Chapter 5

Sources and Methods of Data Collection

Introduction

“How and from where do we get the data?”

For every research the basic ingredient (raw material) is data. Success or failure of a research study very
much depends on the availability and reliability of data. The data can be collected by the investigator
himself or data collectors under his supervision; with the help of participant and non-participant
observation, and with the help of questionnaire, interview, telephone, mail or informants, giver of
information.
The heart of any research is data. There are two categories of data - the primary and the secondary. In
the first, the data is directly collected from the respondent, whereas in the second the main source is
published and unpublished material.

5.1. Sources of Data

There are two sources of data. They are primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are
source of data that provide firsthand information for the use of immediate purpose. Data collected from
primary sources are new data which had not existed before and for which the researcher received full
credit. Data collected from primary sources are called primary data. Secondary sources are sources of
data which are not originated by the investigator herself but which she gets from some one’s records.
Secondary sources exist as storage of previously collected information. Usually they are published or
unpublished materials, records, reports, magazines, market reports, etc. Example: Archival or library
sources, published books, unpublished documents, videos, internet, annual reports, statistical abstracts,
census of population, economic censuses, etc. Data collected from secondary sources are called
secondary data.

Primary Data Vs. Secondary Data

Primary data are data originally collected by the researcher for the purpose/ problem at hand. They are
generated from primary sources of data. They are the data that are collected by the investigator himself
for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study.

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Secondary data are data which have already been collected by someone else and which have already
passed through the statistical process. They are not original data, and not collected by the researcher.
They can be obtained from journals, reports, government publications, publications of professionals and
research organizations, internet, videos, library, Statistical abstracts in Central Statistics Authority, etc.

Primary data are costly, accurate and more reliable; a secondary data is less costly and less accurate.
Primary data at some time can be secondary if someone else uses it.

5.2. Methods of Data Collection

Primary Data Collection Methods

Researchers can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with
respondents in one form or another. This means that there are several methods of collecting primary
data. The most common ones are:
A. Observation method
B. Questionnaire Method
C. Interview method
D. Focus Group Discussion
A. Observation Method

Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or situations. Observation method is
the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioral sciences (psychology,
sociology, anthropology, etc). And it is in which the information is collected by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent. The technique is particularly useful for
discovering how individuals or groups of people behave, act or react. Observation method is a method
under which data from the field are collected by the observer by personally going to the field.

While using observation method, the researcher should keep in mind points like: What should be
observed? How the observation should be recorded? How the accuracy of the observation can be
ensured?, a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed
information and standard conditions of observation.

Features of observation

Observation method has certain peculiar features and characteristics of its own. Some such features are:

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  It is an eye affair - In observation maximum stress is on eye.
 Definite aim - Observation without aim will be just useless, purposeless and meaningless.
 Planning - the observer should go to the field with proper planning.
 Direct method of study - is a method under which the investigator is personally required to go
to the field and personally observe the situation and objects with his eyes.
 Collection of primary data - Observation method is such a method in which only primary data is
to be collected.

Types of observation
There are two main types of observation - participant and non- participant. This distinction depends
upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing.
i. Participant observation – If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, member of
the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience,
the observation is called as the participant observation.
The researcher becomes part of the group studied and participates in their daily life and
activities: observing their everyday situations and their behavior in these situations.
ii. Non-participant observation- The researcher is enabled to record the natural behavior of the
group. But when the observer observes as a detached agent without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed
as non-participatory observation. In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe
the activities without taking part themselves.

In human observation studies the observer can remain covert, hiding their true identity as a
researcher, or overt, where their identity is revealed to those studied. It is argued that covert
method will lead to a more valid data as the subjects are less likely to modify their behavior if
they do not know they are the subjects of research. However, the ethics of such methods
should be questioned - have we the right to do this? In all data collection methods we have a
responsibility to those being studied and research should not interfere with their physical, social
or mental welfare.

In observation method, it is impossible to keep a record of everything and you must decide at the
beginning where your interests lie. You may decide to film or tape record events, although the cost of
this may be quite substantial. Data is often recorded through writing up notes in private after the

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event or you could set up your own complex system with specific categories of behavior for post-
observation recordings using graphs, charts and plans. These will vary depending on the specific
problem under investigation; there is no one perfect example that can be used in all situations.
Examples of use of participant observation include studies of the social structure and functioning
of small communities or deviant groups, such as chat addicts.

