tube (ZIFT),
intracytoplamic sperm injection (ICSI) replace the conjugal act and are illicit.
In-vitro fertilization and embryonic transfer (IVF-ET).

In IVF-ET the gametes are separately harvested, in number of eggs are fertilized in ‘Patri Dish’
some zygotes are implanted into the mother, and unwanted embryo may be removed. This is
not in conformity with the following principles:

Inviolability of Life (some unwanted zygote are allowed to die)

Stewardship (the procedure is artificial and it substitutes the conjugal act)
Non maleficence (the baby may develop the ‘genealogical bewilderment syndrome’, also, if
sperm is from a donor, the unknown biological lineage may lead to incest or inherited diseases.
Mothers are psychologically harm by series of unsuccessful attempt)
Justice (if private funds are used the prohibitive cost limits availability to the rich. If public funds
are used, more essential needs are abandoned)
Respect for Person (the human body, the uterus, sperm egg becomes commodities trafficked,
transferred or sold; the baby is not a gift but a product of other’s will to be disposed of as
desired (the unused embryo; ‘take home’ baby in term of wasted babies are often not shared
with parents)

Cloning it is the reproduction of a genetic copy of another human being either through ‘splitting’
of the embryo’s cell or through somatic cell nuclear transfer. The latter, involved the removal of
the nucleus from the unfertilized female egg and its replacement by the nucleus of a cell taken
from donor.

Embryos are cloned either to provide human embryonic stem cells (ES cells) as precursors for
differentiated cells to treat diseased (mean therapeutic cloning) or to produce a new individual
by implanting it in a woman’s uterus (mean reproductive cloning). Now, harvesting of human ES
cells requires destruction of the embryo. Cloning violates:

Inviolability of Life (embryos are destroyed in the therapeutic cloning)

Stewardship (the process is artificial)
Non maleficence(the psychological and physical risks to mother and child. In addition, the
concept of the ‘family’ is perhaps destroyed)
Respect for Person (denatured and destroyed by stock breeding with no uniqueness ans
individuality; parents were reduced to a mere providers of human ‘materials’, like, sperm, egg
and uterus)
Prevention of reproduction

There are two ways by which reproduction may be prevented it is through contraceptive and
abortive. There are some obvious reasons why other people choose this methods, one is space
pregnancy, health, economics, unreadiness, no desire to be obligated to try to have children and
others.

Contraception is any action which in anticipation of the conjugal act (castration, tube ligation,
vasectomy, oral or parental hormones to prevent ovulation) or in its accomplishment (like,
spermatocides in creams, jellies, foams or suppositories, coitus interuptus, condoms,
diaphragm, hormones which thicken cervical muscus) or in the development of its natural
consequences (like IUD, abortion, fetal reduction) whether as an end or means, prevents the
creation of new life (anti-life). contraceptives treat fertility as a negative value that should be
suppressed. It vilates or it is nonconformity to:

inviolability of life (drugs and devices that inhibit fertilized ovum transport to and implantation in
the uterus or its development are abortificient. They kill the fetus.
Stewardship (it promotes hedonistic mentality with refusal to accept the reproductive
responsibility of sexual or to recognize a new human being. (perhaps as god is the final Creator)
Nonmaleficence (castration removes a healthy organ, tubal occlusion or ligation and vasectomy
prevents a healthy function. IUD promotes infection as well. Contraception as well promotes a
premarital sex, extramarital sex, or homosexuality.
Respect for person. (to have one spouse use the other spouse as a means for one’s satisfaction
or pleasure is a sign of disrespect)

Abortion is the process of deliberately terminating pregnancy with the resulting death of an
entity or it is a process of deliberately terminating pregnancy at any stage of its development.

Types of abortion:

Direct abortion or induced: it a kind of abortion with the intentional of immediate purpose of
ending or destroying the fetus at any stage of after its conception.
Indirect abortion is a process of terminating pregnancy directly in which the moral object of the
action is the therapy of the mother and the death of the fetus is a side effect that is inevitably
unavoidable effect. Ex., removal of pathological tube containing a fertilized ovum in an ectopic
pregnancy, removal of the cancerus gravid uterus. This act is justified by the principle of double
effect. Obviously direct abortion violates the principles of natural reproduction.
Abortion is done through:

1) injection with concentration saline (salt) (it is an injection of a concentrated saline solution into
the theirmothers womb. It burns their skin off them while were still alive the babies breathe it in
and swallow it, frying their insides. Some of babies were born alive despite this torture and are
then ‘disposed of’)

2) dilation and Evacuation Dilation (this is characterized by using a suction tube to remove the
fetus and placenta)

3) Hysterotomy (abortion by caesarian surgery)

4) Vacuum aspiration (is a method by suctioning of the lining of the uterus through the use of a
thin and flexible tube inserted through the opening of the cervix)

The Bioethical Issues:

Perhaps the basic bioethical question to raised with regard to abortion is "personhood"

● When does “person-hood” begins?

