Introduction To Programming

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

UNIT I - Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving

History of Computers, Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output units, memory,

program counter, Introduction to Programming Languages, Basics of a Computer Program:
Algorithms, flowcharts (Using Dia Tool), pseudo code. Introduction to Compilation and Execution,
Primitive Data Types, Variables, and Constants, Basic Input and Output, Operations, Type
Conversion, and Casting.
Problem solving techniques: Algorithmic approach, characteristics of algorithm, Problem solving
strategies: Top-down approach, Bottom-up approach, Time and space complexities of algorithms.

History of Computers:

 To perform computations we use machines.

 The earliest tool is abacus, a device used in china and United Statestoday as a hand held
calculator.
 They require human involvement.

 The first attempt was made by Charles Babbage in creating aprogrammable computing
machine in England in 1822.
 Ada Byron the daughter of famous poet Lord Byron developed theinstruction set for the
machine.
 The machine that Babbage called it was analytical engine.

 In 1937, Dr. John V Atanas off and a graduate student, Clifford Berry developed a
machine called ABC using electrical components at Lowa State University.
 The goal internally was to store a set of instructions. In 1939, Dr.John W Mauchly from
Moore college of Engineering at Pennsylvania University along with Presper Eckert
developed a computer called ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Computer).
 The fund was given by US government and was completed in 1946.

 It consists of 18000 vacuum tubes and can perform 5000 additionsand 360 multiplications
in one second.
 At the same time Mark developed a computer by name Mark I atHarvard University using
mechanical relays and completed in 1944.
 But it could perform only 6 multiplications in one second.
 The final goal of storing the program in computer was achieved in 1949 at
Cambridge University with the successful operation of EDSAC (Electronic Delayed
Storage Automatic Computer).

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 This contains memory where it could store data.

 The principles for storing the data and retrieve data and instructions has been proposed by
John Von Neumann.
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Definition of Computer and its Characteristics:

Definition of Computer:

Computer is an electronic device and it takes the data and instructions as Input and process that
data according to the user instructions and produces the result as output.

Characteristics of Computer: Following are the characteristics of computer.

1. Speed:
A computer can do the calculations very fastly. A computer can do the 3 to 4 millions of simple
arithmetic calculations per a second. A Human can do a work with in the days that can be done by the
computer with in the milliseconds. The speed of a computer can measured in terms of milliseconds,
micro seconds, nanoseconds and picoseconds.

2. Accuracy:
The computer is capable of doing calculations with a high accuracy. Moreover, it does every
calculation with the same accuracy.

3. Diligence:
The computer is capable of doing work for hours and that too without creating any error. It does not
feel tiredness or lack of concentration.

4. Versatility:
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same

Accuracy and efficiency.

5. Memory Capability:
The computer does not differentiate the type of data to be remembered. It is a capable of storing and
recalling any amount of information in its secondary storage device. The memory can be measured in
terms of BITs, Bytes, Kilo Bytes, Mega Bytes, Giga Bytes, etc.
6. Intelligence:
The present day computer does not possess intelligence of its own. Its intelligence quotient is zero.
Computer is obedient servant to its master and works according to the user commands.

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*****

Basic Organization of Computer:

A computer is an electronic device that takes data and instructions as input, processes data
and provides output.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER:

The Block diagram of computer includes 3 Parts.

1. Input Unit.

2. Central Processing Unit.

3. Output Unit.

1. INPUT UNIT
• Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem.
• We need to input the data and instructions into the computers.
• The input unit consists of one or more input devices.
• Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input device.
• Other commonly used input devices are the Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, etc.

• All the input devices perform the following functions.

• Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.

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Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

2. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU):

• CPU is the brain of any computer system.
• It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.
ARITHMETIC LOGICAL UNIT (ALU)
• After you enter data through the input device it is stored in theprimary storage unit.
• The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed in Arithmetic Logical
Unit.
• The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic and comparison.

• Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required.

• After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or
getting stored.

CONTROL UNIT (CU)

• The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor
seeing that things are done in proper fashion.
• Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various operations using time signal.
• The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions
are executed.
• Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other unitsof the computer to execute them.
• It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously.
• Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform
the input and output.
MEMORY OR STORAGE UNIT
• The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that areentered through the
input unit, before they are processed.
• It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent tothe output devices.
• It also saves the data for the later use.
• The various storage devices of a computer system are divided into two categories.
a) Primary Storage
• Stores and provides very fast.

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• This memory is generally used to hold the program being currently executed in the
computer, the data being received from the input unit,the intermediate and final results of
the program.
• The primary memory is temporary in nature.
• The data is lost, when the computer is switched off.
• In order to store the data permanently, the data has to be transferredto the secondary
memory.
• The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondarystorage.
• Therefore, most computers have limited primary storage capacity.
b) Secondary Storage
 Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs, documents, data
bases etc.

