Climate Change and Sustaina ble Development: The R esponse from Education A cross-national report from International Alliance

of Leading Education Institutes

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Climate Change
Climate Change and Sustainable
and Sustainable Development:
Development:
The Response The Response
from Education from Education
A cross-national report from
International Alliance of
Leading Education Institutes

December 2009 December 2009

DPU_Rapport_omslag_2mm_ryg.indd 1 11/30/09 2:39:47 PM

 LIST OF nATIOnAL REPORTS

LIST OF nATIOnAL REPORTS

Australia United Kingdom

Chambers, dianne (2009): Sustainable development: blum, nicole & Chris husbands (2009): Climate
The response from education - Australian country report, Change and Sustainable Development:The Response from
melbourne graduate School of education. Education in the UK. institute of education, univer-
sity of london.
Brazil
Jacobi, pedro Roberto, luciana ferreira da Silva, USA
Samia, nascimento Sulaiman, tiago Costa nepomu- feinstein, noah (2009): Education for Sustainable
ceno, lesly monteiro Ratinho (2009): Education and Development in the United States of America, depart-
climate change in Brazil, laboratory of education and ment of Curriculum and instruction, university of
environment - teia-uSp / School of education / Wisconsin-madison School of education.
university of the state of São paolo-uSp.

Canada
nazir, Joanne; erminia pedretti, John Wallace, david
montemurro and hilary inwood (2009): Climate
Change and Sustainable Development:The Response
from Education.The Canadian Perspective. Centre for LInKS TO THE nATIOnAL REPORTS
Science, mathematics and technology education,
ontario institute for Studies in education, univer- http://edusud.dk and http://dpu.dk/RPEHE
sity of toronto.

China
Yi, Jin & ping Wu (2009): IALEI-project: Climate
Change and Sustainable Development:The Response from
Education. Report from China. School of education,
beijing normal university.

Denmark
breiting, Søren; Jeppe læssøe, Karsten Schnack and
Simon Rolls (2009): Climate Change and Sustainable
Development:The Response from Education. Danish Na-
tional Report. danish School of education, university
of aarhus, Copenhagen.

Korea
Kim, Jong Wook & Chankook Kim (2009): National
Report for the project ‘Climate Change and Sustainable
Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Development – The Response from Education’. College
The Response from Education of education, Seoul national university.
CROSS-NATIONAL REPORT
South Africa
Jeppe Læssøe, Karsten Schnack, Søren Breiting and Simon Rolls Winter, Kevin (2009): Climate Change andSustainable
(Danish School of Education, University of Aarhus, Denmark) Development:The Response from Education. environ-
mental & geographical Science department, uni-
http://dpu.dk/RPEHE and http://edusud.dk 2009 versity of Cape town.

Singapore
Copyright © 2009: This publication is the copyright of the authors. The
content is available for free reproduction and distribution provided the
authors are fully credited and the content is unaltered. In all cases this goh, Kim Chuan; K.C.d. tan; C.h. Chang & g.l.
notice must remain intact. Resale strictly prohibited. ooi (2009): Climate Change and Sustainable Develop-
ment: Response from Education - The Case of Singapore.
Forsidebillede: ISTOCK
national institute of education, nanyang techno-
ISBN: 978-87-7430-088-5
logical university.

2 31

DPU_Rapport_omslag_2mm_ryg.indd 2 11/30/09 2:39:47 PM

 preface

Preface

In this report, we present the results of a cross- The core reason for the founding of the Interna-
national analysis providing a broad international tional Alliance of Leading Education Institutes was
overview of the initiatives taken and the problems the recognition that education needed a “voice”, a
involved in achieving the goals of the United Na- group that would seek to offer well-considered and
tions Decade of Education for Sustainable De- balanced advice on important educational issues. The
velopment 2005-2014 here at the midway point. group would be mindful of the views of academic
Based on the findings of research teams from ten researchers, of what evidence and practice had to say,
different countries spanning six continents, the as well as the needs for action on the policy front.
report also provides a timely survey of the ways
in which education can contribute to tackling the Each year the Alliance partners agree on an issue for
challenges of climate change. This is one of a series a common research project in order to provide the
of publications resulting from the project ‘Cli- basis for the think tank to formulate recommenda-
mate Change and Sustainable Development: The tions for the policy and practice level on how to
Response from Education’ conducted under the qualify their efforts on this issue.
auspices of the International Alliance of Leading
Education Institutes. In August 2008, Climate Change and Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) was chosen as the
The International Alliance of Leading Education issue for the next year and, as the Danish School
Institutes was founded at a meeting in Singapore on of Education holds the Alliance chair position, a
21st August 2007. Made up of ten leading institutions research team from this university was chosen to lead
in the field of teacher education and education re- the project.
search (São Paulo joined in 2008 and Cape Town in
2009), the Alliance acts as a think-tank which draws The nine other universities have contributed by
together existing expertise and research in education establishing research teams who have conducted
to generate ideas and identify trends, to serve as a national reports providing the basis for the cross-
collective voice on important educational issues and national analysis.
thus influence policy and practice in education. It
aims to inform governments, international agencies, In August 2009, the Alliance partners met at Seoul
funding bodies and the public at large, to influence National University in South Korea and discussed
policy and practice in education and thus to enhance the results of the cross-national analysis. On this basis,
the profile and quality of education internationally. eight recommendations have been formulated to in-
form and qualify policy initiatives regarding climate
The Alliance comprises representatives from the change and education. These recommendations will
following member institutes: be presented to the public at a press conference in
connection with the Copenhagen Climate Change
>> Graduate School of Education, Summit, December 2009.
The University of Melbourne, Australia
>> Faculty of Education, For the national reports and other documents from
University of São Paulo, Brazil the project and for further information, please visit
>> Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, http://dpu.dk/RPEHE or http://edusud.dk/
University of Toronto, Canada
>> School of Education,
Beijing Normal University,
People’s Republic of China
>> Danish School of Education,
University of Aarhus, Denmark
>> College of Education,
Seoul National University, South Korea
>> National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
>> Institute of Education,
University of London, United Kingdom
>> Faculty of Education,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
>> School of Education,
University of Cape Town, South Africa
3
acknowledgements contents

Acknowledgements Contents

We would like to express our warm and special 06 Introduction

thanks to the following researchers who have con- 11 Theme 1: Interpretations of ESD
tributed by conducting national reports as input to Links to the national reports
the cross-national analysis presented in this report. 16 Theme 2: Climate Change and Education
http://edusud.dk and http://dpu.dk/RPEHE 20 Theme 3: Structural conditions regarding ESD
>> Dr. Dianne Chambers,
Graduate School of Education, 26 Theme 4: Barriers related to development and implementation of ESD/CCE
The University of Melbourne, Australia 31 Theme 5: Research
>> Professor Dr. Pedro Roberto Jacobi, Luciana
Ferreira da Silva, Samia Nascimento Sulaiman, 39 List of national reports
Tiago Costa Nepomuceno and Lesly Monteiro
Ratinho,
Faculty of Education,
University of São Paulo, Brazil
>> Ms. Joanna Nazir, Professor Erminia Pedretti,
Professor John Wallace, David Montemurro
and Dr. Hilary Inwood,
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,
University of Toronto, Canada
>> Associate Professor Jin Yi and Ping Wu,
School of Education,
Beijing Normal University,
People’s Republic of China
>> Professor Jong wook Kim, Chankook Kim,
Namsoo Kim, Yisung Kim and Heekyung Kim,
College of Education,
Seoul National University, South Korea
>> Professor Kim Chuan Goh, Kim Chwee Daniel
Tan, Chew Hung Chang and Giok Ling Ooi,
National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
>> Dr. Nicole Blum and Professor Chris Husbands,
Institute of Education,
University of London, United Kingdom
>> Assistant Professor, Noah Feinstein,
School of Education,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
>> Dr. Kevin Winter,
School of Education,
University of Cape Town, South Africa

We would also like to express our gratitude and spe-

cial thanks to Dean Cho Young Dal and his staff at
Seoul National University for their excellent hosting
of the conference on ‘Climate Change and Sustain-
able Development: The Response from Education’,
19 August 2009.

The Danish research team1,

Copenhagen, November 2009.

1 Professor Jeppe Læssøe, Professor Karsten Schnack,

Associate Professor Søren Breiting, Senior Consultant Leif Glud
Holm and Research Assistant Simon Rolls.

4 5
 contents

Contents

07 Introduction
10 Theme 1: Interpretations of ESD
14 Theme 2: Climate Change and Education
17 Theme 3: Structural conditions regarding ESD
21 Theme 4: Barriers related to development and implementation of ESD/CCE
25 Theme 5: Research
31 List of national reports

DPU_Rapport_indhold_O.indd 5 12/2/09 8:31:23 PM

abbreviations introduction

Abbreviations Introduction

ESD: Education for Sustainable Development In December 2002, the United Nations Decade of recommendations for future ESD and future research
CCE: Climate Change Education Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014) in ESD. The key milestones have been to present the
EE: Environmental Education was adopted by the UN General Assembly, and results of this analysis and the resulting recommenda-
UN: United Nations UNESCO was nominated to act as lead agency for tions at the August 2009 conference of the interna-
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific the promotion of the Decade. The ambitious goal of tional alliance in Seoul, South Korea, and then later
and Cultural Organisation the Decade is to integrate the principles, values, and at a press conference in conjunction with the climate
NGO: Non Governmental Organisations practices of sustainable development into all aspects summit in Copenhagen in December 2009.
of education and learning. A sustainable future is de-
The national reports are available both compiled and fined as a development “that meets the needs of the The project has been guided by the following four
as separate documents. When cited, they are refer- present without compromising the ability of future research questions:
enced using the format (National reports: country generations to meet their own needs” (World Com-
abbreviation p.xx). The country abbreviations used mission on Environment and Development Report, >> How is the concept of ESD, and the role and chal-
are as follows: 1987). Sustainable development is viewed as a com- lenges of education in relation to sustainable de-
plex issue, encompassing economic, environmental velopment, interpreted in national strategies for the
AUS: Australia and social dimensions. In other words, sustainable promotion of ESD?
BRA: Brazil development is essential to satisfy human needs and >> What is the state-of-the-art of empirical and con-
CAN: Canada improve the quality of human life. ceptual research on ESD in the ten participating
CHN: People’s Republic of China However, although we are now at the halfway-point countries?
DEN: Denmark of the Decade for ESD, the actual role and contri- >> Is it possible to draw any conclusions on the basis
KOR: South Korea bution of education has so far mainly been dealt of existing research regarding what works (and what
RSA: South Africa with in vague terms. doesn’t)?
SIN: Singapore >> Does education play a part in the national efforts
UK: United Kingdom Since the start of the Decade of ESD in 2005, the to cope with mitigation and adaptation to climate
USA: United States of America increasing awareness of accelerating climate change change? If so, how is it approached and how do
and the potential threats to human existence has these efforts influence ESD and vice versa?
led to growing concern for environmental issues.
In December this year, the COP15 United Nations
Climate Change Conference (the 15th annual Con-
ference of the Parties) will take place in Copenha-
gen, Denmark. Here Ministers, officials, experts and
NGOs from 189 countries will discuss and try to
reach an agreement on how to tackle the challenge Research approach
of climate change. The question is whether the role This report presents the results of a comparative
of education will be included in these negotiations, analysis of the ten national reports produced
and, if so, which concept of and approach to educa- by the participating institutions. The national
tion this will entail? There are certainly good reasons analyses which, as such, form the foundation for
for providing the delegates and the global mass this report were not, however, conducted on the
media with qualified suggestions of the role educa- basis of a uniform data collection and processing
tion might play. procedure. Instead, it was decided that the design
should remain open and sensitive to the fact
The International Alliance of Leading Education that the countries involved vary greatly in terms
Institutes has therefore decided to pool its unique re- of size, and of educational and research culture
sources within the field of ESD in a project explor- and traditions. They represent divergent political
ing the response from education to the challenges of structures and have undergone different historical
climate change and sustainable development from a processes concerning the development of ESD.
truly international perspective. For these reasons, a compromise has been chosen
between a common research design, enabling
comparison, and a respect for diversity, ensuring
that each partner would be able to present a fair
representation of the situation in their country.
Therefore, at the beginning of the project, a set
of guidelines was compiled containing a long
Aim and research questions series of sub-questions concerning the study’s
The aim of the joint research project has been to car- main themes. At the same time, it was also
ry out and present a cross-national analysis and a set of emphasised these were merely guidelines and that
6 7
abbreviations introduction

Abbreviations Introduction

ESD: Education for Sustainable Development In December 2002, the United Nations Decade of recommendations for future ESD and future research
CCE: Climate Change Education Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014) in ESD. The key milestones have been to present the
EE: Environmental Education was adopted by the UN General Assembly, and results of this analysis and the resulting recommenda-
UN: United Nations UNESCO was nominated to act as lead agency for tions at the August 2009 conference of the interna-
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific the promotion of the Decade. The ambitious goal of tional alliance in Seoul, South Korea, and then later
and Cultural Organisation the Decade is to integrate the principles, values, and at a press conference in conjunction with the climate
NGO: Non Governmental Organisations practices of sustainable development into all aspects summit in Copenhagen in December 2009.
of education and learning. A sustainable future is de-
The national reports are available both compiled and fined as a development “that meets the needs of the The project has been guided by the following four
as separate documents. When cited, they are refer- present without compromising the ability of future research questions:
enced using the format (National reports: country generations to meet their own needs” (World Com-
abbreviation p.xx). The country abbreviations used mission on Environment and Development Report, >> How is the concept of ESD, and the role and chal-
are as follows: 1987). Sustainable development is viewed as a com- lenges of education in relation to sustainable de-
plex issue, encompassing economic, environmental velopment, interpreted in national strategies for the
AUS: Australia and social dimensions. In other words, sustainable promotion of ESD?
BRA: Brazil development is essential to satisfy human needs and >> What is the state-of-the-art of empirical and con-
CAN: Canada improve the quality of human life. ceptual research on ESD in the ten participating
CHN: People’s Republic of China However, although we are now at the halfway-point countries?
DEN: Denmark of the Decade for ESD, the actual role and contri- >> Is it possible to draw any conclusions on the basis
KOR: South Korea bution of education has so far mainly been dealt of existing research regarding what works (and what
RSA: South Africa with in vague terms. doesn’t)?
SIN: Singapore >> Does education play a part in the national efforts
UK: United Kingdom Since the start of the Decade of ESD in 2005, the to cope with mitigation and adaptation to climate
USA: United States of America increasing awareness of accelerating climate change change? If so, how is it approached and how do
and the potential threats to human existence has these efforts influence ESD and vice versa?
led to growing concern for environmental issues.
In December this year, the COP15 United Nations
Climate Change Conference (the 15th annual Con-
ference of the Parties) will take place in Copenha-
gen, Denmark. Here Ministers, officials, experts and
NGOs from 189 countries will discuss and try to
reach an agreement on how to tackle the challenge Research approach
of climate change. The question is whether the role This report presents the results of a comparative
of education will be included in these negotiations, analysis of the ten national reports produced
and, if so, which concept of and approach to educa- by the participating institutions. The national
tion this will entail? There are certainly good reasons analyses which, as such, form the foundation for
for providing the delegates and the global mass this report were not, however, conducted on the
media with qualified suggestions of the role educa- basis of a uniform data collection and processing
tion might play. procedure. Instead, it was decided that the design
should remain open and sensitive to the fact
The International Alliance of Leading Education that the countries involved vary greatly in terms
Institutes has therefore decided to pool its unique re- of size, and of educational and research culture
sources within the field of ESD in a project explor- and traditions. They represent divergent political
ing the response from education to the challenges of structures and have undergone different historical
climate change and sustainable development from a processes concerning the development of ESD.
truly international perspective. For these reasons, a compromise has been chosen
between a common research design, enabling
comparison, and a respect for diversity, ensuring
that each partner would be able to present a fair
representation of the situation in their country.
Therefore, at the beginning of the project, a set
of guidelines was compiled containing a long
Aim and research questions series of sub-questions concerning the study’s
The aim of the joint research project has been to car- main themes. At the same time, it was also
ry out and present a cross-national analysis and a set of emphasised these were merely guidelines and that
6 7
introduction introduction

each individual national report should contain be important differences in the approach taken to Theme 5: ESD and pedagogical traditions and develop- >> Why climate change and sustainable development
a historical analysis of the local development of ESD in countries with high levels of consump- ment tendencies: ESD and school devel­op­ment; ESD challenge the way we understand and practice
ESD which considered the sub-questions in a tion and in countries characterised by the strug- and what happens in the classroom; ESD and teach- education
meaningful way within the particular national, gle for poverty reduction through development. ing methodologies. >> Explanation: Climate Change Education (CCE)
historical context. This has resulted in ten cohesive Despite the participation of the University of Cape and Education for Sustainable Development
analyses of ESD and CCE in the countries the Town, South Africa, the African continent is greatly National analyses: Between March and May 2009, (ESD): What are we talking about?
participating institutions represent, rather than underrepresented here, while a number of other researchers from the participating institutes con- >> The role of research and researchers: The need
a string of more specific, isolated responses to areas and cultures of the world are notably missing, ducted the national analyses. These are documented for knowledge-informed innovation
individual questions. On the basis of these national not least Western and Southern Asia and Southern in reports containing a wealth of material which >> Brief description of International Alliance of Lead-
reports, the subsequent cross-national analysis and Eastern Europe. It is therefore important to be forms the basis for this policy-oriented report and its ing Education Institutes
has identified both general tendencies, significant aware that there are other views on education’s role recommendations as well as offering the opportunity >> Brief description of the joint research project:
variations, and particular phenomena considered to in relation to sustainable development and climate for other collaborative publications in the future. Climate change and sustainable development: the
have a wider relevancy. change than those described in this study, in spite of response from education
its unusually broad scope. Cross-National Analysis: The national analy- >> Climate Change and Sustainable Development:
Education for sustainable development (ESD) ses provided comprehensive data regarding what is The Response from Education. National Reports.
constitutes the area for this study, but, at the same Following the opening stages of the work on the happening in the field of ESD around the world;
time, it is a relatively new and complex concept. national analyses, a three day workshop was held in to which degree ESD is based on, and followed by,
Neither education nor sustainable development is Copenhagen at the beginning of March 2009 where educational research; and how global climate change
unambiguous and straightforward concepts, so ESD a number of points were cleared up and a more concerns influence approaches to ESD and efforts
is very much open to interpretation. Settling on precise design for the compilation of the reports within this field. After the preliminary stages of the
one fixed definition of education and sustainable was agreed upon. This included a decision to adopt work on the cross-national analysis, we decided upon
development would have meant excluding other a historical perspective on the construction of ESD an organisation and presentation of the analysis di-
interpretations, perspectives and data right from in the individual nations and preserve the historical- vided in five themes which are entirely not identical
the start. In order to ensure a focussed study whilst cultural narrative throughout the document. It was to those found in the guidelines. These five themes
simultaneously maintaining openness and sensitivity also decided that the national analyses should, when are presented below.
toward the use of the concept of ESD in different appropriate, include political documents not stem-
contexts, we used UNESCO’s official documents ming from national government in that ESD policy
on the UN Decade for ESD in compiling the in some countries is more or less non-existent at the
guidelines for the national reports, but also made national level. In such cases, including documents
a point of allowing these analyses the opportunity from regional authorities and, in some instances,
to consider the various ways ESD is perceived and NGOs is necessary to provide a more accurate
practised. It has proven to be the case that ESD, due picture of activities. A third important decision was The structure of the report:
to the UN’s use of the term, can today be regarded to focus the study on formal education and, more The report is organised around a presentation of the
as an all-embracing umbrella term, but, at the same particularly, on compulsory schooling. five themes identified in the cross-national analysis:
time, that there exists criticism of the term and al-
ternatives to it in the various national contexts. The >> Theme 1:
open approach taken here enables us to observe and Interpretations of ESD
describe this ambiguity. >> Theme 2:
Climate Change and Education
The strength of this study lies in its scope. With the >> Theme 3:
participation of researchers from ten nations, the Project design Structural conditions regarding ESD
report provides a broad overview of the current situ- The study has been conducted in three phases: >> Theme 4:
ation and developments regarding ESD and CCE in developing a set of common guidelines, compiling Barriers related to development
countries of varying size and representing each and ten national reports, and conducting a cross-national and implementation of ESD/CCE
every continent. Breadth often stands in opposition analysis. >> Theme 5:
to depth, and indeed, such a relatively wide-reaching Research
short-term project as this cannot fully take into The guidelines contained a number of questions
account the amount of detail and depth the field divided into the following five themes: Each of these chapters commences with a descrip-
contains. For researchers and practitioners involved Theme 1 ESD - overall conception: Concept, identity, tion of the key issue or issues at stake. Findings are
in ESD and related areas, this report may feel incom- profile then presented across the national reports. The chap-
plete. A phrase from the US national report can, in Theme 2 Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) ters conclude with reflections on these findings.
this sense, be said to apply to the study as a whole: and Sustainable Development (SD); Climate Change
“Thoroughness was too great a goal for the scope of Education (CCE) and Climate Change (CC): The role Please note: This report has been compiled as the
the work; usefulness, hopefully, was not”. of education in relation to the challenges of sustain- knowledge basis for the IALEI conference in Seoul,
able development and climate change respectively August 2009, and the development of a set of joint
Despite the breadth of the study, attention must be Theme 3 Education for Sustainable Development and recommendations for the policy level. For this reason
drawn to certain limitations regarding the global Climate Change Education (ESD and CCE): Relation- it does not include a conclusion. At our homepages
perspective. As such, the ten nations may represent ships between Education for Sustainable Develop- – http://edusud.dk and http://dpu.dk/RPEHE – you
the different continents, but they are not among the ment and Climate Change Education. can find the following documents, based on the
world’s poorest nations. This is important to note, as Theme 4 ESD & the curriculum: Including evalua- cross-national analysis in this report and IALEI pres-
the challenges of climate change and ESD are clear- tion, assessment, success-criteria, and the question of entations and discussions in Seoul:
ly different in less economically developed countries the relationships between ESD and the (academic) >> The eight policy recommendations
in a number of ways. There are therefore likely to disciplines. >> Promising practices
8 9
introduction introduction

