B.

Sc First Year Chemistry

First Semister

Gnanambica Degree College

November 27, 2022

Contents
I Chemistry of P-Block elements 5

1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 7

1.1 Group 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Group 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 GROUP – 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Group 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Group 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

II d-Block Elements, f-Block Elements and Theories of Bonding

in Metals 19

2 d-Block Elements 21
2.1 Transitional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 f-Block Elements 25
3.1 Lanthanides and Actinides: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Theories of Bonding in Metals 29

III Physical Chemistry- Solid State 31

5 Solid State 33

IV Gaseous state-Liquid state 35

6 Gaseous State 37

7 liquid State 39

V Solutions: Ionic Equilibrium, Dilute Solutions 41

8 Solutions 43

9 Ionic Equilibrium 45

10 Dilute Solutions 47

3
 I
Chemistry of P-Block elements
Part I: Contents

1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 7

1.1 Group 13 . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Group 14 . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 GROUP – 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Group 16 . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Group 17 . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1 Chemistry of P-block Elements

§1.1 Group 13
§1.1.i Preparation and structure of diborane B2 H6
1. 8 BF3 + 6 LiH −−→ B2 H6 + 6 LiBF4
∆
2. 2 BF3 + 6 NAH −−→ B2 H6 + 6 NAF

3. 4 BCl3 + 3 LiAlH4 −−→ 2 B2 H6 + 3 LiAlCl4

§1.1.ii Structure :
1. Diborane B2 H6 and Ethane C2 H6 both are covalent compounds. Hence, it was
proposed that the structure of diborane was similar to Ethane. In Ethane 14 valence
elections, but in diborane there are only 12 electrons. Hence, diborane could not
possess Ethane like structure.
H H H H

H C C HH B? B H

H H H H
2. Hydrogen bridge like structure proposed for diborane.
a) Raman and IR suggested two types of B – H bonds in diborane
b) On Methylation diborane gives teramethyl diborane indicating that two hy-
drogen atoms are differently linked.
Thus four hydrogen atoms are linked with two B atoms by normal covalent
bonds. These lie in the same plane.
c) Electron diffraction and X-ray studies indicates that two B atoms are linked
through Hydrogen atoms by bridge like structure. One H atom lies above the
plane and second H atom lies below the plane.
Thus the structure of diborane is
H H H

B B

H H H
d) Molecular orbital theory structure : In diborane B undergoes SP3 hybridisation.
In this three SP3 hybrid orbitals are occupied by single electron and fourth
SP3 is vacant.Half filled SP3 hybrid orbital of one B atom, vacant SP3 hybrid
orbital of another B together overlaps with half filled S orbital of Hydrogen
atom to form delocalized molecular orbitals, which contain two electrons
three centre bond.

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This B – H – B,bridge three centre two electron bonds are also called Banana
bonds or tau bond.

§1.1.iii Borazole (or) Borazine (or) Inorganic Benzene (B3 N3 H6 )

120 ◦C
3 BH2 H6 + 6 NH3 −−−−→ 2 B3 N3 H6 + 12 H3
Borazole structure is similar to Benzene. It is a planar molecule, in which B and N atom
are Sp2 hybridised. In borazole, n− bonding is dative , it forms by overlapping of empty
P − orbitals of boron, with filled P −orbitals of Nitrogen

§1.2 Group 14
§1.2.i Preparation , properties and uses of Silicones
Silicones are orgonosilicon polymers containing Si – O – Silinkages. They may be linear,
cyclic or cross linked polymers.
1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 9

CH3 Mgcl + SiCL4 −−→ CH3 SICl3 + Mgcl2

Methyl trichloro silane

2 CH3 Mgcl + SiCl4 −−→ (CH3 )2 SICL2 + 2 MGCL2

Dimethyl trichlorosilane

(a) Linear Silicones:

CH3 Cl C H3 OH
H O
Si −−2−→ Si

C H3 Cl C H3 OH

This polymerises to form linear silicone

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

O SI O SI O SI O SI O SI

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

Liner Silicone

(b) Cyclic Silicones: These are formed when H2 O is eliminated from the terminal
– OH groups.

