Journal of Research in

Innovative Teaching
Volume I, Issue 1 (March 2008)
 Table of Contents

Editorial and Review Boards..............................................iv

Letter from the President..................................................v

Editor’s Column................................................................vi

General Issues

Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer, Hermann Maurer

Learning Ecosystems for
Dealing with the Copy-Paste Syndrome................................1

Carol Kasworm
What Are They Thinking?
Adult Undergraduate Learners Who Resist Learning...........25

Accelerated Learning

Peter Serdyukov
Accelerated Learning: What Is It?......................................35

Oleg Tarnopolsky
Varieties of Immersion in Teaching Business English
to University Students of Business and Economics:
The Ukrainian Approach....................................................60

Jan Richards
The Benefits of an Accelerated Learning Format
in Teacher Education Programs.........................................73
Teaching Specific Subjects

Igor Ya. Subbotin, N. N. Bilotskii

Algorithms and Fundamental Concepts of Calculus.............82

Nataliya Serdyukova
Teaching General Physics in an Accelerated Format:
Real Challenges and Possible Solutions..............................95

Jan Parker, Charles Tatum, Brenda L. Shook, Valerie Alexander

Assessing Clinical Attributes for Therapists:
A Tool for Gatekeepers of the MFT Profession..................113

Online Learning

Angelo Segalla, Shandy Hauk

Using WeBWorK in an Online Course Environment............128

Donald A. Schwartz, Consolacion Fajardo

Adding Voice/Visual Interaction to Online Classes.............145

Thomas Gatton, Arun Datta, Pradip Dey, Jose Jorge Martinez

and Chaoting Ting
A Web-based Intelligent Tutorial System..........................158

Robyn A. Hill
Strengthening Teaching Communities
through Online Professional Development........................174

Clifford E. Tyler, Robert Kibby

How Effective is Hybrid Online Instruction
for School Administrator Prepration?...............................187

Instructional Design, Teaching and Evaluation

Cynthia Shubert-Irastorza, Stacy Begin, Dee L. Fabry
Developing a Systematic Approach to Program Review.....197

Brian Tilley
The Revised Version of the
Educational Outcome Expectancy Scale............................220

International Experiences

Darryl Mitry, and David Smith

Benefits of Study Abroad the Case
for Short-Term Programs.................................................236

Announcements..............................................................247

A Note to the Authors.....................................................248

Editorial Board

Dr. Jerry Lee, Executive Editor

Dr. Peter Serdyukov, Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Dana Gibson, Member
Dr. Thomas Green, Member
Dr. David Smith, Member
Dr. Carl Boggs, Member
Dr. Igor Subbotin, Member
Dr. Alyn Warren III, Member
Dr. Eileen Heveron, Member
Dr. Cynthia Larson-Daugherty, Member
Dr. Carol Kasworm, North Carolina University, Member Dr.
Hermann Maurer, University of Graz, Austria, Member
Dr. Piet Commers, University of Twente, The Netherlands, Member

Review Board

Dr. Carol Kasworm, North Carolina University

Dr. Donald Kauchak, Utah State University
Dr. Michael Steinberg, DeVry University
Dr. Larry Froman, Towson State University
Dr. Valeriy Pougachev, University of Technology, Jamaica
Dr. Mark Ryan, Walden University
Dr. Patricia Ryan, Towson University
Dr. Darryl Mitry, Norwich University
Dr. Dee Fabry
Dr. Robyn Hill
Dr. Carl Boggs
Dr. Robyn Hill
Dr. Cynthia Schubert-Irastorza
Dr. Gary Hoban
Dr. George Drops
Dr. Margot Kinberg

Copyright © 2008 National University

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976.

iv
 OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

11255 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037-1011

(858) 642-8801 • (858) 642-8701 • www.nu.edu

March 2008

Dear Colleagues,

I am pleased to share with you the inaugural publication of the National University
Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching. This document represents the evolution of
scholarship at National University, and supports our mission of providing exemplary
levels of instruction to our students.

This annual publication focuses on peer-reviewed, original research in the area of new
instructional methods, approaches, and tools. The Journal provides opportunities for
collaboration, and serves as a forum for sharing noteworthy scholarship activities. I am
impressed with and proud of the level of scholarship presented in the first edition.

The Journal includes the work of many National University faculty, as well as
submissions from external scholars. The publication’s Editorial Board is comprised of
several prominent University faculty as well as scholars from the University of North
Carolina, the University of Graz in Austria, and the University of Twente in the
Netherlands. Similarly, the Journal’s Review Board includes participants from national
and international institutions of higher education.

I congratulate all of the participants on their fine work and continued dedication to
improving the methods of instruction employed by teachers everywhere.

Sincerely,

Dana L. Gibson
President, National University

v
Editor’s Column

National University’s mission is to make lifelong learning opportunities

accessible, challenging and relevant to diverse populations. In
accordance with this mission, the National University research journal
publication is an important benchmark in the University’s maturity.
Teaching and scholarship are interrelated; evidence shows that
research enriches teaching and is capable of significantly improving
student learning outcomes. With this purpose in mind, National
University is happy to announce the publication of the first issue of this
journal.

The Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching (JRIT) is an

annual multidisciplinary peer-reviewed publication of original research
focused on new effective instructional approaches, methods and tools.
It is intended to produce momentum to increase efficiency of learning
and ensure better learning outcomes of our students.

The Journal is a forum to share faculty research and scholarship. This

will ultimately benefit both the university academic community and our
students. We believe regular publication of this journal will promote
and enhance the growth of the research culture at the university. This
journal is offered as a collaborative work; we hope it will be embraced
by both National University and the academic community at large.

The Editorial Board is composed of top scholars and administrators

from National University, as well as several international and nationally
acclaimed scholars. The Review Board includes both internal and
external reviewers.

All publications have been conditionally assigned in the following

sections:

 General Issues
 Accelerated Learning
 Teaching Specific Subjects
 Online Learning
 Instructional Design, Teaching and Evaluation
 International Experiences

In the General Issues section one can find two exciting articles
presented by famous scholars; the first features an original approach
in dealing with digital web-based plagiarism, and the second discusses

vi
working with the resistant adult learners. Both articles focus on the
acute issues faculty face in contemporary universities.

The first article by Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer and Hermann Maurer

(University of Graz, Austria), discusses a so-called Copy-Paste
Syndrome which is a type of plagiarism arising from today’s easily
available digital content. It implies the indiscriminate usage of web-
based materials which violates intellectual property rights. This
amounts to widespread postsecondary cheating which has been
observed first-hand in onsite and online venues. The authors offer a
non-traditional approach to minimizing the possibility of unwanted
copy-and-paste situations based on a holistic view that combines an
institutional approach with the application of viable technologies.

The second article presented by Carol Kasworm (University of North

Carolina) deals with a unique group of students called resistant adult
learners. These individuals do not value the college classroom and are
motivated to participate only through acceptable grades and gaining a
college credential. The author explores characteristics of these
resistant learners and discusses how constructivist learning theory can
effectively support instructional strategies to enhance the learning of
this difficult category of adult students.

In the Accelerated Learning section one can find three articles that
discuss various formats and aspects of accelerated learning.

Peter Serdyukov (National University) provides a critical analysis of

accelerated approaches in learning. His article discusses the concept,
definitions, principles and methodology of accelerated instruction. The
author argues that;
 Accelerated learning is a specific form of education
 Its main feature is a compressed course format
 It provides the same content and learning outcomes as a
traditional semester-long course in a shorter time period
 It requires special methodological and organizational strategies
for its effective implementation in teaching
The article also addresses cost- and time-efficiency of accelerated
learning. It explores the similarities and differences between
accelerated and intensive learning. Finally, the piece outlines a
research agenda for this area.

The article by Oleg Tarnopolsky (Dnipropetrovsk University of

Economics and Law, Ukraine) discusses theoretical aspects and
practical experiences of an immersion approach in teaching Business

vii
English at Ukrainian universities. This approach has proven its
effectiveness in foreign language learning since the era of Berlitz’
language schools. Two principal types of immersion analyzed here are:
1) immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities, and
2) immersion through learning professional subjects in English. The
implementation of immersion programs in teaching practices of
Ukrainian universities are discussed using research data.

Another article focusing on accelerated learning is submitted by Janet

Richards (National University). Richards suggests that the critical need
to prepare more teachers for the classrooms can be effectively met by
providing accelerated learning programs. This article suggests that
students enrolled in such programs are getting quality education
comparable to conventional college programs. The piece points out
that students and instructors appreciate the convenience, shorter time
frame, and real-world emphasis that accelerated programs offer.

Teaching Specific Subjects section includes articles which focus on

particular content area delivery, such as Math, General Physics and
Psychotherapy in counseling.

Igor Subbotin (National University) and Nikolai Bilotskii (Kiev National

Pedagogic University, Ukraine) discuss their approach of introducing
of elementary functions in Precalculus and Calculus courses
by representing them as linear algorithms. Their experience in
teaching at National University, California, USA, Kiev National
University of Technology (KPI), and Kiev National Pedagogic University
confirms the effectiveness of this approach.