each individual national report should contain be important differences in the approach taken to Theme 5: ESD and pedagogical traditions and develop- >> Why climate change and sustainable development
a historical analysis of the local development of ESD in countries with high levels of consump- ment tendencies: ESD and school devel­op­ment; ESD challenge the way we understand and practice
ESD which considered the sub-questions in a tion and in countries characterised by the strug- and what happens in the classroom; ESD and teach- education
meaningful way within the particular national, gle for poverty reduction through development. ing methodologies. >> Explanation: Climate Change Education (CCE)
historical context. This has resulted in ten cohesive Despite the participation of the University of Cape and Education for Sustainable Development
analyses of ESD and CCE in the countries the Town, South Africa, the African continent is greatly National analyses: Between March and May 2009, (ESD): What are we talking about?
participating institutions represent, rather than underrepresented here, while a number of other researchers from the participating institutes con- >> The role of research and researchers: The need
a string of more specific, isolated responses to areas and cultures of the world are notably missing, ducted the national analyses. These are documented for knowledge-informed innovation
individual questions. On the basis of these national not least Western and Southern Asia and Southern in reports containing a wealth of material which >> Brief description of International Alliance of Lead-
reports, the subsequent cross-national analysis and Eastern Europe. It is therefore important to be forms the basis for this policy-oriented report and its ing Education Institutes
has identified both general tendencies, significant aware that there are other views on education’s role recommendations as well as offering the opportunity >> Brief description of the joint research project:
variations, and particular phenomena considered to in relation to sustainable development and climate for other collaborative publications in the future. Climate change and sustainable development: the
have a wider relevancy. change than those described in this study, in spite of response from education
its unusually broad scope. Cross-National Analysis: The national analy- >> Climate Change and Sustainable Development:
Education for sustainable development (ESD) ses provided comprehensive data regarding what is The Response from Education. National Reports.
constitutes the area for this study, but, at the same Following the opening stages of the work on the happening in the field of ESD around the world;
time, it is a relatively new and complex concept. national analyses, a three day workshop was held in to which degree ESD is based on, and followed by,
Neither education nor sustainable development is Copenhagen at the beginning of March 2009 where educational research; and how global climate change
unambiguous and straightforward concepts, so ESD a number of points were cleared up and a more concerns influence approaches to ESD and efforts
is very much open to interpretation. Settling on precise design for the compilation of the reports within this field. After the preliminary stages of the
one fixed definition of education and sustainable was agreed upon. This included a decision to adopt work on the cross-national analysis, we decided upon
development would have meant excluding other a historical perspective on the construction of ESD an organisation and presentation of the analysis di-
interpretations, perspectives and data right from in the individual nations and preserve the historical- vided in five themes which are entirely not identical
the start. In order to ensure a focussed study whilst cultural narrative throughout the document. It was to those found in the guidelines. These five themes
simultaneously maintaining openness and sensitivity also decided that the national analyses should, when are presented below.
toward the use of the concept of ESD in different appropriate, include political documents not stem-
contexts, we used UNESCO’s official documents ming from national government in that ESD policy
on the UN Decade for ESD in compiling the in some countries is more or less non-existent at the
guidelines for the national reports, but also made national level. In such cases, including documents
a point of allowing these analyses the opportunity from regional authorities and, in some instances,
to consider the various ways ESD is perceived and NGOs is necessary to provide a more accurate
practised. It has proven to be the case that ESD, due picture of activities. A third important decision was The structure of the report:
to the UN’s use of the term, can today be regarded to focus the study on formal education and, more The report is organised around a presentation of the
as an all-embracing umbrella term, but, at the same particularly, on compulsory schooling. five themes identified in the cross-national analysis:
time, that there exists criticism of the term and al-
ternatives to it in the various national contexts. The >> Theme 1:
open approach taken here enables us to observe and Interpretations of ESD
describe this ambiguity. >> Theme 2:
Climate Change and Education
The strength of this study lies in its scope. With the >> Theme 3:
participation of researchers from ten nations, the Project design Structural conditions regarding ESD
report provides a broad overview of the current situ- The study has been conducted in three phases: >> Theme 4:
ation and developments regarding ESD and CCE in developing a set of common guidelines, compiling Barriers related to development
countries of varying size and representing each and ten national reports, and conducting a cross-national and implementation of ESD/CCE
every continent. Breadth often stands in opposition analysis. >> Theme 5:
to depth, and indeed, such a relatively wide-reaching Research
short-term project as this cannot fully take into The guidelines contained a number of questions
account the amount of detail and depth the field divided into the following five themes: Each of these chapters commences with a descrip-
contains. For researchers and practitioners involved Theme 1 ESD - overall conception: Concept, identity, tion of the key issue or issues at stake. Findings are
in ESD and related areas, this report may feel incom- profile then presented across the national reports. The chap-
plete. A phrase from the US national report can, in Theme 2 Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) ters conclude with reflections on these findings.
this sense, be said to apply to the study as a whole: and Sustainable Development (SD); Climate Change
“Thoroughness was too great a goal for the scope of Education (CCE) and Climate Change (CC): The role Please note: This report has been compiled as the
the work; usefulness, hopefully, was not”. of education in relation to the challenges of sustain- knowledge basis for the IALEI conference in Seoul,
able development and climate change respectively August 2009, and the development of a set of joint
Despite the breadth of the study, attention must be Theme 3 Education for Sustainable Development and recommendations for the policy level. For this reason
drawn to certain limitations regarding the global Climate Change Education (ESD and CCE): Relation- it does not include a conclusion. At our homepages
perspective. As such, the ten nations may represent ships between Education for Sustainable Develop- – http://edusud.dk and http://dpu.dk/RPEHE – you
the different continents, but they are not among the ment and Climate Change Education. can find the following documents, based on the
world’s poorest nations. This is important to note, as Theme 4 ESD & the curriculum: Including evalua- cross-national analysis in this report and IALEI pres-
the challenges of climate change and ESD are clear- tion, assessment, success-criteria, and the question of entations and discussions in Seoul:
ly different in less economically developed countries the relationships between ESD and the (academic) >> The eight policy recommendations
in a number of ways. There are therefore likely to disciplines. >> Promising practices
8 9
theme 1 theme 1

Theme 1: tion in the curriculum with the purpose of bring-

ing some knowledge and awareness to the school
Other countries, rather than breaking ESD into
themes, list a set of constitutive principles. In Aus-

Interpretations of ESD
children or undergraduates, they remain what it has tralia, for example, the new ‘National Action Plan for
always been – environmental education.Very little Education for Sustainability’ (April 2009) outlines
emphasis has been given to the message of sustain- the following principles based on a holistic approach
able development and climate change and its impact” to ESD: “Transformation and change, Education for
(National reports: SIN p. 266). all and lifelong learning, Systems thinking, Envision-
Another example can be found in the report from ing a better future, Critical thinking and reflection,
USA: “As might be expected, publicly available EE Participation, and Partnership for change” (National
curriculum resources vary widely in their relevance reports: AUS p. 13). It is clear from the Australian
to ESD. A strong programmatic focus on social equity report that “a goal of ESD is to develop ’informed
highly influential in the USA, describes the mul- is notably absent from many of the most promi- and involved citizens’ who can actively participate in
tidimensionality of ESD in this way: “The goals of nent EE curricula. Although there has always been decision-making and actions for sustainable develop-
The issue sustainability are often referred to as environmental a thread of concern for equity and social justice ment” (National reports: AUS p. 14).
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) integrity, economic prosperity, and social equity. within the broader field of environmental educa-
is an open, vibrant, and contested concept and is Education for Sustainability, or EFS, tries to bring tion (cf. Cole, 2007), Kushmerick,Young and Stein This last passage also indicates an understanding of
likely to remain so. This is due partly to the exist- these three goals of sustainability closer to reality. (2007) found that this concern was only infrequently education’s role within society regarding SD which
ence of innumerable interpretations of education It promotes understanding the interconnectedness reflected in mainstream EE resources” (National links ESD with citizenship education, emphasizing the
and of the role and function it should have within of environ­ment, economy, and society” (National reports: USA p. 342). role of pupils as active participants in the (democratic)
society, and partly to the intrinsic tension con- reports: USA p. 332). This is in itself an enormous decision-making process, rather than then portraying
tained within the concept of sustainable develop- challenge for education, a challenge that is magni- The Chinese report reveals (National reports: CHN them as recipients of pre-determined ‘correct’ opinions.
ment (SD), a phrase that has been controversial fied in the context of an institution (the school) that pp. 119-125) that EE in China entered a third phase In Singapore, a more directive approach is adopted
since it entered the public conscience with the is typically organised according to strict principles after 1992, a phase involving a reorientation to when it is stated that “They [the pupils] should be nur-
publication in 1987 of the so-called Brundtland of disciplinarity. ‘environmental education for sustainability’ or ESD. tured to act beneficially towards the environment”, and
report Our Common Future. The considerable Among Chinese educators, it is ’widely accepted that ESD is regarded as a ‘proactive movement’ (National
impact of ‘SD’ is linked to this intrinsic tension – ESD was rooted in EE’, but also that ESD repre- reports: SIN p. 256). In Korea, also, ESD is employed
the concept, with its juxtaposition of the words sents a considerable broadening of the perspective to ensure that society develops in a particular direction:
‘sustainable’ and ‘development’, can help to bridge in accordance with and inspired by international “Education should be a core strategy of sustainable de-
the gap between otherwise conflicting interests. statements from UNESCO and others. The social, velopment because the ‘people’ is the most important
Environmentalists tend to promote conservation, economic and cultural factors are incorporated and factor for driving sustainable development (Lee et al.
protection and restoration while advocates for Findings a developmental perspective in relation to future 2005)” (National reports: KOR p. 201). Ultimately, it is
development tend to value productivity, progress A certain degree of variation in terminology can be generations is given a central role. Concern for difficult to infer from such broad statements whether
and change. Both positions are associated with a observed across the participating IALEI countries, future generations is considered to be especially ESD in a particular is seen as instrumental or open-
number of problems, however. By agreeing on a with examples including ’Education for sustainabil- congruent with Chinese culture and a traditional ended, whether it is a means to pre-determined ends
concept of sustainable development it would seem ity’ (e.g. USA and Australia), ’Environ­mental educa- Chinese way of thinking (with reference to Confu- or a way of enhancing broader reflection and decision-
possible, at least on the surface, to establish some tion for sustainability’ (e.g. China), and ’Learning for cius). The transition from EE to ESD in China is not making about sustainability.
common ground from which to tackle the global a sustainable future’ (e.g. Canada). These variations only a broadening in focus from a ‘layer of ‘nature’’
challenges we face. do not correspond to clear or consistent differences to a ‘holistic ‘environment’ which involved ecology, This theme is closely related to the question of
in meaning, however, and are generally not ascribed society, economy and politics’, but also an equally whether ESD is viewed from an empowerment
When the individually complex concepts of educa- any great significance in the national reports (e.g. vital shift from a ‘layer of skills and knowledge’ to a perspective or a behaviour modification perspective.
tion and sustainable development are combined, AUS). The designation ‘Education for Sustainable ‘holistic ‘education’ which involved awareness, values, From an empowerment perspective, the goal is to help
the result is a hyper-complex concept which is very Development’, as used for the UN Decade, seems and ethics’. Moreover ‘all these changes were caused the pupil’s development as an independent thinker
open to interpretation. This provides ample opportu- to be gaining in prevalence to the extent that it is through critical thinking and the participatory spirit who considers and engages with society’s important
nity for implementation in accordance with na- able to function as an umbrella term encompassing of ESD.’ Despite this consensus about the meaning challenges, both alone and especially in dialogue with
tional or regional cultures and traditions which can regional variations (e.g. UK). of ESD in China, it is possible to identify ‘huge gaps others. From a behaviour modification perspective,
increase the viability and diversity of ESD projects, as between theory and practice, policy and implemen- the goal is to alter a pupil’s habits in line with more or
encouraged by UNESCO and similar organizations. In most countries ’Environmental Education’ (EE) is tation of ESD’ (Tian, 2008). less prescribed ideals, which are not themselves open
On the other hand, the openness of the concept can a more established field. Educational initiatives and, in for discussion. The criteria for success, and thereby the
result in ESD being used as a blanket term for more particular, research of relevance to ESD can often be In a number of IALEI countries, overall, compre- indicators and evaluation parameters, differ consider-
or less anything, including the continuation of the found under the name of EE. There are considerable hensive stipulations exist regarding ESD, although ably depending on the perspective.
status quo, or as a convenient label for new initiatives differences in terms of how important it is considered they are dealt with in different ways. In Korea there
actually implemented for other reasons. to clearly distinguish between EE and ESD and of is a list of themes divided into three types of per- This difference can also be articulated as a question
the extent to which ESD is perceived as an evolution spective: Socio-cultural perspectives, environmental of whether ESD is concerned with ‘narrow behav-
ESD is practically as well as conceptually complex, and broadening of EE or as something new entirely. perspectives, and economic perspectives (KOR). The iour’ or ‘socio-political actors’, a question, which has
involving a high degree of interdisciplinarity. If Across the IALEI countries, expansive understandings themes highlighted under the first of these perspec- been a theme in England. Here, there has likewise
sustainable development is fundamentally a matter of ESD such as those found in UNESCO documents tives include some that are commonly found within been distinguished between a content-determined
of ensuring a good existence for everybody both in were more prevalent in general policy statements, peace education, such as re-unification and conflict interpretation of ESD and an interpretation more
the present and in the future, then it involves not while curricula, teaching materials and classroom resolution, and ’desires of public participation in focused on processes and on the development of
just an array of different dimensions and disciplines practices are more likely to embody a narrower per- social issues have been increased’. The list demon- general competencies such as critical thinking (UK).
including ecology, economy, culture, politics and so spective consistent with a traditional EE approach. strates that ESD is viewed not only as a continuation The latter interpretation can be illustrated by the
forth, but also extensively the interaction between and broadening of EE, but that other related fields Australian principles outlined above, whilst the
them. The Vermont Guide to Education for Sustain- The report from Singapore states: “while there has such as peace education are also ‘regarded as kinds of Korean approach may illustrate a more content-
ability, produced by one of the NGOs that are been some integration of environmental educa- subject or sub-areas constituting ESD’. determined interpretation.
10 11
theme 1 theme 1

Theme 1: tion in the curriculum with the purpose of bring-

ing some knowledge and awareness to the school
Other countries, rather than breaking ESD into
themes, list a set of constitutive principles. In Aus-

Interpretations of ESD
children or undergraduates, they remain what it has tralia, for example, the new ‘National Action Plan for
always been – environmental education.Very little Education for Sustainability’ (April 2009) outlines
emphasis has been given to the message of sustain- the following principles based on a holistic approach
able development and climate change and its impact” to ESD: “Transformation and change, Education for
(National reports: SIN p. 266). all and lifelong learning, Systems thinking, Envision-
Another example can be found in the report from ing a better future, Critical thinking and reflection,
USA: “As might be expected, publicly available EE Participation, and Partnership for change” (National
curriculum resources vary widely in their relevance reports: AUS p. 13). It is clear from the Australian
to ESD. A strong programmatic focus on social equity report that “a goal of ESD is to develop ’informed
highly influential in the USA, describes the mul- is notably absent from many of the most promi- and involved citizens’ who can actively participate in
tidimensionality of ESD in this way: “The goals of nent EE curricula. Although there has always been decision-making and actions for sustainable develop-
The issue sustainability are often referred to as environmental a thread of concern for equity and social justice ment” (National reports: AUS p. 14).
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) integrity, economic prosperity, and social equity. within the broader field of environmental educa-
is an open, vibrant, and contested concept and is Education for Sustainability, or EFS, tries to bring tion (cf. Cole, 2007), Kushmerick,Young and Stein This last passage also indicates an understanding of
likely to remain so. This is due partly to the exist- these three goals of sustainability closer to reality. (2007) found that this concern was only infrequently education’s role within society regarding SD which
ence of innumerable interpretations of education It promotes understanding the interconnectedness reflected in mainstream EE resources” (National links ESD with citizenship education, emphasizing the
and of the role and function it should have within of environ­ment, economy, and society” (National reports: USA p. 342). role of pupils as active participants in the (democratic)
society, and partly to the intrinsic tension con- reports: USA p. 332). This is in itself an enormous decision-making process, rather than then portraying
tained within the concept of sustainable develop- challenge for education, a challenge that is magni- The Chinese report reveals (National reports: CHN them as recipients of pre-determined ‘correct’ opinions.
ment (SD), a phrase that has been controversial fied in the context of an institution (the school) that pp. 119-125) that EE in China entered a third phase In Singapore, a more directive approach is adopted
since it entered the public conscience with the is typically organised according to strict principles after 1992, a phase involving a reorientation to when it is stated that “They [the pupils] should be nur-
publication in 1987 of the so-called Brundtland of disciplinarity. ‘environmental education for sustainability’ or ESD. tured to act beneficially towards the environment”, and
report Our Common Future. The considerable Among Chinese educators, it is ’widely accepted that ESD is regarded as a ‘proactive movement’ (National
impact of ‘SD’ is linked to this intrinsic tension – ESD was rooted in EE’, but also that ESD repre- reports: SIN p. 256). In Korea, also, ESD is employed
the concept, with its juxtaposition of the words sents a considerable broadening of the perspective to ensure that society develops in a particular direction:
‘sustainable’ and ‘development’, can help to bridge in accordance with and inspired by international “Education should be a core strategy of sustainable de-
the gap between otherwise conflicting interests. statements from UNESCO and others. The social, velopment because the ‘people’ is the most important
Environmentalists tend to promote conservation, economic and cultural factors are incorporated and factor for driving sustainable development (Lee et al.
protection and restoration while advocates for Findings a developmental perspective in relation to future 2005)” (National reports: KOR p. 201). Ultimately, it is
development tend to value productivity, progress A certain degree of variation in terminology can be generations is given a central role. Concern for difficult to infer from such broad statements whether
and change. Both positions are associated with a observed across the participating IALEI countries, future generations is considered to be especially ESD in a particular is seen as instrumental or open-
number of problems, however. By agreeing on a with examples including ’Education for sustainabil- congruent with Chinese culture and a traditional ended, whether it is a means to pre-determined ends
concept of sustainable development it would seem ity’ (e.g. USA and Australia), ’Environ­mental educa- Chinese way of thinking (with reference to Confu- or a way of enhancing broader reflection and decision-
possible, at least on the surface, to establish some tion for sustainability’ (e.g. China), and ’Learning for cius). The transition from EE to ESD in China is not making about sustainability.
common ground from which to tackle the global a sustainable future’ (e.g. Canada). These variations only a broadening in focus from a ‘layer of ‘nature’’
challenges we face. do not correspond to clear or consistent differences to a ‘holistic ‘environment’ which involved ecology, This theme is closely related to the question of
in meaning, however, and are generally not ascribed society, economy and politics’, but also an equally whether ESD is viewed from an empowerment
When the individually complex concepts of educa- any great significance in the national reports (e.g. vital shift from a ‘layer of skills and knowledge’ to a perspective or a behaviour modification perspective.
tion and sustainable development are combined, AUS). The designation ‘Education for Sustainable ‘holistic ‘education’ which involved awareness, values, From an empowerment perspective, the goal is to help
the result is a hyper-complex concept which is very Development’, as used for the UN Decade, seems and ethics’. Moreover ‘all these changes were caused the pupil’s development as an independent thinker
open to interpretation. This provides ample opportu- to be gaining in prevalence to the extent that it is through critical thinking and the participatory spirit who considers and engages with society’s important
nity for implementation in accordance with na- able to function as an umbrella term encompassing of ESD.’ Despite this consensus about the meaning challenges, both alone and especially in dialogue with
tional or regional cultures and traditions which can regional variations (e.g. UK). of ESD in China, it is possible to identify ‘huge gaps others. From a behaviour modification perspective,
increase the viability and diversity of ESD projects, as between theory and practice, policy and implemen- the goal is to alter a pupil’s habits in line with more or
encouraged by UNESCO and similar organizations. In most countries ’Environmental Education’ (EE) is tation of ESD’ (Tian, 2008). less prescribed ideals, which are not themselves open
On the other hand, the openness of the concept can a more established field. Educational initiatives and, in for discussion. The criteria for success, and thereby the
result in ESD being used as a blanket term for more particular, research of relevance to ESD can often be In a number of IALEI countries, overall, compre- indicators and evaluation parameters, differ consider-
or less anything, including the continuation of the found under the name of EE. There are considerable hensive stipulations exist regarding ESD, although ably depending on the perspective.
status quo, or as a convenient label for new initiatives differences in terms of how important it is considered they are dealt with in different ways. In Korea there
actually implemented for other reasons. to clearly distinguish between EE and ESD and of is a list of themes divided into three types of per- This difference can also be articulated as a question
the extent to which ESD is perceived as an evolution spective: Socio-cultural perspectives, environmental of whether ESD is concerned with ‘narrow behav-
ESD is practically as well as conceptually complex, and broadening of EE or as something new entirely. perspectives, and economic perspectives (KOR). The iour’ or ‘socio-political actors’, a question, which has
involving a high degree of interdisciplinarity. If Across the IALEI countries, expansive understandings themes highlighted under the first of these perspec- been a theme in England. Here, there has likewise
sustainable development is fundamentally a matter of ESD such as those found in UNESCO documents tives include some that are commonly found within been distinguished between a content-determined
of ensuring a good existence for everybody both in were more prevalent in general policy statements, peace education, such as re-unification and conflict interpretation of ESD and an interpretation more
the present and in the future, then it involves not while curricula, teaching materials and classroom resolution, and ’desires of public participation in focused on processes and on the development of
just an array of different dimensions and disciplines practices are more likely to embody a narrower per- social issues have been increased’. The list demon- general competencies such as critical thinking (UK).
including ecology, economy, culture, politics and so spective consistent with a traditional EE approach. strates that ESD is viewed not only as a continuation The latter interpretation can be illustrated by the
forth, but also extensively the interaction between and broadening of EE, but that other related fields Australian principles outlined above, whilst the
them. The Vermont Guide to Education for Sustain- The report from Singapore states: “while there has such as peace education are also ‘regarded as kinds of Korean approach may illustrate a more content-
ability, produced by one of the NGOs that are been some integration of environmental educa- subject or sub-areas constituting ESD’. determined interpretation.
10 11
theme 1 augus