(c) Cross linked Silicones : Hydrolysis of alkyl trichloro silane (CH3 Sicl3 ) undergoes
polymerisation to give cross linked silicones.

CH3 CH3

Cl Si Cl OH Si OH
+ H2 O

Cl OH
methyl trichlorosilane methyl silantriol
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O CH3

CH3 Si O Si O
OH

O O
n CH3 Si OH

CH3 Si O Si CH3
OH

O O
Crossed linked silicone

CH3 CH3 CH3

O Si O Si O Si

CH3 CH3
CH3 O CH3

O Si O Si O Si

CH3 CH3 CH3

§1.2.ii Properties and uses of Silicones :

Silicones are intermediate between organic compounds and Sio2, thus they are oily and
unreactive even at high temp. They are durable and chemically inert. They are non-toxic.
They possess good electrical insulating power and water repellents. Hence, silicones are
like fluids, greases, resins or rubbers.

1. Silicones are used to form water resistant coatings on glass, cloth, paper etc.,

2. Silicone resins are mixed with glass fibre for additional strength and used for coating
electrical wires to give water proof and high temperature insulation.

3. These are used for non-stick coatings for pans, used in paints and varnishes

4. Silicone fluids are water repellent and used as hydraulic fluids.

5. Also used in water proofing textiles, lubricants, as mould releasing agents, polishes,
and antifarming agents.

§1.3 GROUP – 15
§1.3.i Preparation and structure of phosphonitrilic halides (PNCl2 )n where
n = 3, 4
Phosphonitrilic compounds are the compounds of phosphorous and Nitrogen with a
pi−bond.
1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 11

Ex:(PNCl2 )3 and (PNCl2 )4

Prepartion

1. Ammonolysis of

n PCl5 + n NH3 −−→ (PNCl2 )n + 3 n HCl

2. PCl5 is heated with NH4 Cl at 145◦ –160◦ c

n PCl5 + n NH4 Cl −−→ (PNCl2 )n + 4 n HCl

Structure :-

PhosphoNitrilic chlorides are having ring structures as in Benzene, but the reactivity of
π– bond is different.
(PNCl2 )3 :-Trimer is having planar ring structure, ‘P ’ undergoes SP 3 hybridisation. The
two chlorine atoms in each pair is linked to ‘P ’ lie in opposite side of the ring. According
to M.O. theory, localized σ bonds are formed throughout the ring due to overlap of SP 3
hybrid orbitals of ‘P ’ with SP 2 hybrid orbitals of ‘N ’. In addition, each ‘P ’ atom has
one electron in d−orbital and each N atom has one electron in Pz orbital. These form
delocalized π(d − p) extended over the whole ring.

(PNCl2 )4 :- The tetramer has puckered ring structure. In this ‘P ’ and ‘N ’ atoms are
arranged alternatively.
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§1.4 Group 16
§1.4.i Oxides and Oxyacids of Sulphur
Oxides:-
SO2 and SO3 SO2 : Sulphur dioxide has a planar triangular (V-shaped) involving SP 2
hybridisation of ‘S’ atom,

In SO2 , each O ’ atom is joined to ‘S ’ by σ and π bonds

SO3 : SO3 is trigonal planar involving SP 2 hybridisation of ‘S’atom

1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 13

Oxyacids of Sulphur :

The oxy acids of sulpher and their structures are shown in the table

Acid formula S oxidation Structure

Number
Sulphoxylic acid H2 SO4 +2 HO – S – OH
OH

Sulphurous acid H2 SO3 +4 O S

OH
O

Pyrossulphurous acid H2 S2 O5 +4 OH S S OH

O O
O

Sulphuric acid H2 SO4 +6 OH S OH

OH
S

Thiosulphuric acid H2 S2 O4 +6 OH S OH

OH
O O

Pyrosulphuric acid H2 S2 O7 +6 OH S O S OH

O O
14 Gnanambika Degree College ()

Acid formula S oxidation Structure

Number
O O

Dithionic acid H2 S2 O6 +6 OH S S OH

O O
O O

Peroxy acid (Mar- H2 S2 O8 +6 OH S O O S OH

shall‘s acid)
O O
O

Peromonosulphuric H2 SO5 +6 H O S OH
acid(Caro‘s acid)
O

§1.5 Group 17
§1.5.i Pseudohalogens and structures of Interhalogen compounds
Pseudohalogens :-
Pseudohalides are the uninegative radicals, which shows properties similar to halide ions.
Pseudohalogens are the covalent dimers.
Ex: CN – ; SCN –
1. Cyanogen ((CN)2 ) It is prepared by the action of Copper on cyanide in aqueous
solution.

