1

13. Tribal and Peasant Movements – I

• The establishment of British power in India was a prolonged process. This
process produced discontent,
resentment, and resistance at every stage. The discontent of the people broke out
into popular
uprisings in different parts of India at different points in time in the first hundred
years of British rule.
• The popular resistance against the British power manifested in three main ways:
1. Civil rebellions
2. Tribal uprisings
3. Peasant movements
13.1. Civil Rebellions
• Civil rebellions were common during British rule. Almost every year, there was
armed opposition,
and every decade saw a significant armed rebellion in some part of the country.
• In the first hundred years of British rule, the civil rebellions were usually led by
dethroned rajas,
nawabs, displaced zamindars, and former officials of conquered Indian states. The
backbone of these
rebellions consisted of heavily taxed peasants, struggling artisans, and soldiers.
• Whatever may be the immediate cause of each uprising, by and large, these
protest movements were
shaped by a shared experience of oppression in various forms, including colonial
oppression. The following
factors were responsible for the civil rebellions:
1. High land revenue demand
2. Rigid method of collection
3. Loss of land
4. Impoverishment of peasants
5. Ruin of artisans and craftsmen
6. Loss of zamindari right of old Zamindars
MIH-I – Pre-1857 280
7. New legal system
8. The prevalence of corruption at the lower levels of administration
9. Impoverishment of scholarly and priestly classes
10. The foreign character of British rule
Sanyasi Rebellion (1763-1800)
• The Sanyasi Rebellion was a series of conflicts in the late 18th century between
the English East India
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Company and a group of sannyasis and fakirs. Although the then Governor
General Warren Hastings
(1773-85) was able to control the Sanyasi raids, the uprisings continued until 1800.
• The establishment of British rule in Bengal after 1757 resulted in devastating
conditions for zamindars,
peasants, and artisans due to the economic policies enforced. In 1770, Bengal
experienced a
severe famine. Despite this, the British continued to collect taxes.
• The British government thought that Sannyasis were plunderers and thugs and
imposed restrictions
on visiting holy places. The sannyasis were enraged by the British's brutal policy
and resolved to protest.
• The growing hardship of the peasantry, increasing revenue demand, and the
Bengal famine of 1770
brought many dispossessed small Zamindars, disbanded soldiers and rural poor
into the bands of
Sanyasis and Fakirs.
• Nomadic Sanyasis and Fakirs in northern Bengal attacked food stores, the
property of the local
richmen and government officials. They looted government treasuries and
sometimes shared the
wealth with the poor. They even established their government in places like Bogra
and Mymensingh.
• Some of the important leaders of these movements were Manju Shah, Musa
Shah, Bhawani Pathak, and
Debi Chaudhurani. There was equal participation of Hindus and Muslims, who
unitedly defeated the
British several times.
• Under their brave leader, Manju Shah Fakir, the Sanyasis defeated a company's
sepoys and killed the
commander. In 1773, the British suffered another disastrous defeat at the hands of
Sanyasis.
• To control the Sanyasi raids, the then Governor-General Warren Hastings (1773-
85) issued a proclamation
banishing all sannyasis from Bengal and Bihar. Although Hastings successfully
controlled these
raids after a prolonged military campaign, encounters between the Sanyasis-Fakirs
and British forces
continued to occur frequently throughout Bengal and Bihar until the year 1800.
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• Anandmath, a novel by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, is based on the Sanyasi

Rebellion.
Vande Mataram
• The song Vande Mataram was composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterji
in his novel
Anand Math (1882).
• The Indian National Congress sang it for the first time during their 1896 session.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 281
• On January 24, 1950, the Constituent Assembly adopted the song Vande
Mataram as national
song. It has an equal status with Jana-gana-mana.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee was referred to as "the sage of nationalism" by
Aurobindo Ghosh for
his brilliant compositions, such as Vande Mataram.
[Prelims Practice] Which of the following is/are the characteristics of the Sannyasi
and
Fakir uprisings?
1. These uprisings refer to a series of skirmishes between the English East India
Company and a group
of sannyasis and fakirs.
2. One reason for the uprising was the ban on the free movement of the sannyasis
along pilgrimage
routes.
3. During the uprisings in 1773, Waren Hastings issued a proclamation banishing
all sannyasis from
Bengal and Bihar.
4. Are contemporaneous with the Non-Cooperation Movement
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 3 only
c) 1,2 and 3
d) 2 and 4 only
Answer: C
[Prelims Practice] Which of the following statements about the Sanyasi and Faqir
disturbances/
rebellions are correct?
1. Governor-General Warren Hastings faced the persistent Sanyasi and Faqir
disturbances in Bengal and
Bihar.
2. There were a number of Shaivite Naga Sanyasis who formed into armed bands.
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3. Majnu Shah, who led bands into Bengal from 1771, was their prominent leader.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1,2 and 3
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1 and 3 only
Answer: B
13.2. Tribal uprisings
Tribals Before the British
MIH-I – Pre-1857 282
Importance of Land and Forest
• Forests were of great significance for tribals all over India. They had customary
rights to use minor
forest products. They were engaged in jhum cultivation, hunting and gathering,
animal rearing, settled
cultivation (rarely), tea plantations, and mines. Hence, tribals' lives were intimately
connected to the
forest.
• Tribal groups saw forests as essential for survival. They only resorted to working
as labourers when
the supplies of forest produce diminished. However, some, like the Baigas from
central India, hesitated
to work for others. It was below the dignity of a Baiga to become a labourer.
• Tribal groups considered the entire region their land. The land was not just a
source of livelihood but
also a spiritual source. It was the basis of their identity and survival.
Relative Isolation
• The tribal communities lived in relative isolation for centuries. In spite of their
contact with the nontribals,
they maintained their separate identity. Each tribal community maintained its own
socio-religious
and cultural life and its political and economic organisations.
Tribal Authority
• The tribal communities had their respective chiefs to look after them and manage
their social, religious,
economic and political affairs. They had the right to administer and control their
territories.
Tribal People under the British Rule
• The term "tribe" was originally introduced by colonial authorities in the 19th
century as a way to describe
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all communities in India. However, in the latter half of the 19th century, this
concept was
refined and narrowed down to describe only the primitive groups, which were seen
as distinct from
castes.
Colonial Perspectives
• British officials saw settled tribal groups as more civilised than hunter-gatherers
or shifting cultivators.
British wanted the tribal groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators. As:
 Settled peasants were easier to control and administer.
 The British wanted a regular revenue source for the state.
Impact of the British Rule on Tribal Lives
Forest Laws and Their Impact
• The life of tribal groups was connected to the forest. So, changes in forest laws
had a considerable
effect on tribal lives.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 283
• Till the middle of the 19th century, the tribals had customary rights in the forest.
Their right to use the
forest products was recognised. However, the forest policy (1884) curtailed the
tribal rights to use
the forest produce.
• British classified some forests as Reserved Forests. In these forests, people could
not move freely,
practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits, or hunt animals. As a result, many tribal
groups could not survive
and were forced to move to other areas in search of work and livelihood.
• Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws. They disobeyed the
new rules and continued
with practices that were declared illegal.
Tribal Economy
• The development of the communication system, i.e. telegraphic, roadways and
railway services, ruined
the natural economy of the forests. The isolated tribal communities were connected
with the
outside world, and the self-sufficient tribal economy was converted into a market
economy.
Disruption of Traditional Tribal Systems
• The British introduced the zamindars, moneylenders, merchants and petty
government officials in the
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tribal areas.
 Zamindars were assigned the zamindari rights on the land, and the tribals were
reduced to tenants.
 The moneylenders exploited the tribals by charging them high-interest rates.
• Therefore, tribals saw them as evil outsiders (dikus) and the cause of their misery.
Decline of Tribal Authority
• Under British rule, tribal chiefs lost much of their administrative power and were
forced to follow laws
made by British officials in India. They also had to pay tribute to the British and
discipline the tribal
groups on behalf of the British.
Struggles Faced by Tribal Laborers
• When supplies of forest produce shrank, tribal people worked as labourers. They
were recruited in
large numbers to work the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines of
Jharkhand. They faced many
problems, such as low wages, miserable living conditions, long working hours,
working in deep
suffocating mines, etc.
Problem of Settled Cultivation
• Plough cultivation is difficult in dry areas with scarce water. The jhum cultivators
who took to plough
cultivation often suffered since their fields did not produce good yields.
Tribal Movements
MIH-I – Pre-1857 284
• The British rule and their policies affected the lives of tribals. The socio-
economic policies of the
British led to the encroachment of tribal lands by moneylenders, high taxation, and
loss of land to
moneylenders. These policies created deep resentment and dissatisfaction among
the tribal communities,
ultimately leading to various tribal revolts.
• Essentially, the tribal movements were a result of resentment and discontent
against British imperial
policies that disrupted the old agrarian order of tribal communities.
 Although the tribal revolts were caused by local grievances, when taken as a
whole, their causes
were:
 The land revenue system of the British
 Economic exploitation by the British and moneylenders
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 Encroachment on their land