The national reports for the most part indicate promote the application of standardised assessments or humanitarian NGOs that are the primary source
that the overriding approach in the investigated within formal education (UK). of pressure on the educational sector in relation to
policy documents is an empowerment approach, an intensification of ESD efforts. As such interest
but the findings are by no means clear-cut. In many Thirdly, and not least, the competence oriented ap- groups are by nature somewhat, partisan and prima-
cases, both the empowerment and behaviour- proach requires innovations in schools that can be rily concerned with a cause other than general edu-
modification perspectives are embedded within a difficult to implement. This will be further detailed cation, the pressure they bring to bear typically in-
national approach to ESD even though the two are in theme 3 and 4. volves harnessing education in the service of specific
not logically compatible. This may be regarded as a objectives. Sometimes Ministries of Environment
pragmatic compromise in the negotiations of differ- and other governmental bodies can play a similar
ent input. role, as they are otherwise not involved in education
and educational policy, but are interested in using
As it appears from the country reports from e.g. education as an instrument to achieve particular
China and South Korea, the development of ESD is targets, such as a reduction in carbon emissions.
not a process restricted by national borders. It is to Reflections
a large extent inspired by input from, and coop- As detailed in the Canadian report, there is an ongo- Finally, in a number of countries, such as Denmark,
eration with, international agents (CHN, KOR). ing conceptual critique of ESD in the academic a discrepancy can be observed between the inter-
At the same time ESD-researchers in some of the literature. Scholars including Bob Jickling, Lucie pretation within the research environment of ESD,
countries have, more or less directly, influenced the Sauvé and Connie Russell have argued that the ’of- including CCE, and the tendency within the policy
descriptions of ESD at the policy level. The role ficial’ UNESCO concept of ESD contains a number environment to reduce such an understanding to one
of educational researchers has, as will be explained of weaknesses that, combined, make ESD a step which is in part easier to govern and measure within
further in theme 5, partly been to interpret and backward from EE. Inspired by David Bell, it can a top-down model, in part more limited in terms of
discuss the concept of ESD and, as part of this, not be considered a decisive question whether ‘ESD is a disciplines, perhaps in line with a pre-existing policy
least to reflect critically on the narrow behaviour cure or placebo, that is, a means of helping mankind objective of raising the profile of particular subjects.
modification approach (UK, USA, CAN, DEN, attain a more sustainable future or a distracter from
CHN). Thus, with close relations to the policy the main challenges facing mankind (Bell, 2007)’ As described in the section on findings, these re-
level, it seems reasonable that educational research- (National reports: CAN p. 104ff). ductions are not dominant in the overall purpose
ers to some extend have inspired the officers at descriptions of ESD. In general, they contain a broad
the policy level to include empowerment-oriented For several of the critics, ‘sustainable development’ collection of ideal formulations, as often seen in such
formulations in the overall purpose of policy to is ‘nothing more than a vague slogan susceptible policy documents. However, the challenge during
promote ESD. The crucial question is, however, to manipulation and deception’ (National reports: the coming years will be to transform the ideals into
whether this comprehensive approach to ESD CAN p. 105). They posit that there is a particular practice; that is to create the opportunities for imple-
remains rhetoric proclamations or whether it is ideology intrinsic to ESD that can all too easily mentation of the more comprehensive competence
converted into regular policy initiatives and con- lead to indoctrination with certain values and ideas. oriented approach to ESD.
crete practice? The last mentioned possibility is, for More specifically, it is claimed that ESD is but-
several reasons, doubtful: tressed by: a resource view of the environment, an
economic view of development, and an instrumen-
Firstly, ESD combines, on the one hand, the educa- tal view of education. On a deeper level, there is
tional field and its discourses and, on the other hand, criticism of the anthropocentric orientation within
sustainable development and the discourses that domi- ESD and the attempt to submit EE to this world-
nate this field.The competence oriented approach view, something which is inconsistent with their
is related to the first mentioned, while the wishes to view that EE is, or at least should be, based upon an
promote behavioural modification of the population ecocentric worldview.
are related to the technical-instrumental logic that
dominates environmental management.The tensions On the basis of this international study, it does indeed
between these positions are evident from several of the appear that anthropocentrism is a consistent charac-
country reports.The report from USA contains an il- teristic of the various national approaches to ESD. This
lustrative example.This example shows how a technol- should come as no surprise, given that ESD emphasiz-
ogy oriented draft for ESD with a narrow informative es the needs of current and future human generations.
strategy, was transformed through negotiations with Yet there is no doubt that ‘need,’ like ‘sustainability’,
other types of agents, including the educational com- is an open and disputed concept with an inherent
munity, with the result that it ended up as a much normativity. Our findings do not provide substantia-
broader competence oriented approach. In some of tion for claims that there will (always) be a reduction
the participating countries the tensions between the in the ethical and political reflections involved in de-
different approaches are accentuated by the efforts to termining what counts as genuine and worthy needs.
promote sustainable development by means of techno- Conversely, it is not always apparent from the mate-
logical and economic innovation (CAN, SIN, KOR). rial that a more indoctrinating pedagogy has been
clearly rejected. Perhaps this is sometimes implied as a
Secondly, the competence oriented approach is also matter of course, but it likely deserves a more explicit
contested by other aims and conceptions in the field thematization.
of education. To this belongs partly the emphasis on
qualifications requested by the business community Another source of a potential reduction in both the
and, thus, of great importance for the economic breadth and depth of the concept of ESD has to do
development (DEN, SIN), partly the recent trends to with the fact that often, it is various environmental
12 13
theme 1 augus

The national reports for the most part indicate promote the application of standardised assessments or humanitarian NGOs that are the primary source
that the overriding approach in the investigated within formal education (UK). of pressure on the educational sector in relation to
policy documents is an empowerment approach, an intensification of ESD efforts. As such interest
but the findings are by no means clear-cut. In many Thirdly, and not least, the competence oriented ap- groups are by nature somewhat, partisan and prima-
cases, both the empowerment and behaviour- proach requires innovations in schools that can be rily concerned with a cause other than general edu-
modification perspectives are embedded within a difficult to implement. This will be further detailed cation, the pressure they bring to bear typically in-
national approach to ESD even though the two are in theme 3 and 4. volves harnessing education in the service of specific
not logically compatible. This may be regarded as a objectives. Sometimes Ministries of Environment
pragmatic compromise in the negotiations of differ- and other governmental bodies can play a similar
ent input. role, as they are otherwise not involved in education
and educational policy, but are interested in using
As it appears from the country reports from e.g. education as an instrument to achieve particular
China and South Korea, the development of ESD is targets, such as a reduction in carbon emissions.
not a process restricted by national borders. It is to Reflections
a large extent inspired by input from, and coop- As detailed in the Canadian report, there is an ongo- Finally, in a number of countries, such as Denmark,
eration with, international agents (CHN, KOR). ing conceptual critique of ESD in the academic a discrepancy can be observed between the inter-
At the same time ESD-researchers in some of the literature. Scholars including Bob Jickling, Lucie pretation within the research environment of ESD,
countries have, more or less directly, influenced the Sauvé and Connie Russell have argued that the ’of- including CCE, and the tendency within the policy
descriptions of ESD at the policy level. The role ficial’ UNESCO concept of ESD contains a number environment to reduce such an understanding to one
of educational researchers has, as will be explained of weaknesses that, combined, make ESD a step which is in part easier to govern and measure within
further in theme 5, partly been to interpret and backward from EE. Inspired by David Bell, it can a top-down model, in part more limited in terms of
discuss the concept of ESD and, as part of this, not be considered a decisive question whether ‘ESD is a disciplines, perhaps in line with a pre-existing policy
least to reflect critically on the narrow behaviour cure or placebo, that is, a means of helping mankind objective of raising the profile of particular subjects.
modification approach (UK, USA, CAN, DEN, attain a more sustainable future or a distracter from
CHN). Thus, with close relations to the policy the main challenges facing mankind (Bell, 2007)’ As described in the section on findings, these re-
level, it seems reasonable that educational research- (National reports: CAN p. 104ff). ductions are not dominant in the overall purpose
ers to some extend have inspired the officers at descriptions of ESD. In general, they contain a broad
the policy level to include empowerment-oriented For several of the critics, ‘sustainable development’ collection of ideal formulations, as often seen in such
formulations in the overall purpose of policy to is ‘nothing more than a vague slogan susceptible policy documents. However, the challenge during
promote ESD. The crucial question is, however, to manipulation and deception’ (National reports: the coming years will be to transform the ideals into
whether this comprehensive approach to ESD CAN p. 105). They posit that there is a particular practice; that is to create the opportunities for imple-
remains rhetoric proclamations or whether it is ideology intrinsic to ESD that can all too easily mentation of the more comprehensive competence
converted into regular policy initiatives and con- lead to indoctrination with certain values and ideas. oriented approach to ESD.
crete practice? The last mentioned possibility is, for More specifically, it is claimed that ESD is but-
several reasons, doubtful: tressed by: a resource view of the environment, an
economic view of development, and an instrumen-
Firstly, ESD combines, on the one hand, the educa- tal view of education. On a deeper level, there is
tional field and its discourses and, on the other hand, criticism of the anthropocentric orientation within
sustainable development and the discourses that domi- ESD and the attempt to submit EE to this world-
nate this field.The competence oriented approach view, something which is inconsistent with their
is related to the first mentioned, while the wishes to view that EE is, or at least should be, based upon an
promote behavioural modification of the population ecocentric worldview.
are related to the technical-instrumental logic that
dominates environmental management.The tensions On the basis of this international study, it does indeed
between these positions are evident from several of the appear that anthropocentrism is a consistent charac-
country reports.The report from USA contains an il- teristic of the various national approaches to ESD. This
lustrative example.This example shows how a technol- should come as no surprise, given that ESD emphasiz-
ogy oriented draft for ESD with a narrow informative es the needs of current and future human generations.
strategy, was transformed through negotiations with Yet there is no doubt that ‘need,’ like ‘sustainability’,
other types of agents, including the educational com- is an open and disputed concept with an inherent
munity, with the result that it ended up as a much normativity. Our findings do not provide substantia-
broader competence oriented approach. In some of tion for claims that there will (always) be a reduction
the participating countries the tensions between the in the ethical and political reflections involved in de-
different approaches are accentuated by the efforts to termining what counts as genuine and worthy needs.
promote sustainable development by means of techno- Conversely, it is not always apparent from the mate-
logical and economic innovation (CAN, SIN, KOR). rial that a more indoctrinating pedagogy has been
clearly rejected. Perhaps this is sometimes implied as a
Secondly, the competence oriented approach is also matter of course, but it likely deserves a more explicit
contested by other aims and conceptions in the field thematization.
of education. To this belongs partly the emphasis on
qualifications requested by the business community Another source of a potential reduction in both the
and, thus, of great importance for the economic breadth and depth of the concept of ESD has to do
development (DEN, SIN), partly the recent trends to with the fact that often, it is various environmental
12 13
theme 2 theme 2

Theme 2: realm of practice, climate change is situated within

EE and ESD, a minor theme of a peripheral area
true of other countries as well (e.g. Singapore) and
one reason could be that the national climate policy

Climate Change
of the curriculum. Given the intense and growing documents target the populace whereas education is
interest in CCE, however, it is important to antici- within the purview of another ministry and it is left
pate the possible scenarios under which this minor to the Ministry of Education to translate the national

and Education educational theme could develop into a central

focus of education, and become established as an
independent concept and focus area, whether it is
climate policy document into its own curriculum
development for schools.

labelled as ‘climate education’ or ‘climate change

education’ (CCE)2. The national reports offer three
different possibilities:

>> One scenario is that CCE will develop independ-

ently of ESD, becoming a major theme within Reflections
science education. This tendency is found in the Under theme 1, we described how ESD has devel-
The issue Findings USA, where CCE has so far been interpreted as oped against the backdrop of an ongoing tension
Over the course of the last few years, there is prob- It would be untrue to say that climate change and “education about the scientific understanding of between two opposing perspectives. On one side,
ably no other issue that has received greater global the individual and societal actions needed to address global climate change” (National reports: USA there is the narrow and instrumental view of ESD as
attention than climate change. This intense interest climate change are new topics for education. Both p. 327). A similar picture can be seen in China, the communication of scientific knowledge with the
has led to questions about the role that schools play, can be found in environmental teaching materials where CCE is comprised of science populariza- goal of modifying student behaviour; on the other, a
or could play, in global efforts to mitigate or adapt to from recent decades. Indeed, the general tendency tion activities aimed at raising awareness and broader understanding of ESD as the development
climate change. found in the national reports is that CCE has not motivating students to follow behavioural advice of general competencies that foster empowerment
emerged as an independent field, but rather as an (CHN). This seems to be a restricted approach in action and decision-making. The current focus on
From a pedagogical viewpoint, climate change is integral part of EE and ESD. In fact, it is a recurring compared to the general ESD policy in China, climate change seems to be intensifying this conflict.
uniquely challenging. The starting point is a set of theme across IALEI countries that CCE has only which is guided by four basic principles: value The term ESD has been used around the globe as a
near-future scenarios that are all threatening and gradually begun to develop its own identity during education, a holistic and interdisciplinary ap- tool for rethinking education and developing a broad
problem-filled. Climate change also requires risk the last three years, and is therefore still very much proach, increase of diversity and competence and spectrum of relevant competencies; CCE could
assessment on the basis of uncertain knowledge in its infancy. In some countries, this development is creative inquiry. either accelerate this process or bring it to a halt. The
and the acknowledgment that solutions will require driven by government initiatives concerning climate >> Another possibility is that CCE will develop as authors of the UK report emphasise the possibility
political and ethical choices as well as technical change. The Chinese government, for example, has an integral element of ESD, emerging as a truly that CCE represents a step backwards:
innovations. In these realms, there is far less agree- adopted climate change action plans which include interdisciplinary pursuit. This tendency is men-
ment than there is regarding the fact that there are specific education initiatives (CHN). Knowledge tioned in the reports from Australia, UK, South ---
problems which need solving. As highlighted in, for about CC will be included in basic education, Korea and Singapore. This scenario is open for “Although it is also too soon to know how the idea of
example, the Brazilian report, this complex and de- higher education and adult education with focus different variations due to the fact that ESD is CCE might develop in future, it is worth noting that
pressing picture can provoke two troubling responses: on awareness and participation in relevant activities. not an exact category. For example it makes a there is concern amongst many educators in the UK
a passive and paralyzing fatalism or an oversimplifica- Similarly, in the Canadian province of Newfound- difference if CC is integrated in ESD as part of a that it presents a worrying narrowing of ESD aims
tion of the many important factors involved (BRA). land and Labrador, there has been a Climate Change Green Growth strategy (cf. SIN, KOR and CAN) and agendas. Will anxiety about and increasing atten-
The indeterminate and inherently political nature Action Plan since 2005 which emphasises CCE. In rather than as an issue which includes global tion to particular climate change issues – especially
of climate change challenges the traditional “mod- this province, the route from plans may be attributed ethics, transformation of lifestyles, social equity, dramatic environmental disasters (floods, cyclones)
ern” understanding of the role of education, rooted to the clearly visible local effects of climate change limits to growth and other key topics of sustain- undercut broader educational attempts to promote
in positivist epistemology, as a source of objective, (CAN). The Danish government’s 2009 ESD strat- able development. sustainable development and sound environmental
reliable knowledge of the world, imparted through egy has also launched a number of specific initia- >> A third scenario is a hybrid of the first two, in management? And will the frightening forecasts of
segregated academic disciplines. Perhaps more tives concerning CCE (DEN). New CCE initiatives which CCE is treated as an independent element impending environmental disaster lead to education
strongly than any other issue, climate change tests the under the rubric of EE and ESD can likewise be under the umbrella of ESD, with ESD serving as programmes which are focused on behaviour change
capacity of education to organise learning around found in other countries. In Australia, where ESD collective term for a variety of independent focus about single issues (carbon emissions, recycling,
problems characterised by complex social dynamics, is well-established, the new and ambitious National areas thematically related to SD. This scenario is transport) to the detriment of holistic ESD goals (for
uncertain knowledge, and risks. Solar School Initiative has been launched under embodied in the Danish national ESD strategy, example to encourage critical thinking and democratic
the auspices of ESD but with specific reference to which contains a number of CCE initiatives that participation)? Much of the discussion about ESD in
As was apparent in theme 1, such problems are climate change. This initiative has set a goal “for conspicuously do not place climate change within the UK over the last decade has focused on how best
not new and, to some extent, characterize all of all Australian schools to be ’solar schools’ by 2016” the context of ESD, seeking instead to promote a to bring diverse and multiple perspectives into ESD
ESD. It is therefore interesting to consider the (National reports: AUS p. 22). In addition to such general science education (DEN). programmes, so limiting the discussion to only climate
influence of previous developments within ESD on ‘top-down’ initiatives, there are also examples of change issues seems – to many – to be a step in the
new and forthcoming projects in climate change concrete ‘bottom-up’ initiatives organised by NGOs, These scenarios seem still open for negotiations. wrong direction.” (National reports: UK pp. 301ff)
education (CCE), and conversely, to examine the as seen in the Brazilian report. Furthermore, the Different stakeholders will definitely try to influ- ---
role of CCE in the ongoing development of ESD. Brazilian example also shows that various other ence the result. The Danish country report notes
Will CCE be integrated within ESD or will it stakeholders are involved in debating the role and that ‘education is conspicuous by its absence’ in a As is especially apparent from the Danish report,
gain the status of an independent and perhaps even place of CCE (BRA). This is true of many other recently published national climate policy document CCE is an arena for a process with various stake-
competing field? countries as well. (National reports: DEN p. 176). This seems to be holders – NGOs, teacher networks, consultants etc -
who interpret CCE and influence whether it will be
At present, CCE is still a peripheral topic in both integrated in a broader ESD framework or whether
educational research and practice. In the research it will imply a re-interpretation of ESD. As the same
2 As stated in the introduction, we use the term Climate Change
literature, CCE has been addressed almost exclu- Education (CCE) as the general term for the phenomenon in this stakeholders are present in the other countries as
sively as a domain of science education. Within the study. well, there is good reason to believe that the ‘ongo-
14 15
theme 2 theme 2

Theme 2: realm of practice, climate change is situated within

EE and ESD, a minor theme of a peripheral area
true of other countries as well (e.g. Singapore) and
one reason could be that the national climate policy

Climate Change
of the curriculum. Given the intense and growing documents target the populace whereas education is
interest in CCE, however, it is important to antici- within the purview of another ministry and it is left
pate the possible scenarios under which this minor to the Ministry of Education to translate the national

and Education educational theme could develop into a central

focus of education, and become established as an
independent concept and focus area, whether it is
climate policy document into its own curriculum
development for schools.

labelled as ‘climate education’ or ‘climate change

education’ (CCE)2. The national reports offer three
different possibilities:

>> One scenario is that CCE will develop independ-

ently of ESD, becoming a major theme within Reflections
science education. This tendency is found in the Under theme 1, we described how ESD has devel-
The issue Findings USA, where CCE has so far been interpreted as oped against the backdrop of an ongoing tension
Over the course of the last few years, there is prob- It would be untrue to say that climate change and “education about the scientific understanding of between two opposing perspectives. On one side,
ably no other issue that has received greater global the individual and societal actions needed to address global climate change” (National reports: USA there is the narrow and instrumental view of ESD as
attention than climate change. This intense interest climate change are new topics for education. Both p. 327). A similar picture can be seen in China, the communication of scientific knowledge with the
has led to questions about the role that schools play, can be found in environmental teaching materials where CCE is comprised of science populariza- goal of modifying student behaviour; on the other, a
or could play, in global efforts to mitigate or adapt to from recent decades. Indeed, the general tendency tion activities aimed at raising awareness and broader understanding of ESD as the development
climate change. found in the national reports is that CCE has not motivating students to follow behavioural advice of general competencies that foster empowerment
emerged as an independent field, but rather as an (CHN). This seems to be a restricted approach in action and decision-making. The current focus on
From a pedagogical viewpoint, climate change is integral part of EE and ESD. In fact, it is a recurring compared to the general ESD policy in China, climate change seems to be intensifying this conflict.
uniquely challenging. The starting point is a set of theme across IALEI countries that CCE has only which is guided by four basic principles: value The term ESD has been used around the globe as a
near-future scenarios that are all threatening and gradually begun to develop its own identity during education, a holistic and interdisciplinary ap- tool for rethinking education and developing a broad
problem-filled. Climate change also requires risk the last three years, and is therefore still very much proach, increase of diversity and competence and spectrum of relevant competencies; CCE could
assessment on the basis of uncertain knowledge in its infancy. In some countries, this development is creative inquiry. either accelerate this process or bring it to a halt. The
and the acknowledgment that solutions will require driven by government initiatives concerning climate >> Another possibility is that CCE will develop as authors of the UK report emphasise the possibility
political and ethical choices as well as technical change. The Chinese government, for example, has an integral element of ESD, emerging as a truly that CCE represents a step backwards:
innovations. In these realms, there is far less agree- adopted climate change action plans which include interdisciplinary pursuit. This tendency is men-
ment than there is regarding the fact that there are specific education initiatives (CHN). Knowledge tioned in the reports from Australia, UK, South ---
problems which need solving. As highlighted in, for about CC will be included in basic education, Korea and Singapore. This scenario is open for “Although it is also too soon to know how the idea of
example, the Brazilian report, this complex and de- higher education and adult education with focus different variations due to the fact that ESD is CCE might develop in future, it is worth noting that
pressing picture can provoke two troubling responses: on awareness and participation in relevant activities. not an exact category. For example it makes a there is concern amongst many educators in the UK
a passive and paralyzing fatalism or an oversimplifica- Similarly, in the Canadian province of Newfound- difference if CC is integrated in ESD as part of a that it presents a worrying narrowing of ESD aims
tion of the many important factors involved (BRA). land and Labrador, there has been a Climate Change Green Growth strategy (cf. SIN, KOR and CAN) and agendas. Will anxiety about and increasing atten-
The indeterminate and inherently political nature Action Plan since 2005 which emphasises CCE. In rather than as an issue which includes global tion to particular climate change issues – especially
of climate change challenges the traditional “mod- this province, the route from plans may be attributed ethics, transformation of lifestyles, social equity, dramatic environmental disasters (floods, cyclones)
ern” understanding of the role of education, rooted to the clearly visible local effects of climate change limits to growth and other key topics of sustain- undercut broader educational attempts to promote
in positivist epistemology, as a source of objective, (CAN). The Danish government’s 2009 ESD strat- able development. sustainable development and sound environmental
reliable knowledge of the world, imparted through egy has also launched a number of specific initia- >> A third scenario is a hybrid of the first two, in management? And will the frightening forecasts of
segregated academic disciplines. Perhaps more tives concerning CCE (DEN). New CCE initiatives which CCE is treated as an independent element impending environmental disaster lead to education
strongly than any other issue, climate change tests the under the rubric of EE and ESD can likewise be under the umbrella of ESD, with ESD serving as programmes which are focused on behaviour change
capacity of education to organise learning around found in other countries. In Australia, where ESD collective term for a variety of independent focus about single issues (carbon emissions, recycling,
problems characterised by complex social dynamics, is well-established, the new and ambitious National areas thematically related to SD. This scenario is transport) to the detriment of holistic ESD goals (for
uncertain knowledge, and risks. Solar School Initiative has been launched under embodied in the Danish national ESD strategy, example to encourage critical thinking and democratic
the auspices of ESD but with specific reference to which contains a number of CCE initiatives that participation)? Much of the discussion about ESD in
As was apparent in theme 1, such problems are climate change. This initiative has set a goal “for conspicuously do not place climate change within the UK over the last decade has focused on how best
not new and, to some extent, characterize all of all Australian schools to be ’solar schools’ by 2016” the context of ESD, seeking instead to promote a to bring diverse and multiple perspectives into ESD
ESD. It is therefore interesting to consider the (National reports: AUS p. 22). In addition to such general science education (DEN). programmes, so limiting the discussion to only climate
influence of previous developments within ESD on ‘top-down’ initiatives, there are also examples of change issues seems – to many – to be a step in the
new and forthcoming projects in climate change concrete ‘bottom-up’ initiatives organised by NGOs, These scenarios seem still open for negotiations. wrong direction.” (National reports: UK pp. 301ff)
education (CCE), and conversely, to examine the as seen in the Brazilian report. Furthermore, the Different stakeholders will definitely try to influ- ---
role of CCE in the ongoing development of ESD. Brazilian example also shows that various other ence the result. The Danish country report notes
Will CCE be integrated within ESD or will it stakeholders are involved in debating the role and that ‘education is conspicuous by its absence’ in a As is especially apparent from the Danish report,
gain the status of an independent and perhaps even place of CCE (BRA). This is true of many other recently published national climate policy document CCE is an arena for a process with various stake-
competing field? countries as well. (National reports: DEN p. 176). This seems to be holders – NGOs, teacher networks, consultants etc -
who interpret CCE and influence whether it will be
At present, CCE is still a peripheral topic in both integrated in a broader ESD framework or whether
educational research and practice. In the research it will imply a re-interpretation of ESD. As the same
2 As stated in the introduction, we use the term Climate Change
literature, CCE has been addressed almost exclu- Education (CCE) as the general term for the phenomenon in this stakeholders are present in the other countries as
sively as a domain of science education. Within the study. well, there is good reason to believe that the ‘ongo-
14 15
theme 2 theme 2

ing negotiation’ between them will have a decisive

influence on CCE and ESD over the next few years, Theme 3:
Structural conditions
thereby in determining the role that education will
play with respect to both climate change and sustain-
able development more broadly.

Although researchers warn that the emergence of

CCE may represent a step in the wrong direction, this
regarding ESD
does not mean that the issue of climate change neces-
sarily entails a narrowing of focus to the detriment of
other issues currently included within ESD. Indeed,
discussions about climate change can give rise to con-
sideration of far-ranging issues such as water shortage,
agriculture, energy supplies, class tension, conflicts of
interest regarding the distribution of goods, economic
growth, political governance, lifestyles, and ethics. Cli- The issue Findings
mate change intensifies problems within all these areas, When ESD is introduced into an existing educational At the structural level, there are several ways to
while climate mitigation and adaptation will certainly system and school, a number of structural tensions implement ESD within the school and the education
affect such intertwined issues. Seen in this light, the arise. ESD does not have a pre-determined structure; system. Here, we will start with the Canadian re-
contemporary focus on climate change may be useful instead it can be implemented in a variety of forms, port’s presentation highlighting three of the possible
for ESD, even from the empowerment perspective. For thereby creating the possibility for adaptation to the different approaches to incorporating ESD within
this to happen, however, CCE must be conceptualized established systems. Meanwhile, as these are usually in- formal education: ‘ESD as a part of science educa-
as more than simply climate change science, and CCE fluenced by other logics, the encounter generally tends tion; ESD as infused across the curriculum; and ESD
must be effectively integrated as a central theme within to result in friction.While, in principle, it is merely a as a fundamental educational principle’ (National
ESD, rather than an independent field. case of making some decisions, it is not always clear reports: CAN p. 107).
who should be making them. Furthermore, there are
During this transitional moment, research can play a so many different interests and stakeholders involved Both the Canadian federal government and prov-
significant role in shaping the relationship between that, as the national reports make clear, a direct route inces such as Ontario have treated ESD as ‘a concept
ESD and CCE. First, researchers can help by more between the different levels, between theory, policy, that can be fit into traditional school curricula as
thoroughly clarifying and documenting that relation- external pressure and praxis, can seldom be detected. part of the discipline of science especially environ-
ship. Second, research can fulfil an innovative function, mental education’ (ibid.). Although this model has
challenging the pervasive assumptions about CCE The issue comes largely to revolve around the extent been criticised, it would still seem to be the case that
and deliberately working to bring about dialogue to which ESD is perceived and treated as something ‘science remains at the forefront of efforts integrat-
and long-term planning3. The nascent field of CCE is new to be added to the existing curriculum, thereby ing ESD into formal education’ (ibid.). In other
currently in need of both clarification and dialogue, becoming an additional burden. Across national bor- countries, one also finds the tendency to delegate
at least on the evidence of the national reports. The ders, schools are typically divided along fairly rigid the responsibility for ESD to a single subject or
national report from South Africa illustrates the con- subject or disciplinary lines and each discipline is subject area. In these cases, it is always science which
structive role of research in bridging CCE and ESD. often overcrowded with subject matter which pupils is assigned the task. In Denmark, ESD has even been
Lotz-Sisitka (2009) describes how climate change re- are required, or at least expected, to learn. Teachers introduced with the explicit goal of strengthening
quires educators to transcend the local focus of social are often trained to teach particular age groups and/ science education.
learning projects by connecting actions in one region or particular subjects. All in all, it can be difficult to
to climate consequences in another4. Lotz-Sisitka and ensure that ESD receives space in the school day, The problem with this approach is that the field of
le Grange (2009) also point out that the empower- much less a cohesive treatment and logical progres- school science already tends to be overcrowded and
ment view of CCE poses a far greater challenge to sion across the age groups. that ESD therefore is all too easily reduced to science
the field of education, as it is more difficult to foster a education or an ecologically oriented version of EE.
proactive response to the climate change than it is to Of course, this is not only a structural issue, but also The Brazilian report states that ‘scientific research
encourage a passive, reactive response5. There is a stark an ideological and pedagogical one. As is clear from related to Climate Change has acquired a strategic
contrast between the enormity of this task and the the national reports, however, the structural issues are position in science and technology policies with
limited scale of ESD projects around the world. The unavoidable. They include: larger financial investments’ (National reports: BRA p.
urgency and global nature of climate change reveal a 81). There is little doubt, however, ‘that the transmis-
pressing need to develop and strengthen ESD, which >> the position and status of ESD within the school sion of scientific content is not enough to effectively
means that researchers, as well as practitioners and system; verify the existence of a teaching and learning proc-
other ESD stakeholders are faced with an important >> the disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and interdiscipli- ess in environmental education’ (ibid.). On the basis
task in the coming years. nary organisation of ESD programs; of the different interpretations presented in theme 1,
>> the application of whole-school approaches to ESD. this can be considered even truer of ESD.

3 Biesta, G. (2009): Educational Research, Democracy and The second approach presented in the Canadian
TLRP; Invited lecture presented at the Teaching and Learning
Research Programme event ‘Methodological Development, Future
report was ESD as infused across the curriculum. In
Challenges’, London, 19 March 2009. www.tirp.org this case, the example is provided by the province of
4 Lotz-Sisitka, H. (forthcoming 2009): Climate Injustice: How Manitoba. Here, a cross-curricular initiative con-
should education respond? cerning ESD was introduced in 2000 by dividing
5 Lotz-Sisitka, H. & L. le Grange (forthcoming 2009): Learning
to live with it? Troubling education with evidence of global climate
ESD into a number of principles that each fit the
change. subjects in the traditional curriculum. In this way,
16 17
theme 2 theme 2

ing negotiation’ between them will have a decisive

influence on CCE and ESD over the next few years, Theme 3:
Structural conditions
thereby in determining the role that education will
play with respect to both climate change and sustain-
able development more broadly.

Although researchers warn that the emergence of

CCE may represent a step in the wrong direction, this
regarding ESD
does not mean that the issue of climate change neces-
sarily entails a narrowing of focus to the detriment of
other issues currently included within ESD. Indeed,
discussions about climate change can give rise to con-
sideration of far-ranging issues such as water shortage,
agriculture, energy supplies, class tension, conflicts of
interest regarding the distribution of goods, economic
growth, political governance, lifestyles, and ethics. Cli- The issue Findings
mate change intensifies problems within all these areas, When ESD is introduced into an existing educational At the structural level, there are several ways to
while climate mitigation and adaptation will certainly system and school, a number of structural tensions implement ESD within the school and the education
affect such intertwined issues. Seen in this light, the arise. ESD does not have a pre-determined structure; system. Here, we will start with the Canadian re-
contemporary focus on climate change may be useful instead it can be implemented in a variety of forms, port’s presentation highlighting three of the possible
for ESD, even from the empowerment perspective. For thereby creating the possibility for adaptation to the different approaches to incorporating ESD within
this to happen, however, CCE must be conceptualized established systems. Meanwhile, as these are usually in- formal education: ‘ESD as a part of science educa-
as more than simply climate change science, and CCE fluenced by other logics, the encounter generally tends tion; ESD as infused across the curriculum; and ESD
must be effectively integrated as a central theme within to result in friction.While, in principle, it is merely a as a fundamental educational principle’ (National
ESD, rather than an independent field. case of making some decisions, it is not always clear reports: CAN p. 107).
who should be making them. Furthermore, there are
During this transitional moment, research can play a so many different interests and stakeholders involved Both the Canadian federal government and prov-
significant role in shaping the relationship between that, as the national reports make clear, a direct route inces such as Ontario have treated ESD as ‘a concept
ESD and CCE. First, researchers can help by more between the different levels, between theory, policy, that can be fit into traditional school curricula as
thoroughly clarifying and documenting that relation- external pressure and praxis, can seldom be detected. part of the discipline of science especially environ-
ship. Second, research can fulfil an innovative function, mental education’ (ibid.). Although this model has
challenging the pervasive assumptions about CCE The issue comes largely to revolve around the extent been criticised, it would still seem to be the case that
and deliberately working to bring about dialogue to which ESD is perceived and treated as something ‘science remains at the forefront of efforts integrat-
and long-term planning3. The nascent field of CCE is new to be added to the existing curriculum, thereby ing ESD into formal education’ (ibid.). In other
currently in need of both clarification and dialogue, becoming an additional burden. Across national bor- countries, one also finds the tendency to delegate
at least on the evidence of the national reports. The ders, schools are typically divided along fairly rigid the responsibility for ESD to a single subject or
national report from South Africa illustrates the con- subject or disciplinary lines and each discipline is subject area. In these cases, it is always science which
structive role of research in bridging CCE and ESD. often overcrowded with subject matter which pupils is assigned the task. In Denmark, ESD has even been
Lotz-Sisitka (2009) describes how climate change re- are required, or at least expected, to learn. Teachers introduced with the explicit goal of strengthening
quires educators to transcend the local focus of social are often trained to teach particular age groups and/ science education.
learning projects by connecting actions in one region or particular subjects. All in all, it can be difficult to
to climate consequences in another4. Lotz-Sisitka and ensure that ESD receives space in the school day, The problem with this approach is that the field of
le Grange (2009) also point out that the empower- much less a cohesive treatment and logical progres- school science already tends to be overcrowded and
ment view of CCE poses a far greater challenge to sion across the age groups. that ESD therefore is all too easily reduced to science
the field of education, as it is more difficult to foster a education or an ecologically oriented version of EE.
proactive response to the climate change than it is to Of course, this is not only a structural issue, but also The Brazilian report states that ‘scientific research
encourage a passive, reactive response5. There is a stark an ideological and pedagogical one. As is clear from related to Climate Change has acquired a strategic
contrast between the enormity of this task and the the national reports, however, the structural issues are position in science and technology policies with
limited scale of ESD projects around the world. The unavoidable. They include: larger financial investments’ (National reports: BRA p.
urgency and global nature of climate change reveal a 81). There is little doubt, however, ‘that the transmis-
pressing need to develop and strengthen ESD, which >> the position and status of ESD within the school sion of scientific content is not enough to effectively
means that researchers, as well as practitioners and system; verify the existence of a teaching and learning proc-
other ESD stakeholders are faced with an important >> the disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and interdiscipli- ess in environmental education’ (ibid.). On the basis
task in the coming years. nary organisation of ESD programs; of the different interpretations presented in theme 1,
>> the application of whole-school approaches to ESD. this can be considered even truer of ESD.

3 Biesta, G. (2009): Educational Research, Democracy and The second approach presented in the Canadian
TLRP; Invited lecture presented at the Teaching and Learning
Research Programme event ‘Methodological Development, Future
report was ESD as infused across the curriculum. In
Challenges’, London, 19 March 2009. www.tirp.org this case, the example is provided by the province of
4 Lotz-Sisitka, H. (forthcoming 2009): Climate Injustice: How Manitoba. Here, a cross-curricular initiative con-
should education respond? cerning ESD was introduced in 2000 by dividing
5 Lotz-Sisitka, H. & L. le Grange (forthcoming 2009): Learning
to live with it? Troubling education with evidence of global climate
ESD into a number of principles that each fit the
change. subjects in the traditional curriculum. In this way,
16 17
theme 3 theme 3