2 Cu2+ + 4 CN− −−→ 2 CuCN + (CN)2

a) It is a poisonous gas, thermally stable
b)

Cl2 + 2 NaOH −−→ NaCl+ NaOCl+ H2 O

(CN)2 + 2 NaOH −−→ NaCN + H2 O

c) Cyanogen hydrolyses to give urea

H O
(CN)2 −−2−→ urea NH2CONH2

d) Cyanide ion (CN – ) is a good ē donar and it forms 4 Co-ordinate complexes

with Na+ , Pt2+ etc.,
e) Structure : N = C – C = N

2. Thiocyanogen (SCN)2 :-Bromine is passed through ethereal solution of Ag.thiocyanate

to form thiocyanogen.

2 AgCNS + Br2 −−→ 2 AgBr + (SCN)2

1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 15

It is a poisonous substance. Hydrolyse to give thiocyanic acid and hydro thiocyanic

acid.
(SCN)2 + H2 O −−→ HSCN + HOSCN
It resembles halogens in addition reaction with alkenes.

CH2 = CH2 + Cl2 −−→ CH2 Cl + HOSCN

CH2 = CH2 + (SCN)2 −−→ CH2 (SCN)−CH2 (SCN)

Structure:
C N

S C N and S S

C N
S C N
Uses :-
a) Cyanogen is used as Poisonous gas in warfare and organic synthesis
b) Thiocyanogen is used as oxidant in titrations.

Interhalogen compounds :
The binary compounds formed by the combination of halogens among themselves are
called ‘Interhalogen compounds’.They are of four types namely Ax, Ax3 , Ax5 , and
Ax7 . A is heavier halogen and has low electronegativity, and x is the halogen of higher
E.N.

Ax : CIF, BrF, ICl, IBr

Ax3 : CIF3 , BrF3 , ICl3
Ax5 : BrF5 , IF5
Ax7 : IF7

Structures:-
1. Ax Type: These are formed by sharing of one electron from each halogen.
Ex: CIF is formed by sharing of electrons between Cl and F . it is linear in shape.

Cl · F

2. Ax3 Type (CF3 : Chlorine in excited state undergoes SP 3 hybridisation

Three lone electrons of SP 3 d hybrid orbitals shares with ‘P ’ electrons of ‘F ’ atoms.

It should be trigonal bipyramidal. Two equatorial positions are occupied by lone
pair of electrons. Hence it is T-Shaped.
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3. Ax5 Type (IF5 ) :- Iodine atom in second excited state undergoes SP 3 d2 hy-
bridisation.

Five SP 3 d2 hybrid orbital electrons overlaps with p orbitals of 5 Fluorine atoms.

One e pair is non bonding. It is octahedral with slight distortion.

4. Ax7 Type ( IF7 ) :- Iodine atom in third in excited state undergoes SP 3 d3

hybridisation. These overlaps with ‘P ’ orbitals of 7 Fluorine atoms, form IF7 . It is
pentagonal bipyramidal.
1 Chemistry of P-block Elements 17
 II
d-Block Elements, f-Block
Elements and Theories of Bonding
in Metals
Part II: Contents

2 d-Block Elements 21
2.1 Transitional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 f-Block Elements 25
3.1 Lanthanides and Actinides: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Theories of Bonding in Metals 29

2 d-Block Elements
§2.1 Transitional Elements
Transitional elements may be defined as those in which elements have partly filled
d−subshells. In d−block elements, the incomplete subshells are (n − 1)d subshells. These
elements are placed between S and P −block in the periodic table. The elements of IIB
group (Zn, Cd, Hg) have completely filled d-level, hence they are only d-block elements
but not transitional elements. The d−block consists of three complete series involving
the filling of 3d, 4d and 5d levels and fourth row is incomplete consisting of only three
elements.
3d Series : Scandium to Zinc
4d Series : Yttrium to Cadmium
5d Series : La, Hf to Hg

1. Electronic Configuration:-The orbitals are filled in the order of their increasing

energy. Thus in 3d series, first 4S is filled, then the next electron goes to inner 3d.