 Transfer of the land to tiller
 Intrusion of the British in tribal polity
 Forest laws of the British
Revolt Period/Year Region Leader
Tilka Manjhi Revolt 1784 Rajmahal Hills Tilka Manjhi
Paika Rebellion 1817 Odisha Bakshi Bidyadhar
Kol Rebellion 1831-32 Jharkhand Bindrai Manki
Bundu Bhagat
Larka Rebellion 1832 Jharkhand Budhu Bhagat
Khasi Rebellion 1833 Meghalaya Tirot Singh
Santhals Revolt 1855 Jharkhand Sidhu Manjhi and Kanhu
Revolt against the EIC,
Palamu
1857 Jharkhand Nilamber and Pitamber
Kol Revolt 1858 Jharkhand Raja Arjun Singh of Porhat
Bhil Agitation
(Bhagat Movement)
1883 Rajasthan Guru Govindgiri
Munda Revolt 1899-1900 Jharkhand Birsa Munda
Songram Sangma Revolt 1906 Assam Songram Sangma
Bastar Rebellion
(Bhumkal Movement)
1910 Chhatisgarh Gunda Dhur
Rampa Rebellion
(Manyam Rebellion)
1922-24 Andhra Pradesh Alluri Seetarama Raju
Forest Satyagraha 1930 Jharkhand
Koraput Revolt 1942 Odisha Laxman Nayak
MIH-I – Pre-1857 285
Warli Adivasi Revolt 1945-46 Maharashtra Godavari Parulekar
Salient Features of the Tribal Movements
• Attack against outsiders: The tribals identified their enemies in the outsiders
(dikus). Hence, many
tribal revolts started with attacks on outsiders, namely landlords, traders and
government officers.
• Negative Consciousness: Most tribal uprisings were characterised by a negative
consciousness, where
an identification of the enemy plays a more vital role than their own consciousness
as a class or
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social group.
• Emergence of messiah: These movements were launched under the leadership of
their respective
chiefs, who often claimed to derive their authority from God. In some cases,
religious beliefs have
been combined with calls for resistance against enemies.
• Unequal Conflict: The conflict between the tribal rebels and the British armed
forces was extremely
unequal. While the British armed forces were equipped with modern weapons, the
tribal groups had
to rely on primitive weapons such as stones, axes, spears, and bows and arrows.
• Nationwide Tribal Movements: The various tribal movements, occurring at
different times and places,
were not limited to just a few areas but were spread throughout the entire country.
Three Phases of Anti-colonial Tribal Movements
• The tribal movements during the colonial period can be classified into three
phases:
First Phase (1795-1860)
• The first phase of tribal uprisings coincided with the rise and establishment of
British rule. These
were primary resistance movements directed against the oppressors, i.e.
moneylenders, zamindars,
landlords and government officials.
Second Phase (1860-1920)
• The second phase of tribal uprisings coincided with the onset of the intensive
period of colonialism.
These were far more complex and represented agrarian, religious and political
issues.
Third Phase (1920-1947)
• Three trends are visible in the third phase of tribal movements.
1. The impact of the freedom struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi: Several
movements of this phase
were integrated with the national movement. Example - The tribals' forest agitation
of Andhra
Pradesh merged with Gandhi's non-cooperation movement.
2. The movements were focused on land and forest revival and reform of tribal
society.
3. There was a rise in movements led by the tribal middle class seeking autonomy,
statehood, separation,
and independence.
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MIH-I – Pre-1857 286

[Prelims Practice] Which of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched?
Rebellion Year
a) Santhal 1855
b) Kol 1831
c) Paika 1817
d) Ahom 1815
Answer: D
13.3. Some Major Anti-Colonial Tribal Movements
Tilka Manjhi Revolt
Pahadia Tribes
• For centuries, the Paharias/Pahadias (hill folks) lived an untroubled and peaceful
life around the Rajmahal
hills. Their lives as hunters, shifting cultivators, food gatherers, charcoal producers,
and silkworm
rearers were intimately connected to the forest.
Impact of EIC Rule on Pahadia Tribes
• Many invaders came to India, ruled, and left, but the Pahadia tribes of these
mountains were never
disturbed. This changed when the EIC became the virtual rulers of Bengal. The
Company began levying
heavy taxes on the tribals, which were impossible to pay.
Santhal Hool
• In 1770, there was a severe famine in the Bengal. People were starving to death,
but the company
didn't exempt the region from paying the taxes.
• Tilka Manjhi and his men raided the company's treasury in Jabalpur and
distributed it among the
Adivasis. Inspired by this noble act, many other tribals joined the rebellion, which
began the “Santhal
Hool” (the revolt of the Santhals).
• From 1771 to 1784, Tilka continued to attack the British and never surrendered.
First Armed Rebellion Against the British
• In 1784, Tilka Majhi attacked Augustus Cleveland, an EIC administrator and
fatally wounded him. As
a result of this injury, Cleveland passed away a few months later. This is
considered the first armed
rebellion against the British.
• The root cause of this rebellion was the famine in 1770 and the consequences of
Court of Directors
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orders (ten-year settlement), which resulted in minimal chances to negotiate