There are disadvantages with this method of gathering data. The most common criticism is that it is
highly subjective, dependent in large on the researchers’ own focus and ideas of what should be
recorded and their own interpretations of what they have observed.

B. Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a data collection instrument where respondents write answers to questions posed by
the researcher on a question form. Questionnaires are groups or sequences of questions designed to
collect data upon a subject/ sample. When using questionnaire method, the information required will
be recorded on the form itself by the respondent. A number of respondents are asked identical
questions, in order to gain information that can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made.
Questionnaires are extremely flexible and can be used to gather information on almost any
topic involving large or small numbers of people.

Main aspects of a questionnaire

Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it should be very
carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us to
study the main aspects of a questionnaire namely the general form, question sequence and question
formulation and wording.
a. General form

The form of the question may be: Closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’ (dichotomous)) or it may also have
fixed alternative questions (multiple choices) in which responses of the informants are limited to the
stated alternatives. The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed
questions where the respondent is required to answer by choosing an option from a number of
given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling an answer. Close-ended questionnaires only
gather straightforward, uncomplicated information, and only simple questions can be asked.

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 Close/Fixed choice questions are easy to classify and quantify, require less time, effort and ingenuity to
answer but do not allow the respondents to qualify, develop or clarify their answers.
Example: Closed choice question:
People go to a bar for different reasons; for which of the following four reasons do you most go?
 to meet friends
 to drink alcohol
 to watch sport
 to play pool or darts

Open- ended questionnaire (i.e., where the respondents are free to give any response) but should be
stated in advance and not constructed during questioning. The open- ended questionnaire differs in that
it allows the respondent to formulate and record their answers in their own words. These are more
qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex problems. Open ended questions give
a greater insight and understanding of the topic researched but may be difficult to classify and quantify
and must be carefully interpreted.
Example: Open ended question:
People go to the bar for different reasons; for what reason do you most go?
..............................................................................................................

b. Question sequence:
In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher
should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of
questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood.
The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, and the opening questions should be such as
to arouse human interest.
The following of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:
1. Questions that put too great strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;
2. Questions of a personal character;
3. Questions related to personal wealth, etc.

Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really vital to the research problem
and a connecting thread should run through successive questions. Ideally, the question sequence should
conform the respondent’s way of thinking. Relatively difficult questions must be put towards the end so
that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable information would have

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already been obtained. Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general to the more specific
and the researcher must always remember that the answer to a given question is a function not only of
the question itself, but of all previous questions as well.

c. Question formulation and wording

With regard to this aspect of questionnaire entails that, each question must be very clear for
respondents /clarity of questions/; questions should also be impartial in order not to give a biased
picture of the true state of affairs, and questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a
logical part of a well throughout tabulation plan.

In general, all questions should meet the following standards

 should be easily understood;
 should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
 should be concrete and
 should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking.

The advantages of questionnaire method are:

 There is low cost even when the population is large and widely spread.
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
The disadvantages of questionnaire method are:
 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
 There is inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once the questionnaires
have been dispatched.
 There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omissions of replies.
 It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
 This method is the slowest of all.

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General tips for constructing questionnaires:

 Get the beginning right - this will encourage respondents to read on. One should state what
the survey is about and roughly how long it will take to complete.
 Make the questionnaire look attractive - use space well and avoid a cramped appearance.
 Use a large enough type size and avoid block capitals so that questions can be easily
read.
 Keep sentences short and sentence construction simple - the wording of the questionnaire
is very important.
 Avoid leading questions which direct the respondent in a particular way e.g. isn’t it true to say
that.....
 Avoid jargon and technical terms - make sure the question is unambiguous - each
question should only have a single interpretation.
 Watch out for double questions - that is those asking two separate questions at once.

C. Interviews
Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans. Interviews are a type of survey
where questions are delivered in a face-to-face encounter by an interviewer. The interview is like a
conversation and has the purpose of obtaining information relevant to a particular research topic. It
is initiated by the researcher and is focused on specific content.