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
At.No 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E.C 3d1 4S 2 3d2 4S 2 3d3 4S 3d5 4S 1 3d5 4S 2 3d6 4S 2 3d7 4S 2 3d8 4S 2 3d10 4S 1 3d10 4S 2
Cr and Cu possess anamalous configuration ie when the orbitals are either filled or
half filled they get extra stability.

Cr : [AR]3d4 4S 2 but it is 3d8 4S 1

Cu : [AR]3d9 4S 2 but it is 3d10 4S 1

2. Oxidation states :Transition element exhibits different types of oxidation states.

3d series
SC Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2
4 4 3 3 4 4 4 3
5 4 5 5
5 5 6
6 6
7
The minimum oxidation state is +2, this is due to the loss of ‘S’ electrons. These
shows variable oxidation states due to the loss of ns and (n − 1)d electrons. In
3d series Mn shows highest oxidation state (+7) in K Mn04 . In 4d and 5d series
Ruthenium and osmium shows a highest oxidation state of +8(RuO4 , OsO4 ).
Stability :- Compounds are regarded as stable, if they exist at room temp and
are not oxidized by air, hydrolysed by water. In 3d series, the elements are stable
when the configuration is 3d0 , 3d5 and 3d10 . Thus Ti4+ (3d0 ) is more stable than
Ti3+ (3d1 ); Mn2+ (3d5 ) is more stable than Mn3+ (3d4 ); Fe3+ (3d5 ) is more stable
than Fe2+ (3d6 ).

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3. Magnetic Properties:- Electron is being –vely charged, may be considered as

small magnet. The magnetic momentum of electron is due to its spin and orbital
motion. When a substance is kept in the magnetic field, the induced magnetic field
may act opposite to the external magnetic field or it may add to the external field.
Thus compounds or atoms show diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism.

4. Diamagnetism :- If the substance is repelled by the magnetic field, it is said to

be ‘diamagnetic’. Substances containing completely filled orbitals are diamagnetic.

5. Paramagnetism:- If the substance is attracted by the magnetic field, it is called

‘Paramagnetic’. Substances containing unpaired electrons are paramagnetic.

6. Ferromagnetism:Sometimes the substances will increase the magnetic field

strength by many times. It is called ‘Ferromagnetic’. Substances like Fe, Co, Ni
shows Ferromagnetism Most of the transition metal ions have unpaired d-electrons,

thus they show paramagnetism. SC3+ , Ti4+ , Zn2 +, Cu+ does not contain any
unpaired d−electron, hence they are diamagnetic. The magnetic moment of an
element
p depends on the no. of unpaired electrons, and is calculated by the formula
µ = n(n + 2) Bohr magnetons, where n = no. of unpaired electrons.

7. ccolor: The compounds of transition metals are coloured either in the solid or
solution state. The colour of the ion is due to unpaired electrons. These unpaired
electrons of the ion absorb radiations of one particular wavelength i.e., from white
light and undergo transition from one orbital to another within the same d-level.
This transition transmits coloured light which is complimentary to the absorbed
light. Ex:Ti3+ is purple, Cu2+ is blue, Ions having either empty or completely filled
d-level are colourless. Ex: SC3+ ,Cd2+ , Zn2+ ,Ti4+ are colourless.
In d − d transition, by the approach of –ve ion to transition metal ion, the five
degenerate d-orbitals splits into two energy levels ie (i) dxy, dyz, dzx(t2 g) (ii)
dx2 − y 2 , dz 2 (eg).

In d − d transition, an electron passes from t2g to eg , and the energy difference is

small, so light is absorbed in the visible region, thus they show colour.
2 d-Block Elements 23

Ex: [Ti (H2 O)6 ]3+ , the lone electron is in t2g, when light falls it is promoted to eg,
hence it shows purple, because it absorbs green light and as complementary shows
purple. i.e, white light - Green light = Purple.