The article by Nataliya Serdyukova (National University) deals with

teaching General Physics courses in an accelerated format. The author
suggests that there should be a certain number of repetitions of the
same material in the learning process to provide adequate student
learning and retention. This article clarifies the fact that simple
repetition is insufficient for better understanding and retention. Rather,
it takes several spaced cycles to achieve the desired learning results
with students. N. Serdyukova applied the Iterative Instructional Model
to explain the process of effective learning based on spaced
repetitions. This model was successfully applied in teaching
accelerated Physics courses.

Four authors (Jan Parker, Charles Tatum, Brenda Shook, and Valerie
Alexander (National University)), wrote about the role of psychotherapy
education programs for the counseling profession. They

viii
reported the reliability and validity of the Clinical Attributes for
Therapists Scale (CATS), an instrument designed to assess the
interpersonal skills of students in the Master of Arts in Counseling
(MAC) program.

The most populated section of the Journal is the Online Learning

section, which is understandable due to the growing numbers of
universities, including National University, utilizing online program and
course delivery.

Angelo Segalla (California State University, Long Beach), and Shandy

Hauk (University of Northern Colorado) address some of the benefits
and issues of using a free, open source, web-based, interactive
mathematics homework system called WeBWorK that helps in
individualizing and grading mathematics homework assignments. They
connect the use of WeBWorK to an online teaching-learning
environment.

Donald Schwartz and Consolacion Fajardo (National University) discuss

the addition of live voice/visual interaction to asynchronous online
learning environment, utilizing voice over internet protocol (VoIP)
technology. They compare the learning activities in a traditional
classroom with those in an online learning environment that offer both
synchronous and asynchronous learning interactions.

Thomas Gatton, Arun Datta, Pradip Dey, Jose Jorge Martinez and
Chaoting Ting (National University) propose a Web-based Intelligent
Tutorial System that will present material in an intuitive, interactive,
and innovative manner while focusing on ways to integrate qualitative
and quantitative methods throughout the learning experience.

In her article, Robyn Hill (National University) discusses ways to

strengthen teaching communities through online professional
development. She outlines a professional development model designed
to achieve these goals, and the results of its pilot implementation at
National University in March 2007.

Clifford Tyler and Robert Kibby (National University) address the

changing role of instructors teaching on-line courses. Specifically, this
article examines the challenges faculty face in promoting
instructor/student and student to student interaction. It discusses the
new skills needed to effectively operate this technology. These authors
compare the quality of on-line instruction with on-ground instruction
and compare the advantages and disadvantages of online instruction

ix
focusing on school administrator preparation for major leadership
roles.

Instructional design, teaching and evaluation are important

aspects of an effective educational system. Two articles in this section
target program analysis and outcome expectancy measurement.

Cynthia Shubert-Irastorza, Stacy Begin and Dee Fabry (National

University) developed a systematic evaluation process for a program
review of the Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) Program at National
University. The purpose of this review was to improve the overall
program quality while ensuring the consistency and congruity of
individual courses within the program. The hope is that this review
will ultimately lead to increased student learning.

Brian Tilley revised a measure of outcome expectancies as described in

Social Cognitive Career Theory. Results of analysis are indicative of a
positive, moderate correlation between educational outcome
expectancies and college self-efficacy and a significant correlation
between educational outcome expectancies and satisfaction.

The concluding section of the journal focuses on international

experiences.

Darryl Mitry (Norwich University and David Smith (National University)

suggest that university education must now include more opportunities
for students to gain firsthand knowledge of global interdependencies
and develop superior cross-cultural skills. This paper examines the
reasons behind low enrollment of college students from the United
States in study abroad programs, and considers short-term study
abroad alternatives. This article proposes critical design elements of
competitive curricula offerings. It provides suggestions for developing
highly integrated and flexible study-abroad programs that can be
much less expensive, more available and widely marketed than
traditional programs.

The Editorial Board invites the readers to discuss publications

presented in this issue and suggest topics that might be of interest for
researchers at National University. We will start publishing letters from
the readers in the next issues.

The JRIT also publishes an announcement regarding 2 nd National

University Faculty Research and Scholarship Conference that will take
place on September 2, 2008.

x
The Editorial Board hopes this journal will boost research and
scholarship at National University promoting and enhancing its
academic culture. Faculty are kindly invited to contribute to the future
journal issues.

Peter Serdyukov
March 1, 2008

xi
 Learning Ecosystems for Dealing
with the Copy-Paste Syndrome

Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer and Hermann Maurer

Abstract

The fact that people of all walks of life are becoming more and more
reliant on a wide-range of easily-available digital content is often
called the Copy-Paste Syndrome. It implies the indiscriminate usage of
material, i.e. without checking for reliability or a concern for violations
of intellectual property rights or plagiarism, a kind of cheating that has
become uncomfortably widespread. A holistic approach is required to
address this universal problem combining an institutional approach
together with the application of viable technologies, rather than a-
posteriory checks with software of doubtful reliability. This paper
describes a learning ecosystem, ICARE, that addresses the Copy-Paste
Syndrome by minimizing the possibility for unwanted copy-and-paste
situations.

Key Words

Holistic E-Learning, learner-centered technology support, copy-paste

avoidance, guided learning environment.

Introduction

The Web is experiencing a phenomenal growth with the explosion of

user-generated content. As tools get easier to use, and access
becomes more widespread, it also becomes easier for networked
learners to misuse the possibilities for plagiarism and IPR violation
(Pannepacker, 2007). It also will continue to become much simpler to
acquire information from the Web community as opposed to meeting
up with co-learners and experts in the real world (Alexander, 2006).
The openness of the Web environment thus poses a number of
challenges in monitoring and keeping track of the explorative
expressions of learners.

The term Copy-Paste is used in this paper to refer to an emerging

practice of fast and easy publication by millions of people. The “Google
Copy-Paste Syndrome” (GCPS) (Weber, 2006), describes a common

1
activity of performing a fast, easy and usually “not diligently
researched” copying of passages of text by people of all walks of life
including scientists, journalists, academics and students. The GCPS has
resulted in a proliferation of infringements such as plagiarism and IPR
violations. Acquiring insights is performed by “conveniently searching”
the Web as opposed to a rigorous process of learning through scientific
discovery. Information from Web sources such as Google and
Wikipedia are often used without even considering the validity of the
source. According to Weber, GCPS and Web mining can actually
impede the inquiry-driven scientific process, as answers conveniently
pop up, with minimal effort. This syndrome thus endangers original
writing and thinking by de-emphasizing the need for deliberate and
insightful reasoning (Weber, 2006). This emerging phenomenon in turn
encourages mediocrity in published works due to the lack of careful
thought and understanding.

Due to the potential danger of the Copy-Paste Syndrome and

intellectual property violations, it is vital to explore innovative means
of addressing these issues.

We will concentrate our attention on the phenomenon of plagiarism

and the Copy-Paste Syndrome (CPS). Current learning environments
are often more concerned about identifying problem situations after
they actually happen. The detection of plagiarism or Copy-Paste
activities after some work is finished is neither reliable nor a good
approach. Rather, there is a need to explore preventive ways of
making sure that unwanted versions of copy-and-paste just cannot
happen. A learning ecosystem coupled strongly with pedagogical
aspects and techniques that control copy-and-paste situations
throughout will best serve the emerging needs of educational
institutions.

Dealing with plagiarism (and the Copy-Paste Syndrome)

Students are often expected to read the policy in the handbook and
thereafter comply with a non-plagiarizing attitude. This approach is
likely to be unsuccessful as the core problem lies in the student’s lack
of understanding of the concept of plagiarism and, most of all, their
inability to deal with it (Kennedy, 2004). Students are also generally
not aware of the full implication of the acts of Copy-Paste. They also do
not value the importance of intellectual property or take pride in their
ability to produce creative works (Kennedy, 2004). As pointed out by
Duff et al. (2006), there is the lack of appreciation of the Western

2
system of scholarship, especially among new students and foreign
students. There is thus a need to teach the skills required for
paraphrasing, summarizing and referencing accurately (Kennedy,
2004).

There is a need to instill moral and ethical values in students regarding

their education. Students will begin to understand the need to respect
other people’s copyright when they themselves are actively engaged in
creating their own intellectual property (Midolo & Scott, 2003). Best
practices in teaching and learning and academic integrity can be
further achieved if students are aware that their input has been
valuable and considered carefully by instructors (Kennedy, 2004).

Another proposed approach to address Copy-Paste Syndrome is

through the employment of well-structured and clearly articulated
assessment tasks. Course designers will have to carefully design
courses and course content to ensure that they do not indirectly
encourage plagiarism. Factors that encourage plagiarism include the
same questions being set repeatedly year to year, questions that
cannot be understood clearly or when clear criteria are not specified
(Kennedy, 2004).

There are a number of approaches that can be employed to reduce

plagiarism as suggested by works in Harris (2004). Instructors are
encouraged to enforce the use of one or more sources not written
within the past year. This approach effectively invalidates results of
paper mills (Harris, 2004). By enforcing the use of one or more specific
articles or specific information, students can be encouraged to
formulate their own thoughts. Another effective technique describe by
Harris is to enforce the production of assignments as a series of
process steps as they lead to the final completion of projects. Student
learning can then be continuously checked and assessed at each
stage. The administration of personalized student tracking and
assessment tends to overwhelm instructors. A careful selection of
viable technologies is required to minimize the effort required. A
technological platform also can be applied to guide students in using
material from various sources in a constructive way and promote
critical thinking.

