LECTURE FIVE

EXPONETIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Lecture Outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions and Graphical Sketches
5.3.1 Exponential Functions with base b
5.3.2 Exponential functions with base e
5.3.3Characteristics of Exponential functions
5.3.4 Logarithmic Function with base b
5.3.5 Logarithmic Functions with base e
5.3.6 Properties of Logarithmic Functions
5.3.7 Properties of Logarithms
5.3.8 Change of Base Formula for Exponential Functions
5.3.9 Change of Base For Logarithmic Functions
5.4 Summary
5.5 References

5.1 Introduction

Welcome to our fifth lecture.

In this lecture we are going to discuss two important functions, the exponential and
logarithmic functions. They are important because they can be used to model many
situations of growth and decline. For instance, they are often used in the study of
population, growth of investment, radioactive decay, spread of epidemic and similar
topics. We describe them, state their properties and illustrate with examples their use in
solving practical problems.

5.2 Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Describe exponential functions and logarithmic functions
2. State the properties of the exponential functions and logarithmic
functions
3. Sketch graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions
4. Solve simple problems of exponential and logarithmic functions
5. Use the exponential function to solve practical problems

5.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Let us now look at these functions one by one starting with the exponential functions.
 5.3.1Exponential Functions with Base b

Let b be any positive real number, b> 1 , and let c and r be real numbers, with c≠0 ,
rx
r ≠0 , then the function f defined by f ( x )=cb is an exponential function with base b .

x
Suppose c=1 , r =1 and b=2 , then the function f ( x )=2 for all x . This function is
called an exponential function with base 2.
The domain of this function is the set of all real numbers, and its range is the set of all
positive real numbers. Thus this exponential function is one-to-one: for every real
x
number y > 0, there is exactly one real number x such that 2 =y
0
The y-intercept of this function is (0 , f (0 ))=(0 , 2 )=(0 , 1) , with the x-axis as an
Lim 2x =0 Lim 2 x =+∞
asymptote as x →−∞ : that is x →−∞ also x →+∞ . Lastly this function is
x

continuous at every value of x. See its graph in figure 5.1

f (x )  2

Plot of f(x) against x

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x

Fig. 5.1

Graph of two exponential functions is given in figure 5.2.

 3 y

-x 2.5 y=2x
y=2
2

1.5

0.5

0 x
-2 -1 0 1 2

Fig. 5.2

At the beginning of this lecture we indicated that exponential functions are used to model
situations of growth or decline. We demonstrate with examples.

Example 5.1

The number of sea otters still alive t months after a marine oil spill has contaminated
−0.6 t
their environment is y , where y=450×3 . How long will it take for two-thirds of
the otters to die? Since the number of otters alive at the time of the spill was 450, this is
equivalent to asking how log it will take until (1/3)450=150 remain alive. But if y=150
−0 .6 t
, we have 150=450×3 . Dividing both sides of the equation by 450, we obtain
1 −0 . 6t 1 5 2
=3 t= = 1
3 . Therefore −1=−0. 6 t so 0 .6 3 . Hence it will take 3 months from the
time of the spill until two-thirds of the otters have died.

Example 5.2

The average number of employees in a certain government ministry in year t is y, where

y=1200×20 .1 t
Here t = 0 represents the year 1989. The average number of employees in 1989 was
y=1200×20 .1( 0 )=1200×(1 )=1200
To predict the number of employees the ministry will have in 1992 we proceed as
follows: 1992 is equivalent to t = 3. So the average number of employees in the ministry
y will be
y 1200.2 0.1( 3) 1200.2 0.3 1200.(1.2311) 1477
To determine when the average number of employees will be 2400 we set y = 2400. Thus
2400=1200. 20 .1 t
Dividing both side by 1200
2=20. 1t
or

21 =20. 1 t
1 0. 1 t
As the exponential function is one-to-one, 2 =2 implies that
1 = 0.1t
Hence t = 10. thus the average number of employees will be 2400 in 1999.