Ex: When light passes through [Cu(H2 O)6 ]2+ , the electron in t2g levels absorb red
light, promotes to eg , and exhibits blue. ie., white light – red light = Blue.

Pending

8. Catalytic Activity: Transition elements acts as good catalysts. Eg:

a) Hydrogenation of oil is in the presence of Ni
b) Decomposition of H2 O2 by Mn NH3 is manufactured by using Iron and
Molybdenum
c) V2 O5 is used in the manufacture of H2 S04
The catalytic activity is due to the presence of vacant (n-1)d orbitals, which accepts
electrons from the reactive molecules and the reactants get absorbed on the surface
of the metal. These also reduces the activation energy to complete the reaction.

9. Complex forming ability:-Transition metals exhibit strong tendency to form

complexes with molecules like CO, NH3 , H2 O and ions like F – , Cl – , CN – . Ions of
transition metal have small size, large charge and suitable electronic configuration,
hence they form complexes easily.
In each transition series, the stability of complexes increases with increase in atomic
no. and in particular oxidation state with decreasing size of atom. When transition
metal shows more than one oxidation state, the higher valency forms more stable
complexes.

Ex : [Ni(CO)4 ]; K4 [Fe(CN)6 ]; [Cr (NH3 )6 ]3+

3 f-Block Elements

§3.1 Lanthanides and Actinides:

§3.1.i Lanthanides:
The elements in which the differentiating electron enters into (n−2)f orbitals are known as
f −block elements. These are divided into two rows. In which the differentiating electron
enters into 4f −orbitals are called ‘Lanthanides’. ie., from Lanthanum to Lutetium. These
are also called rare-earths. The series in which the differentiating electron enters into
5f −orbital are called ‘Actinides ie., Actinium to Lawrencium’. f −blocks elements are
also called ‘Inner Transition Elements”.

§3.1.ii Electronic configuration:-

In Lanthanides 5d orbital remains vacant and the last electron enters into 4f −sub level.
Hence, the general outer electronic configuration is ns2 (n − 1)d0 (n − 2)f 1 − 14.

Lanthanum(Z = 57) = [Xe]5d1 6S 2

Gadolinium(Z = 64) = [Xe]4f 8 6S 2 butitis[xe]4f 7 5d1 6S 2
It is due to attain stability
Y tterbium(Z = 70) = [Xe]4f 14 6S 2
Lutetium(Z = 71) = [Xe]4f 14 5d1 6S 2

§3.1.iii Oxidation states:-

The most stable oxidation state for Lanthanides is (+3). Lanthanum shows only +3 state.
Gadolonium and Lutetium shows +3. By this they attain 4f7 in case of Gadolinium
and 4f14 for Lutetium. Few lanthanids also show +2 and +4 because of attaining extra
stability.
Ce4+ has f 0 ; Eu2+ has f 7 , Yb+ 14 4+ 7
2 has f , Tb has f .

§3.1.iv Magnetic properties:-

Diamagnetism is repulsion in magnetic field due to empty or completely filled sub levels.
Paramagnetism is attraction in magnetic field due to unpaired electrons. Most of the
lanthanides contain unpaired electrons thus they exhibit paramagnetism. La3+ and Ce4+
(4 f0 ) and Lu3+ (4 f14 ) having no unpaired electron, they are diamagnetic. Magnetic
moment of Lanthanides is calculated by taking spin and orbital contribution.
p
µ = 4A(a + 1) + L(L + 1)

§3.1.v Lanthanide Contraction:-

regular decrease in the size of atoms/ions with increase in atomic number as we move
from Lanthanum (La) to Lutetium (Lu). Thus among Lanthanides, La is the largest and
Lu is the smallest. This decrease in size is known as “Lanthanide Contraction”.

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The differentiating electron enter into 4f orbitals and hence effective nucleus charge
increases. It is due to the imperfect shielding of one 4f electron by another electron in
the same orbit, due to to diffused shape of f-orbitals. Hence Lanthanide Contraction
lakes place.