ESD could be infused into every discipline, thereby ments with cross-curricular themes, holistic teach- countries (AUS, DEN, KOR, UK, USA). There is sible to attain relevant results in terms of student
maintaining a great deal of breadth in the concep- ing and whole-school approaches (see below). On little agreement regarding terminology within this learning in this manner (USA).
tion of ESD. The authors of the Canadian report the other hand, there is still a need to legitimise field, but terms including ‘green schools’, ’sustainable
note that ‘infusion allows the essential structure of such approaches in terms of giving good results in schools’, ’green flag schools’, ’eco-schools’ etc. all re- The whole-school approach can also constitute an
schooling and curricula to remain the same’ (Na- the traditional subjects. For example, the US report fer to efforts at the school level that typically involve integral part of official educational policy regard-
tional reports: CAN p. 108). states regarding a pedagogical movement referred a greater or lesser proportion of the school’s activity. ing ESD. This is the case in Australia where ’the
to as Environment-Based Education (EBE): ‘This Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI) is
Whether this comprises an advantage or a dis- integrative strategy is similar to that favoured by The Danish national strategy for ESD includes a a whole school approach that is the flagship initia-
advantage is open to debate. It is undeniably a most American proponents of ESD. Although EBE project to give higher priority to the so-called Green tive for ESD in Australian schools’ (AUS p. 11). After
problem that this approach ‘may reduce the status is sometimes criticized within the EE community Flag Green School movement, while simultane- a pilot AuSSI scheme had shown that there were
of ESD to an ’add-on’; extra work for teachers and for its use of EE as a means to disciplinary ends, ously developing it more in the direction of ESD. ’educational, environmental, social and professional
students in an already crowded curriculum’ (ibid.). rather than an end unto itself, the constraining pres- This movement is embedded in the international benefits’, guiding principles that could be applied
In addition, the fragmentation of ESD can itself sures of standards-based educational reform make it Eco-Schools programme under the Foundation for nationally were identified, and by 2004 the national
be a problem within such an approach. If ESD is an attractive option for schools seeking to integrate Environmental Education (FEE), which currently AuSSI initiative had been launched. The principles,
perceived as being all about connections and inter- ESD-related content without sacrificing achieve- involves 43 nations. The green flag is an award given the goals and the achievements of the initiative all
relationships among surprisingly diverse fields, it ment in the traditional disciplines’ (National reports: to the individual school for implementing a more include both environmental and pedagogical points
is a considerable challenge to ensure the various USA p. 340). This issue raises its head frequently in or less comprehensive teaching programme regard- without separating them or problematizing the re-
elements, separated in the curriculum, combine to a number of different contexts. It is related to the ing environmental conditions at the school and in lationship between them. This may be because ’this
form a somewhat coherent whole. question of examinations, as discussed in the report the surrounding area. Somewhat characteristically, holistic and systemic approach encompasses school
from Singapore: ‘In a very exam-oriented school increasing the number of green flag schools by 50 % curriculum and pedagogy and school operations,
The third approach identified in the Canadian education system, unless a subject is examinable not by 2014 is an indicator included in the Danish strat- governance, design, management and grounds. Con-
report ‘to bringing ESD into formal education is to only will the emphasis wane, very often teachers’ egy, but there is also a focus on sponsoring improved nections with and influencing the community is
re-orient school curricula to make ESD a funda- attitude towards the teaching of this component is quality within the project (DEN). One of the major another key aspect of AuSSI’ (National reports: AUS
mental educational goal. This is the approach taken sacrificed to the more important subjects that have challenges here will undoubtedly be offsetting the p. 4). Such a pervasive programme can be difficult to
by Nunavut where ESD, defined as a basic principle examinations’ (National reports: SIN p. 266). physical, objective criteria for success (e.g. a reduc- analyse and difficult to emulate in other contexts. In
of the Inuit way of life, has been used as a foundation tion in energy and water consumption, a decrease in any case, it requires widespread support to become
for re-orienting education. In this approach ESD is Nevertheless, occasional attempts have been made pollution etc.) with criteria more concerned with mainstream - support that it has received and con-
more than a cross-curricula add-on. As a founda- to create a framework for more multidisciplinary pupils’ learning outcomes. tinues to receive in the new National Action Plan in
tional principle, it is built in to every aspect of the and interdisciplinary teaching/learning in relation to Australia (AUS).
curriculum – content, teaching/ learning strategies ESD visions. Several of the national reports observe This issue can also be found in the US Green
and evaluation’ (ibid.). that there is a basis for, at the least, multidisciplinary Schools programme, which originally ’was exclu- In many whole-school ESD projects, particular
work with SD issues as ‘ESD objectives are explic- sively focused on the physical school building, its value is attached to the school’s relationship with
Except for small cases in the ‘place-based education itly addressed by curriculum standards of many properties and their relationship to student health the local community: ’Connections with and in-
literature’ mentioned in the USA report, there are subjects’ (National reports: CHN p. 131, and e.g. and performance’ (National reports: USA p. 349). fluencing the community is another key aspect of
no other examples in the national reports of such a DEN), but also that the implementation in different Today, the perspective is generally somewhat AuSSI’, as stated in the above quote from the Aus-
pervasive and radical model and it is interesting to subjects is unbalanced (CHN, KOR). As revealed broader and oriented more towards pedagogical tralian report. The Brazilian report discusses, among
note that the territory’s policy is not so much based in the Canadian example from Manitoba, it may approaches that reflect various forms of sustain- other things, a movement which began in 2003
on the various international documents, but rather well be a good procedure to infuse ESD into the ability. Green Schools in the United States are with the establishment of School Agenda 21: ’The
traditional Inuit culture, values and traditions which subjects, but it does not lead to large-scale change often private or charter schools with their own scope of the School Agenda 21 includes propos-
‘happen to coincide with many of the ideas found in unless structures are introduced that encourage tak- associations relatively disconnected from local als of activities with the school community to map
UNESCO’s vision of sustainable development and ing the step from, at best, parallel consideration of public school networks. One such network, the out the local reality in the past and in the present
ESD’ (National reports: CAN p. 96). There is talk themes within the separated disciplines to genuinely Green School Alliance (GSA), focuses its ef- and, ultimately, devise action plans for the future’
of an approach which ‘presents an alternative view problem-oriented, interdisciplinary learning activi- forts on the problem of global climate change. (National reports: BRA p. 65). Likewise, in Korea:
of governance and development’ (National reports: ties. This point is corroborated in the Australian To become members of the GSA, schools must ’the needs for school-community collaboration in
CAN p. 94) and which is embedded within a culture report with the interesting addendum that ‘ESD is commit to: ’…signing the Green Schools Climate implementing ESD programs are found in several
which is not permeated by modernity in terms of more often addressed in a more interdisciplinary Commitment at one of the following levels: 1) policy documents’ (National reports: KOR p. 220).
worldview and outlook on life. It is unlikely that way in primary (K-6) schools than in secondary Climate Champion: Reduce my school’s carbon The point is made that, through such cooperation,
the model could be directly imported to industrial, schools’ (National reports: AUS p. 27). Similarly, a footprint by at least 30% within 5 years, and ’[one] can provide ESD programs to foster deci-
urbanised societies; it is, however, thought-provoking new report from England shows ‘that limited provi- achieve Carbon Neutrality by 2020; or 2) Climate sion making skills of their members in solving local
and instructive that such alternatives exist. sion within individual subject areas … resulted in Steward: Calculate my school’s carbon footprint issues’ (ibid.). An example is provided from the city
few opportunities for the cross-curricular learning by establishing an energy and carbon emissions of Tongyong where an elementary school, in col-
Because these three approaches have different goals which government policy has advocated, although baseline, and achieve carbon reductions over time laboration with the local RCE (Regional Centre of
and anticipate different outcomes, it is difficult to there was more evidence of this kind of learning in (Green Schools Alliance, 2009)’ (National reports: Expertise) has developed a significant combination
directly compare their effectiveness in any meaningful primary schools where planning more easily crosses USA p. 350). It is the GSA’s intention that these of ’an entire-school approach’ and close relation-
way. One can, however, consider which opportunities subject boundaries’ (National reports: UK p. 304). laudable but narrow goals should function as the ships with outside organisations (KOR).
they create for, for example, different forms of interdis- core of a more comprehensive effort to engage
ciplinary teaching and learning, a theme which plays In some countries, there exist, or are planned, ex- students, teachers and administrators in sustain- No matter how such cooperation between school
an important role in virtually all the national reports. amples of more interdisciplinary or cross-curricular ability-related projects. ‘The GSA’s emphasis on and local community is approached structurally, it
possibilities as a supplement to work in the individu- ”green” building and energy-use practices, and would seem to provide an important environment
On one hand, some of the more transversal and al, separate subjects (e.g. UK, KOR) the idea that these practices can be a centerpiece for local participation. Summarising the extensive
holistically-oriented outcomes typically associ- of broader ESD efforts, is characteristic of whole- but somewhat fragmentary American research on EE
ated with ESD require a considerable investment More common, though, are the whole school ap- school ESD projects in the United States’ (ibid.). and ESD, the US report states: ’The most likely route
in interdisciplinary learning. This result in experi- proaches, which are described in reports from several Indeed, a four-school study suggests that it is pos- to empowerment – and to a range of other positive
18 19
theme 3 theme 3

ESD could be infused into every discipline, thereby ments with cross-curricular themes, holistic teach- countries (AUS, DEN, KOR, UK, USA). There is sible to attain relevant results in terms of student
maintaining a great deal of breadth in the concep- ing and whole-school approaches (see below). On little agreement regarding terminology within this learning in this manner (USA).
tion of ESD. The authors of the Canadian report the other hand, there is still a need to legitimise field, but terms including ‘green schools’, ’sustainable
note that ‘infusion allows the essential structure of such approaches in terms of giving good results in schools’, ’green flag schools’, ’eco-schools’ etc. all re- The whole-school approach can also constitute an
schooling and curricula to remain the same’ (Na- the traditional subjects. For example, the US report fer to efforts at the school level that typically involve integral part of official educational policy regard-
tional reports: CAN p. 108). states regarding a pedagogical movement referred a greater or lesser proportion of the school’s activity. ing ESD. This is the case in Australia where ’the
to as Environment-Based Education (EBE): ‘This Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI) is
Whether this comprises an advantage or a dis- integrative strategy is similar to that favoured by The Danish national strategy for ESD includes a a whole school approach that is the flagship initia-
advantage is open to debate. It is undeniably a most American proponents of ESD. Although EBE project to give higher priority to the so-called Green tive for ESD in Australian schools’ (AUS p. 11). After
problem that this approach ‘may reduce the status is sometimes criticized within the EE community Flag Green School movement, while simultane- a pilot AuSSI scheme had shown that there were
of ESD to an ’add-on’; extra work for teachers and for its use of EE as a means to disciplinary ends, ously developing it more in the direction of ESD. ’educational, environmental, social and professional
students in an already crowded curriculum’ (ibid.). rather than an end unto itself, the constraining pres- This movement is embedded in the international benefits’, guiding principles that could be applied
In addition, the fragmentation of ESD can itself sures of standards-based educational reform make it Eco-Schools programme under the Foundation for nationally were identified, and by 2004 the national
be a problem within such an approach. If ESD is an attractive option for schools seeking to integrate Environmental Education (FEE), which currently AuSSI initiative had been launched. The principles,
perceived as being all about connections and inter- ESD-related content without sacrificing achieve- involves 43 nations. The green flag is an award given the goals and the achievements of the initiative all
relationships among surprisingly diverse fields, it ment in the traditional disciplines’ (National reports: to the individual school for implementing a more include both environmental and pedagogical points
is a considerable challenge to ensure the various USA p. 340). This issue raises its head frequently in or less comprehensive teaching programme regard- without separating them or problematizing the re-
elements, separated in the curriculum, combine to a number of different contexts. It is related to the ing environmental conditions at the school and in lationship between them. This may be because ’this
form a somewhat coherent whole. question of examinations, as discussed in the report the surrounding area. Somewhat characteristically, holistic and systemic approach encompasses school
from Singapore: ‘In a very exam-oriented school increasing the number of green flag schools by 50 % curriculum and pedagogy and school operations,
The third approach identified in the Canadian education system, unless a subject is examinable not by 2014 is an indicator included in the Danish strat- governance, design, management and grounds. Con-
report ‘to bringing ESD into formal education is to only will the emphasis wane, very often teachers’ egy, but there is also a focus on sponsoring improved nections with and influencing the community is
re-orient school curricula to make ESD a funda- attitude towards the teaching of this component is quality within the project (DEN). One of the major another key aspect of AuSSI’ (National reports: AUS
mental educational goal. This is the approach taken sacrificed to the more important subjects that have challenges here will undoubtedly be offsetting the p. 4). Such a pervasive programme can be difficult to
by Nunavut where ESD, defined as a basic principle examinations’ (National reports: SIN p. 266). physical, objective criteria for success (e.g. a reduc- analyse and difficult to emulate in other contexts. In
of the Inuit way of life, has been used as a foundation tion in energy and water consumption, a decrease in any case, it requires widespread support to become
for re-orienting education. In this approach ESD is Nevertheless, occasional attempts have been made pollution etc.) with criteria more concerned with mainstream - support that it has received and con-
more than a cross-curricula add-on. As a founda- to create a framework for more multidisciplinary pupils’ learning outcomes. tinues to receive in the new National Action Plan in
tional principle, it is built in to every aspect of the and interdisciplinary teaching/learning in relation to Australia (AUS).
curriculum – content, teaching/ learning strategies ESD visions. Several of the national reports observe This issue can also be found in the US Green
and evaluation’ (ibid.). that there is a basis for, at the least, multidisciplinary Schools programme, which originally ’was exclu- In many whole-school ESD projects, particular
work with SD issues as ‘ESD objectives are explic- sively focused on the physical school building, its value is attached to the school’s relationship with
Except for small cases in the ‘place-based education itly addressed by curriculum standards of many properties and their relationship to student health the local community: ’Connections with and in-
literature’ mentioned in the USA report, there are subjects’ (National reports: CHN p. 131, and e.g. and performance’ (National reports: USA p. 349). fluencing the community is another key aspect of
no other examples in the national reports of such a DEN), but also that the implementation in different Today, the perspective is generally somewhat AuSSI’, as stated in the above quote from the Aus-
pervasive and radical model and it is interesting to subjects is unbalanced (CHN, KOR). As revealed broader and oriented more towards pedagogical tralian report. The Brazilian report discusses, among
note that the territory’s policy is not so much based in the Canadian example from Manitoba, it may approaches that reflect various forms of sustain- other things, a movement which began in 2003
on the various international documents, but rather well be a good procedure to infuse ESD into the ability. Green Schools in the United States are with the establishment of School Agenda 21: ’The
traditional Inuit culture, values and traditions which subjects, but it does not lead to large-scale change often private or charter schools with their own scope of the School Agenda 21 includes propos-
‘happen to coincide with many of the ideas found in unless structures are introduced that encourage tak- associations relatively disconnected from local als of activities with the school community to map
UNESCO’s vision of sustainable development and ing the step from, at best, parallel consideration of public school networks. One such network, the out the local reality in the past and in the present
ESD’ (National reports: CAN p. 96). There is talk themes within the separated disciplines to genuinely Green School Alliance (GSA), focuses its ef- and, ultimately, devise action plans for the future’
of an approach which ‘presents an alternative view problem-oriented, interdisciplinary learning activi- forts on the problem of global climate change. (National reports: BRA p. 65). Likewise, in Korea:
of governance and development’ (National reports: ties. This point is corroborated in the Australian To become members of the GSA, schools must ’the needs for school-community collaboration in
CAN p. 94) and which is embedded within a culture report with the interesting addendum that ‘ESD is commit to: ’…signing the Green Schools Climate implementing ESD programs are found in several
which is not permeated by modernity in terms of more often addressed in a more interdisciplinary Commitment at one of the following levels: 1) policy documents’ (National reports: KOR p. 220).
worldview and outlook on life. It is unlikely that way in primary (K-6) schools than in secondary Climate Champion: Reduce my school’s carbon The point is made that, through such cooperation,
the model could be directly imported to industrial, schools’ (National reports: AUS p. 27). Similarly, a footprint by at least 30% within 5 years, and ’[one] can provide ESD programs to foster deci-
urbanised societies; it is, however, thought-provoking new report from England shows ‘that limited provi- achieve Carbon Neutrality by 2020; or 2) Climate sion making skills of their members in solving local
and instructive that such alternatives exist. sion within individual subject areas … resulted in Steward: Calculate my school’s carbon footprint issues’ (ibid.). An example is provided from the city
few opportunities for the cross-curricular learning by establishing an energy and carbon emissions of Tongyong where an elementary school, in col-
Because these three approaches have different goals which government policy has advocated, although baseline, and achieve carbon reductions over time laboration with the local RCE (Regional Centre of
and anticipate different outcomes, it is difficult to there was more evidence of this kind of learning in (Green Schools Alliance, 2009)’ (National reports: Expertise) has developed a significant combination
directly compare their effectiveness in any meaningful primary schools where planning more easily crosses USA p. 350). It is the GSA’s intention that these of ’an entire-school approach’ and close relation-
way. One can, however, consider which opportunities subject boundaries’ (National reports: UK p. 304). laudable but narrow goals should function as the ships with outside organisations (KOR).
they create for, for example, different forms of interdis- core of a more comprehensive effort to engage
ciplinary teaching and learning, a theme which plays In some countries, there exist, or are planned, ex- students, teachers and administrators in sustain- No matter how such cooperation between school
an important role in virtually all the national reports. amples of more interdisciplinary or cross-curricular ability-related projects. ‘The GSA’s emphasis on and local community is approached structurally, it
possibilities as a supplement to work in the individu- ”green” building and energy-use practices, and would seem to provide an important environment
On one hand, some of the more transversal and al, separate subjects (e.g. UK, KOR) the idea that these practices can be a centerpiece for local participation. Summarising the extensive
holistically-oriented outcomes typically associ- of broader ESD efforts, is characteristic of whole- but somewhat fragmentary American research on EE
ated with ESD require a considerable investment More common, though, are the whole school ap- school ESD projects in the United States’ (ibid.). and ESD, the US report states: ’The most likely route
in interdisciplinary learning. This result in experi- proaches, which are described in reports from several Indeed, a four-school study suggests that it is pos- to empowerment – and to a range of other positive
18 19
theme 3 theme 3

outcomes including enhanced academic achieve-

ment and pro-environmental behaviour – appears to
ESD does not revolve around structures, but struc-
tures influence what takes place within them. If Theme 4:
Barriers related
be sustained participation in complex environmental interdisciplinary, issue-oriented and participatory
projects that cut across disciplinary lines. Further- teaching/learning is to be promoted, whole-school
more, the intervention strategies that have achieved approaches and school-community collaborations
the most compelling and well-documented success
have all focused on local participation’ (National
will continue to be of considerable interest.
to development
and implementation
reports: USA p. 346). It will in any case be critical to identify structures
which both enable and make it attractive to work
with ESD in a way which counteracts the reactive
tendency in which, as Singapore report notes, ’the
populace tends to be reticent and takes a back seat.
”The government knows best” is an apt description
of ESD/CCE
of Singaporeans’ perception of many issues facing
Reflections the country’ (National reports: SIN p. 268). These
Just as it makes little sense to try to identify the one issues clearly extend far beyond the countries men-
correct interpretation of ESD, or the one correct tioned here.
teaching method, it is pointless to try and identify
a correct, universal structure for implementing The issue drought and water shortage in Australia or rising sea
ESD within the education system. Circumstances At first glance, one might get the impression that levels in Singapore. Political factors can also play a
vary, traditions differ, and the context of imple- there exists a wealth of initiatives and goodwill in role, such as the massive current focus in Denmark
mentation is never identical. In addition, the vari- each of the participating nations which will ensure on reducing carbon emissions linked to the upcom-
ous structures seldom preclude one another, but, that ESD and CCE will develop in a manner satisfac- ing international climate summit in Copenhagen.
modified to fit the situation, can supplement each torily reflecting the attention the field is afforded in Such priorities are, however, not necessarily tied to a
other. Nevertheless, it should be possible to learn international agreements. However, on closer inspec- broader effort to promote and develop ESD.
something from the diversity. tion, the national reports reveal a number of more or
less common barriers related to the development and Limitations in school organisation
As an isolated phenomenon, the introduction of implementation of ESD and CCE that are deserving and practice
ESD as a topic or a perspective within a single of further consideration. For the sake of clarity, they The inspection of schools in the UK has given an
subject or subject area (typically science) provides are dealt with below under the following headings, indication of the reality compared to the political
extremely limited possibilities to promote an under- although the issues are often interrelated: intentions for ESD:
standing of ESD which brings (conflicting) con-
nections between environmental, social, economic, >> The balancing act between tackling long-term SD ---
cultural and political aspects of the major issues into issues and more immediate economic imperatives “The report also found that limited provision within
play. If one encases ESD, structurally speaking, within >> Limitations in school organisation and practice individual subject areas – including citizenship, ge-
limited subject knowledge, one will have to make do >> Limited teacher qualifications for ESD and CCE ography, science, and design and technology – re-
with con­si­derably lower ambitions. >> Uncertainty and ambiguity regarding the concept sulted in few opportunities for the cross-curricular
of ESD learning which government policy has advocated,
Loftier ambitions can be found, for example, when >> Other constraints within the educational system. although there was more evidence of this kind of
the Presidential Commission on Sustainable De- learning in primary schools where planning more
velopment (PCSD) in Korea writes: ‘ESD should easily crosses subject boundaries” (National reports:
be approached as the re-orientation of the whole UK p. 304).
education process not as an individual curriculum ---
or educational content. The whole school initiatives
should be encouraged to change the school ethos’ Even if
(National reports: KOR p. 213). Findings
The balancing act between tackling ---
There are a number of examples in the national long-term SD issues and more “There is a good connection between what is said in
reports of attempts to implement such a change in immediate economic imperatives Australian policy documents and the initiatives that
‘ethos’, structurally. A crucial precondition for any Generally speaking, globalisation has drawn attention have been put in place.” (National reports: AUS p. 14)
such effort is a school environment that supports to the competitiveness of the countries’ workforce ---
interdisciplinary, problem-oriented and participa- and students’ performance within science in par-
tory work, and genuine support for ESD projects ticular (CHN, DEN, KOR, SIN, UK). The effect on and
and programmes which otherwise run the risk the educational system has been a greater focus on
of being squeezed out by the multitude of other tests and performance indicators, and less willing- ---
agendas. As such, interdisciplinary work is gener- ness among teachers and schools to experiment with “All of the major structural initiatives of the plan are
ally reported to be more difficult to implement in new approaches to teaching and learning. Both these now in place, providing a firm foundation for further
secondary schools than in primary schools, in part factors impact negatively on the innovative, interdis- action”, according to the Australian government (Na-
due to heightened subject-specific agendas. In the ciplinary and competence-centred aspects of ESD. tional reports: AUS p. 26)
UK and, not least, the US, it would appear that the ---
‘consequences of standards-based reform have made
American schools less hospitable for ESD’ (National Certain pressing environmental issues might demand
reports: USA p. 313). particular attention in individual countries such as
20 21
theme 3 theme 3