3
Typical Approach for Dealing with Plagiarism (and also Copy-
Paste)

A typical approach used in dealing with plagiarism in educational

institutions is to employ tools for plagiarism detection such as Turnitin
or Mydropbox. However, a single tool by itself is not adequate for
Copy-Paste detection. A suite of tools is required to detect plagiarism
or Copy-Paste effectively to establish and substantiate the detection of
plagiarism with as much evidence as possible. An overview of a broad
range of tools required for fighting Plagiarism and IPR violation is
presented in Maurer et al. (2006). A layered application of plagiarism
detected has been further proposed by (Kulathuramaiyer & Maurer,
2007) to systematically perform elaborate mining by focusing on
relevant subsets of documents. Table 1 describes the availability of
multiple approaches for detecting the various aspects of plagiarism.
Despite the availability of these tools and techniques, their usage has
mainly been employed in the detection of plagiarism and Copy-Paste
situations. We propose the application of these tools and techniques in
preventing the Copy-Paste Syndrome.

Table 1: Tools for Plagiarism Detection

Task Tool
Manual Technique Search Engines (Maurer et al., 2006)
Text-based Document Dedicated Software,
Similarity Detection Search and Web Databases (Maurer
& Zaka, 2007)
Writing Style Detection Stylometry software (Eissen & Stein,
2006)
Document Content Semantic Analysis (Dreher &
Similarity Williams, 2006; Ong &
Kulathuramaiyer, 2006; Liu et al.,
2006)
Denial of Plagiarism Cloze Procedure (Standing &
Gorassini, 1986)
Content Translation Normalized Representation (Maurer &
Zaka, 2006)
Multi-site Plagiarism Distributed Plagiarism
(Kulathuramaiyer & Maurer, 2007)

4
Comprehensively Addressing the Copy-Paste Syndrome
Rationale

In exploring a technological solution to comprehensively address the

Copy-Paste Syndrome, the first question clearly is: Will it be ever be
possible to comprehensively address the Copy-Paste Syndrome by
software to check a paper submitted without any knowledge how the
paper was compiled? Our answer is a clear “no.” We have pointed out
the existence of paper mills (Paper Mills, 2006) that even prepare
papers to order (Kulathuramaiyer & Maurer, 2007). Documents also
may contain large portions that are translations of some material in a
not-so-common language making it nearly impossibly to find out if
material is plagiarized. Furthermore, there are large collections of
materials available in either closed databases or not in digitized form
that are not available to any plagiarism checking software. As such a
different approach is needed, we believe the key issue is to monitor
the work of learners continuously.

We will discuss issues of an E-Learning ecosystem called ICARE a. We

are trying out a number of components of a learning ecosystem at
Graz University of Technology. We refer to the proposed suite of
software and content as ICARE, aimed at controlling Copy-Paste
situations.

The Main Concept of ICARE

ICARE stands for Identify-Correlate-Assimilate-Rationalize-Express.

ICARE denotes the five steps involved in the cultivation of academic
reading and writing. These steps can be elaborated as:

 Identification: Identify key points (relevant) while reading a text

document
 Correlate: Associate reading with concepts in the mind map of a
learner
 Assimilate: Associate concepts learned with prior knowledge of
learner
 Rationalize: Formulate ideas based on concepts arising from
student learning
 Express: Express idea in learners own words

a
To be read as ‘I Care’

5
As opposed to the inadvertent (improper) Copy-Paste, ICARE enforces
care on the part of the students’ understanding of concepts, enabling
them to apply learned concepts in the appropriate manner. The
proposed approach to Copy-Paste will thus be seen as focusing on
deeper appreciation and understanding (“care-why learning”) as
opposed to a less-diligent focusing on facts (“know-what learning”).
Figure 1 contrasts these two forms of learning. Learning should not be
based on a mere a collection of facts; it should rather be viewed as a
connection to a learner’s thoughts (Sathya Sai Baba, 2001). Support
mechanisms are required to allow students to connect readings to the
construction of knowledge. We believe that E-Learning systems should
focus more on personal knowledge management activities and in
fostering a deeper understanding. This practice will then effectively
reduce the occurrence of improper Copy-Paste.

Figure 1: Types of Learning Modes

Practicing a constructive form of Copy-Paste supports a learner’s

ability of absorbing concepts, and consolidating and assimilating them
before expressing ideas with a deeper understanding. The proposed
ecosystem guides and allows students to become aware of the correct
approach of reading, digesting and applying knowledge. At the same
time, the platform fosters creativity in their associational and
expressive ability. The proposed ecosystem allows an instructor to
view and monitor the learning process of students, in observing and
monitoring the rightful practice of “Copy-Paste skills.” At the same
time, creative expressions of students can be pinpointed, highlighted
and recorded.

6
Toward a Holistic Learning Ecosystem

Although a variety of forms of E-Learning have been explored, the

predominant form of E-Learning employs an E-Book paradigm. For the
proposed ecosystem, however, multiple learning paradigms need to be
incorporated. It will also need to enable pedagogical aspects of
learning via technology-enhanced knowledge transfer (Helic, 2007).

Current E-Learning systems tend to employ a blended learning

environment that involves the combination of instructional modalities
or the instructional methods via the combination of online or face-to-
face instruction (Graham, 2004). Options currently available in such
learning systems (Graham, 2004) include self-study options such as
Web-based courseware, simulations, systems and books together with
live teaching options such as Web-casting, live video, conference calls,
and instructor-led training. Each of these are often treated as
standalone training objects delivered either via face-to-face (F2F) or
computer mediated learning (CML) instruction (Valiathan, 2002). In this
case, each training object represents a particular modality of learning
where CML training objects are seen as alternative learning modes to
classroom-based F2F approaches. The main weakness of this approach
is that it does not allow composing training objects that contain both
aspects of F2F and CML.

The realization of ICARE requires an E-Learning ecosystem that mixes

F2F and CML within the context of a learning scenario that also
minimizes the unwanted use of copy-and-paste by guiding the learner
through the process. ICARE enables the complementary use of
technology to harness the systematic development of both personal
learning and collective intelligence. Table 2 describes the differences
between blended learning in traditional E-Learning and the proposed
learning ecosystem.

Table 2: Comparing the Proposed Learning System Functionalities

Against a Typical E-Learning system

Teaching-Learning Typical E-Learning Proposed E-Learning

Activity Environment Ecosystem
Announcements Learning Management Dynamically
(Communicating System or Email Activated from an
timely messages to Event database, RSS
students) feeds
Overview session Email, E-Books Reading Scenario ( E-
Room)

7
Self-paced learning Web-based tutorial. E- Learning
books simulations Specifications,
Project-Rooms, E-
Books
Student Question Email , Frequently Active documents,
Answering Asked Questions schedule E-mentoring
sessions
Assessment Simulations, Online Knowledge maps,
test, Submission Testing scenarios (can
system be personalized,
collaborative, or peer-
reviewed); Student
Activity Logs and
Reports
Collaborative Sessions Discussion groups, Brainstorming
Bulletin Boards, Chat Scenario, Peer
ranking
Feedback Email Examination Rooms
Continuous Student Records Student Portfolio,
Assessment Learning Plans,
Performance
Monitoring Tool

Realization of the ICARE Ecosystem

Overall Design

ICARE will incorporate many of the experimental features in WBT-

Master (WBT, 2006) coupled with the knowledge management
capabilities found in Hyperwave Information Server (Mödritscher et al.,
2005). It also will be augmented with a Copy-Paste detection and
administration suite together with specifically prepared E-Learning
modules to address both the issues mentioned earlier and anticipate
future learning needs.

We propose additional functionalities to the E-Learning platform,

(currently not available in any E-Learning system we know) for
providing personalized guidance for administering academic reading
and writing. Our previous works in the development of tools for fighting
plagiarism and IPR violation has provided insights on the requirements
of the proposed ecosystem (Kulathuramaiyer & Maurer, 2007).

8
Table 3 summarizes the functions to be incorporated describing the
technological requirements for the ICARE ecosystem. The ecosystem
employs an effective administration of E-Learning together with
powerful tools for guiding and managing student learning and
interaction.

The various learning functions together with well-designed

assessments are crucial. In the next section components of an
experimental system will address these issues. Tracking and analysis
will be required to keep track of a variety of student works such as
term papers, projects, examinations, etc. Tracking of activities also
will be important in providing insights on learning and knowledge
creation activities. The Copy-Paste handling suite of tools and
techniques are required to assist and support the learner in the
mastery of the rightful Copy-Paste skills. Specifically developed E-
Learning modules enable the learners to master the fundamentals of
academic reading and writing and promote an understanding of
academic publishing culture.