§3.1.vi Consequences of Lanthanide Contraction :

1. Occurrence of Yttrium with heavier lanthanides : Size of Y3+ is comparable
with Tb3+ , Dy3+ , Ho3+ and Er3+ . Hence yttrium occurs with these in natural
minerals. Hence these are also called Yttrium earths.

2. Basicity differences: The basic strength of the oxides and hydroxides of

Lanthanides decreases with increase in atomic no. Thus La(OH)3 is the most ionic
and basic while Lu(OH)3 is least basic. They are stronger bases than Al(OH)3 but
weaker than Ca(OH)2 . The decrease in size of lanthanide cations increases the
covalent character (decreases ionic character).

3. Anamalous behaviour of post lanthanides :- The elements following Lan-

thanides are called post lanthanides. Lanthanide contraction affects the post
lanthanides ionic radii. Transition elements of third series have the same ionic
radii as corresponding elements just above them in their respective sub groups. For
example in IV A group Zr & Hf , V A group Nb & Ta, V IA group Mo & W . Due
to similar size of Zr & Hf ,Nb & Ta ; Mo W , the two elements of each pair have
almost the same properties and hene they occur together in nature and difficult to
separate.

Actinides:

he elements with atomic no.89 − 103 , in which the 5f orbitals are filled called
actinide series. Actinides are placed in seventh period, called second inner transition
series. In this series, Actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium occur in nature
and the other elements are made by artificial nuclear bombardment.

Electronic configuration:-

he electronic configuration of actinides are 5f 1−14 6d0−2 7S 2 .

Oxidation states:-

Uranium shows a variety of oxidation states from +3 to 6; N P &P u shows from

+3 to +7 ; However the most common oxidation states shown by Actinides are +3
and +4 .

Actinide contraction:-

The atomic and ionic radiic of tripositive and tetrapositive actinide ions (An3+ ,
An4+ ) decreases with increasing atomic no. This decrease in atomic radii of
Actinides is called actinide contraction, it is due to the addition of successive
electron to an inner f-shell, which causes imperfect screening of the increasing
nuclear charge by the addition of 5f electron.
3 f-Block Elements 27

Magnetic Properties:-

Due to unpaired electrons in 5f level, most of the actinides show paramagnetism.

Comparision of Lanthanides and Actinides:- Similarities :

a) In both series the main oxidation state is +3

b) In both series f-orbitals are gradually filled.
c) Both show decrease in size with increase in atomic no.
d) Elements of both series have low electro negativity and are very reactive
e) Nitrates, perchlorates, sulphates of trivalent lanthanides and actinides are
soluble, while the hydroxides, fluorides and carbonates are insoluble.
f) Actinides like lanthanides show Ion exchange behaviour.

Differences:-

Sl.no. Lanthanides Sl.No. Actinides

1. The last electron goes to 4f orbital 1. the last electron goes to 5f orbital
2. Binding energies of 4f orbitals are 2. Binding energies of 5f orbitals is
higher lowe
3. 4f electrons are having greater 3. 5f electrons are having poor shield-
shielding effect ing effect
4. Except promethium, they are non- 4. All are radioactive
radioactive
5. Most of the ions are colourless 5. Most of the ions are coloured
6. They are paramagnetic and their 6. They are paramagnetic, but dif-
magnetic momentum can be ex- ficult to explain their magnetic
plained momentum
7. Their compounds are less basic 7. They are more basic
8. They show +2, +3 or +4 oxidation 8. They show all oxidation states be-
states tween +2 to +7
9. They donot form complexes easily 9. They form complexes easily.
4 Theories of Bonding in Metals

29
 III
Physical Chemistry- Solid State
Part III: Contents

5 Solid State 33
5 Solid State

33
 IV
Gaseous state-Liquid state
Part IV: Contents

6 Gaseous State 37

7 liquid State 39
6 Gaseous State

37
7 liquid State

39
 V
Solutions: Ionic Equilibrium,
Dilute Solutions
Part V: Contents

8 Solutions 43

9 Ionic Equilibrium 45

10 Dilute Solutions 47
8 Solutions

43
9 Ionic Equilibrium

45
10 Dilute Solutions

47