outcomes including enhanced academic achieve-

ment and pro-environmental behaviour – appears to
ESD does not revolve around structures, but struc-
tures influence what takes place within them. If Theme 4:
Barriers related
be sustained participation in complex environmental interdisciplinary, issue-oriented and participatory
projects that cut across disciplinary lines. Further- teaching/learning is to be promoted, whole-school
more, the intervention strategies that have achieved approaches and school-community collaborations
the most compelling and well-documented success
have all focused on local participation’ (National
will continue to be of considerable interest.
to development
and implementation
reports: USA p. 346). It will in any case be critical to identify structures
which both enable and make it attractive to work
with ESD in a way which counteracts the reactive
tendency in which, as Singapore report notes, ’the
populace tends to be reticent and takes a back seat.
”The government knows best” is an apt description
of ESD/CCE
of Singaporeans’ perception of many issues facing
Reflections the country’ (National reports: SIN p. 268). These
Just as it makes little sense to try to identify the one issues clearly extend far beyond the countries men-
correct interpretation of ESD, or the one correct tioned here.
teaching method, it is pointless to try and identify
a correct, universal structure for implementing The issue drought and water shortage in Australia or rising sea
ESD within the education system. Circumstances At first glance, one might get the impression that levels in Singapore. Political factors can also play a
vary, traditions differ, and the context of imple- there exists a wealth of initiatives and goodwill in role, such as the massive current focus in Denmark
mentation is never identical. In addition, the vari- each of the participating nations which will ensure on reducing carbon emissions linked to the upcom-
ous structures seldom preclude one another, but, that ESD and CCE will develop in a manner satisfac- ing international climate summit in Copenhagen.
modified to fit the situation, can supplement each torily reflecting the attention the field is afforded in Such priorities are, however, not necessarily tied to a
other. Nevertheless, it should be possible to learn international agreements. However, on closer inspec- broader effort to promote and develop ESD.
something from the diversity. tion, the national reports reveal a number of more or
less common barriers related to the development and Limitations in school organisation
As an isolated phenomenon, the introduction of implementation of ESD and CCE that are deserving and practice
ESD as a topic or a perspective within a single of further consideration. For the sake of clarity, they The inspection of schools in the UK has given an
subject or subject area (typically science) provides are dealt with below under the following headings, indication of the reality compared to the political
extremely limited possibilities to promote an under- although the issues are often interrelated: intentions for ESD:
standing of ESD which brings (conflicting) con-
nections between environmental, social, economic, >> The balancing act between tackling long-term SD ---
cultural and political aspects of the major issues into issues and more immediate economic imperatives “The report also found that limited provision within
play. If one encases ESD, structurally speaking, within >> Limitations in school organisation and practice individual subject areas – including citizenship, ge-
limited subject knowledge, one will have to make do >> Limited teacher qualifications for ESD and CCE ography, science, and design and technology – re-
with con­si­derably lower ambitions. >> Uncertainty and ambiguity regarding the concept sulted in few opportunities for the cross-curricular
of ESD learning which government policy has advocated,
Loftier ambitions can be found, for example, when >> Other constraints within the educational system. although there was more evidence of this kind of
the Presidential Commission on Sustainable De- learning in primary schools where planning more
velopment (PCSD) in Korea writes: ‘ESD should easily crosses subject boundaries” (National reports:
be approached as the re-orientation of the whole UK p. 304).
education process not as an individual curriculum ---
or educational content. The whole school initiatives
should be encouraged to change the school ethos’ Even if
(National reports: KOR p. 213). Findings
The balancing act between tackling ---
There are a number of examples in the national long-term SD issues and more “There is a good connection between what is said in
reports of attempts to implement such a change in immediate economic imperatives Australian policy documents and the initiatives that
‘ethos’, structurally. A crucial precondition for any Generally speaking, globalisation has drawn attention have been put in place.” (National reports: AUS p. 14)
such effort is a school environment that supports to the competitiveness of the countries’ workforce ---
interdisciplinary, problem-oriented and participa- and students’ performance within science in par-
tory work, and genuine support for ESD projects ticular (CHN, DEN, KOR, SIN, UK). The effect on and
and programmes which otherwise run the risk the educational system has been a greater focus on
of being squeezed out by the multitude of other tests and performance indicators, and less willing- ---
agendas. As such, interdisciplinary work is gener- ness among teachers and schools to experiment with “All of the major structural initiatives of the plan are
ally reported to be more difficult to implement in new approaches to teaching and learning. Both these now in place, providing a firm foundation for further
secondary schools than in primary schools, in part factors impact negatively on the innovative, interdis- action”, according to the Australian government (Na-
due to heightened subject-specific agendas. In the ciplinary and competence-centred aspects of ESD. tional reports: AUS p. 26)
UK and, not least, the US, it would appear that the ---
‘consequences of standards-based reform have made
American schools less hospitable for ESD’ (National Certain pressing environmental issues might demand
reports: USA p. 313). particular attention in individual countries such as
20 21
theme 3 theme 4

the route to everyday school practice might not be --- and encouraging them to incorporate ESD themes schooling, described in the Chinese report as a lack
that straightforward as indicated here with a refer- “It will be a big challenge for the Chinese govern- within their teaching, the conceptual ambiguity and of differentiation (CHN).
ence to a national review: ment, especially the Ministry of Education to prepare lack of a shared understanding constitute a commu-
and train quality teachers of ESD and develop nication problem.
--- supportive resources for teaching and learning of
“… the major challenges to ESD in Australia are ESD” (National reports: CHN p. 135). These are Other constraints within the
resistance to change by schools; the decentralisa- needed because: “The problems, mostly the theory- educational system
tion of education to States and Territories; and, the practice gaps in holistic outlook and critical thinking, As mentioned, an increasing focus on performance
costs involved in reorienting school education. They could be partly explained by the teachers’ partial or and the documentation of learning outcomes in Reflections
called for “a fundamental shift in current practice” incomplete understanding of ESD, which is related many countries might function as a barrier for ESD The barriers described above are often interrelated.
(p1). Other educational challenges included an to professional training of ESD” (ibid.). development, as described here in the UK report: This means that any major improvement to the situa-
already crowded curriculum, and a resistance among --- --- tion must involve addressing a number of issues more
some to use education as ‘an instrument of policy’” or less at the same time at the policy level. This will
(National reports: AUS p. 15ff). The need for teacher qualifications in ESD is a gen- ‘Alongside active efforts to promote learning about also generate certain synergy effects. If teachers have a
--- eral prerequisite if schools and education systems are and for sustainable development in the UK, however, basic background for teaching ESD, they will also be
to be capable of providing qualified ESD teaching, as over the last ten to fifteen years there has also been far better equipped to engage in ESD development,
This statement related to an already crowded cur- explained in this extract from the Singaporean report: an increasing emphasis on standardised assess- thereby facilitating communication from the policy
riculum applies to a number of countries. In Canada ment within formal education. Many educators worry level to the practitioner level. If policy is clearly com-
teachers, headteachers and parents experience ESD --- that this trend is undermining the overall quality of municated, adequate support structures are in place,
as additional content appended to the existing cur- ‘In the topic, Protecting the Environment, in the education in the UK, and that it poses particular and regulations exist underlining the importance of
riculum (CAN). This is an important barrier to upper primary (pages 10-12) civics and moral challenges for the mainstreaming of topics such as ESD, the system will function much better as a whole.
achieving an engagement with ESD at the practi- education curriculum, students learn that to sustainable development, which require a greater
cal level (SIN, UK). If ESD is not prioritised at the continue living in a healthy environment, they attention to learning processes than to outcomes’ When ESD is first introduced within schools, it is
policy level, it is more likely to be considered an need to protect the environment, as the damage (National reports: UK p. 293). a common situation that only a small handful of
extra burden and as secondary or luxury content by is irreversible. They are encouraged to examine --- teachers find the role as local pioneers and innovators
practitioners (DEN, USA). the products that they use in their everyday lives stimulating and engage personally in the development
and consider if these have adverse effects on the Especially the high risks involved for some stake- of ESD. These pioneers may play an important role as
Limited teacher qualifications environment, find alternatives if they do, and be holders are underlined in the report from Singapore: activists at the local level due to their passion and en-
for ESD and CCE involved in recycling activities. However, while this thusiasm, but in the long run, ESD has to be adopted
Despite national differences regarding the strategy reinforcement of environmental issues are made in --- as more of a common challenge for the school if it is
for ESD development, teacher training is widely the civic and moral education curriculum, the fact ‘… tensions within the school system in regard to to become mainstream. One challenge in implement-
accepted as key to further development of ESD. that it is a moral education programme located environmental education where high stakes national ing innovative forms of ESD is finding ways in which
In some countries (USA, CAN, CHN), NGOs within the mother tongue subjects would not allow examinations and accountability measures hold to ensure that this passion and enthusiasm spreads
have played a central role by training teachers and the environmental issues to be taught by teachers teachers to curricula that are academic and rational- to colleagues instead of overwhelming them, hereby
providing teaching materials, hereby facilitating who are knowledgeable about the subject, unlike ist rather than socially critical and emancipatory in encouraging inclusiveness and participation in the
competence development among practitioners social studies where the many of the teachers character (STU, 2008; Wong, 2003)’ (National reports: continuing development and innovation.
within the field of ESD. Nevertheless, in all ten have geography background or science where SIN p. 266).
countries, there is a lack of sufficient teacher teachers have the necessary understandings of --- The national reports do not provide evidence of a
training which has a negative impact on schools’ environmental issues through their subject mastery clear pattern of differences in the main barriers for
engagement in and development of ESD. For in biology or chemistry’ (National reports: SIN p. 257). Incorporating EE/ESD aspects in exams would give ESD development between the established indus-
example, in the USA: --- students an impetus to focus on EE/ESD (SIN). trialised countries and the countries characterised
by more recent industrialisation. This probably has
--- The above passage is also interesting in that it would --- to do with the existence of greater variation within
‘Establishing teacher education requirements that seem to suggest that environmental issues are best ‘The Chinese government and educational re- each individual country than found between coun-
focus on EE or ESD: Such require­ments are now dealt with from a science or geography perspective searchers have been trying to change the ‘educa- tries at the overall level. It might also have to do
fairly common, but in most states they remain quite than, for example, a citizenship perspective. tion for exam’ to quality education that values the with a lack of national baseline studies which might
non-specific and give teacher education programs needs, competence and happiness of individual enable such a comparison. However, this would
substantial leeway in choosing how to meet them. As The limitations in the individual teacher’s ability to students rather than merely mastering book knowl- require a more explicit articulation of an ‘ESD
a result, the practical impact on teacher training can teach ESD not only restrict their own ESD teach- edge and getting high scores in test’ (National position’ in each country than currently found to
be disappointing (Mastrilli, 2005)’ ing but also their involvement in ESD development reports: CHN p. 119) . be truly meaningful. Nevertheless, varying national
(National reports: USA p. 329). as a joint challenge, making communication to --- and local needs and challenges mean that impor-
--- teachers about related issues a more difficult task tant differences in national ESD priorities are to be
for the system. This is obviously not an easy ambition to fulfil expected, and thereby also differences in the main
And further in a hard pressed educational system with limited barriers to overcome.
Uncertainty and ambiguity resources in many schools: especially not as long as
--- regarding the concept of ESD the exams are linked to “education for entering a higher It might have been possible to identify a pattern in
’… the ideas of sustainability and ESD are even As demonstrated in theme 1, there exists a variety school” (National reports: CHN p. 136). the barriers to implementing and developing ESD
less well developed in American teacher education of interpretations of what ESD is and what ESD in the form of different educational traditions clearly
than they are in curricular and pedagogical reform’ should be in each country. This variety can, in some Adding to the general problem that ESD has to reflected in the approach to ESD and ESD develop-
(National reports: USA p. 346). respects, comprise a fertile field of development compete with the ‘traditional’ subjects for space in ment, and, for example, to demonstrate differences
--- engaging researchers and practitioners in a common the curriculum and teachers’ engagement, in some between centralised and decentralised school systems,
debate regarding what to focus on. However, when countries we find little or no focus on the pro- but the national reports do not support any conclu-
As is underlined in the Chinese report: seeking to draw practitioners’ attention to ESD gression of ESD during the period of compulsory sions regarding such differences.
22 23
theme 3 theme 4

the route to everyday school practice might not be --- and encouraging them to incorporate ESD themes schooling, described in the Chinese report as a lack
that straightforward as indicated here with a refer- “It will be a big challenge for the Chinese govern- within their teaching, the conceptual ambiguity and of differentiation (CHN).
ence to a national review: ment, especially the Ministry of Education to prepare lack of a shared understanding constitute a commu-
and train quality teachers of ESD and develop nication problem.
--- supportive resources for teaching and learning of
“… the major challenges to ESD in Australia are ESD” (National reports: CHN p. 135). These are Other constraints within the
resistance to change by schools; the decentralisa- needed because: “The problems, mostly the theory- educational system
tion of education to States and Territories; and, the practice gaps in holistic outlook and critical thinking, As mentioned, an increasing focus on performance
costs involved in reorienting school education. They could be partly explained by the teachers’ partial or and the documentation of learning outcomes in Reflections
called for “a fundamental shift in current practice” incomplete understanding of ESD, which is related many countries might function as a barrier for ESD The barriers described above are often interrelated.
(p1). Other educational challenges included an to professional training of ESD” (ibid.). development, as described here in the UK report: This means that any major improvement to the situa-
already crowded curriculum, and a resistance among --- --- tion must involve addressing a number of issues more
some to use education as ‘an instrument of policy’” or less at the same time at the policy level. This will
(National reports: AUS p. 15ff). The need for teacher qualifications in ESD is a gen- ‘Alongside active efforts to promote learning about also generate certain synergy effects. If teachers have a
--- eral prerequisite if schools and education systems are and for sustainable development in the UK, however, basic background for teaching ESD, they will also be
to be capable of providing qualified ESD teaching, as over the last ten to fifteen years there has also been far better equipped to engage in ESD development,
This statement related to an already crowded cur- explained in this extract from the Singaporean report: an increasing emphasis on standardised assess- thereby facilitating communication from the policy
riculum applies to a number of countries. In Canada ment within formal education. Many educators worry level to the practitioner level. If policy is clearly com-
teachers, headteachers and parents experience ESD --- that this trend is undermining the overall quality of municated, adequate support structures are in place,
as additional content appended to the existing cur- ‘In the topic, Protecting the Environment, in the education in the UK, and that it poses particular and regulations exist underlining the importance of
riculum (CAN). This is an important barrier to upper primary (pages 10-12) civics and moral challenges for the mainstreaming of topics such as ESD, the system will function much better as a whole.
achieving an engagement with ESD at the practi- education curriculum, students learn that to sustainable development, which require a greater
cal level (SIN, UK). If ESD is not prioritised at the continue living in a healthy environment, they attention to learning processes than to outcomes’ When ESD is first introduced within schools, it is
policy level, it is more likely to be considered an need to protect the environment, as the damage (National reports: UK p. 293). a common situation that only a small handful of
extra burden and as secondary or luxury content by is irreversible. They are encouraged to examine --- teachers find the role as local pioneers and innovators
practitioners (DEN, USA). the products that they use in their everyday lives stimulating and engage personally in the development
and consider if these have adverse effects on the Especially the high risks involved for some stake- of ESD. These pioneers may play an important role as
Limited teacher qualifications environment, find alternatives if they do, and be holders are underlined in the report from Singapore: activists at the local level due to their passion and en-
for ESD and CCE involved in recycling activities. However, while this thusiasm, but in the long run, ESD has to be adopted
Despite national differences regarding the strategy reinforcement of environmental issues are made in --- as more of a common challenge for the school if it is
for ESD development, teacher training is widely the civic and moral education curriculum, the fact ‘… tensions within the school system in regard to to become mainstream. One challenge in implement-
accepted as key to further development of ESD. that it is a moral education programme located environmental education where high stakes national ing innovative forms of ESD is finding ways in which
In some countries (USA, CAN, CHN), NGOs within the mother tongue subjects would not allow examinations and accountability measures hold to ensure that this passion and enthusiasm spreads
have played a central role by training teachers and the environmental issues to be taught by teachers teachers to curricula that are academic and rational- to colleagues instead of overwhelming them, hereby
providing teaching materials, hereby facilitating who are knowledgeable about the subject, unlike ist rather than socially critical and emancipatory in encouraging inclusiveness and participation in the
competence development among practitioners social studies where the many of the teachers character (STU, 2008; Wong, 2003)’ (National reports: continuing development and innovation.
within the field of ESD. Nevertheless, in all ten have geography background or science where SIN p. 266).
countries, there is a lack of sufficient teacher teachers have the necessary understandings of --- The national reports do not provide evidence of a
training which has a negative impact on schools’ environmental issues through their subject mastery clear pattern of differences in the main barriers for
engagement in and development of ESD. For in biology or chemistry’ (National reports: SIN p. 257). Incorporating EE/ESD aspects in exams would give ESD development between the established indus-
example, in the USA: --- students an impetus to focus on EE/ESD (SIN). trialised countries and the countries characterised
by more recent industrialisation. This probably has
--- The above passage is also interesting in that it would --- to do with the existence of greater variation within
‘Establishing teacher education requirements that seem to suggest that environmental issues are best ‘The Chinese government and educational re- each individual country than found between coun-
focus on EE or ESD: Such require­ments are now dealt with from a science or geography perspective searchers have been trying to change the ‘educa- tries at the overall level. It might also have to do
fairly common, but in most states they remain quite than, for example, a citizenship perspective. tion for exam’ to quality education that values the with a lack of national baseline studies which might
non-specific and give teacher education programs needs, competence and happiness of individual enable such a comparison. However, this would
substantial leeway in choosing how to meet them. As The limitations in the individual teacher’s ability to students rather than merely mastering book knowl- require a more explicit articulation of an ‘ESD
a result, the practical impact on teacher training can teach ESD not only restrict their own ESD teach- edge and getting high scores in test’ (National position’ in each country than currently found to
be disappointing (Mastrilli, 2005)’ ing but also their involvement in ESD development reports: CHN p. 119) . be truly meaningful. Nevertheless, varying national
(National reports: USA p. 329). as a joint challenge, making communication to --- and local needs and challenges mean that impor-
--- teachers about related issues a more difficult task tant differences in national ESD priorities are to be
for the system. This is obviously not an easy ambition to fulfil expected, and thereby also differences in the main
And further in a hard pressed educational system with limited barriers to overcome.
Uncertainty and ambiguity resources in many schools: especially not as long as
--- regarding the concept of ESD the exams are linked to “education for entering a higher It might have been possible to identify a pattern in
’… the ideas of sustainability and ESD are even As demonstrated in theme 1, there exists a variety school” (National reports: CHN p. 136). the barriers to implementing and developing ESD
less well developed in American teacher education of interpretations of what ESD is and what ESD in the form of different educational traditions clearly
than they are in curricular and pedagogical reform’ should be in each country. This variety can, in some Adding to the general problem that ESD has to reflected in the approach to ESD and ESD develop-
(National reports: USA p. 346). respects, comprise a fertile field of development compete with the ‘traditional’ subjects for space in ment, and, for example, to demonstrate differences
--- engaging researchers and practitioners in a common the curriculum and teachers’ engagement, in some between centralised and decentralised school systems,
debate regarding what to focus on. However, when countries we find little or no focus on the pro- but the national reports do not support any conclu-
As is underlined in the Chinese report: seeking to draw practitioners’ attention to ESD gression of ESD during the period of compulsory sions regarding such differences.
22 23
theme 4 theme 4

More specifically, the roots of ESD in the differ-

ent countries have some similarities linked to the Theme 5:
Research
national development of EE. There are differences
regarding which concept of EE has been dominant,
and consequently in the ease with which EE has de-
veloped into an ESD approach focussing on students’
empowerment and encompassing not only environ-
mental, but also economic and social aspects.

It seems plausible that a focused effort to merge

and develop established views on education such
as health education, global education, conservation
education and citizenship education, along with EE, The issue Findings
into a more forward looking version of ESD would In the midst of the UN Decade for ESD and the A relatively new field of research
help to overcome some of the specified barriers. growing awareness of the risks of climate change, Just as ESD and CCE constitute relatively new
politicians worldwide have expressed a desire to themes within education, research in this area is also
In China and Singapore, considerable efforts have intensify efforts within this field. The question is, relatively new and, as yet, quite sparse. However,
been made during recent years to make the learn- what impact this will have on practice at school the national reports demonstrate that the existing
ing situation more meaningful for students (CHN, level? What are educators doing and what could they research on ESD is closely linked to, and indeed
SIN). In such cases, ESD can act as a catalyst for do? How can the quality of the teaching/learning often has its origins in, the field of environmental
efforts to improve this. Interestingly, this tendency in ESD be gauged, and how can it be improved? education--a field with a considerably longer history
goes against another international trend mentioned Research comprises a key component in answer- (CAN, UK, SIN, KOR, CHN, AUS, BRA, DEN,
as one of the barriers hindering the implementa- ing each of these questions. UNESCO has therefore USA). In addition, development education (UK) and
tion and development of ESD in some countries, also recognised research as an essential component of health education (DEN) are sometimes highlighted
i.e. the increasing focus on standardised curricula success for the Decade for ESD. as areas of educational research that have dealt with
linked to a quest for tests and performance indica- ESD. As a result of these mixed origins, research has
tors (e.g. DEN, UK, USA). In this chapter, we will take a closer look at the roles actively influenced ESD since the start of the UN
research has played so far in the development of ESD Decade in 2005. In the following pages, we will il-
To overcome barriers to the future development in the ten countries represented in this report. We lustrate the various roles of research in this process.
of ESD, it might be helpful to develop cumula- will examine both the role of research in the devel-
tive models of ESD, which incorporate progression opment of policy and its role in the development of The cultural role – critical and innovative
throughout the various stages of compulsory school- practice. What can we learn from these past experi- The first point to be made is that research has as-
ing, and to consider how best to gain the full poten- ences with research in ESD? Are there any general sumed a role that we earlier referred to, using a term
tial of ESD at each level of the national educational characteristics or defining features of this research? from de Vries, as ‘the cultural role’. By this we mean
system. Doing so can assist in the integration of ESD What differences are there among the different that research has played a significant part in formu-
within the curriculum, but will require consider- nations? How has the tension between analytical dis- lating and interpreting the concept of ESD. Partly
able national attention and research. On the other tance and policy/practice collaboration been negoti- critical, partly innovative, research has contributed
hand, too rigid and restrictive a focus on educational ated? And, looking to the future: On the background to discussions on the theoretical foundations of ESD,
progression should be avoided as it can hamper the of the various strengths and weaknesses identified in the development of possible pedagogical approaches
genuine participation of students allowed to focus on current and previous research efforts, what recom- and principles, and strategies for shaping and evalu-
issues that they find important. mendations can be made regarding the development ating ESD practice directly. The national reports
of ESD research in the coming years? illustrate this in various ways.

