Collection of data:

Collection of data is the basis for any statistical analysis and the data
collected must be accurate.

Inaccurate and inadequate data leads to faulty analysis and decision.

Types of data :

1. Primary data

2. Secondary data

Methods of Collecting Primary data:

1. Direct personal interviews

2. Indirect oral interviews

3. Information from correspondents

4. Mailed questionnaire method

5. Schedules sent through enumerators

Direct personal interviews:

 In this method, the investigator collects the data directly and

personally from the source of information.
 The information thus obtained is original in character. But
this method is more time and money consuming when the
number of persons to be interviewed is large.
  In the collection of data, this method is preferable when the
area of investigation is limited and when the results of
investigation are to be kept confidential.

Indirect oral interviews:

This method is employed when the information cannot be directly

obtained from the informants.

For example: if we want data about alcohol drinking habit of people in

a locality, direct personal interview does not provide correct
information. To get the exact information we can approach liquor
shops, friends, relatives etc. but this method may lead to false results.

If informants do not know the full facts of the problem under

investigation and give information according to his own interests. So
sufficient number of persons are to be interviewed to get true
information.

Information from correspondents:

In this method, the investigators appoint local agents or

correspondents to collect the information and to transit information to
the place where the data are processed.

For example: news agencies collect information from various

correspondents employed in different places about accidents, riots,
political meeting etc.
Mail questionnaire method:

 In this method, information is obtained from the informants

by sending a questionnaire (a set of questions to the survey
) to them. Along with the questionnaire, a covering letter is
sent to the informants explaining the aims and objective of
the information and request them to fill in all the questions
of the questionnaire and return it in time.
 This method is used when the information are from different
places and when the field of investigation is vast.
 This method is economical as compared to others.
 This method is of no use if the informants are illiterate.

Schedule sent through enumerators:

 In this method, schedules are sent through enumerators or

interviewers to collect informations.
 The enumerators contact the informants, reply to the
questions contained in a schedule and fill them in their own
handwriting in the questionnaire form.
 This method can be adopted even if the informants are
illiterate. Compared to other methods.
 This is costly because enumerators are paid persons.

Sources of Secondary data:

1. Published sources

2. Unpublished sources
Published sources :

 Official publications like U.N.O reports, central and state

government publications etc.
 Semi official publications like reports of city corporation,
LIC, Reserve bank etc
 Journals, Newspapers, Published research articles etc.

Unpublished sources:

The various sources of unpublished data are records maintained

by various government and private officers, studies made by research
institutions and scholars, registers of companies etc.

Precautions in the use of secondary data:

Whether the data considered are suitable for the purpose of enquiry

Whether the data are adequate for the investigation

Whether the data are reliable

Difference between primary data & Secondary data

S.NO Primary data Secondary data

1 Primary data is original Secondary data is not
because it is collected by the original because it is
investigator himself collected by one agency
and used by other
2 A huge amount of money, No need of spending
time, labor, planning etc are much labor, money and
needed time
3 It is suitable to the aim and The objective with
objective of its collection which the secondary
data have been
collected and its later
usage may vary.
4 No special care is needed Before using the
while using primary data secondary data, careful
observation of the
source, mode and
objective of the data is
needed.
TYPES OF DATA OR VARIABLE
Data is a simple record or collection of different numbers, characters, images,
and others that are processed to form Information.. In statistics, we analyze the
data to obtain any meaningful information and thus categorizing data into
different types is very important.