between local Zamindars
and Santhal villagers.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 287
• In retaliation, the British sent a force to squash the rebellion. They laid siege to
the jungle where Tilka
was hiding. When Tilka was finally caught in 1784, he was tied to the tail of a
horse and dragged all
the way to the Collector's residence at Bhagalpur, Bihar, India. There, his lacerated
body was hung
from a Banyan tree.
Paika Rebellion (1817)
• Paikas were the peasant militias of the Gajapati rulers of Odisha who offered
military service to the
king during times of war while taking up cultivation during times of peace. In
return, the paikas received
hereditary rent-free land and titles.
• Odisha was under Maratha rule until 1803. However, after the Second Anglo-
Maratha war, the Marathas
were forced to cede most of the territory to the British EIC.
• The establishment of British rule in Odisha brought new land revenue
settlements, which led to the
Paikas losing their estates. The British also followed a policy of repression against
the Paikas. The continuous
interference in the economy and revenue systems led to the exploitation and
oppression of the
peasants.
• In 1817, a large number of Paikas were mobilised against the oppressive policies
of the British under
the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, the hereditary chief of the militia
army of the
Gajapati King of Khurda.
• The Paikas attacked British symbols of power; police stations and administrative
offices were set on
fire, and the treasury was looted.
• The Britishers were initially taken aback, but eventually, they defeated the
paikas. Bakshi
Jagabandhu surrendered to the British in 1825 and lived as a prisoner in Cuttack
till his death in 1829.
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 Since 2017, Odisha has demanded that the Paika rebellion be declared the first
war of Independence.
Ramoshi Uprising (1824)
• The Ramoshi are a nomadic tribal community present in central India.
• Before the establishment of East India Company (EIC) rule over much of
Maharashtra, the Ramoshis
worked for the Maratha rulers, who entrusted them with night patrolling and
guarding of forts. In
return, Ramoshis were allowed to collect taxes from specific villages. But when
the EIC replaced the
Marathas, this right was denied, leading to the Ramoshi uprising.
• Ramoshi united under the leadership of Umaji Naik and started an armed revolt
against the Company
in 1824. The Ramoshi army caused severe blows to the Company by plundering
attacks on the imperial
institutions and all those who sided with the colonialists.
• The uprising continued for nearly eight years and subsided only when Umaji was
arrested in 1831. On
3rd February 1832, Umaji was executed by hanging.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 288
Ahom Revolt (1828)
• The British promised to leave Assam after the end of the Anglo-Burmese War
(1824-26), but they
continued to occupy Assam even after the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826. This made
the Ahom nobility
suspicious and dissatisfied.
• Gomadhar Konwar, an Ahom Prince, started a rebellion with the support of
Dhanjay Borgohain and
Jairam Khargharia Phukan.
• Gomadhar Konwar declared himself the Svargadev (lord of the heavens) and
interfered with revenue
collection. Under his leadership, the rebels advanced towards the British
stronghold in Rangpur. However,
their plans were revealed, and the British captured and quelled the rebellion.
Santhal Hool/Uprising (1855-56)
• British wanted to clear the forest and extend the settled agriculture:
 To enlarge the sources of land revenue
 To produce crops for export
 To establish the basis of a settled, ordered society.
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• In the late 18th century, Paharias lived around the Rajmahal hills. The British
tried to transform them
into settled agriculturists but failed.
• The Santhals began to arrive in Bengal around the 1780s. Zamindars hired them
to reclaim land and
expand cultivation.
• Having failed to subdue the Paharias and transform them into settled
agriculturists, the British turned
to the Santhals. British officials invited them to settle in the Rajmahal hills.
• Santhal moved into the Rajmahal hills area around 1800, displaced the hill folk
who lived on these
lower slopes, cleared the forests, and settled the land. By 1832, a large land area
was demarcated as
Damin-i-Koh (land of Santhals). This was declared to be the land of the Santhals.
• When the Santhals started cultivating this area, the neighbouring Rajas of
Maheshpur and Pakur
leased the Santhal villages to zamindars and moneylenders.
• The gradual penetration by outsiders (dikus) into the territory of the Santhals
brought misery and
oppression to the simple-living Santhals. The Santhals soon realised they were
being oppressed by
outsiders, namely moneylenders, merchants, zamindars and government officials.
• In 1855, the Santhals gathered in the Bhaganidihi Village under the leadership of
the brothers - Sidhu
and Kanhu Murmu. They declared themselves free from the colonial rule. They
decided to regain
control of their lands and set up their own government.
• Sidhu and Kanhu claimed that Thakur (God) had communicated with them and
told them to take up
arms and fight for independence. The idea that their God would himself fight along
with them gave the
rebellion legitimacy and, in popular tribal perception, labelled it as a struggle of
'good' against 'evil'.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 289
• The Santhals fought against the British with their traditional weapons of bows,
arrows, and axes. With
their superior arms, the British crushed the rebellion ruthlessly.
Aftermath of the Revolt
• The Santhal rebellion forced the government to change its policy towards them.
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1. Around 5500 sq. miles of the area was carved out from Bhagalpur and Birbhum
districts, which
came to be known as "Santhal Parganas". The British hoped that by creating a new
territory for the
Santhals and imposing some special laws within it, the Santhals could be
conciliated.
2. The government enacted the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act in 1876 to protect the
tribals against
exploitation. The Act prohibits the sale of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis in the
Santhal Pargana
region.
[Practice Question] The Damin-i-Koh was created by the British Government to
settle
which one of the following communities?
a) Santhals
b) Mundas
c) Oraons
d) Saoras
Answer: A
[UPSC 2018] After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what were the
measure/measures taken
by the colonial government?
1. The territories called ‘Santhal Parganas’ were created.
2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
[Practice Question] Consider the following statements about the Santhal Hool of
1855-56:
1. The Santhals were in a desperate situation as tribal lands were leased out
2. The Santhal rebels were treated very leniently by British officials
3. Santhal inhabited areas were eventually constituted into separate administrative
units called Santhal
Parganas
4. The Santhal rebellion was the only major rebellion in mid 19th century India
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
MIH-I – Pre-1857 290
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a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3
c) 1,3 and 4
d) 1 and 3 only
Answer: D
Rampa Rebellion (1879-1880)
• The Koya and Konda Reddi tribes inhabited the Rampa region in the Eastern
Ghats (Andhra Pradesh).
• In 1879, the tribals attacked the police stations and Mansabdars under the
leadership of Thamman-
Dora in Andhra Pradesh and some portions of the Malkangiri region of Orissa.
• The Koyas hailed Tomma Dora as the 'King' of Malkangiri.
[Prelims Practice] In which one of the following revolts did the Koya and Konda
tribal
chiefs rise against the local overlord from a Mansabdar family?
a) The Rampa Rebellion, 1879-1880
b) The Gudem Uprising, 1886
c) The Rampa Rebellion, 1922-1924
d) The Telangana Armed Struggle, 1946-1951
Answer: A
Bhil Agitation (1883)
• The Bhil tribe resides in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Chhattisgarh states.
First Bhil Agitation
• Guru Govindgiri led the First Bhil Agitation (Bhagat movement) in Rajasthan in
1883. The main
grievance was against the bonded labour system of the British Raj implemented by
the princely states.
Mangarh Massacre
• On 17 November 1913, a large force of the British army and the army of the
princely states opened fire
on a large gathering of Bhils in the Mangarh hills, which is located on the border of
Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
• Hundreds of Bhils were massacred in this tragedy. Govind Guru was leading the
agitation when the
firing took place.
Second Bhil Agitation
• The Second Bhil Agitation took place from 1921-23 and was led by Motilal
Tejawat.
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Motilal Tejawat
MIH-I – Pre-1857 291
• Motilal Tejawat was born in 1886 in southern Rajasthan. He saw massive
oppression of tribals by the
Thakur community, which led him to work for the cause of tribal upliftment. He
was greatly influenced
by the idea of Gandhi-Raj.
• Eki Movement brought him to the spotlight. He ran this movement under the
name of Maharana
Pratap.
Munda Ulgulan (1899-1900)
• Birsa was born on November 15, 1875, into a poor Munda tribal family.
 The Government of India has declared 15th November as the ‘Janjatiya Gaurav
Divas.’
Influence of Christianity and Vaishnavism
• Birsa passed the lower primary examination from the German Mission school,
where he was forced
to convert to Christianity and renamed Birsa David. After studying for a few years,
Birsa left the Mission
School.
• In 1891, Birsa went to Bandgaon, where he met Anand Paure, a prominent
Vaishnav preacher. Influenced
by him, Birsa wore a sacred thread, advocated the prohibition of cow slaughter,
and began to
value the importance of purity and piety.
Bhagwan Birsa
• In 1895, Birsa declared that God had appointed him to save his people from
trouble and free them
from the slavery of dikus (outsiders). Soon, thousands began following Birsa,
believing he was
Bhagwan (God) and had come to solve all their problems.
• Later, Birsa declared himself a god or Bhagwan and started his religion, Birsait,
among Mundas, Santhals
and Oraons. His movement was aimed at reforming tribal society. He urged his
followers to give
up drinking liquor, clean their village, and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.
He also turned
against missionaries and Hindu landlords.
Munda Rebellion
 16