Table 3: ICARE Ecosystem: Needs vs. Required Functionality

Supportive
Functional Requirements of Ecosystem
Environment Needed:
Ability to incorporate pedagogy in a learning
environment combined with an ability to
structure assessment; this includes the
ability to discover and visualize student
learning (knowledge maps) and integrate
Effective Administration
this with assessment. The management of
of Learning
capability-driven student learning, ability to
manage and guide collaborative group-
centered (project) work and flexible design
of assessment tasks to manage learning as
a series of steps
Controlled environment for keeping track of
Guided Learning Process learner activities, and workflow
management and compliance checking
Integrated Copy-Paste handling capability
Tracking Learners’
enabled by a suite of similarity checking
Copy-Paste Activity
software
Appreciation and To Incorporate E-Learning Modules on:
Mastery of ICARE  Western Scholarship
Principles and Process  Academic Reading and Writing
 Valuing Intellectual Property and

9
 Ethics

Key Components of ICARE Ecosystem

The following features from our past experimental developments in

projects such as WBT-Master and Hyperwave will facilitate the
realization of the learning ecosystem:

 Ability to define training scenarios as training objects or study

rooms: A controlled environment can be established to track
both the explorative and collaborative activities of students
(Helic et al., 2004a).
 Pedagogy driven learning: A teaching scenario or environment
can be built where a tutor works with a group of learners in both
synchronous and asynchronous mode, leading them to achieve a
particular learning goal.
 Project-oriented learning: A controlled learning environment can
be built to allow a group of learners working together on a
project, e.g., a software engineering project (Helic et al., 2003).
 Adaptive discovery of personalized background knowledge: A
reading room paradigm can be created for enabling learners to
chart their knowledge discovery process. This can be supported
by the automated linking to related contents or background
knowledge (Mödritscher et al., 2005).
 Annotations: Annotations allow the attachment of text segments,
system or media objects or an URL to a learning object or
material (Korica et al., 2005). It is possible to annotate any kind
of material such as papers, parts of a digital library, other user
contributions, etc.
 Active Documents: The idea of active documents presents an
efficient way of students learning in a collaborative question-
answering environment. Active documents present an innovative
mean to demonstrate student learning and at the same time, an
effective way for an instructor to direct knowledge discovery
(Heinrich & Maurer, 2000).
 Visualisation as knowledge maps: The cluster of a document with
documents containing similar concepts or ideas can be visualized
via a knowledge map typical of knowledge management
systems. A knowledge map with similar articles can be created
and visualized (Helic et al., 2004b). “Knowledge cards” are used
to describe a particular concept (i.e. semantic entity). Knowledge
cards may be combined into a semantic network. For example,

10
 the knowledge card “Student’s Discovered concept” may be
related as “is a part of” to the knowledge card “Course Domain
Ontology.”
 Workflow management and compliance checking capabilities:
Learning can be visualized as a process flow of learning tasks.
Non-compliance can then be automatically flagged by the
system.

Controlled Environment for Pedagogy-Driven E-Learning

ICARE provides a controlled environment in which the instructor is able

to track the usage of reference materials by students. Such a
controlled environment makes it much easier to curtail unethical
practices and also promotes constructivist learning among students.
Furthermore, user tracking and user activity-logging facilities also can
be used to enforce learners to read certain parts of a document before
being allowed to annotate an article or ask questions about some part
of it (Helic et al., 2004a).

An environment that closely monitors students’ knowledge

construction and collaborative activities can help the instructor to
assess and guide students’ ability to publish effectively. Process level
support can be achieved via the workflow management and
compliance checking capabilities of systems. The system can be
trained to recognize non-conforming patterns to be able to flag
instructors. Discovered patterns regarding a student’s learning can
then be captured and stored within a learner’s profile. Knowledge
profiling is supported in the acquisition, structuring, and reuse of
extracted expert knowledge. By maintaining individual learner profiles,
personalized learning can be supported. Personalized learning units
then can be designed for each student as shown below:

Figure 2: Personalized Learning Units

11
Interactive collaborative scenarios (Helic, 2007) are employed to
administer and respond directly to individual student learning
activities. For example, active documents can then be employed to
keep track of learner interactions and learning support within the
context where learning occurs.

An explicit and implicit profiling of students has to be applied to keep

track of the learning process of students. E-Portfolios (Alexander, 2006)
enable the recording of student participation and contribution to
support the profiling of students. E-Portfolios are important in allowing
students to start valuing their own contributions and also other
student contributions. An example of a student portfolio structure is
shown in Figure 3. As shown here, the ecosystem provides a
workspace for students to continuously expand their knowledge base
while taking responsibility for their own learning. Records of student
achievement then immediately become available to mentors and
instructors for personalized evaluation and guidance.

Personal Data

Mentor Records
Profile

Reviews

E-portfolio Published Works Papers

Showcase
Demo/Artefacts Contributions
Achievement Records

Workspace Knowledge maps

Active Rooms

Ideas

Figure 3: Student E-Portfolio

Incentive schemes can be tied to E-portfolios in order to acknowledge

and highlight student achievement. Recommendation systems
proposed to make explicit the valuations associated with each
student’s contribution. Recommendation systems play an important
role in the development of rational impartial judgment among
students. A combination of human and automated ranking of
important topics, ideas, suggestions and contributions can further be
applied to personalized interaction among students with a similar
background and interests.

12
A number of tools are available for creating an environment for
students to collaborate among themselves and with their instructors
and mentors. These include peer-evaluation support, collaborative
concept mapping, brainstorming and discussion forums. Brainstorming
also incorporates mechanisms for specifying ranks and incorporating
personal evaluation (see Figure 4). Annotations are again a key feature
to represent and organize collective student learning. Annotations also
have been proposed to represent links to Knowledge Cards to reflect
the knowledge construction process of students.

Figure 4: Brainstorming Support (extracted from WBT-Master Manual)

Integrated visual tools will be applied in the management and display

of information in illustrating student learning and mastery of concepts.
The tools allow the instructor to impart particular skills, to refine
processes used for a specific task, or to organize information into a
structured form. They also can be used by students to express their
understanding of concepts. Knowledge visualization tools also will be
applied as a form of assessment of students’ incremental knowledge
gain over a period of time. Learners also need to be supported by
means of personalized knowledge retrieval facilities. Such a tool will be
effective in identifying potential infringements by students and can be
used to aid students in the mastery of useful skills. The visualization
capability for concept maps further allows the incremental visualization
of concepts formulated by students.

13
Knowledge Cards (K-Cards) enable the specification of concepts of is-a
and instance-of links for ICARE knowledge maps The semantic
relationships built upon K-Cards essentially define a semantic graph.
The Knowledge Card mechanism is also used to automatically link to
peer-learners and resource persons in collaborative mode. Two types
of K-Card usage have been defined: personal Knowledge card attached
to each learner, and context-based Knowledge Cards attached to
assignments or scenarios. The use of K-Cards supports the creation of
points of interests by students. A knowledge card also can be linked to
other related readings that students may associate (if required). These
K-Cards will then allow students to link to a concept map, which will
demonstrate the students’ understanding process.

Incorporating the Ability to Handle Copy-Paste into ICARE

ICARE benefits from the administration of academic reading

procedures that can be integrated directly into the ICARE ecosystem.
By enabling a business process model view of E-Learning (Helic et al.,
2003), the learning process can be supported at each step.

E-Learning modules on effective Copy-Paste would then be embedded

to educate students on the rightful procedure of academic publishing
(reading and writing). Apart from employing a plagiarism or Copy-
Paste detection suite for summative assessment of a breach of
conduct, we propose the formative application of such tools for self-
plagiarism checking and in cultivating constructive “Copy-Paste skills.”
For example, existing document similarity detection (as used in
plagiarism detection tools) can be applied in conjunction with a
learning scenario paradigm for facilitating students to master
academic publishing. By consolidating the results from similarity
search engines on local databases as well as the Internet, a plagiarism
detection tool can be applied to assist students to teach them how and
when to cite another publication.

Copy Paste Handling Software Suite

The Copy-Paste Handling Software Suite incorporates self-plagiarism

checking tools and techniques to help students in mastering Copy-
Paste. Both simple and advanced forms of Copy-Paste checking are
supported. We propose the use of the plagiarism detection tools and
techniques to achieve this task (see Table 1). This suite will be applied
in two modes: closed world and open world modes. These modes will

14
allow the operation of the Copy-Paste handling in both a supervised
mode (assisted by an instructor) and an unsupervised mode (self
learning).

In the closed world mode, a student uses the Copy-Paste wizard as

guide for the academic reading and writing process. This wizard is
described in the next section. Here the text that students select for
Copy-Paste will be used as a fingerprint and applied as query string to
search the whole published text of the student for a weak or blatant
Copy-Paste case. The similarity checking engine identifies the degree
of similarity in determining the extent of paraphrasing (or the lack of
it). The system also is able to check for compliance or negligence
citation. A string similarity checking mechanism is applied for this
purpose. In the case of identifying an improper Copy-Paste, the system
presents its findings as an advice to students. The changes made by
students are noted by the system and can be used in a mentoring
session.

In the open world mode, students are not guided or restricted in terms
of usage of specified references. Similarity detection is then applied to
a larger collection of documents where it checks the Web for all
possible improper Copy-Paste actions performed by the students.
Student’s past years papers also are checked for similar text strings to
determine improper Copy-Paste and lack of citation. The system
produces statistical information for the instructor to assess the
mastery level of students.