● Who is a person; what criteria one ought to establish so that for instance ‘X’ becomes a
person or that ‘X’ is not a person?
● Does the fetus have a moral status that entitles it to life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness as guaranteed by the constitution of the law?
● What about an ectopic pregnancy and anencephalic infants? How are we going to
consider these cases in abortion issue?

EXAMINING ORGAN TRADE AND ASSISTED DEATH

CARE AT THE PROMOTION OF LIFE: ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION AND DONATION

Advance in surgery and introduction of new drugs have led to the steady growth of
organ transplantation and donation. The removal of the organ from one being and its
implantation into another has saved lives or made lives better. Unfortunately organs are scarce
resource. Thus, many who need new organs die while on the waiting lists. This lack of organs
has led to abuses such as robbing, maiming, or even killing of donors, commercialization of
organs by health care givers, middle men or institutions and coercion exploitation of
disadvantaged donors or needy recipients. It is in the abuse that violation occurs.
Terms to consider:

Organ donation means the giving of tissue/organ/body by a person to another person or to an

institution

Donor the given who may be a cadaver (with an assumptive document by the donor when still
alive or by proxy) or a living person (either by relatives, non-relative)

Vendor is a person who exchange their organ for money

Recipient the receiver of the organ given by the donor or institution; a recipient who pay the
organ is a buyer

Organ transplantation means the transfer or the planting across of organ from donor/vendor to
recipient/buyer

Xenotransplantation is the planting of an organ from animal organ to human beings.

Allotransplantation it is the transplantation of the organ from one body to another body of the
same species.

Organ donor

Our main concern is to care life that is the life of the donor.

"The principles of stewardship and nonmaleficence state that man must take care of his body
and do no harm to it. If the donor is the cadaver, harvesting an organ will do no harm. If the
donor is living, taking away a healthy organ is not taking care one’s body: no life is saved, no
health is restored. Removal o organ may even be mutilation. However, a very proportionate
reason and a meritorious act my override the rule of stewardship and nonmaleficence.

The rule of unselfish love, solidarity love of neighbor, beneficence, and charity these may
supercede the rules of stewardship and nonmaleficence."

In such a case it is praiseworthy, for it takes what it means to belong to a human society
that we are fulfilling our duty to one another (deontological duty) and to contribute to the goal of
medicine (healing). By this it makes the giver a better person.
Bioethical Issues

What harm will it give in selling one’s own organ do?

Is organ transplantation from human being to animal does not pose a threat to humanity? How
about transforming human being into an animal that can be used for terrorist activity?

CARE AT THE END OF LIFE: EUTHANASIA AND PHYSICIAN ASSISTED SUICIDE

One’s values regarding life and death are reflected in how one dealt with the dying. If
one cannot bear to see suffering, then one resorts to an “advance” death, such in euthanasia,
suicide, or physician assisted suicide. If one sees life as the highest value with death as a form
of human defeat, or if one is overly influenced by available new technology and biological
idolatry then one does everything to prolong life beyond one’s one time and this is known as
dysthanasia. On the other hand, if one sees death as the culmination of a good life, to be valued
only until its natural end, one looks for a good death this is orthothanasia.

Before proceeding to the types of death, it is important to determine first signs of the
moment of death, signs of death and when to pronounce that a person is dead.

Types of Death:

Euthanasia means an action/omission which of itself or by intention causes death, in order that
suffering may be eliminated. It procures/imposes death before one’s time.
Dysthanasia is the delaying or postponing death beyond its natural time by all means available.
Orthothanasia, also known as passive euthanasia or natural death, is an ethical concept and
medical practice that involves allowing a terminally ill or suffering patient to die naturally, without
aggressive medical interventions or life-sustaining treatments. Unlike active euthanasia, where
medical professionals take active steps to end a patient's life, orthothanasia involves refraining
from interventions that would artificially prolong the dying process or life when there is little hope
of recovery.

Bioethical issues

Is an extraordinary means to sustaining life is always presumed though the case is irreversible?
Is the quality of the patient will take precedence over the treatment to be delivered?
What is the criterion in order to say that a person ceases to exist thus performed nothing to
sustain one’s own life?
Is prolonging ones own suffering for 10 years more not a form of an abuse of a call for a
dignified death?