• Birsa Munda wanted to drive out outsiders (dikus) such as missionaries,

moneylenders, landlords,
and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head. He identified all
these forces as
the cause of the misery of the Mundas.
• On Christmas Eve, 1899, Birsa proclaimed a rebellion (Ulgulan) to establish
Munda rule in the land.
He urged his followers to destroy "Ravana" (dikus and the Europeans) and
establish a kingdom under
his leadership.
• Birsa's followers, armed with swords, spears, battle axes, and bows and arrows,
began targeting the
symbols of dikus and European power. They attacked police stations and churches
and raided the
property of moneylenders and zamindars. They raised the white flag as a symbol of
Birsa Raj.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 292
• Birsa Munda was captured at the beginning of February 1900. He died of cholera
while in jail in June,
causing the movement to fade out.
Impact of the Movement
1. Change in the Government’s Attitude:
 Between 1902 and 1910, the government conducted surveys and settlement
operations for the
tribes to prepare land records and safeguard tribal interests.
 The rebellion forced the colonial government to introduce laws to prevent the
dikus from easily
taking over the land of the tribals.
 The government passed the Tenancy Act of 1903, which recognised the Mundari
Khuntkatti system
and the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act in 1908.
 The government abolished the compulsory begar system.
2. The rebellion showed that the tribal people could protest against injustice and
express their anger
against colonial rule.
3. The movement also inspired the future social, religious and political movements
of tribals.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult
is the
description of which of the following events?
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a) The Revolt of 1857

b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900
Answer: D
13.4. Impact of the Tribal Movements
• Most of the tribal movements were ruthlessly suppressed by the government, and
the tribals had to
comply with British policies detrimental to their interests.
• However, the government also took measures to protect tribal interests and
address tribal concerns.
 The government thought normal laws could not be applied in tribal areas and
passed the Scheduled
District Act (1874).
 The government categorised the tribal areas as excluded areas in the Govt. of
India Act of 1935.
• In the long term, the colonial policy built up a framework to institutionalise the
isolation of tribals.
[UPSC 2023] How did colonial rule affect the tribals in India, and what was the
tribal response
to the colonial oppression?
Approach
 Briefly introduce the tribal way of life before the British came to India.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 293
 Explain the effect of colonial rule on tribals, particularly the disruption of their
traditional tribal system.
 Tribal response: Briefly explain how British policies adversely affected the
Tribals. Tribal revolts
emerged as a response to the various British policies which eroded the tribal way
of life.
 Lastly, mention the impact of tribal revolts in short.
[UPSC 2011] Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal
insurrection
in India in the 19th century?
a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products
b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas
c) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as
middlemen in tribal areas
d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities
Answer: D
 18

13.5. Unsung Heroes

Tantia Bhil
• Tantia Bhil (or Tantia Mama) was born in an Indian tribal Bhil community in
1842 in Nagpur. He was
one of the greatest revolutionaries.
• Tantia started his career after the strict actions the British took in response to the
Indian Rebellion of
1857. He waged an armed struggle against British rule for twelve years from 1878-
89. He raided British
government treasuries and distributed the wealth among the poor and needy.
• Tantia was arrested and taken to Jabalpur jail, where he was tried and hanged on
4 December 1889.
The news of his arrest was prominently published in the New York Times. This
news described him as
the "Robin Hood of India".
13.6. Peasant Movements
• The peasants were progressively impoverished under British rule. Their condition
deteriorated, and
they steadily sank into poverty due to the following reasons:
1. High revenue demand:
 In the early period of British rule, the Indian peasants were exploited by high
land revenue
taxation, which at times was twice the rates imposed by the Mughal rulers.
 In the later years, the nature of exploitation changed, and the rates were reduced.
However,
the moneylenders, landlords, and other intermediaries took much of the peasant
surplus.
2. Rigid manner of revenue collection: Whenever the peasants failed to pay land
revenue, the government
put up their land on sale to collect the arrears of revenue.
3. Deprived of ownership: Under the Zamindari system, Zamindars were
recognised as the land
owners. This deprived the actual cultivators of their traditional right over land.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 294
4. Over-crowding of land: De-industrialisation and lack of modern industry
compelled the ruined
artisans and handicraftsmen to become agricultural labourers or tenants.
5. Growth of intermediaries: The cultivating tenants with the burden of
maintaining these superior
landlords had too little to survive.
 19