What is Data?
Data is defined as the collection of numbers, characters, images, and others that
can arranged in some manner to form meaningful information.
What are Types of Data in Statistics?
The data in statistics is classified into four categories:
 Nominal data
 Ordinal data
 Discrete data
 Continuous data
Data Types In Statistics
In statistics, there are four main types of data: nominal, ordinal, interval, and
ratio. These types of data are used to describe the nature of the data being
collected or analyzed, and they help determine the appropriate statistical tests to
use.
Qualitative Data (Categorical Data)
As the name suggest Qualitative Data tells the features of the data in the
statistics. Qualitative Data is also called Categorical Data and it categorizes the
data into various categories. Qualitative data includes data such as gender of
people, their family name and others in sample of population data.
Qualitative data is further categorized into two categories that includes,
 Nominal Data
 Ordinal Data
Nominal Data
Nominal data is a type of data that consists of categories or names that cannot
be ordered or ranked. Nominal data is often used to categorize observations into
groups, and the groups are not comparable. In other words, nominal data has no
inherent order or ranking. Examples of nominal data include gender (Male or
female), race (White, Black, Asian), religion (Hinuduism, Christianity, Islam,
Judaism), and blood type (A, B, AB, O).
Ordinal Data
Ordinal data is a type of data that consists of categories that can be ordered or
ranked. However, the distance between categories is not necessarily equal.
Ordinal data is often used to measure subjective attributes or opinions, where
there is a natural order to the responses. Examples of ordinal data include
education level (Elementary, Middle, High School, College), job position
(Manager, Supervisor, Employee), etc.
Quantitative Data (Numerical Data)
Quantitavive Data is the type of the data that represents the numerical value of
the data. They are also called the Numerical Data. This data type is used to
represent the height, weight, length and other things of the data. Quantitative
data is further classified into two categories that are,
 Discrete Data
 Continuous Data
Discrete Data
Discrite data type is a type of data in statistics that only uses Discrete Value or
Single Values. These data types have values that can be easily counted as whole
numbers. The example of the discrete data types are,
 Height of Students in a class
 Marks of the students in a class test
 Weight of different members of a family, etc.
Continuous Data
Continuous data is the type of the quantitative data that represent the data in a
continuous range. The variable in the data set can have any value between the
range of the data set. Examples of the continuous data types are,
 Temperature Range
 Salary range of Workers in a Factory, etc.
TYPES OF SURVEY

There are two methods in which the information is collected during

any statistical survey.

1. Census method / Complete enumeration survey

2. Sample method

Census survey :

 Census survey is also known as population survey and complete

enumeration survey or 100% enumeration or complete survey.
 Under census survey the information is collected from each and
every unit of the population.
 In statistics, the term population does not mean human
population , it refers to the aggregate of all the units of an
investigation.
 For example, if you want to carry out a study to find out
student’s feedback about the amenities of your school, then all
the students of your school would form a component of the
‘population’ for your study.

Merits / Advantages of census survey

 Information about all the units of the population is collected. In

India, census is conducted every 10th year.
 The analysis is likely to give accurate and reliable details.
 Census survey provide a basis for sample surveys. The results of
a sample survey can be compared with those of census survey.
  In many countries the social and economic conditions are found
out by census method.

Disadvantages / Demerits of census survey:

 In a sample survey, information is collected from a few units

of the population. More material, more men, more time, more
money etc are needed for a census survey.
 It is not at all possible for infinite population.
 It is not practicable when every unit is destroyed during
evaluation such as electric bulb, crackers etc.

Sample survey:

 Sample survey is a part of a population. If the required

information is collected from only a few units of the population
and not from all the units. Such a survey is known as sample
survey.
 The generalised conclusion is not based on the enumeration of all
the units of the population. Hence It may be near or far away from
the fact.
 Sample techniques is universal in nature. It is adopted in everyday
life. Only a handful of rice is examined before buying a sack.
From a bunch of grapes, only one fruit is tasted.
Merits / Advantages

 Reduced cost: Only a part of the population is considered under

this survey while the census the whole population is considered.
Hence the cost of the survey is less
 Greater speed: The number of units is less and so the data can be
collected and analysed quickly.
 Greater scope: As less number of units are dealt with, each of the
units can be devoted more time and attention.
 More information can be collected from each unit.
 Greater accuracy: personnel with more experience and training
can be used. More careful supervision of the field work and
analysis of the information is possible because the volume of the
work is less.