 The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred tothe primary memory
before it is actually run.
 Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary memory.
 The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primarymemory.
 Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk,CD, etc.,
3. OUTPUT UNIT
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results ofa computation to
outside world.
Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices.
Other commonly used output devices are Speaker, Headphone,
Projector, etc.
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PROGRAM COUNTER
 A register is a small place for data holding that the processor uses.
 Program counter is just a small register that could hold 8 bit or 16 bitdata.
 It depends on the processor that process data either 8 bit or 16 bit.
 In computing, a program is a specific set of ordered operations for acomputer to perform.
 An instruction is an order given to a computer processor by aprogram.
 Within a computer, an address is a specific locationin memory or storage.

 A program counter is a register in a computer processor that contains the address

(location) of the next instruction being executed by the processor.

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 As each instruction gets fetched, the program counter increases itsstored value by 1.
 After each instruction is fetched, the program counter points to the next instruction in the
sequence.
 When the computer restarts or reset, the program counter normally reverts to 0.
 It is used to keep track of all instructions that are to be processed.

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INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:

• The computer operations are controlled by a set of instructions called computer program.
These instructions are written to tell the computer about
• What operation to perform
• Where to locate data
• How to present the results
• When to make certain decisions
• Programming is the process of writing the instructions that the computer can respond to and
that the other programmers can understand.
• The set of instructions that are used to construct a program are Programming
languages.
• The communication between two parties needs language. The language used to
communicate the computer instructions is known as programming language.
• There are different levels of programming languages. They are o Machine language (low
level languages) o Assembly level language(symbolic languages) o Procedure oriented
language(high level languages) o Object Oriented Languages
MACHINE LANGUAGE
 Machine language is referred as first generation languages.
 It is also known as low level language.
 It was introduced in the year 1940.
 Computer is an electronic device that can understand only binary codes hence the
computer instructions and data are written using binary codes 1 and 0.
 The binary code is called machine code or machine language.
 All computer designs are not same because they have their own machine language and
they cannot understand any language like English, Telugu, Tamil etc except machine
language.

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 There are some problems with the machine language.
 It is difficult to understand and remember the various combinations of 0’s and 1’s for
instructions and data.
 Writing error free instructions is a slow process.
 The user cannot communicate with other machine because every machine has its own
machine language

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (SYMBOLIC LANGUAGES)

 The assembly language is referred as second generation languages.
 It was introduced in 1950.
 In assembly language, the machine language 0’s and 1’s are replacedby mnemonic codes.
 The assembly language consists of series of instructions and
mnemonics.
 These mnemonics corresponds to executable instructions which arefollowed by zero or
more operands.
 The mnemonic code is called operation code or opcode which specifies the operation to
be performed based on given operands.
 During the execution of the program, an assembler is used.
 The assembler is a software program that takes assembly levellanguage program as input
and produces machine code as output.

 The programmers even today they prefer assembly language forperforming various tasks.
 To initialize and test the system hardware
 To write patches for disassembling viruses
 To attain optimization
 For direct interaction with hardware
 To maximize limited resource utilization
 For high security

Advantage of assembly language over machine language

 easy to debug because we can locate and identify syntax
 easy to develop computer application
 operates very efficiently

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

 These languages easily modify the program to reduce the number ofoperations.

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 They are easy to use, portable and abstract when compared to lowlevel languages.
 They use logic to solve the problem.
 The high level languages are executed by using a compiler or aninterpreter.
 The high level languages are classified into three categories.
 Procedure oriented languages (third generation)
 Problem oriented languages (fourth generation)
 Natural languages (fifth generation)

Procedure oriented languages:

 The high level languages designed to solve general purpose problems are called
procedural languages or third generation languages.
 They are designed to express logic and procedure of a problem.
 The advantage of third generation languages is they are portable.
 We can use any compiler or interpreter and create object code.
 The third g e ne r at i on l a n g u a g e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d as d om a i n s p e c i f i c
because they are designed to develop specific applications.

Problem oriented languages

 These languages are used to solve specific problems.
 They are also known as fourth generation languages.
 These languages have reduced programming efforts and over all costof software
development.
 These languages use visual or text environments.
 A single statement in fourth generation is equivalent to multiplestatements in third
generation for a task.
 The programmer uses drag and drop toolbar for creating variousitems.
 These languages are used to facilitate faster environment for application development.

Natural languages
 These languages are known as fifth generation languages.
 These languages are designed to make computer to behave like expert and solve
problems.
 The programmer specifies both the problem and its constraints forproblem solving.
 These languages are used to develop artificial intelligence andexpert systems.
 The fifth generation languages allow users to communicate with the
computer in simple and easy manner.

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OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

 It focuses on developing software based on their component objects.
 The components interact with each other to provide functionality of the software.
 In OOP, the software is broken down into components consists of data attributes and
methods that operate on data.
 The components are complete by themselves and are re-usable. Theterms that commonly
associated with OOPS are

 Class is the basic building block of the OOP, a class consists dataattributes and methods
that operate on data.
 Object is runtime instance of the class. An object has a state, a defined behavior and
unique identity.
 The state of the object is represented by the data defined in the class.
 Class is template for object.
 Abstraction, Encapsulation, Inheritance and Polymorphism are uniquefeatures of OOP.
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BASICS OF A COMPUTER PROGRAMAlgorithm:

 An algorithm is step by step procedure to solve a problem.