A number of learning scenarios can be built by a selective application

of one or more Copy-Paste handling tools. As described here, these
scenarios could either be applied in a supervised manner assisted by
an instructor or a mentor or the unsupervised manner with system
inputs.

During the mentoring process, a manual selection approach for

plagiarism detection may be employed checking with one or more
search engines. This process can provide the system a set of
constrained documents to be used for similarity checking. Specific
tools to approve or disprove suspected plagiarism such as Cloze may
also be applied when a dispute arises. A Cloze procedure (Maurer &
Zaka, 2006) has been used to judge the originality of authorship of
published works. As part of the Copy-Paste detection, alternative
techniques such as stylometry can be applied to discover similar (or
dramatically changing) stylistic patterns such as syntactic forms

15
usage, text structure of published works and the usage of key terms to
indicate that some copying may have taken place.

Copy-Paste (Academic Reading and Writing) Wizard

This wizard has been proposed to enable learners to acquire the skills
of academic reading and writing in a controlled environment. The
wizard can be used by learners to perform the following:

 Highlight key points and annotate selected phrases, using the

annotation feature of WBT-Master. A highlighting mechanism is
supported to allow learners to highlight key points.
 Create a Knowledge Card for the point discovered, label it and
link it to known concepts (or form a new concept).
 Review the internal concept map and assimilate new ideas found
in reading. This may range from concept links to concept map
restructuring. This stage involves substantiating the body of
Knowledge Cards with links and metadata.
 Formulate an idea and add information to Knowledge Cards.
 Express an idea and present it as a descriptive text.

Annotations will be employed in linking original document to relevant

information sources to perform the above steps. This enables the
tracing of students’ activities to check on process-flow of academic
writing. Separate readings can be assigned to each student to track
individual student activities and also to avoid plagiarism. At the same
time, a single document may also be used for an entire class or a
smaller group of students. In this way a comparative analysis of
students’ learning can be visualized and studied. These documents can
then be constructed as active documents that allow collaborative
learning to take place, built upon students’ comprehension and ability.
As with our previous experiments on active documents, we know that
when 500-1,000 users have viewed a particular document, all possible
questions that need experts become answered (Dreher & Maurer,
2000).

The technological support to prevent blatant copying by students is

realized by imposing the use of annotations (through specially
designed interface templates), which overcomes the need to duplicate
content. Figure 5 illustrates the interface that allows students to
express ideas, opinions, contribution to collaborative sessions, ask
questions, etc. Additionally, the Copy-Paste interface further displays
the highlighted text, representing key points with a ranking of

16
importance, paraphrased text, comments, etc. Students’ published
works will then be stored as annotations to the original text and
visualized separately by the instructor for evaluation.

The use of annotations can be explored as a means of training

students’ use of the correct form of citations and referencing. By using
annotations, a much simpler similarity checking system would suffice
to overcome plagiarism to a large extent in ICARE. Annotations and its
sophisticated communicational and collaborative features play an
important role in the realization of a culture of Web-based reading and
writing.

Figure 5: Interface for Learners to Annotate Documents

Design of Assessment

ICARE also includes mechanisms for the careful design and execution
of assessments. The pedagogy driven learning together with the ability
to define learning scenarios and rooms allow for highly personalized
assessment design and curriculum development.

Beyond the features of the ICARE system as described, the ability to

operate in the following modes is instrumental:

 Guided Mode: Interactive session (system auto-suggestions) with

closed systems monitoring.
 Self-Learning Mode: Minimal non-interactive feedback, closed
world systems monitoring but with feedback provided only on
student request.

17
  Diagnostic Mode (formative): Closed world systems monitoring
but with no feedback, results are archived for self-driven
assessment.
 Evaluative Mode (summative): Open world mode, with text
analysis performed (Copy-Paste analysis) and used as support for
self-paced assessment.
 Mentor-Assisted Mode: Similar to diagnostic mode but with
feedback sent to a mentor, who responds to students.
 Peer-Learning Mode: Open world learning mode, with the system
tracking learner participation and contributions.

These modes of operation can be realized as scenarios (training

objects) in WBT-Master. This system also allows assessments to be
broken up into smaller parts as a means of supporting continuous
assessment, and in the monitoring of student learning process.

As an example of the application of ICARE in a classroom, we propose

the following illustration:

1. Students in a class are first asked to collaboratively construct a

collective concept map for a domain of study.
2. Individual students are then required to construct a personalized
concept map representing their personal learning space.
3. Subsequently, students are assigned selected reading material.
An online copy of the reading material is placed in the reading
room of each student (or a group of students).
4. Students are then required to identify key points by using the
wizard in closed monitoring mode with all activities tracked by
system. The highlighted text segments by students can be used
to reflect their understanding. Both individual student learning
and group learning can be highlighted.
5. The highlighted texts are then visualized for the instructor as
annotations attached to the selected document. Statistical
information is used to demonstrate student learning, e.g.
common mistakes made by student, misunderstanding of text,
etc.
6. Instructors’ comments can either be placed in personal spaces of
students or public spaces for the whole class.
7. Students are then requested to paraphrase the texts selected in
guided mode.
8. A visualization of all student inputs is then made available for
the instructor. Additional statistical information is presented to
support student evaluation. Non-compliance in student learning
workflows is visualized.

18
 9. The next step involves a peer-learning mode, where student are
requested to discuss the points selected by their peers in the
brainstorming room. All points being discussed are referenced
and the system links them together for visualization. The
instructor or facilitator then provides interactive feedback in the
brainstorming room.
10. Students are then required to update their personal concept
maps, with the knowledge gained in step 9.
11. Statistics of popular concepts in knowledge-map, popularly
selected key points, list of questions posed during brainstorming
or during any other phase in the exercise are all presented to the
classroom.
12. As the final task, students are asked to collaboratively construct
a single concept map while continuing with discussions in the
brainstorming rooms. All concepts in the knowledge map are
uniquely identifiable as they are implemented using Knowledge
Cards. Thus, students are able to discuss the addition of
particular concepts or places for links and types of links as well.

The above hypothetical assessment has been defined to illustrate the

various functions for the explorative employment in a classroom. A
typical classroom usage may only require a subset of the tasks listed.
This clearly highlights the power and potential of the proposed
ecosystem, to serve as basis for the design of future E-Learning
systems.

Conclusion

We have adopted the stand that Copy-Paste need not be entirely

considered a wrong-doing. Students would then need to be educated
and guided on the constructive use of Copy-Paste skills as a learning
mechanism. We have presented an academic ecosystem with
technological support to comprehensively address the Copy-Paste
Syndrome.

We proposed the use of an advanced E-Learning system, together with

carefully planned student assessments and the close monitoring of
student learning to address the problem. Plagiarism and Copy-Paste
Syndrome avoidance mechanisms and procedures are integrated into
the ecosystem and applied throughout the program of study. E-
Learning modules together with a suite of Copy-Paste handling tools
enable the formative development of “effective Copy-Paste skills.” A

19
complete suite of Copy-Paste detection and avoidance tools will need
to be established in all educational institutions.

By effectively addressing the Copy-Paste Syndrome many of the social

problems that we are likely to face (arising from the degradation of
scientific quality and even possibly leading to quality of life) in future
can be averted. Without the full institutional backing and commitment
of academics, however, a culture that withstands and compensates the
prevalent Copy-Paste culture cannot be achieved.

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About the Authors

Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer
PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology
University of Malaysia
Sarawak City, Malaysia
nara@fit.unimas.my
Major research interests: Web intelligence, knowledge management,
E-Learning

23
Hermann Maurer
PhD
Professor
Institute for Information Systems and Computer Media
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Austria
hmaurer@iicm.edu
Major research interests: Web intelligence, knowledge management, E-
Learning

24
 What Are They Thinking?
Adult Undergraduate Learners Who Resist Learning

Carol Kasworm

Abstract

A unique learner group, resistant adult undergraduate learners have

rarely been discussed in the literature. These individuals do not value
the college classroom and are motivated to participation through
acceptable grades and gaining a college credential. Although they are
physically in the classroom, they act only for compliance to the grading
system, not for long-term retention of learned knowledge. This article
explores characteristics of these resistant learners and the value of
constructivist learning theory to support instructional strategies for
faculty who create learning engagements for resistant adult learners.

Key Words

Adult learning, resistance, meaning-making, adult undergraduate

students, constructivist learning.

Introduction

The task of a college instructor is to create learning engagements that

support the growth and development of adults in relation to current
discipline understandings and their complex adult worlds. However,
these understandings were challenged during my research of adult
student learning in a college classroom. I discovered a different kind of
adult learner group, learners who made good grades (by definition –
good students), but, who by their own admission, did not engage in
learning. In the classroom, they resisted learning new content beyond
their current world of understanding.