Demerits / Disadvantage of sample survey:

 A sample that properly represents a population can reveal the

various characteristics of the population. Choosing a
representative is difficult
 Only experts can properly generalise the results of a sample to
population.
 For conscious customers who buy a few bulbs or a few glass
tumblers, checking each and every unit is the only method.
Difference between census and sampling method

Basis of Census Method Sampling Method

Difference

Coverage In the Census Method of In the Sampling Method of

Collecting Data, Collecting Data,
information is collected information is collected by
by the investigator the investigator by taking
related to all the items in some of the items
the population. representing the whole
population.

Suitability When the area of When the area of

investigation is relatively investigation is large then
small, the Census Method Sampling Method is
of Collecting Data is preferred.
suitable.

Accuracy Census Method generally The Sampling Method

provides a greater degree provides less accuracy
of accuracy rather than because this method
the Sampling Method. involves the study of only
The reason behind this a few items of the
accuracy is that the population. However, as
Census Method includes the number of items is
the study of each and small in the Sampling
Method, it is easy to detect
 every item of the and remove errors.
population. Therefore, in that case, the
Sampling Method gives
more accuracy than the
Census Method.

Time Census Method takes Sampling Method takes

more time in collecting less time in collecting
data. data.

Cost The Census Method is The Sampling Method is

more expensive than the less expensive than the
Sampling Method of Census Method of
Collecting Data. It is Collecting Data. It is
because this method because this method
includes the whole includes a small sample
population. size.

Nature of When the items in the When the items in the

Items population taken for population taken for study
study have diverse are homogeneous, in that
characteristics, in that case, the Sampling
case, Census Method is Method is preferred.
preferred.

Verification Generally, it is not It is easy to verify the

possible to verify the statistical information
statistical information gathered through the
gathered through Census Sampling Method.
Method as it includes Besides, if there is any
huge expenses and doubt then the investigator
repeats the whole can perform enumeration
process. again and can verify facts
accordingly.
 Tabulation
Tabulation is the process of entering the classified data in a table. A table
is a systematic arrangement of statistical data in columns and rows

Objectives of Tabulation:

 To clarify the object of investigation

 To simplify complex data
 To present the details in the minimum space
 To facilitate comparison of data
 To give identity to the data

Components of Good Table :

A good table must possess the following parts

Table number: a table should always be numbered for identification and

reference. The number is generally placed in the center at the top above the title.

Title of the table: The title is the description of the contents of the table. The title
should be clear and brief.

Captions: caption refers to the column headings. The caption should be clearly
defined and placed at the middle of the column. If the different columns are
expressed in different units, the units should be mentioned with the captions

Stubs: These are headings or designation for the horizontal rows. They are at the
extreme left of the table.

Body: The body of the table contains numerical information. This is most
important part of the table. The arrangement in the body is generally from left to
right in rows and from top to bottom in columns.
Head note: It is a brief statement, given below the title and enclosed in brackets.
It is used to explain certain points relating to the whole table that have not been
included in the title, captions or stubs.

Foot notes: Foot notes are used to explain those things that may not be clear in
the main body of the table. A letter or some non numerical symbol should be used
to key a foot note that explains the figure. Usually * ( Stars) are used.

Structure of the table:

Number/Title/Head Note

Caption
Stub heading Column Column Total
heading heading
Stub entries Body
Total

Foot Note

Rules regarding the Construction of the Table :

1. The table should suit the size of the paper usually with more rows than
columns. Space must be allowed for reference or any other matter which is
to be included in the table.
2. Proper self-explanatory captions and stubs should be given and they should
be arranged in some systematic order.
3. There should be proper spacing and ruling among the rows and the columns
of a table
4. In order to illustrate the facts clearly. The foot notes should be given below
the table.
5. The body of the table should be in accordance with the objectives of the
tabulation.
6. The table should be overloaded with details. If any characteristics are to be
shown. It is not necessary to load them all in one table.
7. If a figure or value is repeated, show it every time. Do not use ditto
8. Abbreviations should be avoided especially in titles and headings
9. Indicate a zero quantity by a zero and do not use zero to indicate that
information is not available.