6. Commercialisation of agriculture: It helped the moneylender-cum-merchant to

exploit the cultivator.
7. Oppression by moneylenders: Whenever peasants found it difficult to pay the
revenue, they borrowed
money from the moneylender at high-interest rates on the security of the land.
Once in
debt, it was almost impossible for the peasants to get out of it. The moneylender
would continue
to extend the debt and eventually take possession of the land.
• Most of the time, the peasants tolerated and adjusted to these unfavourable
conditions, but sometimes,
they joined together and organised movements to revolt against colonial
oppression.
• The peasants often failed to understand that the moneylender was a crucial part of
the imperialist
exploitation mechanism, and they directed their anger towards the moneylender as
he appeared to
be the visible cause of their impoverishment. For instance, in 1875, the peasants
revolted against moneylenders
in Deccan.
• The caste system and religious affiliations often helped the peasants organise and
rally against their
oppressors. However, these revolts were not religious. The colonial government
labelled some of
these legitimate peasant movements as religious or caste-based to deny the
peasants' just demands.
Peasant Movements
Before 1857 Revolt Narkelberia Uprising (1831)
Pagal Panthi Movement (1825-33)
Mappila Uprising (1836-54)
Faraizi Disturbance (1838-57)
After 1857 Revolt Indigo Revolt (1859)
Pabna Movement (1873-85)
Deccan Revolt (1875)
Rebellion by Ramosi Peasant (1879-83)
Moplah Uprising (1850-1900)
No-revenue Movement
Peasant Movements in the 20th Century Kisan Movement (1918)
Eka Movement (1921)
Moplah Uprising (1921)
 20

Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)

Tebhaga Movement (1946)
Telangana Movement (1946)
MIH-I – Pre-1857 295
Punnapra-Vayalar Movement (1946)
13.7. Peasant Movements Before the 1857 Revolt
• The important peasant movements before the 1857 Revolt include:
1. Narkelberia Uprising (1831)
2. Pagal Panthi Movement (1825-33)
3. Mappila Uprising (1836-54)
4. Faraizi Disturbance (1838-57)
Narkelberia Uprising (1831)
• Syed Mir Nisar Ali, or Titu Mir, was a peasant leader who led the Narkelberia
Uprising in 1831. It is
often considered the first armed peasant uprising against the British.
• Titu Mir refused to pay the enhanced tax imposed on poor peasants in North 24
Paraganas district.
He organised and led protests against the zamindars, both Hindus and Muslims.
• Eventually, the zamindars and British administrators jointly mobilised forces
against Titu and Killed
him in November 1831.
Religious Tinge
• Titu Mir adopted Wahhabism and advocated Sharia laws bypassing the “tradition
of folkish Islam in
Bengal”. He instructed his followers to follow pure and simple Islamic practices.
• The peasant and artisan classes who were against the zamindars (mainly Hindus)
were Muslims.
Hence, peasant-landlord conflicts acquired a religious colour.
Pagal Panthi Movement (1825-1833)
• Pagal Panthi Movement was a peasant movement guided by religious
mendicants, Pagal Panthis.
Initially, it was directed against the zamindars and later assumed the character of
an anti-British movement.
Pagal Panthi Sect
• Karim Shah was the founder of the Pagal Panthi sect. His teachings attracted
people irrespective of
race and religion. Many Hindus and Muslims of the Mymensingh area were his
disciples.
• Karim taught that God created mankind, so they are all equal and brothers to each
other. His followers,
 21

therefore, addressed each other as 'Bhai-Saheb’.

• The people living in the plains found the behaviour and lifestyle of the Bhai-
Sahebs unusual and called
them "Pagals" (mad-caps). The activities and propagations of Karim Shah and his
followers came to be
known as the 'Pagal Panthi Movement'.
Pagal Panthis under Tipu Shah
MIH-I – Pre-1857 296
• After the death of Karim Shah in 1813, Tipu Shah succeeded to the throne. Under
him, the character
of the movement changed. It took the form of a peasant movement.
• The Pagals and their associates fought against the zamindars and the company's
forces to protect
the peasants from the oppressions and undue claims of the zamindars. Tipu Shah
and some of his
insurgent followers were captured in 1833 and tried.
• The government addressed many of the demands of the resisting peasants,
including the reduction
of the rent rate. Consequently, the movement was subdivided and peace was
restored in the area.
Faraizi Disturbance (1838-57)
• The Faraizi sect was founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur.
• The Faraizis under Dudu Miyan, the son of Haji Shariatullah, became united as a
religious sect with
an egalitarian ideology. His simple teaching and belief that all men are equal, the
land belongs to
god, and no one has the right to levy tax on it appealed to the common peasants.
• The Faraizis set up a parallel administration in some parts of Eastern Bengal and
established village
courts to settle the peasants' disputes. They protected cultivators from Zamindar's
excesses and
asked the peasants not to pay taxes to the Zamindars.
• They raided the Zamindars' houses and burnt the indigo factory. The government
and Zamindars
forces crushed the movement, and Dudu Miyan was imprisoned.
• In the early 19th century, two religious groups called Pagal Panthi and Feraizis
emerged among
the local tribes in Mymensingh and Faridpur, now part of Bangladesh. Both sects
believed in the idea
of treating everyone equally.
 22

1. The Pagal Panthis rebelled against the British and the local zamindars supported
by the British in
1825 and 1833.
2. The Feraizis, claiming that land was God’s gift and no one had the right to
impose tax or rent
on land, launched a peasant’s movement in 1838-57 against extortion by zamindars
and the
British indigo planters.
Mappila Uprisings (1836-54)
• Mappilas (Muslims), the descendants of Arab settlers and converted Hindus,
comprised cultivating
tenants, landless labourers, traders, and fishermen. They faced hardship due to
changes introduced by
the British in land revenue administration.
• Amidst this hardship, religious leaders played an important role in strengthening
the solidarity of the
Mappilas through socio-religious reforms. They also contributed to fostering an
anti-British consciousness
among the Mappilas.
• As discontent simmered, it erupted into open insurrections against the state and
landlords. Between
1836 and 1854, Malabar witnessed around twenty-two uprisings, predominantly
led by rebels from
MIH-I – Pre-1857 297
the poorer sections of the population. The rebels directed their grievances towards
British officials and
their dependents.
13.8. Peasant Movements After the 1857 Revolt (Peasant Movements and Early
Nationalism)
• During the second half of the 19th century, after the Revolt of 1857, the middle-
class involvement
in peasants’ problems and agitations was noticeable. These individuals served as
important intermediaries
between the peasants and the colonial administration. They also occasionally
played the role of
leaders in peasant movements. Examples:
 Bengal: Middle-class nationalist-minded intelligentsia was involved in the
Indigo Rebellion. The
Bengali intelligentsia exposed the plight of indigo cultivators to the Indian public.
 23

 Bombay: The peasants sought help and guidance from leaders like Gopal
Krishna Gokhale.
 Punjab: Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh supported the peasant cause.
Role of Congress
• In the early period, the nationalist leaders and the Congress were fully aware of
the peasantry's
problems and held the colonial administration responsible for them.
• They criticised the British for burdening the peasants with high revenues. They
asked the government
to lower the revenue demands on the peasants and pleaded that the revenue
demands should be
fixed permanently and not be increased periodically.
• However, the Congress did not take a strong anti-landlord and pro-peasant stand.
In Bengal, the
peasant movements in several parts, representing the majority Muslim peasantry,
were gradually
alienated from the middle-class nationalists who took a pro-landlord position.
• Thus, although the earlier nationalists felt quite concerned about the peasants,
they were not particularly
interested in involving them in the nationalist movement.
• The important peasant movements after the 1857 Revolt include:
1. Indigo Revolt (1859)
2. Pabna Agrarian Unrest (1873-85)
3. Deccan Revolt (1875)
4. Rebellion by Ramosi Peasant (1879-83)
5. Moplah Uprising (1850-1900)
6. No-revenue Movement
Indigo Cultivation and Blue Rebellion
Indigo Plant Woad Plant
Colour Production (Dye) Produces a rich blue colour Produces a pale and dull blue
colour
MIH-I – Pre-1857 298
Geographical Region Primarily grows in the tropics Thrives in temperate zones
Availability Easily available in India More readily available in European
regions
Preference by European cloth
dyers
More preferred Less preferred
Rising Demand for Indigo
 24