Activity 5.1

Graph the exponential functions

()
x
1
y= −3 x/2 0. 8 x −0 .3 x
1. (a) 2 (b) y=5 (c) y=4 (0. 6 ) (d) y=2(3 )
2. A radioactive isotope decays according to the equation
y=300⋅2−t /25 . Here y is the amount of isotope, in grams, present
at time t , t in years.
a. graph the exponential function defined by this equation.
b. What amount of the isotope is present at the end of 12.5 years?
c. What is the half -life of the isotope?
Lim y
d. Find and interpret t →+∞ .
0 .1 t
3. A firm’s sales are given by S=5. 2 , where S is annual sales in
millions of shillings and t is time in years since the firm was
founded.
a. Graph this exponential function
b. Find the firm’s annual sales 20 years after it was founded; 25
years after it was founded.
c. How long will it take for the firm to double its sales?

5.3.2 Exponential Function with Base ℓ

There is a very special number denoted by ℓ that is very important in the study of
exponential functions and their applications. This number is defined as a limit at infinity,
that is

( )
x
1
ℓ= Lim 1+
x →+∞ x
where
ℓ≈2. 7182818285
Thus the exponential function with base ℓ is of the form y=cℓ
rx
or y=cℓ−rx , with c > 0
and r > 0.

Figure 5.3 is a sketch of the exponential function with base ℓ .

60

y=ℓ−x 50

40

30
Y

y=ℓ x
20

10

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4
X

Fig. 5.3

5.3.3 Characteristics of the Exponential Functions

x
We have listed the characteristics of the exponential function f ( x )=2 .We now give the
general characteristic of exponential functions, y=cbrx and y=cb−rx , when b >1, r > 0
and c > 0.

1. The exponential functions are one-to-one

2. Their graphs lie entirely above the x-axis i.e. y > 0 for all values of x
3. Their y – intercepts are (0, c)
4. The graph has the x-axis is the asymptote to the function, that is
Lim cbrx =0 Lim cb rx =+∞
5. x →−∞ also x →+∞
−rx
Lim cb =+ ∞ Lim cb−rx =0
6. x →−∞ also x →+∞
7. y is an increasing or decreasing function of x, depending on the function
The larger the value of the base b, the greater the rate of increase or decrease in y as x
increases.

Example 5.3
Suppose that we have found out that the depreciation of certain industrial equipment can
be modeled by the function
y=50 ℓ−0 .2t
Where
t = time in years and y = the value of the equipment

Find
a. the purchase cost of the equipment
b. the value of the equipment at 4 years after purchase

Solution
a. this the value of the equipment at time zero (t=0) y=50 ℓ0 =sh.50
−0. 2( 4 )
b. 50 ℓ =sh . 22. 50

Activity 5.2

1. A radioactive isotope decays according to the equation

−0 . 05 t
y=200 ℓ ,
where t is in years and y is the amount of the isotope remaining,
in grams,
at time t.
(a) graph the exponential function
(b) What amount of the isotope is present at the end of 10 years?
0 .6931
(c) What is the half-life of the isotope? (hint: ℓ ≈0 . 5 )

Lim y
(d) Find and interpret t →+∞

2. A firm’s cost function is given by

C ( x )=300 ℓ 0. 04 x
where cost C is in thousands of shillings and x is in thousands
of units.
(a) graph the firm’s cost function.
(b) What is the fixed cost?
(c) What is the firm’s cost if it makes 10 thousand units?
3. An oil field will produce oil at a rate of
y=40ℓ−0.3 t
Million barrels per year t years after it is opened.
(a) Graph the function
(b) At what rate will the field produce oil when it is opened?
(c) At what rate will the field produce oil 5 years after it is
opened?
Lim y
(d) Find and interpret t →+∞
5.3.4Logarithmic Functions to the Base b

v
As we have already stated the exponential function defined by f (v )=b is one-to-one. Its
domain is the set of real numbers and range the set of positive real numbers. Itsinverse
function f −1 has domain the set of positive real numbers and range the set of real
−1 −1
numbers. Furthermore, f is defined by setting f (u )=v if and only if u=b . This
v