Profile of resistant adult learners

Ervin, a resistant learner. Ervin, a 34-year-old male adult, was back in

the college classroom seeking an undergraduate degree in
engineering. [Ervin represents a composite profile from my
interviewees.] Ervin had completed a two-year engineering technology
degree some years earlier and found his current work world in the

25
midst of changing expectations. Not only was a college degree a
desired company expectation for supervisory positions, he also was
told in his yearly performance appraisal that he would not receive
further salary increases without a four-year college degree. As Ervin
stated in an anger tone, “I had to get a college degree to survive in
this company, although I was one of the top performers.”

When I interviewed Ervin for my study on adult learning in the

undergraduate classroom, he was completing coursework in his senior
year of engineering. When queried about his motivation for college,
he was straightforward by noting that he was seeking a credential for
his employer. “It’s an expensive, but necessary piece of paper to
justify continuing in my job.” Ervin saw himself as already a
competent adult worker, someone with significant expertise in the field
of engineering. He softly questioned that the university classroom
could make him more competent. It was evident that Ervin had his own
beliefs about what was valuable knowledge and learning in relation to
his adult world of work. He assumed that classroom content was only
snippets of information that would be tested to prove he could “jump
through the hoops.” In essence, he was a learner who resisted most
classroom learning, because he judged the theory and content as
irrelevant.

Background research identifying resistant adult learners. Is Ervin an

atypical person in our undergraduate classrooms? In my research,
approximately 11% of interviewed adult undergraduates were
identified as resistant learners. These interviews represented more
than 120 adult undergraduates in varied collegiate settings
(community colleges, four year liberal arts institutions, regional
universities, and research universities, adult accelerated degree
programs, and evening programs for adults). This research, “Adult
Meaning-Making in an Undergraduate Classroom” (Kasworm, 2003),
identified five knowledge voices of adult undergraduates. These voices
represented the adult learners’ epistemological beliefs, with knowledge
often categorized by these students between two worlds of academic
of real-world knowledge and theoretical or academic-world knowledge.
These voices also represented the shifting identities of the adult
learners negotiated through their place and engagement in various
action contexts of work, classroom, family, community citizen, and
other unique settings. For this research, the knowledge voice pattern
for the resistant learner was identified as the Cynical Voice, adult
learners who expressed cynical perspectives regarding the value and
relevance of academic knowledge.

26
Further substantiation to these findings came from numerous
discussions with instructors and administrators of adult undergraduate
programs. These individuals, through workshops and presentations on
adult learner engagement and knowledge voices, personally noted
their own experiences with resistant adult learners and often dwelled
upon their need for strategies to work with these individuals. Thus,
the Cynical Voice pattern became known as the Resistant Adult
Student, because these students were often not only cynical, they
were purposefully not engaged in learning.

From this research study, adult undergraduates who were identified as

resistant learners often had certain types of background
characteristics. Most of these resistant learners were full-time workers
or currently dislocated workers, and more often in their 40s to late 50s
in age. These individuals were typically enrolled in collegiate
professional degree programs congruent to their work roles, such as
business, accounting, teacher education, horticulture, chemistry,
ministry, forestry, human services, and engineering. Most of these
individuals suggested that external pressures pushed them into
completing their collegiate degrees. The majority of these individuals
were predominantly in upper-level programs in both age-integrated
and adult degree programs, with one interviewee from a community
college context with previous participation in four-year institutions.

Identifying resistant adult learners in the classroom. Through these

research interviews and subsequent analysis, I identified three
subgroupings of the resistant adult learner. The first type of resistant
adult students was outwardly compliant and did attend class sessions,
hand in all assignments, and did receive passing grades. However,
these resistant learners often were not actively engaged in the
classroom; they often appeared to be quiet or reticent learners. This
type of resistant student suggested that they mentally contradicted
the statements of a faculty member, but didn’t openly speak up in
class. They did not wish to be judged as disrespectful or antagonistic.
So, these students had noted staying below the radar screen of their
faculty instructors by not raising questions or comments, by not
looking at the faculty member and therefore not being asked questions
in class, and by looking continuously preoccupied with writing notes.
These students faked interest and compliance to learning within the
classroom.

Another subgroup of resistant learners could be identified through

their vocal questioning engagement in the classroom. Often these
learners would raise issue about the lack of congruence of concepts

27
presented in class with their work world realities or raise questions
regarding the simplicity of the ideas in relation to the complex nature
of their current adult environments. Sometimes these adults
approached a faculty member to renegotiate an assignment. They
would desire to pursue learning that was more narrowly focused and
directly applied to their work lives, when class assignments often
suggest a broader, or more theoretical cognitive engagement.

Finally, there was a third subgroup of these adults, a group that was
openly resistant learners, probably identified by the faculty member as
openly belligerent or conflictual learners; these adults often challenged
the content, the disciplinary understandings, and the faculty authority
in the classroom. For example, one adult student suggested, “When
he (the faculty instructor) says something that contradicts my
experience in the field (forestry), I tell him and these younger
undergraduates, ‘That’s not the way it is.’ The faculty and these
students need to know that the real world isn’t like that.” Thus, these
students spoke up in class, often with their real-world experiences that
ran counter to the text or the faculty member.

Beliefs about faculty by these students. For most of these resistant

learners, they suggested that many of their faculty didn’t respect the
expert knowledge of adult students. These adults believed that the
collegiate world doesn’t value the work world and their developed
knowledge of how these work environments operate. While some adult
students noted supportive faculty who supported listening to student
comments and conversations with diverse perspectives, most of these
students noted that the majority of their classes weren’t supportive of
their beliefs and perspectives. Some believed that faculty instructors
didn’t want to listen to their perspectives, their experiences, and their
opinions. Others suggested that faculty didn’t view adult learners as
more knowledgeable and competent than traditional undergraduate
students (who haven’t worked in the positions of knowledgeable
authority). Many of these resistant adult learners experienced a chilly
or hostile environment, because they believed they were treated as
less capable than the naïve, younger undergraduate students. They
saw themselves as not valued by faculty and therefore quietly
humiliated. A few suggested that they had experienced tension in the
classroom because they implicitly believed that some of their
instructors (particularly graduate teaching assistants) were
incompetent to teach class content. They knew enough background of
the content of the course that they judged the inability to present
complex understandings as lack of sophisticated and in-depth
knowledge and understandings of faculty.

28
Acting inwardly as a non-learner. In discussing their engagement in
classroom lectures, class projects and readings, these resistant adult
learners noted that they had a tacit judging system to screen class
content and their involvement in learning. They described these
judgments as learning to meet short-term testing and required class
papers/projects, jettisoning this knowledge after the ending of the
course. In a few cases, learners judged specific content or a
classroom activity as valuable and worthy of long-term learning.
These moments of committed learning were typically additive
knowledge to their already rich understandings of real-world content.

Thus, these adults suggested a highly complex and evolving judgment

world in and out of the classroom. These moment-to-moment decisions
of short-term or long-term learning retention were based upon
congruence of the classroom learning experience with their current
understandings of their adult work or other adult expertise roles. For
example, one individual noted, “I have to decide how valuable my
information is, or how my information will be accepted. In some
classes, I am really able to do that; in other classes I can sit back and
say, ‘It’s really not a good idea in this class…It’s better for me not to
have an opinion about anything...” In essence, these adults continually
monitored the course, the faculty, the students and the situation for
judging how and when they would engage.

Most adult students in this group actively critiqued their texts in

relation to these beliefs of learning for the real work world. “I tend to
take everything with a grain of salt because I know what we’re
learning in school is book learning. It’s not practical application
outside the classroom. Some of the instructors tend to forget that.”
Another individual who was a bookkeeper studying for an accounting
degree noted, “…[the text]book has the unreal situations—when
you’ve done real live situations all day. You think, “This is garbage.
How do they [text authors] get a hold of this unreal material?”

These adults screened and judged the value and worth of content and
discourse. They determined whether they must learn it for the short-
term for tests and related assigned or learn for long-term use after the
class and within their adult work environments.

29
How can we come to understand this learner for effective
instruction?

Resistant adult learners challenge the efforts of both instructors and

the collegiate environment. Instructors typically assume that
participation in classes and demonstration on tests and class papers of
gained knowledge provides substantiated evidence of learning.
However, these adults suggested that they had developed a system of
compliance and of short-term learning to gain grades, but had not
changed their sense of knowledge of the world and not gained
knowledge for long-term retention. The theory and application of
constructivist learning provides key insights, conceptual
understandings, and potential strategies for a faculty instructor in
creating learning engagement for these resistant adult learners. This
framework suggests that adult students construct and negotiate their
learning based in social, cultural, and developmental ways. Thus,
adult learning is viewed as a:

a). Self-regulatory process of struggling with the conflict

between personal models of the world and discrepant new
insights, constructing new representations and models of
reality as a human meaning-making venture with culturally
developed tools and symbols, and further negotiating such
meaning through cooperative social activities, discourse,
and debate. (Twomey Fosnet, 1996, p. ix)

Adult learners in the undergraduate classroom struggle with personal

meanings, meanings from classroom knowledge that may expand or
contradict their current meaning structures. These adults create their
learning engagement based in this epistemology, the nature of their
beliefs of “truth.” Each moment-to-moment infusion of information
interacts with the learner’s sense of what is true, what it means, and
how it represents their beliefs of the world and how it works. As
learners experience a learning situation, they experience
intersubjective and co-constructed understandings based within the
learner, the source or sources of information, and the instructor. In
particular, learning for long-term retention or deep learning (Entwistle
& Ramsden, 1983; Marton & Booth, 1997) is based in this making of
meaning by the learner. These learners struggle in understanding how
different knowledge and concepts would suggest that the world is
structured and works in a different way than their assumptions and
beliefs. Thus, the challenge of adult learning is to both incorporate
new knowledge into current knowledge structures and to modify past
personal learner models into new conceptual structures of knowing the

30
world. The challenge for instructors is to create learning environments
and involvements that both provide connection and support an adult’s
understandings of the current world, but also present new knowledge
and learning that may challenge and open the learner to modifying
past models into new conceptual structures of knowing the world.
Thus constructivist learning is both additive and developmentally
supportive of growth and change.