Research has not played its cultural role within a

closed theoretical-academic vacuum, but in dia-
logue with other institutions and stakeholders. This
dialogue has, as outlined under theme 1, been
characterised by a critical polemic against a behav-
ioural, prescriptive approach and a desire to develop
alternative approaches, as far back as the early days of
EE. This is particularly apparent in the Danish report
and the report from the UK, which comments on
this trend at length:

---
”Overall, since the 1970s there has been, and
continues to be, active debate in the UK about how
educational programmes might lead to behavioural or
attitudinal change in support of sustainability. These
debates have also recently begun to be applied to
discussions of education and climate change. Gov-
ernment-funded research and policy tends to take an
instrumental approach to education and training in
24 25
theme 4 theme 4

More specifically, the roots of ESD in the differ-

ent countries have some similarities linked to the Theme 5:
Research
national development of EE. There are differences
regarding which concept of EE has been dominant,
and consequently in the ease with which EE has de-
veloped into an ESD approach focussing on students’
empowerment and encompassing not only environ-
mental, but also economic and social aspects.

It seems plausible that a focused effort to merge

and develop established views on education such
as health education, global education, conservation
education and citizenship education, along with EE, The issue Findings
into a more forward looking version of ESD would In the midst of the UN Decade for ESD and the A relatively new field of research
help to overcome some of the specified barriers. growing awareness of the risks of climate change, Just as ESD and CCE constitute relatively new
politicians worldwide have expressed a desire to themes within education, research in this area is also
In China and Singapore, considerable efforts have intensify efforts within this field. The question is, relatively new and, as yet, quite sparse. However,
been made during recent years to make the learn- what impact this will have on practice at school the national reports demonstrate that the existing
ing situation more meaningful for students (CHN, level? What are educators doing and what could they research on ESD is closely linked to, and indeed
SIN). In such cases, ESD can act as a catalyst for do? How can the quality of the teaching/learning often has its origins in, the field of environmental
efforts to improve this. Interestingly, this tendency in ESD be gauged, and how can it be improved? education--a field with a considerably longer history
goes against another international trend mentioned Research comprises a key component in answer- (CAN, UK, SIN, KOR, CHN, AUS, BRA, DEN,
as one of the barriers hindering the implementa- ing each of these questions. UNESCO has therefore USA). In addition, development education (UK) and
tion and development of ESD in some countries, also recognised research as an essential component of health education (DEN) are sometimes highlighted
i.e. the increasing focus on standardised curricula success for the Decade for ESD. as areas of educational research that have dealt with
linked to a quest for tests and performance indica- ESD. As a result of these mixed origins, research has
tors (e.g. DEN, UK, USA). In this chapter, we will take a closer look at the roles actively influenced ESD since the start of the UN
research has played so far in the development of ESD Decade in 2005. In the following pages, we will il-
To overcome barriers to the future development in the ten countries represented in this report. We lustrate the various roles of research in this process.
of ESD, it might be helpful to develop cumula- will examine both the role of research in the devel-
tive models of ESD, which incorporate progression opment of policy and its role in the development of The cultural role – critical and innovative
throughout the various stages of compulsory school- practice. What can we learn from these past experi- The first point to be made is that research has as-
ing, and to consider how best to gain the full poten- ences with research in ESD? Are there any general sumed a role that we earlier referred to, using a term
tial of ESD at each level of the national educational characteristics or defining features of this research? from de Vries, as ‘the cultural role’. By this we mean
system. Doing so can assist in the integration of ESD What differences are there among the different that research has played a significant part in formu-
within the curriculum, but will require consider- nations? How has the tension between analytical dis- lating and interpreting the concept of ESD. Partly
able national attention and research. On the other tance and policy/practice collaboration been negoti- critical, partly innovative, research has contributed
hand, too rigid and restrictive a focus on educational ated? And, looking to the future: On the background to discussions on the theoretical foundations of ESD,
progression should be avoided as it can hamper the of the various strengths and weaknesses identified in the development of possible pedagogical approaches
genuine participation of students allowed to focus on current and previous research efforts, what recom- and principles, and strategies for shaping and evalu-
issues that they find important. mendations can be made regarding the development ating ESD practice directly. The national reports
of ESD research in the coming years? illustrate this in various ways.

Research has not played its cultural role within a

closed theoretical-academic vacuum, but in dia-
logue with other institutions and stakeholders. This
dialogue has, as outlined under theme 1, been
characterised by a critical polemic against a behav-
ioural, prescriptive approach and a desire to develop
alternative approaches, as far back as the early days of
EE. This is particularly apparent in the Danish report
and the report from the UK, which comments on
this trend at length:

---
”Overall, since the 1970s there has been, and
continues to be, active debate in the UK about how
educational programmes might lead to behavioural or
attitudinal change in support of sustainability. These
debates have also recently begun to be applied to
discussions of education and climate change. Gov-
ernment-funded research and policy tends to take an
instrumental approach to education and training in
24 25
theme 5 theme 5

these areas – i.e. that increasing access to knowl- Advocates recognize the need for a strong research the researchers were asked to draft a foundation for ---
edge and discussion of topics will result in change. base in order to understand the effectiveness of ongo- a Danish strategy. As is clear from the Danish report, ”Correspondingly, the universities are actively in-
There is a strong critique of this approach from some ing education efforts and to determine how best to pro- the interaction between input from researchers and volved in nature programs to translate their expertise
researchers, however, who are concerned that some ceed in the future” (cited in National reports: AUS p. 18). the agendas of the political system proved to be and knowledge into community knowledge. They do
educational programmes (variously labelled ESD/ --- somewhat difficult: so through their community outreach programs such
EE/DE or CCE) in practice are often too instrumen- as adopting a forest and involving school students in
tal in their aims (e.g. gaining support for particular This intertwining of research and policy is institu- --- working with scientists” (National reports: SIN p. 263).
perspectives, initiatives or campaigns) because they tionally anchored within the Australian Research ”The presentation [of the researchers’ draft for the ---
rely on such an overly simplistic understanding of Institute in Education for Sustainability (ARIES), national ESD strategy] was submitted to the Ministry
learning.” (National reports: UK p. 300ff) which is situated at Macquarie University, Sydney in August 2007, that’s more than 1½ years before Such collaboration can certainly take place in the
--- and primarily funded by the Australian Government the adoption of the finalised strategy, but here, only form of a traditional expert-layman relationship, but
Department of the Environment, Water and Heritage a handful of passages remain which in itself makes it can potentially enable an interactive, mutual learn-
In the USA and, in particular, in Canada, researchers and the Arts. As well as providing a strong bedrock it fairly apparent that there is a considerable diver- ing. In the United States, there is a similar example
have initiated a debate regarding the term ESD itself for the dialogue between research and policy in terms gence in perspectives” (National reports: DEN p. 158). of a university (the University of Vermont) work-
(cf. Theme 1), accusing its proponents of undermin- of resources and organisation, it should also be noted --- ing alongside governmental agencies and NGOs to
ing the environmental dimension of EE and replac- that this type of association between research and support teachers in their implementation of ESD in
ing it with an anthropocentric development perspec- policy involves the risk that research becomes tied to In several countries, there is no talk of dialogue school settings (USA). American NGOs such as US
tive (USA, CAN). This reflects differences in the contractual obligations. At ARIES, for example, the among researchers, stakeholders and a government Partnership for ESD also work as mediators with the
interpretation of sustainable development, but also objective is politically defined as conducting research or state apparatus that is responsible for ESD policy, purpose of supporting the development of ESD:
demonstrates that ESD researchers have taken an ac- on ”how to move beyond simply raising awareness as was the case in Korea and Denmark. The report
tive role in the conceptual evolution of SD and ESD, to achieve the attitudinal and behavioural changes from USA analyses the development of ESD from a ---
and in drawing attention to the consequences. necessary to live sustainably” (National reports: AUS, governance perspective, where the key stakeholders “Participants decided that the Partnership would
p. 20). This framing of the research objective sets lim- are the federal government, state governments and not design or implement programs of its own. Rath-
As time passes and people, societies and nature its on what constitutes a relevant research question. NGOs (USA). The governance perspective makes er, it would serve as a clearing house - helping to
change, those changes give cause for new considera- Furthermore, fulfilling this objective is problematic: sense, also in relation to the dialogue in the other connect, highlight, and foster collaboration among
tions regarding ESD. The role of researchers as both countries referred to here, though it demonstrates partners – and serving as a catalyst to convene
educators and innovators in the conceptual develop- --- the variations among countries regarding which groups and build community to support existing and
ment of ESD is not strongly represented in all of “However, it should be noted that much of the work stakeholders are involved in policy development. As emerging initiatives” (USPESD in National reports:
the national reports, but there are examples from of ARIES is descriptive rather than analytical. That well as a source of concrete policy development, the USA p. 333).
Denmark, Korea and Singapore which highlight the is, while what is being done in a range of ways is dialogue among stakeholders can also be viewed as ---
development of the ’green growth’ discourse in these documented by ARIES, the effectiveness of pro- the development of an ESD discourse and a source
countries, which has strongly influenced the percep- grams to lead to changed attitudes or behaviours is of new knowledge. ESD and CCE are examples of The opportunity for ESD researchers to play the role
tion and practice of ESD. less well understood. This is somewhat unsurpris- issues that are defined and negotiated with research- of mediators who network and catalyse knowledge
ing, as making causal links between an educational ers as only one of several parties involved.6 This and competence development among ESD stakehold-
Research’s cultural role has predominately involved program and behavioural change is challenging” places new demands on researchers, and requires a ers and practitioners is now supported on a global
critical reflection, but the other side of the cultural (National reports: AUS p 20). great degree of reflexivity concerning their own po- level by the United Nations University which has,
role, making constructive suggestions for alternatives --- sition and the importance of maintaining standards so far, recognised 60 Regional Centres of Expertise
and new ways of understanding and doing things, of scientific quality and honesty. around the world. All such centres share the goal of
is also discernible in the reports. As described in In some countries, the link between policy and developing ESD within networks that include uni-
earlier chapters, the shift from EE to ESD can be research is not institutionalised in the same way, With this development in the forms of knowledge versities. At one of these centres, situated in Tongyong,
considered problematic, but the widespread criti- but there exists a close link nevertheless. In both production in mind, a number of the national reports South Korea, a number of university departments have
cal dialogue surrounding this shift can also be seen Denmark and Korea, researchers have been actively contain interesting examples of alternatives to the collaborated with schools and the local community
as a progressive trend, one that has advanced the involved in preparing their respective national strate- classic expert role. It is not just a matter of improv- on the development of ESD (KOR).
discourse from nature to environment to a more gies for ESD. In the case of Korea, the report stresses ing the dissemination of the experts’ knowledge, but
holistic perspective tied to the concept of sustainable the positive, stimulating dialogue between researchers of creating a dialectic, reciprocal learning relation- The documentary role
development (CHN). With ESD’s status as a global and other stakeholders. At first, this took the form of ship between the researchers’ theories and teachers’ It is perhaps predictable that ESD research has had
issue and the possibilities for international compari- a joint research project which resulted in the compi- practical knowledge. In Singapore, universities work an innovative and developmental role in con-
son, there is great potential for an augmentation of lation of a draft of the national strategy. Subsequently, in dialogue with local communities: junction with the introduction of ESD. It comes
the innovative aspect of research’s cultural role, as a new cooperative process ensued: as more of a surprise that research is in a weak
suggested in the UK report. position when it comes to documenting practice.
--- Keeping in mind UNESCO’s recommendation
Research as a source of expertise “The draft was shared during numerous meetings that research be used to support the development
in ESD policy with various stakeholders, including government of ESD during the UN Decade, one might expect
In some countries, the cultural role of ESD research officials, local Agenda 21 representatives, teachers, that now, at the halfway point, there would be
has been combined with direct involvement in NGO representatives and researchers. Such a proc- an extensive body of research on national initia-
policy development. The clearest example of this can ess contributed to information sharing and triggered tives, including both surveys of the ESD-related
be found in Australia. A review of Australian progress discussions and debates on ESD among stakehold- efforts and evaluations that could provide insight
in ESD, compiled by Sustainability and Education ers involved” (National reports: KOR p. 200). into existing projects and support their develop-
Academy,York University in Canada, concluded: --- 6 As argued by the sociologists of science Nowotny, Scott and ment. Despite sporadic examples to the contrary,
Gibbons, research has less and less of a patent on the production the general impression gained from the national
of knowledge. Knowledge is produced within networks of actors
--- The development of the Danish ESD strategy is a reports is that such studies are lacking. In the fol-
where the researchers, of course, have a special role (Nowotny,
”Closely intertwined with policy development, research similar example of dialogue among researchers, gov- H., P. Scott, et al. (2001): Re-thinking science. knowledge and the lowing pages, we will provide a clearer picture by
has played a vital role in promoting ESD in Australia. ernment officials and other stakeholders. In this case, public in an age of uncertainty. Oxford, Polity Press). distinguishing between documentation in the form
26 27
theme 5 theme 5

these areas – i.e. that increasing access to knowl- Advocates recognize the need for a strong research the researchers were asked to draft a foundation for ---
edge and discussion of topics will result in change. base in order to understand the effectiveness of ongo- a Danish strategy. As is clear from the Danish report, ”Correspondingly, the universities are actively in-
There is a strong critique of this approach from some ing education efforts and to determine how best to pro- the interaction between input from researchers and volved in nature programs to translate their expertise
researchers, however, who are concerned that some ceed in the future” (cited in National reports: AUS p. 18). the agendas of the political system proved to be and knowledge into community knowledge. They do
educational programmes (variously labelled ESD/ --- somewhat difficult: so through their community outreach programs such
EE/DE or CCE) in practice are often too instrumen- as adopting a forest and involving school students in
tal in their aims (e.g. gaining support for particular This intertwining of research and policy is institu- --- working with scientists” (National reports: SIN p. 263).
perspectives, initiatives or campaigns) because they tionally anchored within the Australian Research ”The presentation [of the researchers’ draft for the ---
rely on such an overly simplistic understanding of Institute in Education for Sustainability (ARIES), national ESD strategy] was submitted to the Ministry
learning.” (National reports: UK p. 300ff) which is situated at Macquarie University, Sydney in August 2007, that’s more than 1½ years before Such collaboration can certainly take place in the
--- and primarily funded by the Australian Government the adoption of the finalised strategy, but here, only form of a traditional expert-layman relationship, but
Department of the Environment, Water and Heritage a handful of passages remain which in itself makes it can potentially enable an interactive, mutual learn-
In the USA and, in particular, in Canada, researchers and the Arts. As well as providing a strong bedrock it fairly apparent that there is a considerable diver- ing. In the United States, there is a similar example
have initiated a debate regarding the term ESD itself for the dialogue between research and policy in terms gence in perspectives” (National reports: DEN p. 158). of a university (the University of Vermont) work-
(cf. Theme 1), accusing its proponents of undermin- of resources and organisation, it should also be noted --- ing alongside governmental agencies and NGOs to
ing the environmental dimension of EE and replac- that this type of association between research and support teachers in their implementation of ESD in
ing it with an anthropocentric development perspec- policy involves the risk that research becomes tied to In several countries, there is no talk of dialogue school settings (USA). American NGOs such as US
tive (USA, CAN). This reflects differences in the contractual obligations. At ARIES, for example, the among researchers, stakeholders and a government Partnership for ESD also work as mediators with the
interpretation of sustainable development, but also objective is politically defined as conducting research or state apparatus that is responsible for ESD policy, purpose of supporting the development of ESD:
demonstrates that ESD researchers have taken an ac- on ”how to move beyond simply raising awareness as was the case in Korea and Denmark. The report
tive role in the conceptual evolution of SD and ESD, to achieve the attitudinal and behavioural changes from USA analyses the development of ESD from a ---
and in drawing attention to the consequences. necessary to live sustainably” (National reports: AUS, governance perspective, where the key stakeholders “Participants decided that the Partnership would
p. 20). This framing of the research objective sets lim- are the federal government, state governments and not design or implement programs of its own. Rath-
As time passes and people, societies and nature its on what constitutes a relevant research question. NGOs (USA). The governance perspective makes er, it would serve as a clearing house - helping to
change, those changes give cause for new considera- Furthermore, fulfilling this objective is problematic: sense, also in relation to the dialogue in the other connect, highlight, and foster collaboration among
tions regarding ESD. The role of researchers as both countries referred to here, though it demonstrates partners – and serving as a catalyst to convene
educators and innovators in the conceptual develop- --- the variations among countries regarding which groups and build community to support existing and
ment of ESD is not strongly represented in all of “However, it should be noted that much of the work stakeholders are involved in policy development. As emerging initiatives” (USPESD in National reports:
the national reports, but there are examples from of ARIES is descriptive rather than analytical. That well as a source of concrete policy development, the USA p. 333).
Denmark, Korea and Singapore which highlight the is, while what is being done in a range of ways is dialogue among stakeholders can also be viewed as ---
development of the ’green growth’ discourse in these documented by ARIES, the effectiveness of pro- the development of an ESD discourse and a source
countries, which has strongly influenced the percep- grams to lead to changed attitudes or behaviours is of new knowledge. ESD and CCE are examples of The opportunity for ESD researchers to play the role
tion and practice of ESD. less well understood. This is somewhat unsurpris- issues that are defined and negotiated with research- of mediators who network and catalyse knowledge
ing, as making causal links between an educational ers as only one of several parties involved.6 This and competence development among ESD stakehold-
Research’s cultural role has predominately involved program and behavioural change is challenging” places new demands on researchers, and requires a ers and practitioners is now supported on a global
critical reflection, but the other side of the cultural (National reports: AUS p 20). great degree of reflexivity concerning their own po- level by the United Nations University which has,
role, making constructive suggestions for alternatives --- sition and the importance of maintaining standards so far, recognised 60 Regional Centres of Expertise
and new ways of understanding and doing things, of scientific quality and honesty. around the world. All such centres share the goal of
is also discernible in the reports. As described in In some countries, the link between policy and developing ESD within networks that include uni-
earlier chapters, the shift from EE to ESD can be research is not institutionalised in the same way, With this development in the forms of knowledge versities. At one of these centres, situated in Tongyong,
considered problematic, but the widespread criti- but there exists a close link nevertheless. In both production in mind, a number of the national reports South Korea, a number of university departments have
cal dialogue surrounding this shift can also be seen Denmark and Korea, researchers have been actively contain interesting examples of alternatives to the collaborated with schools and the local community
as a progressive trend, one that has advanced the involved in preparing their respective national strate- classic expert role. It is not just a matter of improv- on the development of ESD (KOR).
discourse from nature to environment to a more gies for ESD. In the case of Korea, the report stresses ing the dissemination of the experts’ knowledge, but
holistic perspective tied to the concept of sustainable the positive, stimulating dialogue between researchers of creating a dialectic, reciprocal learning relation- The documentary role
development (CHN). With ESD’s status as a global and other stakeholders. At first, this took the form of ship between the researchers’ theories and teachers’ It is perhaps predictable that ESD research has had
issue and the possibilities for international compari- a joint research project which resulted in the compi- practical knowledge. In Singapore, universities work an innovative and developmental role in con-
son, there is great potential for an augmentation of lation of a draft of the national strategy. Subsequently, in dialogue with local communities: junction with the introduction of ESD. It comes
the innovative aspect of research’s cultural role, as a new cooperative process ensued: as more of a surprise that research is in a weak
suggested in the UK report. position when it comes to documenting practice.
--- Keeping in mind UNESCO’s recommendation
Research as a source of expertise “The draft was shared during numerous meetings that research be used to support the development
in ESD policy with various stakeholders, including government of ESD during the UN Decade, one might expect
In some countries, the cultural role of ESD research officials, local Agenda 21 representatives, teachers, that now, at the halfway point, there would be
has been combined with direct involvement in NGO representatives and researchers. Such a proc- an extensive body of research on national initia-
policy development. The clearest example of this can ess contributed to information sharing and triggered tives, including both surveys of the ESD-related
be found in Australia. A review of Australian progress discussions and debates on ESD among stakehold- efforts and evaluations that could provide insight
in ESD, compiled by Sustainability and Education ers involved” (National reports: KOR p. 200). into existing projects and support their develop-
Academy,York University in Canada, concluded: --- 6 As argued by the sociologists of science Nowotny, Scott and ment. Despite sporadic examples to the contrary,
Gibbons, research has less and less of a patent on the production the general impression gained from the national
of knowledge. Knowledge is produced within networks of actors
--- The development of the Danish ESD strategy is a reports is that such studies are lacking. In the fol-
where the researchers, of course, have a special role (Nowotny,
”Closely intertwined with policy development, research similar example of dialogue among researchers, gov- H., P. Scott, et al. (2001): Re-thinking science. knowledge and the lowing pages, we will provide a clearer picture by
has played a vital role in promoting ESD in Australia. ernment officials and other stakeholders. In this case, public in an age of uncertainty. Oxford, Polity Press). distinguishing between documentation in the form
26 27
THEME 5 THEME 5