 An algorithm is defined as a finite sequence of instructions eachof which has a clear meaning
and can be performed with a finite amount of effort in a finite amount of time.
 The algorithm word originated from the Arabic word “Algorism”which is linked to the name
of the Arabic mathematician AI Khwarizmi.
 He is considered to be the first algorithm designer for adding numbers.

Properties of Algorithms
1. Finiteness: An algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps.
2. Definiteness: The steps of the algorithm must be precisely defined or unambiguously specified.
3. Generality: An algorithm must be generic enough to solve allproblems of a particular
class.
4. Effectiveness: The operations of the algorithm must be effective such that it must easily
converted into machine code in a finite amount of time.
5. Input-Output: The algorithm must have zero, one or more inputs and one or more outputs.

Algorithm for adding two numbers:

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Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read a, b

Step 3: c  a+b
Step 4: Write C

Step 5: Stop.
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FLOW CHART:
 Flow chart is diagrammatic representation of an algorithm.
 It is built using different types of boxes of symbols.
 The operation to be performed is written in the box.
 All symbols are interconnected by arrows to indicate the flow ofinformation and
processing.

Oval Terminal Start/stop/begin/end symbol

Making data available for

processing (input) or recordingof
Parallelogram Input / Output the processed information (output).

Any processing to be
performed. An assignment
Rectangle Process operation normally represented
by this symbol.

Decision or switching type of

operations that determines which of
Diamond Decision the alternative paths is to be
followed.

Circle Connecter Used for connecting different parts of

flow chart.

Joins two symbols and also

Arrow Flow represents executions flow.

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Bracket with Annotation Descriptive comments or
broken line explanations

Double sided Predefined Modules or subroutines given

rectangle process elsewhere.

Flowchart for Even or Odd

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PSUEDO CODE

 The enhanced form of an algorithm that focuses on logic of the program is called
pseudo code.
 It refers to false code written in a programming language.
 It does not have any syntax for representation but normally usedstructured English
language for representation.
 It helps programmer to understand the basic logic before writing thefinal code in a
particular language.

EXAMPLE
To add two numbers
1. DEFINE n1, n2, result
2. READ n1, n2

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3. COMPUTE result – n1 + n2
4. DISPLAY result
5. EXIT
Advantages of Pseudo Code
1. It is easier to modify the program logic when necessary.
2. It takes less time for writing it
3. It takes less effort for writing it
4. Converting it to programming code is easier.
5. It does not have any syntax therefore we can write it as we like.

Disadvantages of Pseudo Code

1. A graphic representation of program logic is not available.
2. There is no standard rule for representation of it.
3. Several programmers follow different styles to write it.
4. Communication problem occurs due to lack of standards.
5. For beginners it is difficult to follow.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPILATION AND EXECUTION

 The procedure for converting a program written in C language intomachine language is
shown below.

 There are four steps in this process:

 Writing and editing program
 Compiling the program
 Linking the program with required libraries
 Executing the program Writing and Editing Programs
 Text editor is software used for writing the programs.  It helps to enter, change and
store character data.
 The main difference between text processing and program writing is programs are
written using lines of code and text processing is done with characters and lines.
 The text editor is a word processor which is included in the compiler
 After writing a program we save it on the disk which is input to the compiler and it is
known as source file.

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Compiling Programs
 The job of the compiler is to convert the source file into machinelanguage.
 There are two separate programs in C compiler:
 Preprocessor
 Translator
 The preprocessor reads the source code and prepares it for thetranslator.
 It scans for preprocessor commands and tell to replace the code.
 The result of preprocessing is translation unit.
 The translator does the actual work of converting the program tomachine language.
 The translator reads translation unit and produce object module as

output
 This is not yet ready to run because it needs required functions to include.
Linking Programs
 C program is made up of many functions, some we write and some they are part of the
source program.

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 There are other functions like input/output and mathematical libraries that are attached
to source program
 The linker assembles all these functions to make it finally executable.

Executing Programs
 The program is ready for execution if it is linked with necessaryroutines.
 To execute the program we use OS command run to load the programin main memory
and execute it.
 The loading activity is done by loader.  The program execution means
 Reads data for processing from file or from user
 Process the data
 Prepare the output for the user
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Structure of a C Program:

Following is the structure of a C Program.

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Ex:

1. Write a C Program to print welcome

message. #include<stdio.h> void main()
{

printf(“WELCOME”);
}

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OUTPUT: WELCOME
2. Write a C program for addition of 2 numbers.

#include<stdio.h>

void main( )

{
int a,b,c;

clrscr( );

a=100; b=200;

c=a+b;
printf(“\n sum=%d”,c);

}
OUTPUT: sum=300
C Character Set

As every language contains a set of characters used to construct words, statements, etc., C language

also has a set of characters which include alphabets, digits, and special symbols. C language

supports a total of 256 characters. C language character set contains the following set of characters...