• By the end of the 18thcentury, the demand for Indian indigo in Britain increased.
This was because
of the following reasons:
1. Industrialisation in Britain expanded cotton production and created a huge
demand for cloth
dyes.
2. The collapse of existing supply from the West Indies and America.
• From 1783 to 1789, the global production of indigo dropped by 50%. Faced with
the rising demand
for indigo in Britain, the British authorities in various parts of India forced
cultivators to grow indigo.
• In the last decades of the 18th century, indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded
rapidly, and Bengal
indigo began to dominate the world market. In 1810, about 95% of the indigo
imported into Britain
was from India.
Indigo Cultivation
• As the indigo trade grew, commercial agents and company officials began
investing in indigo production.
Many Englishmen came to India and became planters.
Why Bengal?
 The abundant yields of the fertile lands and the readily available water for
rotting the plants attracted
indigo planters to Bengal.
• There were two main systems of indigo cultivation:
1. Nij cultivation
2. Ryoti cultivation
Nij Cultivation (cultivation on the own land)
• The planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled. He bought the
land or rented it
from other zamindars and produced indigo by directly employing hired labourers.
• Less than 25% of the land producing indigo was under Nij cultivation.
Disadvantages for the Planters
 Indigo could be cultivated only on fertile lands, which were already densely
populated. Hence, the
planters found it difficult to expand the area under nij cultivation.
 A plantation required many workers, but they were needed during the rice
cultivation season.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 299
 25

 A large plantation also required many ploughs and bullocks, and investing in the
purchase and maintenance
of ploughs was a major problem.
Ryoti Cultivation (cultivation on the land of ryots)
• Under the ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract. They
sometimes pressured
the village headmen to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots.
• Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the planters at low-interest
rates to produce
indigo. But the loan committed the ryot to cultivate indigo on at least 25% of the
area under his
holding.
• 75% of the land producing indigo was under ryoti cultivation.
Contract System and Debt-trap
• The ryots sowed indigo under a contract system lasting one, three to five, or ten
years.
• At the start of the contract, the planter made an advance payment to the ryot to
meet the expenses
of cultivation. After harvesting, the farmer got paid the profit above the advance. If
the profit was
less, the farmer owed money.
• Despite the debt, a fresh advance was given to him for the next season. However,
the debt was
subtracted, and the farmer only received the remaining amount for the next farming
season.
Legalized Exploitation
• At the request of the Indigo Planters Association, Act XI of 1860 (Eleventh Law)
was passed, which
criminalised the ‘Breach of Contract’ by the ryots. The planters used this law to
oppress the peasants.
• The planters were above the law and often favoured by the European magistrates.
Disadvantages for the Cultivators
• After the harvest, when the crop was delivered to the planter, the ryot received a
very low price. As
a result, they were given a new loan, perpetuating the cycle of indebtedness.
• The planters would demand that indigo be grown on the best soils, which were
usually preferred by
peasants for cultivating rice. The deep roots of indigo quickly exhaust the soil,
making it unsuitable
for rice farming after the harvest.
 26

Blue Rebellion (Indigo Revolt/Neel Bidroha) (1859-60)

• The indigo system was inherently oppressive. In Bengal, the indigo planters,
nearly all Europeans,
terrorised the cultivators and forced them to cultivate all farmland with indigo
instead of paddy.
• Peasants who refused to grow indigo were captured, caged and subjected to
cruelty. The planters
also intimidated the peasants through kidnapping of men, attacks on women and
children, seizure of
cattle, and destruction of crops.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 300
• In March 1859, the peasants in the Nadia district of Bengal, under the leadership
of Digambar Biswas
and Bishnu Biswas, refused to grow indigo. As the rebellion spread to other parts
of the Bengal:
 The ryots refused to pay rent to the planters.
 The ryot refused to take advances and enter into contracts.
 The peasants attacked indigo factories with spears and swords.
 Agents of planters (Gomasthas) who demanded rent were beaten.
 Those who worked for the planters were socially boycotted
 Even women participated by fighting with pots and pans.
• They ryots gradually learned to use the legal machinery to enforce their rights.
They joined together
and raised funds to fight court cases filed against them, and they initiated legal
action on their own
against the planters.
• The united resistance of the ryots forced the planters to close their factories
gradually. The cultivation
of indigo was virtually eliminated from Bengal by the end of 1860.
Role of Educated Indians
• The Bengali intellectuals brought this issue to the notice of the Indian public.
They wrote of the misery
of the ryots, the tyranny of the planters, and the horrors of the indigo system.
• Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neel Darpan (Mirror of Indigo), a Bengali play in 1860
that depicted the
oppression of indigo farmers. The play was translated into English by Michael
Madhusudan Dutta.
 Indigo rebellion is one of the early peasant agitations with some involvement of
middle-class
nationalist-minded intelligentsia.
 27

Attitude of Zamindars
• The local zamindars and village headmen were unhappy with the increasing
power of the planters and
supported the rebellion. Missionaries also extended active support to the indigo
ryots.
Indigo Commission (1860)
• After the Revolt of 1857, the British government was particularly worried about
the possibility of another
popular rebellion. The government brought in the military to protect the planters
from assault
and set up the Indigo Commission in March 1860 to investigate the evils of the
Indigo Cultivation
system.
• The Commission asked the ryots to fulfil their existing contracts but also told
them that they could
refuse to produce indigo in future.
Findings of the Commission
• The indigo cultivation system was oppressive in nature, especially because of the
system of advances.
• The ryots did not have any say in the choice of lands.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 301
Suggested Reforms
 The ryot should sow indigo according to his wishes and terms.
 The selection of land for indigo should be negotiated equally by both parties.
 The contract should be simple in nature, extending not more than one year, and
there shouldn’t be
any renewal if the peasant fails to meet his engagements to avoid the accumulation
of debt.
 The factories should pay for the stamp paper, not the ryots.
 The factories, not the ryots should bear the expense of delivering the plant by
cart or boat to factories.
 Shishir Kumar Ghosh, the founder of Amrit Bazar Patrika (journal), called
Indigo rebellion the Blue
Rebellion - "the blueprint for India's national liberty movement".
Aftermath of the Revolt
• After the rebellion, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. But the planters now
shifted their operation
to Bihar. With the discovery of synthetic dyes in the late 19th century, their
business was severely
affected.
 28