−1
inverse function f is called the logarithmic function to the base b, and is denoted by
log b :f −1 (u )=log b u . Thus log b u=v if and only if u=b v . Replacing
u and v by x and y , we have the following definition of logarithmic functions:

The Logarithmic Function to the Base b

Let b be a positive real numbers, b≠1 . The inverse function of the exponential function
x
defined by y=b called the logarithmic function to base b , and is denoted by
log b
(read ‘log to base b”). The logarithmic function to the base b is defined by
y=log b x if and only if x=b y .
The domain of the logarithmic function to the base b is the set of positive real numbers
and its range is the set of real numbers.
Figure 5.4 gives a sketch of the exponential function and logarithmic function to the base
b.

6
y b x , b  1
5

3
y x
2

1
y  Logb x, b  1
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1

-2
Fig. 5.4

Note that the graph of f-1 is that of f reflected about the line y = x.

5.3.5The Logarithmic Function to the Base e

The logarithm to the basee,

where

( )
x
1
ℓ= Lim 1+
x →+∞ x
is called the natural logarithm and is writtenln . Thus ln 2 means
In ℓ 2 .

Example 5.4

1n 0.5 = -0.6931, 1n 2 = 0.6931, 1n 10 = 2.3026, 1n 5 = 1.6094

5.3.6Characteristics of the Logarithmic function

The graph of
y=log b x is that of y=b x reflected about the line y= x . Notice that
1. The function defined by
y=log b x is continuous and one-to-one.
2. Its x-intercept is (1, 0).
Lim log b x =+ ∞ Lim log b x=−∞
3. If b> 1 , x →+∞ , x →0+
Lim log b x=−∞ Lim log b x =+∞
4. If 0< b<1 , x →+∞ , x →0+

5.3.7Properties of Logarithms

1.
log b 1=0
2. log b (uv )=log b u+log b v

3.
log b ( uv )=log u−log v
b b

n
4. log b u =n log b u
5.
log b b=1
log b x
6. b =x

7. if
log b u=log b v , then u=v
5.3.8The Change-of-Base Formula for Exponentials

It is possible to write any exponential function using base e . This is because for any
r
positive number b, b ≠ 1, we can find a number r such that ℓ =b . More generally, given
any positive number a and b, neither of the equal to 1, we can always find a number r
=b we may take r =log a b .
r log a b
such that a =b . Since a

The change-of-base formula for exponentials

Let a , b be positive numbers not equal to 1. Then
log a b
a =b .

We now give an example showing how to apply the change of base formula.

Example 5.5

Let us rewrite the exponential function defined by y=2⋅53 x in terms of baseℓ . To do this
r
we must find a number r such that e =5 ; using the change-of-base formula with a=e
and b=5 , we see that
r =log e 5=In 5=1. 6094 . Hence,

y=2⋅53 x =2(e 1. 6094 )3 x =2 e 4. 8282 x .

It is sometimes convenient to change bases in exponential functions, so too is it sometime

useful to change bases in logarithmic functions. Let a and b be positive numbers, neither
of which is equal to 1. Suppose we wish to express
log b x in terms of log a x . If
log b x= y so that x=b y then the change-of-base formula for exponentials tells us that
log a b y y(log a b )
x=( a ) =a
But
x=a
y ( log a b)
implies that
log a x= y log a b and hence that
log a x
=y
log a b .

5.3.9The Change-of-Base Formula for Logarithms

log a x
log b x=
If a and b are positive numbers not equal to 1, then log a b .
One of the most important uses of logarithms is in solving of exponential equations.
Weillustrate this by an example.