1. Alphabets

2. Digits

3. Special Symbols

Alphabets

C language supports all the alphabets from the English language. Lower and upper case letters

together support 52 alphabets. lower case letters - a to z

UPPER CASE LETTERS - A to Z

Digits
C language supports 10 digits which are used to construct numerical values in C language.

Digits - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Special Symbols

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C language supports a rich set of special symbols that include symbols to perform mathematical

operations, to check conditions, white spaces, backspaces, and other special symbols.

Special Symbols - ~ @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) _ - + = { } [ ] ; : ' " / ? . > , < \ | tab newline space NULL bell

backspace verticaltab etc.,

TOKENS:

A token in C can be defined as the smallest individual element of the C programming language
that is meaningful to the compiler. It is the basic component of a C program.

Following are different types of Tokens available in C language.

1. Keywords
2. Identifiers
3. Constants
4. Strings
5. Special Symbols
6. Operators
1. Keywords: The keywords are pre-defined or reserved words in a programming language.
Each keyword has a specific meaning in C language and they can’t be used for any other
purposes which they define. Since keywords are referred names for a compiler. C language
supports 32 keywords which are given below:
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
2. Identifiers: A name in C program is called as Identifier that may be variable name, array
name, function name, structure name, etc. Identifiers are the user-defined names consisting of
C character set. Identifiers are used to identify a particular element in a program. Each
Identifier must have a unique name. following are the Rules for writing Identifiers:

• They must begin with a letter or underscore(_).

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• They must consist of only letters, digits, or underscore. No other special character is
allowed.

• It should not be a keyword.

• It must not contain white space.

• It should be up to 31 characters long as only the first 31 characters are significant.

3. Constants: The constants refer to the variables with fixed values. They are like normal
variables but with the difference that their values can not be modified in the program once
they are defined. “const” is a keyword which is used to define the constants.

Example:

const int a=10; const

float x=4.567;

4. Strings: String is a collection of Characters enclosed with in the double quotes and end with a
null character (‘\0’). This null character indicates the end of the string.

Example:

char str[ ]=”welcome”;

char str[10]=”hi friends”;

5. Special Symbols: The following special symbols are used in C having some special meaning
and thus, cannot be used for some other purpose. Some of these are listed below:
• Brackets[]: Opening and closing brackets are used as array element references.
These indicate single and multidimensional subscripts.
• Parentheses(): These special symbols are used to indicate function calls and function
parameters.
• Braces{}: These opening and ending curly braces mark the start and end of a block of
code containing more than one executable statement.
• Comma (, ): It is used to separate more than one statement like for separating
parameters in function calls.
• Colon(:): It is an operator that essentially invokes something called an initialization
list.
• Semicolon(;): It is known as a statement terminator. It indicates the end of one logical
entity. That’s why each individual statement must be ended with a semicolon.
• Asterisk (*): It is used to create a pointer variable and for the multiplication of
variables.
• Assignment operator(=): It is used to assign values and for logical operation
validation.

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• Pre-processor (#): The pre processor is a macro processor that is used automatically
by the compiler to transform your program before actual compilation.  Period (.):
Used to access members of a structure or union.
6. Operators: Operator is a Symbol which is used to perform either Mathematical or Logical
Operations.

Ex: +, -, *, <, >, etc.

*****
Data Types/Types:

To store data the program must reserve space which is done using datatype. A datatype is a
keyword/predefined instruction used for allocating memory for data. A data type specifies the type of
data that a variable can store such as integer, floating, character etc. It used for declaring/defining
variables or functions of different types before to use in a program.

There are 4 types of data types in C language.

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The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both signed and
unsigned literals. The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system. Let‟s see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit architecture
Size and Ranges of Data Types with Type Qualifiers

The following are some main primitive data types in C:

Integer Data Type
The integer datatype in C is used to store the integer numbers (any number including positive,
negative and zero without decimal part). Octal values, hexadecimal values, and decimal values can be
stored in int data type in C. We use int keyword to declare the integer variable:

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• Range: -32768 to 32767
• Size: 2 bytes
• Format Specifier: %d
Syntax for declaring the Integer variables:
int var_name;

Ex:

int a;
int x,y;
The integer data type can also be used as
1. unsigned int: Unsigned int data type in C is used to store the data values from zero to positive
numbers but it can’t store negative values like signed int.
2. short int: It is lesser in size than the int by 2 bytes so can only store values from -32,768 to
32,767.
3. long int: Larger version of the int datatype so can store values greater than int.
4. unsigned short int: Similar in relationship with short int as unsigned int with int.
Note: The size of an integer data type is compiler-dependent. We can use sizeof operator to check the
actual size of any data type.
Character Data Type
Character data type allows its variable to store only a single character. The size of the character is 1
byte. It is the most basic data type in C. It stores a single character and requires a single byte of
memory in almost all compilers. The char keyword is used to declare the variable of character type. 
Range: (-128 to 127) or (0 to 255)
• Size: 1 byte
• Format Specifier: %c
Syntax for declaring the Character variables:
char var_name; Ex:
char a;

char x,y;
Float Data Type
In C programming float data type is used to store floating-point values. Float in C is used to store
decimal and exponential values. It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point
values) with single precision. The float keyword is used to declare the variable as a floating point: 
Range: 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38
• Size: 4 bytes