• At the annual session of the Congress, held in Lucknow in December 1916, a

peasant from Bihar
persuaded Gandhi to visit Champaran and see the plight of the indigo cultivators
there. Mahatma
Gandhi’s visit in 1917 marked the beginning of the Champaran movement against
the indigo planters.
Michael Madhusudan Dutt
• Michael Madhusudan Dutt was a Bengali poet and playwright.
Literary Work
• Dutt published two books of English poems under the pseudonym 'Timothy
Penpoem':
1. The Captive Ladie
2. Visions of the Past
• In 1858, he wrote the Western-style play Sharmistha based on the Mahabharata
story of Devayani
and Yayati. This was the first original play in Bangla, making Madhusudan the
first Bangla playwright.
• In 1860, he was the first to use blank verse in the play Padmavati, based on a
Greek myth.
• In 1861, Madhusudan wrote the epic Meghnadbadh Kavya. Written in blank
verse, it was based on
the Ramayana, but inspired by Milton's Paradise Lost, Madhusudan transformed
the villainous
Ravana into a hero.
• Madhusudan also translated Dinabandhu Mitra's play Nildarpan into English.
English Translation of Nildarpan
MIH-I – Pre-1857 302
• Nil Darpan was a Bengali play written by Dinabandhu Mitra in 1858-59. It was
first published in
1860.
• In 1861, Mitra sent a copy of his play to Reverend James Long, an Anglo-Irish
priest who had run
the Church Missionary Society school in Calcutta, where Mitra was educated.
• Long mentioned the play to the Secretary of the Government of Bengal, who
introduced the play to
Lieutenant Governor Sir John Peter Grant. Grant requested an English translation
of Nil Darpan,
which Long arranged and most likely done by Michael Madhusudan Dutt. Long
edited the translation
and also provided his introduction.
 29

• The indigo planters and the pro-planter press felt that the play had defamed them,
so they took Long
to court. Long was found guilty and sentenced to one month in jail, fined 1,000
rupees.
[UPSC 2020] Indigo cultivation in India declined by the beginning of the 20th
century because
of:
a) peasant resistance to the oppressive conduct of planters
b) its unprofitability in the world market because of new inventions
c) national leaders’ opposition to the cultivation of indigo
d) Government control over the planters
Answer: B
[Prelims Practice] Dinabandhu Mitra published a play in Bengali titled Neel
Darpan (Blue
Mirror), which depicted the atrocities on the indigo planters. The play was
translated into
English by :
a) Reverend James Long
b) Dwarkanath Tagore
c) Michael Madhusudan Dutta
d) Rabindranath Tagore
Answer: C
Pabna Agrarian Unrest (1873-1885)
• The Act of 1859 granted occupancy rights to many peasants and protected them
against arbitrary
eviction by landlords.
• The zamindars used crafty methods to deprive the ryots of their occupancy rights.
 They enhanced rents beyond legal limits.
 They forcibly evicted the tenants.
 They converted occupancy tenants into tenants-at-will through forcible written
agreements.
 Coercion was used against those who resisted.
MIH-I – Pre-1857 303
• In May 1873, the peasants of the Yusufshahi paragana in Pabna (a relatively
prosperous district in East
Bengal) formed an agrarian league to resist the unjust demands of the zamindars.
Soon, the movement
spread to other areas in the district.
• The Pabna league raised funds to fight a legal battle against the zamindars and
organised a nonpayment
 30

of rent campaign.
• The overall objective of this league was that the resistance should be legal and
peaceful. Most of the
time, the protests were in the form of litigations, and the protesters rarely used
violence.
• The aims of the peasant movement were limited to abolishing the increased rent
and preventing
zamindari excesses. They did not demand structural changes like the end of the
Zamindari system.
• The peasants often stressed their loyalty towards the colonial rulers. They
emphasised that they
wanted to be the 'Queen's Rvots' to secure the redressal of their grievances.
• Given the fact that a majority of the peasant activists were Muslims (more than
2/3rd of the peasants
and about 70% of Pabna's population were Muslims), they painted it as a
communal movement. However,
the two prominent leaders of the Pabna peasants - Kesab Chandra Roy and
Sambhunath Pal
were Hindus.
Role of Educated Indians
• Like the Indigo revolt, most intellectuals of Bengal supported the peasant cause.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and later Surendranath Banerjee, Anand Mohan
Bose, and Dwarkanath
Ganguli, campaigned for the peasants and supported the tenancy bill. They wanted
the legislation
fixing the rate of the tenant's rent and occupancy rights for the cultivator on his
land.
• Some landlord-based organisations opposed the movement.
Attitude of Government
• The government's attitude towards the peasants was restraint and sometimes even
support.
• The peasants were penalised only if they became violent or destroyed public
property. Otherwise, the
government adopted the role of a mediator between the peasants and the
zamindars.
Effect of the Movement
1. Many disputes between the peasants and the zamindars were settled due to
government pressure,
which feared that the growth of the peasant movement would lead to a law and
order problem. Further,
 31

the zamindars feared the radicalisation of the movement and the increasing
litigations from the peasants.
They had limited options and were forced to compromise.
2. In response to the peasants' demands to regulate the tenancy system, the
government passed the Bengal
Tenancy Act in 1885, which protected the tenants.
Noteworthy Features
MIH-I – Pre-1857 304
1. The movement provided a sound platform to the peasants when there was no
kisan sabha or political
party to organise them.
2. There was complete unity between the Hindu and Muslim communities even
though the majority
of the zamindars were Hindus while most peasants were Muslims.
3. The Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 did not fully protect the tenants from the
zamindari oppression. It
gave rise to powerful jotedar groups, some of whom turned out to be as
exploitative as the zamindars.
Deccan Riot (1875)
Plight of Peasants of Deccan
• Ryotwari settlement of land revenue system was introduced in Deccan (Bombay
region). Revenue
was directly settled with the ryot (cultivator). Lands were surveyed every thirty
years to decide the
revenue.
• The first revenue settlement was made in the 1820s. The demand for revenue was
so high that in
many places, peasants deserted their villages and migrated to new regions.
• Ryot borrowed a loan from a moneylender and paid the revenue. But once a loan
was taken, the ryot
found it difficult to repay. As debt mounted and loans remained unpaid, peasants’
dependence on
moneylenders increased.
 Sahukar: A person who used to work as both a moneylender and a trader.
 Marwari: Gujarati Moneylender.
Cotton Boom
• Before the 1860s, three-fourths of raw cotton imports into Britain came from
America.
• When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, raw cotton imports from
America fell to less than
 32