It was evident that for this group of resistant adult learners, they were
not connecting with the content in a purposeful way, they were not
voluntary learners. Their resistance potentially was based in the
external pressures to get a degree for their work and their livelihood.
For these adults, they needed to see value in a college degree, and
they needed to find ways to consider knowledge from a college
classroom as valuable. One of the first challenges for instructors and
programs of adult learners is to create mutual understandings between
the adult students and their involvement, of creating a relevant
rationale for participation beyond getting a credential. Some programs
and courses have suggested they provide practical, utilitarian courses
that can be applied directly to the work environments. Other programs
focus upon the rapidly changing world of work, of a global information
rich environment, and of the need for a different type of adult worker,
a knowledge-generating worker who continuously engages in a
changing work economy and a changing set of understandings of the
work environment. However, many programs and instructors never
speak directly to the connection of adult workers with collegiate
education. It was evident from these adult students that are they
were disconnected from collegiate understandings. What can
programs and instructors communicate to adult learners to connect
their interests and desires with the intent of the program and the
college? This is one of the first challenges in working with resistant
adult students.

Secondly, there is need to create connected classrooms, classrooms

that offer psychological and cultural connections between the adult
student lives and the work of the class objectives (Kasworm, Polson, &
Fishback, 2002). Often these adult learners experience alienating
classroom environments, both by instructor design and by the
collegiate climate. The instructor should determine how to create
meaning-making connections through the design of the course, the
presentation and engagement in content, the development of
classroom discussion and in-class experiences, and the nature of
assessment of learning through presentations, papers, and tests. How
does the class experience create connections to the adult’s making of

31
meaning in relation to their other past and current worlds?
Constructivist theory suggests that classes should not be created
solely as knowledge stepping stones to build enhanced and more
complex theories and content. Rather, classes should focus on how to
engage learners in meaning development and through those efforts
engaging learners in the value of alternative perspectives, such as
complex theories and content, as well as enhancing critical thinking
skills and judgments. In essence, constructivist thinking expects
instructors to start with the learners and provide a journey that
integrates in meaningful ways theories and content in relation to those
adult role and individual learner needs and requirements.

Thirdly, constructivist learning also suggests that instructors should

seek insights into understanding learners’ mental models and use
those models as one aspect of engaging learners in the content and
perspective of content on the world. For example, active learning
strategies offer an important venue for displaying learner meanings
and creating new understandings in meaning making. Many
instructors have specifically used problem-posing inquiry as one
effective tool. Adult instruction should engage adult learners through
meaningful engagements that make sense and meaning to the adult
learners, as opposed to environments based in unconnected
knowledge concepts with a sole requirement of rote memorization.
For adults, learning designs need to be thoughtfully structured when
presenting information and ideas that aren’t congruent with the
learner’s world. In particular, these adult learners suggested that
faculty who offered conversation space in the classroom for sharing a
range of ideas and opinions was valued. These spaces allowed these
adults to share their real-world perspectives and beliefs, thus
potentially reinforced and validated in their view of the world and
honoring contributions of their knowledge in the classroom context.

Given these general understandings of constructivist approaches to

classroom learning, there are a number of suggested possible actions
to work with these resistant adults:

1) Instructors need to design their courses and learning

engagements based on understanding their adult learners,
their background experiences and background knowledge,
and their potential rationale for engaging in learning new
concepts and theories that may be discrepant with their
current beliefs and worlds.
2) Recognize that many working adult learners do come oriented
to a more limited perspective of learning and understanding

32
 based in their adult worlds of experiences. Instructors should
start each new course with various activities to collect
information on adult backgrounds and perspectives, to
develop understandings of needed broader perspectives and
engagements and to potentially identify ways that adult
students could find value in those broader understandings.
3) Develop conceptual discussions that provide opportunities for
inferences and application into adult worlds of work and life.
These efforts could include in-class exercises, simulations,
course projects, or other forms of active learning. Meaning-
making comes from active learning, rather than passive
listening of didactic lectures and text readings.
4) Create supportive spaces within the classroom for adult
learners to feel respected and be able to speak from their
understandings and perspectives. Develop strategies to
encourage and orchestrate different perspectives and beliefs,
drawing upon current best theory and practice for more
effective and robust classroom discussions.
5) When appropriate, provide opportunities for debate or role
playing that places the adult learner into an alternative
perspective or understanding. Specifically consider ways to
create spaces for adult learners to engage in alternative ways
to understand and judge through different theories of frames
of understanding.
6) Respect the learner, even when the individual disagrees with
the content or your beliefs.

Although we still have much to learn about resistant learners, the use
of constructivist theory to shape strategies and designs will
significantly enhance the creation of connected classrooms. It will also
impact the growth of adult students who will engage in long-term
learning and will see themselves as lifelong learners choosing to
engage in ongoing exploration of new knowledge and ideas.

References

Entwistle, N. J., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding student learning.

London: Croon Helm.

Kasworm, C. (2003). Adult meaning making in the undergraduate

classroom. Adult Education Quarterly, 53(2), 81-98.

33
Kasworm, C., Polson, C., & Fishback, S. (2002). Responding to adult
learners in higher education. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing.

Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and Awareness. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Twomey Fosnet, C. (Ed.). (1996). Constructivism: Theory,

perspectives, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press.

About the Author

Carol E. Kasworm
EdD
Professor, Chair
Department of Adult and Higher Education
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina USA
Carol_Kasworm@ncsu.edu
Major research interests: adult learners in higher education, adult
learning and development, technology and adult learning.

34
 Accelerated Learning: What is It?

Peter Serdyukov

“If the rate of change inside an

institution is less than the rate of
change outside, the end is in
sight." (Jack Welch, CEO, GE)

Abstract

A growing demand for accelerated and intensive short-term

educational programs is notable in the USA and internationally. Many
colleges and high schools are introducing such programs in their
curriculum; some completely transform into accelerated institutions
offering only accelerated programs. The concept, definitions, principles
and methodology of accelerated instructional approaches described in
literature are often contradictory and incomplete. There is also concern
regarding the quality of learning outcomes of courses delivered in a
compressed format. This article discusses this issue focusing on cost -
and time-efficiency of this type of learning, the concept of accelerated
learning, definitions, similarities and differences between accelerated
and intensive learning, and research agenda in this area.

Key Words

Accelerated learning, intensive learning, learning productivity, learning

efficiency, time-efficiency, cost-efficiency, instructional approach

Introduction

Accelerated learning (AL) is a rapidly growing trend in education that

started developing since World War II. It manifested itself in a number
of accelerated and intensive approaches and programs in both adult
and high school education in many countries, numerous foreign
language courses around the world, and in particular college offerings
in the USA. According to the Council for Accelerated Programs’ (CAP)
data for 2006, for instance, more than 800 U.S. colleges and
universities are using an AL approach today, as compared to only
about 200 in 2002 (Wlodkowski, 2003). Some schools, e.g., Cornell
College, Colorado College, Tusculum University, Maharishi University of

35
Management, and National University, have curricula totally based on
AL approaches.

This abrupt growth becomes understandable when we realize that we

are living in a transition period characterized by widespread economic,
political and social change, massive integration of technological
innovations in all spheres of life, soaring growth of information and
knowledge in all areas, instantaneous exchange of communication,
mounting manufacturing, business and scientific complexity, and
competition at local and global levels that leads to escalating life and
work demands. The life itself, according to recent research, is
accelerating (Panov, 2005; Snooks, 2005). The pace of change has
become so rapid that it affects every individual requiring prompt
reaction and adaptation to the constantly shifting environment. This
pace creates an increasing demand for fast short-term educational and
training programs. There are urgent reasons for that. First of all,
contemporary jobs necessitate not only continuous, life-long learning,
but also concise, on-demand, occasional or regular professional
development activities. This includes educational or training activities
aimed at upgrading or changing specialization, which should be
accomplished in minimal time. An example can be accelerated and
intensive programs in high-demand languages (Scott & Conrad, 1992;
Lozanov, 1978; Kitaigorodskaya, 1995; Serdiukov 1984).