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• Format Specifier: %f
Syntax for declaring the floating point variables: float
var_name;

Ex:
float a;
float x,y;
Double Data Type
A Double data type in C is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point values) with
double precision. It is used to define numeric values which hold numbers with decimal values in C.
The double data type is basically a precision sort of data type that is capable of holding 64 bits of
decimal numbers or floating points. Since double has more precision as compared to that float then it
is much more obvious that it occupies twice the memory occupied by the floating-point type. It can
easily accommodate about 16 to 17 digits after or before a decimal point. The variable can be declared
as double precision floating point using the double keyword:
• Range: 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
• Size: 8 bytes
• Format Specifier: %lf
Syntax for declaring the double variables:
double var_name;

Ex:
double a;
double x,y;
Void Data Type: The void data type in C is used to specify that no value is present. It does not
provide a result value to its caller. It has no values and no operations. It is used to represent nothing.

Void is used in multiple ways as function return type, function arguments as void, and pointers to
void.
***** Variables:
A variable in C language is the name associated with some memory location to store data of
different types. There are many types of variables in C depending on the scope, storage class, lifetime,
type of data they store, etc. A variable is the basic building block of a C program that can be used in

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expressions as a substitute in place of the value it stores. Following is the syntax for declaring the
variables in C language.
data_type variable_name; // defining single
variable or
data_type variable_name1, variable_name2; // defining multiple variable

Here,
• data_type: Type of data that a variable can store and it is a valid data type.
• variable_name: Name of the variable given by the user.
Example: int var; // integer variable
char a; // character variable
float fff; // float variables
Rules for Naming Variables in C:
1. A variable name must only contain alphabets, digits, and underscore.
2. A variable name must start with an alphabet or an underscore only. It cannot start with a digit.
3. No whitespace is allowed within the variable name. 4. A variable name must not be any reserved
word or keyword.

Variable Initialization
 The process of assigning a value to a variable is called initialization.
 The process of giving a value to a variable is called initialization.
 The process of presenting a value to a variable is called initialization.  The
process of specifying a value to a variable is called initialization.
 For example: x = 10;
in the above statement the variable is “x” and the value is “10”. Herethe value 10 is
given to the variable x by using assignment operator “=”.Therefore if we want to assign a value

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to a variable then we need anassignment operator. The variable here used “x” is called
initialized variable.

For example:
int x=10;
float y=2.5;
char = ‘a’;
in the above statements the variables are initialized to values that are of different data
type. The variables are called initialized variables or variables are said to be initialized.
Types of Variables in C

There are many types of variables in c:

1. local variable

2. global variable

3. static variable

Constants

Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.

Note: constants are also called literals.

TYPES OF C CONSTANT:

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 Introduction To Programming
1. Integer constants

2. Real or floating point constants

3. Character constants

4. String constants

5. Backslash character constants

Integer constants:

An integer constant is a numeric constant (associated with number) without any fractional or

Exponential part. There are three types of integer constants in C programming:

• decimal constant(base 10)

• octal constant(base 8)

• hexadecimal constant(base 16)

For example:

• Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc

• Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc

• Hexadecimal constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc

• In C programming, octal constant starts with a 0 and hexadecimal constant starts with a 

• 0x

1: Decimal Integer: the rules for represent decimal integer.

a) Decimal Integer value which consist of digits from 0-9.

b) Decimal Integer value with base 10.

c) Decimal Integer should not prefix with 0.

d) It allows only sign (+,-).

e) No special character allowed in this integer.

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 Introduction To Programming

Ex: valid invalid

7 $77

77 077

+77 7,777

2 : Octal : An integer constants with base 8 is called octal. These rules are:

a) it consist of digits from 0 to 7.

b) It should prefix with 0.

c) It allows sign (+,-).

d) No special character is allowed.

EX: VALID INVALID

0123 123 -> it because no prefix with 0

+0123 0128 -> because digits from 0 to 7.

-012

3 : Hexadecimal : An integer constant with base value 16 is called Hexadecimal.

a) It consist of digits from 0-9,a-f(capital letters & small leters.

Ex : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

b) it should prefix with 0X or 0x.

c) it allows sign (+,-).

d) No special character is allowed.

EX: OX1a, ox2

Floating point/Real constants:

A floating point constant is a numeric constant that has either a fractional form or an exponent

Form. For example:

-2.0

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 Introduction To Programming

0.0000234

-0.22E-5

Character Constant:

Single Character Constant: A character constant is either a single alphabet, a single digit, a

Single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.

a) It is value represent in „ „ (single quote).

b) The maximum length of a character constant can be 1 character.