of monitoring and the form of quality assessments, Unlike formative assessment, summative assessment --- assess and elaborate programmes and practices. How-
and, for the latter, between formative and summa- has to do with the results of a particular initiative, ”There appears to be limited research on the im- ever, an important part of research, generally and
tive assessments. with less focus on shaping future practice. There is pacts of ESD initiatives, impact being defined as thus in this field as well, is to approach the social real-
generally a lot of politically motivated interest in ’the longer-term cumulative effects of an activity or ity in an open-minded and explorative way. ESD is a
Monitoring offers a description of what is happen- such research, research that both monitors what has programme and embody lasting changes’. Such stud- new phenomenon and ESD research should indeed
ing in practice, whether qualitatively or quantitatively. happened and assesses the value of the results – usu- ies would need to be longitudinal and complex, and be able to describe how this global idea is adapted
It does not provide explanations or contribute to ally in relation to predetermined success criteria and separating out the influences of specific initiatives at and constructed in different socio-cultural settings. In
quality assessment or research-based proposals for the indicators. Despite this, there are few examples of school would be difficult” (National reports: AUS p. 31). this respect, an interesting feature of research in ESD
refinement of practice. A handful of examples of ESD this type of ESD research. In the UK, a government --- is found in Korea where ESD issues are connected
monitoring are given in the national reports. Australia, body assessed the work of several key government with the unique cultural, philosophical and histori-
which began earlier than the other nations and which departments in 2003. The study “found evidence of As inferred here, the stumbling block for this form of cal backgrounds and traditions of the country. While
has funded an actual research institution for ESD, is an good practice in curriculum planning and whole- research, and thus for meeting the demand from poli- adopting the internationally accepted methods and
obvious outlier. In Australia, several studies have been school approaches to sustainability, but concluded cymakers, may the methodological difficulty involved. norms in ESD, Korean research shows that this could
conducted that describe the practice of ESD. These that more could be done to fully integrate ESD The following passage from the Canadian report aug- be balanced by locating ESD within the country’s
studies have concentrated in particular on how ESD across the curriculum” (National reports: UK p. 297). ments the impression of poorly functioning linkage own cultural roots. One example is the incorporation
is taught and on the implementation of the whole- In South Korea, whole school projects have been between policy and research within the field: of the spirit of ‘Dure’, an organization of the Chosun
school approach (AUS). The UK report also refers successful in engendering environmentally friendly Dynasty that mobilized farmers to act cooperatively
to monitoring studies, including both a survey of outcomes among students towards ESD. Further- --- during periods of agricultural emergencies. Another
several key government departments concerning good more, at study on a sample of Environmental Con- ”Despite the profusion of policy, countrywide, it is area was the investigation of sustainable development
practice in curriculum planning and whole-school ap- servation Model School Initiatives revealed positive difficult to ascertain their practical effectiveness. through Korean traditional songs in ESD classes, and
proaches to sustainability, and a survey of young peo- contributions of such endeavours towards sustainable There is a paucity of research on how ESD, CCE developing lesson plans based on traditional food,
ple’s attitudes to global learning and how the practice development, but did also identify aspects where or EE policy is being implemented, and its impact traditional agricultural knowledge, natural dyeing, etc.
of ESD learning on the ground (UK). In Singapore, a the schools achieve low accomplishment (KOR). on schools and classrooms. Reports that do exist (KOR). Another example: By presenting four cases
large-scale survey into students’ general perceptions of In China, a study has documented that teachers come from government bodies and other organiza- on how ESD is approached differently in four prov-
sustainability was conducted in 2006 and has helped who have participated in a major ESD project have tions active in the area. These self reports tend to be inces, the Canadian report illustrates how this type of
in gaining an understanding of the situation (SIN). developed attitudes, interests, awareness and teaching uncritical catalogues that focus on successes, and historical and contextual analyses can be helpful to
abilities within the ESD area (CHN). The US report are silent about problems and failures. This research our knowledge on the construction of ESD on more
Unlike this purely descriptive documentation, re- confirms that this kind of study is still rare, but offers gap may reflect a deeper systemic weakness, that general levels as well (CAN). The national reports
searchers’ role as formative evaluators involves data – as a significant exception to the rule – a summary is, the lack of emphasis on research in influencing produced as part of this project have created a solid
analyses that seek to provide input for the refine- of multiple tests of the teaching strategy Investigating policy and practice. On the other hand, the current basis for taking further steps in the exploration of the
ment of practice. Formative evaluation makes it pos- Environmental Education Issues and Actions (IEE- research gap may exist because plans surrounding socio-cultural shaping of ESD by means of interna-
sible to explain dynamics, barriers, and possibilities, IA), and Environment-Based Education/Place-Based ESD are relatively new and the scholarly community tional comparison.
and, on this basis, to develop qualified suggestions Education, con­ducted over a period of 20 years. Al- has yet to develop appropriate research initiatives”
as to ways forward. In the national reports, there are though these tests contain ’persistent methodological (National reports: CAN p. 109).
a number of examples where research has been in- weaknesses,’ they are ’remarkably consistent’: ---
volved in developmental and action research projects,
as well as in formative project assessments with the --- Evaluating the effectiveness and, more broadly, the
goal of supporting concrete development processes “In each of the eleven cases, the students participat- value of ESD activities requires a degree of consensus
(KOR, CHN, DEN). Such projects are of great- ing in IEEIA exhibited some type of environmentally about the meaning of effectiveness in ESD. Thus, Reflections
est value to the projects evaluated, but researchers relevant behavior change. In most of the cases, the ongoing dialogue between policymakers and As has been apparent, research can play several roles in
also argue for the broader relevance of such evalua- behavior change was accompanied by shifts in other ESD researchers regarding which quality criteria the development of ESD. The focus within the politi-
tions, which can be enhanced by knowledge sharing skill, knowledge and attitudinal variables…” (National and methods of inquiry can be used to assess results cal sphere on research as documentation and clarifica-
between researchers and practitioners. One example reports: USA p. 345). within the field of ESD is key to improvements in tion involves a risk of overlooking researchers’ possible
is the Scandinavian MUVIN project that generated --- this area. Is it a case of registering environmental role as ‘critical friends’ and innovators. This role can be
a number of conclusions regarding, among other results, e.g. reductions in carbon emissions, or is it particularly important for such a young and uncertain
things, what students value in EE (DEN). Although There can be grounds for taking a closer look at about what students learn from the activities in the field as ESD. Because SD concerns ongoing processes
there are many organizations that might foster this why summative assessment, despite being much in lessons? Should the criteria concern students’ knowl- of global change, ESD must be kept up to date if it is
form of knowledge sharing, including the previ- demand from policymakers, is so thin on the ground. edge and/or their engagement and empowerment? to support SD through learning processes stretching
ously mentioned RCE for ESD, the national reports Given that other novel educational programs have In the UK, research on ESD indicators and the dia- from the global to the personal level.
contain only a single notable example. In the United been the focus of considerable formative assessment, logue between researchers and government officials
States, the NGO North American Association for it can not be purely a result of the relative newness in this regard, is currently in focus. According to the Research also has an important role to play as a
Environmental Education (NAAEE) has developed of ESD. The Australian report concludes the follow- researchers, progress here requires: reflective participant in knowledge sharing networks
and continues to refine guidelines for excellence ing regarding ESD research: alongside teachers and other ESD practitioners.
within EE. These guidelines are: --- Regional Centres of Expertise comprise a potential
”the need for clarity about the purposes of indicators platform for developing this mediation, but there is
--- and the interpretive frameworks on which they are a risk that research will become too closely linked
”…not a summary of research on ’what works’. They based, and agreement that the quality of ESD should to developmental projects in collaboration with the
are the fruit of a consensus process, involving more 7 This corresponds with what Nowotny et al. term ’socially robust
not be equated solely with indicator measurements” most committed practitioners (formative project as-
than a thousand practitioners, that was intended knowledge’, knowledge which does not comprise universal rules for (National reports: UK p. 298). sessments can also be included here). Research must
to produce ’a common understanding of effective ’what works’, but which is meaningful and applicable to practice in --- also deal with and expound on normal ESD practice.
a given context and a given phase, and which is developed in an
environmental education’ (NAAEE 2004)” (National interaction between many participants, including researchers (Now-
reports: USA p. 337).7 otny, H., P. Scott, et al. (2001): Re-thinking science. knowledge and Until now documentary research has been described Regarding the latter, there is first and foremost a
--- the public in an age of uncertainty. Oxford, Polity Press). as a way to get hold of the state-of-the-art and to need for larger-scale studies that offer a detailed
28 29
THEME 5 THEME 5

of monitoring and the form of quality assessments, Unlike formative assessment, summative assessment --- assess and elaborate programmes and practices. How-
and, for the latter, between formative and summa- has to do with the results of a particular initiative, ”There appears to be limited research on the im- ever, an important part of research, generally and
tive assessments. with less focus on shaping future practice. There is pacts of ESD initiatives, impact being defined as thus in this field as well, is to approach the social real-
generally a lot of politically motivated interest in ’the longer-term cumulative effects of an activity or ity in an open-minded and explorative way. ESD is a
Monitoring offers a description of what is happen- such research, research that both monitors what has programme and embody lasting changes’. Such stud- new phenomenon and ESD research should indeed
ing in practice, whether qualitatively or quantitatively. happened and assesses the value of the results – usu- ies would need to be longitudinal and complex, and be able to describe how this global idea is adapted
It does not provide explanations or contribute to ally in relation to predetermined success criteria and separating out the influences of specific initiatives at and constructed in different socio-cultural settings. In
quality assessment or research-based proposals for the indicators. Despite this, there are few examples of school would be difficult” (National reports: AUS p. 31). this respect, an interesting feature of research in ESD
refinement of practice. A handful of examples of ESD this type of ESD research. In the UK, a government --- is found in Korea where ESD issues are connected
monitoring are given in the national reports. Australia, body assessed the work of several key government with the unique cultural, philosophical and histori-
which began earlier than the other nations and which departments in 2003. The study “found evidence of As inferred here, the stumbling block for this form of cal backgrounds and traditions of the country. While
has funded an actual research institution for ESD, is an good practice in curriculum planning and whole- research, and thus for meeting the demand from poli- adopting the internationally accepted methods and
obvious outlier. In Australia, several studies have been school approaches to sustainability, but concluded cymakers, may the methodological difficulty involved. norms in ESD, Korean research shows that this could
conducted that describe the practice of ESD. These that more could be done to fully integrate ESD The following passage from the Canadian report aug- be balanced by locating ESD within the country’s
studies have concentrated in particular on how ESD across the curriculum” (National reports: UK p. 297). ments the impression of poorly functioning linkage own cultural roots. One example is the incorporation
is taught and on the implementation of the whole- In South Korea, whole school projects have been between policy and research within the field: of the spirit of ‘Dure’, an organization of the Chosun
school approach (AUS). The UK report also refers successful in engendering environmentally friendly Dynasty that mobilized farmers to act cooperatively
to monitoring studies, including both a survey of outcomes among students towards ESD. Further- --- during periods of agricultural emergencies. Another
several key government departments concerning good more, at study on a sample of Environmental Con- ”Despite the profusion of policy, countrywide, it is area was the investigation of sustainable development
practice in curriculum planning and whole-school ap- servation Model School Initiatives revealed positive difficult to ascertain their practical effectiveness. through Korean traditional songs in ESD classes, and
proaches to sustainability, and a survey of young peo- contributions of such endeavours towards sustainable There is a paucity of research on how ESD, CCE developing lesson plans based on traditional food,
ple’s attitudes to global learning and how the practice development, but did also identify aspects where or EE policy is being implemented, and its impact traditional agricultural knowledge, natural dyeing, etc.
of ESD learning on the ground (UK). In Singapore, a the schools achieve low accomplishment (KOR). on schools and classrooms. Reports that do exist (KOR). Another example: By presenting four cases
large-scale survey into students’ general perceptions of In China, a study has documented that teachers come from government bodies and other organiza- on how ESD is approached differently in four prov-
sustainability was conducted in 2006 and has helped who have participated in a major ESD project have tions active in the area. These self reports tend to be inces, the Canadian report illustrates how this type of
in gaining an understanding of the situation (SIN). developed attitudes, interests, awareness and teaching uncritical catalogues that focus on successes, and historical and contextual analyses can be helpful to
abilities within the ESD area (CHN). The US report are silent about problems and failures. This research our knowledge on the construction of ESD on more
Unlike this purely descriptive documentation, re- confirms that this kind of study is still rare, but offers gap may reflect a deeper systemic weakness, that general levels as well (CAN). The national reports
searchers’ role as formative evaluators involves data – as a significant exception to the rule – a summary is, the lack of emphasis on research in influencing produced as part of this project have created a solid
analyses that seek to provide input for the refine- of multiple tests of the teaching strategy Investigating policy and practice. On the other hand, the current basis for taking further steps in the exploration of the
ment of practice. Formative evaluation makes it pos- Environmental Education Issues and Actions (IEE- research gap may exist because plans surrounding socio-cultural shaping of ESD by means of interna-
sible to explain dynamics, barriers, and possibilities, IA), and Environment-Based Education/Place-Based ESD are relatively new and the scholarly community tional comparison.
and, on this basis, to develop qualified suggestions Education, con­ducted over a period of 20 years. Al- has yet to develop appropriate research initiatives”
as to ways forward. In the national reports, there are though these tests contain ’persistent methodological (National reports: CAN p. 109).
a number of examples where research has been in- weaknesses,’ they are ’remarkably consistent’: ---
volved in developmental and action research projects,
as well as in formative project assessments with the --- Evaluating the effectiveness and, more broadly, the
goal of supporting concrete development processes “In each of the eleven cases, the students participat- value of ESD activities requires a degree of consensus
(KOR, CHN, DEN). Such projects are of great- ing in IEEIA exhibited some type of environmentally about the meaning of effectiveness in ESD. Thus, Reflections
est value to the projects evaluated, but researchers relevant behavior change. In most of the cases, the ongoing dialogue between policymakers and As has been apparent, research can play several roles in
also argue for the broader relevance of such evalua- behavior change was accompanied by shifts in other ESD researchers regarding which quality criteria the development of ESD. The focus within the politi-
tions, which can be enhanced by knowledge sharing skill, knowledge and attitudinal variables…” (National and methods of inquiry can be used to assess results cal sphere on research as documentation and clarifica-
between researchers and practitioners. One example reports: USA p. 345). within the field of ESD is key to improvements in tion involves a risk of overlooking researchers’ possible
is the Scandinavian MUVIN project that generated --- this area. Is it a case of registering environmental role as ‘critical friends’ and innovators. This role can be
a number of conclusions regarding, among other results, e.g. reductions in carbon emissions, or is it particularly important for such a young and uncertain
things, what students value in EE (DEN). Although There can be grounds for taking a closer look at about what students learn from the activities in the field as ESD. Because SD concerns ongoing processes
there are many organizations that might foster this why summative assessment, despite being much in lessons? Should the criteria concern students’ knowl- of global change, ESD must be kept up to date if it is
form of knowledge sharing, including the previ- demand from policymakers, is so thin on the ground. edge and/or their engagement and empowerment? to support SD through learning processes stretching
ously mentioned RCE for ESD, the national reports Given that other novel educational programs have In the UK, research on ESD indicators and the dia- from the global to the personal level.
contain only a single notable example. In the United been the focus of considerable formative assessment, logue between researchers and government officials
States, the NGO North American Association for it can not be purely a result of the relative newness in this regard, is currently in focus. According to the Research also has an important role to play as a
Environmental Education (NAAEE) has developed of ESD. The Australian report concludes the follow- researchers, progress here requires: reflective participant in knowledge sharing networks
and continues to refine guidelines for excellence ing regarding ESD research: alongside teachers and other ESD practitioners.
within EE. These guidelines are: --- Regional Centres of Expertise comprise a potential
”the need for clarity about the purposes of indicators platform for developing this mediation, but there is
--- and the interpretive frameworks on which they are a risk that research will become too closely linked
”…not a summary of research on ’what works’. They based, and agreement that the quality of ESD should to developmental projects in collaboration with the
are the fruit of a consensus process, involving more 7 This corresponds with what Nowotny et al. term ’socially robust
not be equated solely with indicator measurements” most committed practitioners (formative project as-
than a thousand practitioners, that was intended knowledge’, knowledge which does not comprise universal rules for (National reports: UK p. 298). sessments can also be included here). Research must
to produce ’a common understanding of effective ’what works’, but which is meaningful and applicable to practice in --- also deal with and expound on normal ESD practice.
a given context and a given phase, and which is developed in an
environmental education’ (NAAEE 2004)” (National interaction between many participants, including researchers (Now-
reports: USA p. 337).7 otny, H., P. Scott, et al. (2001): Re-thinking science. knowledge and Until now documentary research has been described Regarding the latter, there is first and foremost a
--- the public in an age of uncertainty. Oxford, Polity Press). as a way to get hold of the state-of-the-art and to need for larger-scale studies that offer a detailed
28 29
THEME 5

overview of, and insight into, the issue of ESD-stud-

ies that illustrate the issue both quantitatively, quali-
tatively, and developmentally. However, as is evident,
there are still methodological problems in this regard,
intimately connected with ongoing discussions about
the proper purposes and outcomes of ESD. The
dialogue between the policy level and ESD research-
ers must continue with the objective of establishing
a greater understanding of the particular challenges
involved in documenting students’ learning and utili-
sation of competences in relation to a complex issue
such as sustainable development.

30
 LIST OF NATIONAL REPORTS

List of national reports

Australia United Kingdom

Chambers, Dianne (2009): Sustainable development: Blum, Nicole & Chris Husbands (2009): Climate
The response from education - Australian country report, Change and Sustainable Development:The Response from
Melbourne Graduate School of Education. Education in the UK. Institute of Education, Univer-
sity of London.
Brazil
Jacobi, Pedro Roberto, Luciana Ferreira da Silva, USA
Samia, Nascimento Sulaiman, Tiago Costa Nepomu- Feinstein, Noah (2009): Education for Sustainable
ceno, Lesly Monteiro Ratinho (2009): Education and Development in the United States of America, Depart-
climate change in Brazil, Laboratory of education and ment of Curriculum and Instruction, University of
environment - TEIA-USP / School of Education / Wisconsin-Madison School of Education.
University of the state of São Paolo-USP.

Canada
Nazir, Joanne; Erminia Pedretti, John Wallace, David
Montemurro and Hilary Inwood (2009): Climate
Change and Sustainable Development:The Response
from Education.The Canadian Perspective. Centre for Links to the national reports
Science, Mathematics and Technology Education,
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Univer- http://edusud.dk and http://dpu.dk/RPEHE
sity of Toronto.

China
Yi, Jin & Ping Wu (2009): IALEI-project: Climate
Change and Sustainable Development:The Response from
Education. Report from China. School of Education,
Beijing Normal University.

Denmark
Breiting, Søren; Jeppe Læssøe, Karsten Schnack and
Simon Rolls (2009): Climate Change and Sustainable
Development:The Response from Education. Danish Na-
tional Report. Danish School of Education, University
of Aarhus, Copenhagen.

Korea
Kim, Jong Wook & Chankook Kim (2009): National
Report for the project ‘Climate Change and Sustainable
Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Development – The Response from Education’. College
The Response from Education of Education, Seoul National University.
CROSS-NATIONAL REPORT
South Africa
Jeppe Læssøe, Karsten Schnack, Søren Breiting and Simon Rolls Winter, Kevin (2009): Climate Change andSustainable
(Danish School of Education, University of Aarhus, Denmark) Development:The Response from Education. Environ-
mental & Geographical Science Department, Uni-
http://dpu.dk/RPEHE and http://edusud.dk 2009 versity of Cape Town.

Singapore
Copyright © 2009: This publication is the copyright of the authors. The
content is available for free reproduction and distribution provided the
authors are fully credited and the content is unaltered. In all cases this Goh, Kim Chuan; K.C.D. Tan; C.H. Chang & G.L.
notice must remain intact. Resale strictly prohibited. Ooi (2009): Climate Change and Sustainable Develop-
ment: Response from Education - The Case of Singapore.
Forsidebillede: ISTOCK
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Techno-
logical University.

2 31

DPU_Rapport_omslag_2mm_ryg.indd 2 11/30/09 2:39:47 PM

 Climate Change and Sustaina ble Development: The R esponse from Education A cross-national report from International Alliance of Leading Education Institutes
Prepa
*
Jep red
Schn pe Læssø by
ack, e, Ka
Simo S ø rs
n Ro ren Brei ten
Educa lls, D ting
an
, Aarh ish Schoo d
tion an
us U l of
nive
rsity
Noah with assi ,
Feins stanc
tein, e f rom
Unive Facult
Kim rsity
Chua of Wiscon y of Educat
of E
duc
n G oh, sin-M
adis
ion,

Unive ation, Nan National I n,

o
rsity yang nstit
, T
Danis Bjarne B echnolog te
u
h Sc ruun ical
Aarhu l of Educ ensen,
hoo J
s Un atio
n,
iver
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Climate Change
Climate Change and Sustainable
and Sustainable Development:
Development:
The Response The Response
from Education from Education
A cross-national report from
International Alliance of
Leading Education Institutes

December 2009 December 2009

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