As with questionnaires interviews can be approached from either a quantitative or qualitative angle
and there are many variations on the general method. Purely quantitative interviews are rather like
a closed ended questionnaire that the interviewer fills in for the respondent. These are highly
structured, formal interviews which are determined in advance and have fixed responses.

At the other end of the scale, the unstructured, purely qualitative interview is rather like an
informal conversation. Here questions are asked in the natural course of interaction and arise
from the particular context.

A large number of interviews will fall somewhere in between these two extremes and are known as
semi-structured interviews. These have specific questions already predetermined that are asked to the
respondent in a particular order, or topics and issues to be covered in the course of the interview.

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There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method. Structured interviews
maximize reliability and are easier to classify and quantify. By contrast unstructured interviews can
give a greater insight and more in-depth understanding of the topic researched, but need more
expertise to control and more time for analysis.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews

Advantages Disadvantages

High response rate. Limited sample only.

Can be difficult to analyze
Can collect complex information.
(especially in-depth interviews).

High degree of researcher control

May be a hostile reaction.
achieved.

Can be made more responsive to Whole process is time

early results. consuming.

Recording techniques may

Relaxed environment.
cause problems.

There is room for interviewer

bias - this should be
acknowledged.

In interview, a structured format can leave the interviewer with the job of simply ticking a number of
boxes on a form; however a less structured format necessitates a different technique for
recording data. A tape recorder is often used to collect information in an unstructured interview. This
has the advantage over note taking in that everything will have been recorded, details cannot be
missed, and the interviewer can give their full attention to the respondent. However, the interviewee
may be uncomfortable knowing they are on tape. Alongside this, transcribing the tapes is a very time
consuming process; this is something to bear in mind if embarking on this method of data collection
for your research project.

General tips for carrying out interviews:

• Begin with an explanation of who you are and what the survey is about and ensure
confidentiality.

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 • Try to achieve rapport with the respondent: be friendly and look as if you are enjoying the
interview and are interested in what they have to say.
• Be aware of the importance of body language in face-to- face interviews.

Researches has shown that interviewees are more at ease with someone who is like them in
terms of ethnicity, class, sex, speech and dress code. Whilst the majority of these cannot be
changed, you can dress in a similar manner to your interviewee; if interviewing a nomadic community
in their locality they are unlikely to be wearing a suit: T-shirt and shorts would be more suitable.

Be familiar with your questions and ask them in a neutral manner, endeavor not to lead respondents to
answer in a certain way. Be aware of your role as an interviewer, which is to listen, not to speak. Take
a full record of the interview either through tape-recording or note taking. Prompts may be
necessary if information is not given freely.

Examples of use of interviews: When a researcher aims to discover detailed answers to complex
questions in a face-to-face situation. The respondents can give quite elaborate answers e.g. opinion
polls, life histories.

D. Focus Groups

The focus group is a type of interview that involves carefully selected individuals who usually do not
know each other. They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the
researcher. These individuals are selected as they hold particular characteristics which the
researcher believes are necessary to the topic of focus. A group discussion is held in a permissive
environment in order to extract opinions and share ideas and perceptions through group interaction.
It is not necessary to reach a consensus.

Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data which gives an insight into
attitudes and perceptions difficult to obtain using other procedures. The researcher acts as a
moderator and listener posing predetermined open ended questions which the respondents answer in
any way they choose.

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Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data means data that are already available, i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has
to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted
with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may
either be published data or unpublished data.

Usually published data are available in:

o various reports and publications of the central, state or local governments; of foreign
governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations; of various
associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
o books, technical and trade journals, magazines and newspapers;
o reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and
o public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade
associations, labor bureaus and other public/private individuals and organizations. Researcher must be
very careful in using secondary data. He must make scrutiny because it is just possible that the
secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of the problem which the
researcher wants to study. “It is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without
knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticize arguments that can be
based on them.’ (Dr.A.L. Bowley)

Before using secondary data, the researcher must see that they possess following characteristics:

1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
o who collected the data?
o what were the sources of data?
o were they collected by using proper methods?
o at what time were they collected?
o was there any bias of the compiler?

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 o what level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable
in another enquiry.
3. Adequacy of data: The data will be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may
be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

From all this we can say that is very risky to use the already available data. The already available data
should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate. But he
should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic sources.

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