EX : VALID INVALID

„a‟ “12”

String constant : A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quote, the

characters may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space etc

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Introduction To Programming
 Introduction To Programming

EX : “rama” , “a” , “+123” , “1-/a”

"good" //string constant

"" //null string constant

" " //string constant of six white space

"X" //string constant having single character.

"Earth is round\n" //prints string with newline

Escape characters or backslash characters:

a) \n newline

b) \r carriage return

c) \t tab

d) \v vertical tab

e) \b backspace

f) \f form feed (page feed)

g) \a alert (beep)

h) \‟ single quote(„)

i) \” double quote(“)

j) \? Question mark (?)

k) \\ backslash (\)

Two ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.

1. const keyword

2. #define preprocessor

1) C const keyword

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 Introduction To Programming

The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.

const float PI=3.14;

Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.

1. #include <stdio.h>

2. #include <conio.h>

3. void main(){

4. const float PI=3.14;

5. clrscr();

6. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);

7. getch();

8.}

Output:

The value of PI is: 3.140000

2) C #define preprocessor

The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.

C#define

The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can use any

Basic data type.

Syntax:

#define token value

Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.

#include <stdio.h>

1. #define PI 3.14

2. main ()

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 Introduction To Programming

3. printf("%f",PI);

4.}

Output:

3.140000

Input / Output (I/O) Functions : In „C‟ language, two types of Input/Output functions are

available, and all input and output operations are carried out through function calls. Several

functions are available for input / output operations in „C‟. These functions are collectively known

as the standard i/o library.

Input: In any programming language input means to feed some data into program. This can be

given in the form of file or from command line.

Output: In any programming language output means to display some data on screen, printer or

in any file.

The Standard Files

C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in

the same way as files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program

executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.

Input / Output functions are classified into two types

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 Introduction To Programming
Formatted I/O Functions: formatted I/O functions operates on various types of data.

1 : printf() : output data or result of an operation can be displayed from the computer to a

standard output device using the library function printf(). This function is used to print any
combination of data.

Syntax : printf(“control string “, variable1, variable2, ------------ , variablen);

Ex : printf(“%d”,3977); // Output: 3977

printf() statement another syntax :

Syntax : printf(“fomating string”);

Formatting string: it prints all the character given in double quotes (“ “) except formatting Specifier.

Ex : printf(“ hello “);->

hello printf(“a”); -> a

printf(“%d”, a); -> a value

printf(“%d”); -> no display

2. scanf() : input data can be entered into the computer using the standard input „C‟ library

function called scanf(). This function is used to enter any combination of input.

Syntax : scanf(“control string “,&var1, &var2, ---- , &varn);

The scanf() function is used to read information from the standard input device (keyboard).

Ex : scanf(“ %d “,&a);-> hello

Each variable name (argument) must be preceded by an ampersand (&). The (&) symbol gives the
meaning “address of “the variable.

Unformatted I/O functions:

a) Character I/O

b) String I/O
a) character I/O:

1. getchar(): Used to read a character from the standard input

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 Introduction To Programming

2. putchar(): Used to display a character to standard output

3. getch() and getche(): these are used to take the any alpha numeric characters from the standard
input

getche() read and display the character

getch() only read the single character but not display

4. putch(): Used to display any alpha numeric characters to standard output

b) String I/O:

1. gets(): Used for accepting any string from the standard input(stdin) eg:gets()

2. puts(): Used to display a string or character array Eg:puts()

3. Cgets():read a string from the console eg; cgets(char *st)

4. Cputs():display the string to the console eg; cputs(char *st)

Operators : An operator is a Symbol that performs an operation. An operators acts some variables
are called operands to get the desired result.

Ex : a+b;

Where a,b are operands and + is the operator.

Types of Operator:

1) Arithmetic Operators.

2) Relational Operators.

3) Logical Operators.

4) Assignment Operators.
5). Unary Operators.

6) Conditional Operators.

7) Special Operators.

8) Bitwise Operators.

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 Introduction To Programming

Arithmetic Operators:

An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction and

Multiplication on numerical values (constants and variables).

C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators

#include <stdio.h>

void main()

int a = 9,b = 4, c; c =

a+b; printf("a+b = %d \

n",c); c = a-b;

printf("a-b = %d \n",c);

c = a*b; printf("a*b =

%d \n",c); c=a/b;

printf("a/b = %d \n",c);

c=a%b;

printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);

}
Output

a+b =
13 a-b =
5 a*b =
36 a/b =
2

Remainder when a divided by b=1

Relational Operators: A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands.
If the relation is true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0. Operands may be
variables, constants or expressions. Relational operators are used in decision making and loops.

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 Introduction To Programming

// C Program to demonstrate the working of relational operators

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;

printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, b, a == b); // true

printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, c, a == c); // false

printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, b, a > b); //false

printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, c, a > c); //false

printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, b, a < b); //false

printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, c, a < c); //true

printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, b, a != b); //false return 0;

Output

5 == 5 = 1
5 == 10 = 0
5>5=0
5 > 10 = 0
5<5=0
5 < 10 = 1

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 Introduction To Programming
5 != 5 = 0
Logical Operators.