3% of the normal. To compensate for this shortage, the British turned to India for
imports.
• Attracted by the high prices, most peasants of Deccan switched to cotton farming.
With the rise in
cotton prices, moneylenders easily extended credit to peasants.
• While the American crisis continued, cotton production in the Bombay Deccan
expanded. By 1862, over
90% of cotton imports into Britain came from India.
Period of Crisis
• By 1865, as the Civil War ended, cotton production in America revived, and
Indian cotton exports to
Britain steadily declined. Moneylenders were no longer interested in extending
long-term credit to
the ryot. A fall in cotton exports and a series of bad harvests over the next several
years made the
situation worse.
Immediate Cause: Revision of Land Revenue Demand
MIH-I – Pre-1857 305
• In 1867, the land revenue was revised and increased by over 50%. The
government increased the
demand when prices were falling. This forced the ryot to borrow from
moneylenders. But the moneylenders
now refused loans. They no longer had confidence in the ryots capacity to repay.
• The refusal of moneylenders to extend loans enraged the ryots as they had
already fallen deep into
debt and were entirely dependent on the moneylenders for their survival.
• The riots began spontaneously on 12 May 1875 in Supa, Pune. The peasantry,
which had gathered
for the weekly bazaar, attacked the moneylenders, burnt account books (bahi
khatas), and destroyed
the debt contracts and bonds.
• From Poona, the revolt spread to Ahmednagar. Then, over the next two months, it
spread even further.
Everywhere, the pattern was the same:
 Sahukars were attacked.
 Account books (bahi khatas) were burnt.
 Debt bonds destroyed.
• Very little violence was reported in the course of the “riots” aside from a few
instances of burning
shops and looting of the houses of moneylenders.
 33

• As the uprising began to spread, British officials became increasingly afraid of

another revolt similar
to the one in 1857. They quickly took action and suppressed the uprising.
However, it took several
months for the authorities to restore order in the rural areas.
Role of Educated Indians
• In the Bombay Presidency, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was the first organisation
to associate itself
with peasant grievances. During the Deccan riot, it supported the peasantry and
actively campaigned
for relief to struggling farmers.
The Deccan Riots Commission
• The Government of Bombay set up a commission of inquiry to investigate the
causes of the riots.
The commission's report was presented to the British Parliament in 1878.
• Following the recommendations of the Commission to placate the peasants, in
1879, the Deccan Agriculturists’
Relief Act was passed to prevent the imprisonment of peasants in case of failure in
debt payment.
Deccan Riots Report: A source for the study of the riot
• The commission conducted enquiries in the districts where the riots spread,
recorded statements
of ryots, Sahukars, and eyewitnesses, compiled statistical data on revenue rates,
prices, and interest
rates in different regions, and collated the reports sent by district collectors. It
provides historians with
a range of sources for studying the riot.
Official Perspectives
MIH-I – Pre-1857 306
• The commission reported that the moneylenders and not the government were
responsible for
the indebtedness of the peasants and riot.
• This indicates that the colonial administration persistently denied responsibility
for popular discontent.
[UPSC CAPF 2014] The Deccan Riots Commission was concerned with
a) indebtedness of the peasant
b) lack of law and order in the Deccan
c) problems with the Ryotwari system
d) communal riots in the Deccan
Answer: A
 34

[UPSC NDA 2021] Which of the following statements about the Deccan Riots
Commission
is/are correct?
1. The Commission did not hold enquiries in the districts which were not affected.
2. The Commission did record the statements of ryots, sahukars and eye-witnesses
Select the correct answer using the code given below
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
[UPSC CDS 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. In the 19th century, peasants in various parts of India rose in revolt against
moneylenders and grain
dealers.
2. In May 1875, at village Supa in Poona District in the Bombay Deccan, peasants
attacked shopkeepers,
burnt the bahi khatas (account books), looted grain shops and set fire to the houses
of Sahukars.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
[UPSC CDS 2019] The Deccan Agriculturalists' Relief Act of 1879 was enacted
with which
one of the following objectives?
a) Restore lands to the dispossessed peasants
MIH-I – Pre-1857 307
b) Ensure financial assistance to peasants during social and religious occasions
c) Restrict the sale of land for indebtedness to outsiders
d) Give legal aid to insolvent peasants
Answer: C
The immediate cause of the Deccan Riots of 1875 was
a) the shadow of a famine
b) high interest rates charged by Mahajans
c) high land revenue rates
d) protest against imposition of religious reforms
Answer: C
 35

Rebellion by Ramosi Peasant

• With the help of the Koli, Bhil and Dhangar communities, Vasudev Balwant
Phadke, an educated
clerk, raised a Ramosi peasant force in Maharashtra.
• The group started an armed struggle to overthrow the British Raj, launching raids
on rich English
businessmen to obtain funds for the purpose.
• Phadke controlled the city of Pune for a few days. He was captured and
transported to jail at Aden
but escaped on 13 February 1883. He was soon recaptured and went on a hunger
strike, dying on 17
February 1883.
[Prelims Practice] Why was Vasudeo Balwant Phadke known in history?
a) He led a violent struggle against the British during the revolt of 1857
b) He was a critic of Gandhian struggle
c) He led an armed uprising against the British in the 1870s
d) He was a radical leader of the Indian National Congress
Answer: C
Moplah Uprising
• Between 1850 and 1900, multiple Moplah Uprisings took place in Malabar. As
the Jenmi landlords,
backed by the police, law courts and revenue officials, tightened their grip over the
Moplah peasants,
the latter rebelled against the landlords and the British.
• As the landlords were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims, the colonial state
gave a rich-poor
conflict between the Jenmi landlords and the Moplah peasants, a distinct
communal colour.
• Between 1882 and 1885, the peasants 'looted' the property and burned the houses
of landlords, as
well as defiled Hindu temples. These acts gave an anti-Hindu turn to what was
essentially a class
MIH-I – Pre-1857 308
conflict between peasants and the landlords. By 1896, the Moplah peasants'
struggle assumed an
aggressively communal orientation.
No-Revenue Movement
Assam
• The British tried to raise land revenue by 50 to 70 per cent in temporarily settled
areas of the districts
 36

of Kamrup and Darrang. Village assemblies resisted this. They enforced non-
payment of revenue and
organised a social boycott of those who decided to pay. Finally, they gained some
concession in land
revenue from the administration.
Maharashtra
• A no-revenue campaign was launched in Maharashtra after the outbreaks of the
famines of 1896-97
and 1899-1900 under the auspices of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha. These campaigns
spread to Surat, Nasik,
Khera, and Ahmedabad.
Punjab
• In the late 19th century, there was a peasant revolt in Punjab. The peasants
rebelled because moneylenders
threatened them with losing their land, which led to the peasants assaulting and
murdering
moneylenders.
• The revolt resulted in the enactment of the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1902,
which prohibited for
twenty years the transfer of land from peasants to moneylenders and mortgages.
Peasant Revolts
Indigo Revolt (1859-60)
Pabna Agrarian Unrest
(1873-85)
Deccan Riot (1875)
Immediate
Cause
Peasants refused to grow
indigo and protested
against Indigo planters.
Peasants protested against
the unjust demands of the
zamindars.
Grievances against
moneylenders (Sahukar)
Support of Educated
Indians
Bengali intellectuals supported
the peasants.
Bengali intellectuals supported
 37

the peasants.
Educated Indians from
the Bombay Presidency
supported the peasantry
Victory of the
Peasants
The government declared
that the ryots could not be
compelled to grow indigo
and would ensure that all
disputes were settled legally.
The Bengal Tenancy Act
was passed in 1885, which
protected the tenants.
Deccan Agriculturists’
Relief Act was passed to
prevent the imprisonment
of peasants in case
of failure in debt payment.