Example 5.6
 5x
Let us solve the exponential equation 2 =12 for x . Taking the natural logarithm of
both sides of the equation, we have

In 25 x =In 12 so 5 x (In 2)=In 12

or
In 12
x=
5( In 2 )
Therefore
2 . 4849
x= =0 .717
5(0 . 6931)
Activity 5.3

Evaluate the expressions

1. (a) log 2 16 (b) log 2 1 /4 (c)
log 3 1/243 (d) log 1 /3 1/9
log 5 125
16 −2
2. (a) log 2 2
4⋅log 5 3
(b) 2
log 2 6
(c) In e (d) 5
(e) In (1/e )
−2 3
3. change the base to base e (a) y=5⋅log 5 x (b) y=4⋅log 11 x
4. The intensity of earthquakes is measured by the Richer scale r ,
x
r =log 10
where x 0 . Here x 0 represents
the intensity of a benchmark quake and x is the intensity of a given
quake in multiples of
x 0 . Thus, if a quake is 10 times as intense as
benchmark quake, then
x=10 x
0.
a. Find the Richer scale measurement r for an earthquake that is (i)
100, (ii) 10,000, (iii) 10,000,000
b. Suppose an earthquake measures 5 on the richer scale. How much
more intense is it than the benchmark quake?
c. The most destructive earthquake measures between 8.0 and 9.0 on
the Richer scale. How much more intense than the benchmark
quake is such a quake?
5. use logarithms to solve the given exponential equations (a)
e 2 x =5 (b) e−2. 25 x=1 . 9 (c) 5 x / 3=9
x
6. Change the base of the function (a) y=e to base 10 (b)
y=3⋅log 2 x to base 10
7. the number of bacteria in a culture t hrs after the start of an
−0 .25 t
experiment is y thousand, where y=120⋅2 . How long will it
take until the number of bacteria in the culture is 10% of the
number present at the start of the experiment?
Given following two exponential functions

X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Y 0.095 0.171 0.309 0.556 1.000 1.800 3.240 5.823
Y 0.198 0.296 0.444 0.667 1.000 1.500 2.250 3.375

d. Graph the data

e. Determine the exponential functions
f. Comment on the differences between the two functions

8. if inflation persists at 10% per year, in t years the purchasing

power of 1shs., in terms of today’s shilling, will be
y=ℓ−0 . 1t
Shillings. Under these conditions, how long will it for money to lose
(a) one-half of the value?
(b) 99% of its value?

9. The decay of a radioactive isotope is described by the equation

y=cℓ−0 . 5t
t in years.
(a) What is the half-life of the isotope?
(b) How long will it take for 30% of it to decay?
(c) How long will it take for 90% of it to decay?

10. A firm’s annual sales are given by the equation

S=200 ℓ0 . 05 t
where t is in years with t = 0 representing 1985 and the annual sales S
is in millions of shillings.
(a) when will annual sales attain a level of 1billion shillings?

11. The number of bacteria in a culture t hours after the start of an

experiment is y thousand, where
y=5.0562 ℓ 0. 015t
(a) How long will it take until the number of bacteria in culture is
10% of the number when t = 0.

5.4 Summary
In this lecture we introduced ourselves to two important
functions the Exponential and Logarithmic functions. We gave
the following as the properties of the exponential functions;

 The exponential functions are one-to-one

 Their graphs lie entirely above the x-axis i.e. y > 0 for all
values of x
  Their y – intercepts are (0, c)
 The graph has the x-axis is the asymptote to the function, that
is
Lim cbrx =0 Lim cb rx =+∞
 x →−∞ also →+∞
x
−rx
Lim cb =∞ Lim cb−rx =0
 x →−∞ also x →+∞
 y is an increasing or decreasing function of x, depending on
the function
The properties of the logarithmic function were given as

 The function defined by

y=log x b is continuous and one-to-
one.
 Its x-intercept is (1, 0).
Lim log b x =+ ∞ Lim log b x=−∞
 If b> 1 , x →+∞ , x →0+
Lim log b x=−∞ Lim log b x =+∞
 If 0< b<1 , x →+∞ , x →0+
We also looked at the change of base formula for the exponential and
logarithmic functions

5.5 References

BRIEF CALCULUS for Management and the Life and

Social Sciences
Second Edition
Donald L. Stancl and Mildred L. Stancl