These operators are used to combine the results of two or more conditions. An expression containing
logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether expression results true or false. Logical
operators are commonly used in decision making in C programming.

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 Introduction To Programming

// C Program to demonstrate the working of logical operators

#include <stdio.h> int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;

result = (a = b) && (c > b); printf("(a = b) && (c >

b) equals to %d \n", result); result = (a = b) && (c

< b); printf("(a = b) && (c < b) equals to %d \n",

result); result = (a = b) || (c < b); printf("(a = b) || (c

< b) equals to %d \n", result); result = (a != b) || (c

< b);

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 Introduction To Programming
printf("(a != b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

return 0;

}
Output

(a = b) && (c > b) equals to 1

(a = b) && (c < b) equals to 0
(a = b) || (c < b) equals to 1
(a!= b) || (c < b) equals to 0
Assignment Operators: Assignment operators are used to assign a value (or) an expression (or)
a value of a variable to another variable.

Syntax : variable name=expression (or) value (or)

variable Ex : x=10; y=a+b; z=p;

Compound assignment operator:

„C‟ provides compound assignment operators to assign a value to variable in order to assign a new
value to a variable after performing a specified operation.

Conditional Operator/ Ternary operator:

Conditional operator checks the condition and executes the statement depending of the condition. A
conditional operator is a ternary operator, that is, it works on 3 operands.

Conditional operator consist of two symbols.

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 Introduction To Programming

1:

que

stio

mar

(?).

2:

colo

n (:

).

Syntax: condition? exp1: exp2;

It first evaluate the condition, if it is true (non-zero) then the “exp1” is evaluated, if
the condition is false (zero) then the “exp2” is evaluated.

Bitwise Operators:

Bitwise operators are used to manipulate the data at bit level. It operates on integers
only. It may not be applied to float. In arithmetic-logic unit (which is within the
 Introduction To Programming

CPU), mathematical operations like: addition, subtraction, multiplication and

division are done in bit-level which makes processing faster and saves power. To
perform bit-level operations in C programming, bitwise operators are used.

Bitwise AND operator &

The output of bitwise AND is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands is 1. If either bit
of an
Operand is 0, the result of corresponding bit is evaluated to 0.
Let us suppose the bitwise AND operation of two integers 12 and 25.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
& 00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)

Example #1: Bitwise

AND #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a&b);
return 0;
}

Output
Output =8

Bitwise OR operator |
The output of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one corresponding bit of two operands is 1. In C
Programming, bitwise OR operator is denoted by |.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
 Introduction To Programming

25 = 00011001 (In Binary)

Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)

Example #2: Bitwise

OR #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a|b);
return
0; }
Output
Output =29

Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) operator ^

The result of bitwise XOR operator is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands
are opposite. It is denoted by ^.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise XOR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00010101 = 21 (In decimal)
Example #3: Bitwise
XOR #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a^b);
return
0; }
Output
Output = 21

Bitwise complement operator ~

Bitwise compliment operator is an unary operator (works on only one operand). It changes
1 to 0 and 0 to 1. It is
denoted by ~.
35 = 00100011 (In Binary)
Bitwise complement Operation of 35
 Introduction To Programming

~ 00100011
________
11011100 = 220 (In decimal)

There are two Bitwise shift operators in C programming:

Right shift operator
Left shift operator.

Right Shift Operator

Right shift operator shifts all bits towards right by certain number of specified bits. It is
denoted by >>.
syntax: variable_name>>number_of_positions

For Example,

Let us consider the number 14. Now, the binary representation of this number is 00001110
in 8 bits (for convenience, let us consider it this way).

In this case, the 14 >> 1 will shift this binary sequence by a single position to the right.
Like,

Left Shift Operator

Left shift operator shifts all bits towards left by certain number of specified bits. It
is denoted by <<.
Syntax: variable name<<number_of_positions
 Introduction To Programming

In this example, you can clearly notice that all the bits have shifted to the left once we
performed the left shift operation on the binary value. The empty space thus created is now
filled with zeroes (0).

Thus, the value obtained from 40 << 1 is 01010000, and 80 is the decimal equivalent of this
binary value.

Special Operators

1) Comma Operator: The comma operator is used to separate the statement elements such
as variables, constants or expressions, and this operator is used to link the related
expressions together, such expressions can be evaluated from left to right and the value of
right most expressions is the value of combined expressions
Ex : val(a=3, b=9, c=77, a+c)
First signs the value 3 to a, then assigns 9 to b, then assigns 77 to c, and finaly80 (3+77) to value.

2 ) Sizeof Operator : The sizeof() is a unary operator, that returns the length in bytes o the
specified variable, and it is very useful to find the bytes occupied by the specified variable
in thememory.
Syntax : sizeof(variable-name);
int a;
Ex : sizeof(a); //OUTPUT-----2bytes
Example #6: sizeof
Operator #include <stdio.h>
int main() { int a, e[10];
float b; double c; char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
printf("Size of integer type array having 10 elements = %lu bytes\n",
sizeof(e)); return 0; }
Output
Size of int = 4 bytes
 Introduction To Programming

Size of float = 4 bytes

Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte
Size of integer type array having 10 elements = 40 bytes

Expressions
Expressions: An expression is a combination of operators and operands which reduces to a
Single value. An operator indicates an operation to be performed on data that yields a value.
An operand is a data item on which an operation is performed.
A simple expression contains only one operator.
Ex: 3+5 is a simple expression which yields a value 8, -a is also a single expression.

A complex expression contain more than one operator.

Ex: complex expression is 6+8*7.

Ex; Algeberic Expressions C-expression

1: ax2+bx+c 1: a*x*x+b*x+c
2: a+bx 2: a+b*x.
3: 4ac/b 3:4*a*c/b.
4: x2/y2-1 4: x*x/y*y-1

Operator Precedence: Arithmetic Operators are evaluated left to right using the
Precedence of operator when the expression is written without the paranthesis.They are
two Levels of arithmetic operators in C. 1: High Priority * / % 2: Low Priority + -.
Arithmetic Expression evaluation is carried out using the two phases from left to right.
1: First phase: The highest priority operator are evaluated in the 1st phase.
2: Second Phase: The lowest priority operator are evaluated in the 2nd phase.
Ex:
a=x-y/3+z*2+p/4.
x=7, y=9, z=11, p=8.
a= 7-9/3+11*2+8/4.

1st phase:
1: a = 7-3+11*2+8/4
2: a = 7-3+22+8/4
3: a = 7-3+22+2

2nd phase:
1: a = 4+22+2
2: a = 26+2
3: a = 28
The order of evaluation can be changed by putting parenthesis in an expression.
Ex: 9-12/ (3+3)*(2-1)
 Introduction To Programming

Whenever parentheses are used, the expressions within parenthesis highest priority. If two
or more sets of parenthesis appear one after another. The expression contained in the
leftmost set is evaluated first and the right-most in the last.

1st phase:
1: 9-12/6*(2-1)
2: 9-12/6*1

2nd
phase: 1:
9-2*1 2:
9-2.

3rd phase:
1: 7.

Rules for Evaluation of Expression:

1: Evaluate the sub-expression from left to right. If parenthesized.
2: Evaluate the arithmetic Expression from left to right using the rules of precedence.
3: The highest precedence is given to the expression with in parenthesis.
4: When parenthesis are used, the expressions within parentheses assume highest priority.
 Introduction To Programming

5: Apply the associative rule, if more operators of the same precedence occurs.
Operator Precedence and Associativity:

Type Conversion/Type casting:

Type conversion is used to convert variable from one data type to another data type, and
after
type casting complier treats the variable as of new data type.
For example, if you want to store a 'long' value into a simple integer then you can type cast

'long' to 'int'. You can convert the values from one type to another explicitly using the cast
 Introduction To Programming

operator. Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler

automatically, or it can be specified explicitly through the use of the cast operator.
Syntax:
(type_name) expression;

Without Type Casting:

1. int f= 9/4;
2. printf("f : %d\n", f );//Output: 2

With Type Casting:

1. float f=(float) 9/4;
2. printf("f : %f\n", f );//Output: 2.250000

Type Casting - C Programming

Type casting refers to changing a variable of one data type into another. The compiler
will automatically change one type of data into another if it makes sense. For instance, if
you assign an integer value to a floating-point variable, the compiler will convert the int
to a float. Casting allows you to make this type conversion explicit, or to force it when it
wouldn’t normally happen.
Type conversion in c can be classified into the following two types:
1. Implicit Type Conversion
When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without programmers
Intervention, such type of conversion is known as implicit type conversion or type
promotion.
int x;
for(x=97; x<=122; x++)
{
printf("%c", x); /*Implicit casting from int to char thanks to
%c*/ }

2. Explicit Type Conversion

The type conversion performed by the programmer by posing the data type of the
expression of Specific type is known as explicit type conversion. The explicit
type conversion is also known as type casting. Type casting in c is done in the
following form:
(Data type) expression;
Where, data type is any valid c data type, and expression may be constant, variable
or expression. For example,
int x;
for(x=97; x<=122; x++)
{
 Introduction To Programming

printf("%c", (char)x); /*Explicit casting from int to char*/

}
The following rules have to be followed while converting the expression from one type to
another to avoid the loss of information:
All integer types to be converted to float.
All float types to be con
verted to double.
All character types to be converted to integer.

Example
Consider the following code:
int x=7, y=5 ;
float z;
z=x/y; /*Here the value of z is 1*/
If we want to get the exact value of 7/5 then we need explicit casting from
float:int to
int x=7, y=5;
float z;
z = (float)x/(float)y; /*Here the value of z is 1.4*/

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