Another rising trend is a growing demand for shorter degree programs

(e.g., three instead of four-year undergraduate programs), which may
be one of the manifestations of the increasing speed of life. The
opportunity to obtain a degree or a required preparation for a job in a
short time opens careers that had been previously unavailable and, at
the same time, saves the student both time and expense. Incidentally,
working adult learners (above 25 years old) who constitute almost 40%
of today’s college student body (NCES) cannot afford long-term, full-
time learning. Adult students have hectic lifestyles due to numerous
job, family and social responsibilities; therefore they cannot participate
in conventional college programs intended for young students that
extend across many years. John Brennan, president of Green Mountain
College in Poultney, VT, writes, “accelerated degree programs …
enable students to graduate more quickly with less student-loan debt,
and a chance to go on a payroll a full year earlier” (Brennan, 2004).
Consequently, the demand for accelerated and other short-term
educational formats is on the rise and will definitely continue to grow.
It is astonishing, in view of this trend, NCES does not have any data for
accelerated programs and courses even in their latest statistical review
of 2006.

36
A critical factor that affects the duration of college courses and
programs is an escalating cost of education. Universities and colleges
are striving to increase enrollment and decrease their expenditures,
whenever possible, hence the search for more cost-effective
instructional approaches. Shorter and thus faster than traditionally
delivered programs, accelerated programs can be one of the solutions.
Low-budget AL systems can potentially hold both college expenses and
student tuition fees within mutually acceptable ranges, which may help
to increase enrollment. It is no secret that schools are competing for
students in view of both increasing supply of opportunities on the
educational market and rising costs. An indication of the enrollment
problem facing U.S. colleges came from Harvard's President James
Bryant Conant. He predicted a sharp decline in enrollment, pointing
out that enrollment in British universities was 50% of normal
(Accelerated education, 2007). Students are looking for ways to
complete their education both at a minimal cost and in a minimal time.
Alternative degree programs, especially online ones, are abundant.

According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, professional

associations, consulting firms, and professional-training providers are
all used more frequently for professional training than are colleges and
universities. Corporate and government employers already spend
about $13.3-billion a year on third-party training, but only a fraction of
that amount — approximately $ 670 million — goes to colleges. In part
that pattern reflects employers' focus on customization and timeliness,
and their preference for accelerated programs over degree programs
(Ashburn, 2006). These realities should upset traditional colleges and
universities and set them on the progressive course to introduce more
accessible, effective, adaptable, applicable, flexible and convenient
programs (Greiner, Serdyukova, et al. 2005).

Raising the efficiency of education at all levels has become a critical

goal because society needs more and more qualified specialists with
advanced college degrees prepared in a short time. AL, as one of the
perspective approaches, has been effectively integrated in many
educational institutions; however, the rate of this process is
disproportionate to the challenge. In view of all these considerations,
there is a need to identify AL as a methodological system and define
its theoretical foundations.

We argue that
 AL is a specific form of education

37
  Its main feature is a compressed course format
 It provides the same content and learning outcomes as a
traditional semester-long course in a shorter time period

Thus it can be regarded as a specific instructional approach that

utilizes a non-conventional, effective methodology. To successfully
achieve the planned learning outcomes, both instructors and students
should be specially prepared for teaching and learning in this
innovative, productive and attractive but quite demanding format. This
paper identifies major principles and aspects of AL methodology that
can serve as a platform both for further research in this area, and for
enhancing student learning productivity in existing college classrooms.

Efficiency of Learning: Cost versus Time

Until extensive integration of computer and information technologies in

education which started about 50 years ago, there has been little if
any research in the costs of learning and in evaluating the efficiency of
learning. With the increasing demand for learning, rising costs of
education and growing claim on time for learners, especially the adult
ones, the efficiency of learning becomes an acute issue for the learners
and educational institutions alike (Rumble, 2001). In one of his earlier
publications, Rumble (1989) argues that a [learning] system is “cost
efficient if, relative to another system, its outputs cost less per unit of
input.” In other words, the less money we spend on the delivery of the
instruction per course or per student, the more efficient is the
education provided the learning outcomes remain at least the same.

Addressing today's learning organization and discussing corporate

training, White & Olson found that the challenge is twofold: (1)
increase the business value generated from enterprise learning, and
(2) do it for less... Achieving that balance—between delivering rich,
"phenomenal" learning experiences and being as cost efficient as
possible—was critical to the success of the enterprise learning
transformation (White & Olson, 2007). This is clearly an opportunity for
raising cost-efficiency of higher education. Caterpillar University, as
reported by Walliker (2005), constructed a mathematical model for
calculating the key cost components of online learning. According to
this model, the greater the number of students who take classes, and
the longer the lesson duration, the more efficient the instructional
system will be. While we realize that student enrollment is the major
factor in building college revenue, we strongly doubt that the
extension of classes is the best option, nor is the class size. On the

38
contrary, students are often attracted to the accelerated programs just
because they are short-term, therefore a college program can be
covered faster than in a traditional college, according to our research
(Serdyukov, Subbotin & Serdyukova, 2003). As a regular accelerated
college course at National, for instance, takes one month, an 18-
course Master’s program can be done in 18 months which is the major
factor in students making the choice of a school or selecting a class.
Actually, we can see two opposing tendencies here: extensive —the
building up the number of students and extending the length of
education, and intensive — accelerating the pace of learning and
increasing the turnover of the programs of study. Cost efficiency of
education, among other factors, is determined by time expenses
involved, including the duration of courses and programs. It is
reasonable to expect that the latter, intensive approach may lead to
reducing the cost of education due to time savings.

While cost-efficiency of learning is a critical factor for both colleges and

individuals, time-efficiency, according to our research (Serdyukov et
al., 2003; Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006a), has become a decisive
factor for students in choosing a school or a program and remaining in
it to the end. Time for adult learners is even more precious than
money; therefore, many of them would prefer to pay more for the
learning accomplished in a less time. Hence the demand for various
short-term, accelerated, and intensive programs and courses that,
together with educational technology applications, are promising
venues for improving the productivity of learning. Cost-efficiency of
the learning is discussed in a number of sources (Rumble 2001;
Walliker, 2005; White & Olson, 2007, et al.), and time expenses in
education are the subject of several other publications (Cotton, 2001;
Hottenstein, 1998; Kane, 1994; Barkley, 1999; Buchler, 2003; Metzker,
2003). Scott & Conrad suggest that the correlation between learning
and allocated time must be better investigated (1992, 418).

Making learning more productive and time-efficient through integration

of AL approach may help achieve both goals. According to Time, at
Princeton 70% of the students elected the shorter, two- or three-year
degree programs. The Association of American Colleges found that
89% of the colleges had already jumped for year-round operation to
carry out the accelerated programs (Accelerated education, 2007). It
can be reasonable to expect that “making the learning process
intensive by minimizing waste of the learning time, we may expect
higher speed of learning which will result in achieving the planned
outcomes in a shorter time” (Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006b). Quite a
few publications support this idea (Scott & Conrad, 1992;

39
Kitaigorodskaya, 1995; Rose & Nicholl, 1997; Meyer, 2000; Bowling et
al., 2002; Wlodkowsky, 2003), but there is an acute need in
substantial, systemic research in this area and expanded applications.

Accelerated and Intensive Learning: Concepts and Definitions

There are numerous, often ambiguous or conflicting definitions of AL.

Some may be incorrect lacking understanding of AL basis concepts,
others may highlight various secondary factors contributing to
acceleration or individual techniques used in this approach, e.g.,
music, play or relaxation. Those can be taken for its essential features,
whereas they are merely supportive elements. AL, unfortunately, is
seldom regarded from a holistic point of view though it is a well-
established instructional methodology. Only a systemic approach, as
practical applications demonstrate, can provide the desired
enhancement of learning, which is the case of Lozanov’s
suggestopedia (1978), or Kitaigorodskaya’s Method of Activating
Individual Learner and Group Potential (Kitaigorodskaya, 1982).

Sometimes AL is equated with intensive learning (IL), which is another

trend. Despite many similarities, nevertheless, there is a significant
difference between these two approaches, as will be demonstrated
later. Frequently AL is associated with foreign language learning
because this subject area is often a proving ground for many
innovative approaches in education, yet many of such applications can
be beneficial for any content area and at every level of study (Methods
1988). It has become a tradition to identify Georgi Lozanov as the
originator of AL approaches (Imel, 2002; Boyes, 2004, The Free
Dictionary), though, without diminishing his outstanding role in
creating a comprehensive and effective system of IL, we ought to note
there had been other precedents of fast learning in history (Scott &
Conrad, 1992), even if at a lower level of sophistication, completion or
results.

When discussing AL definition, Susan Imel, for instance, remarks, “The

different uses and definitions of accelerated learning are an issue”
(Imel, 2002, p. 1). She separates AL in adult education where the term
is usually associated with programs designed to meet the needs of
adult learners, and AL in the field of corporate training and
development where the term is used to describe an approach that is
multidimensional in nature and that places the learner at the center of
the experience. There is a clear distinction between higher adult
education and corporate training not only in the content, structure, or

40
learning goals but also in applied methodology. Here we will focus only
on higher education applications of AL.

A very extensive analysis of accelerated/intensive learning by Patricia

Scott and Clifton Conrad (1992) does not attempt to define AL or IL; it
just mentions there is a “rapidly growing interest in intensive courses
— semester — or quarter-equivalent classes offered in compressed
formats...which better accommodate students’ schedules” (411).
Bowling et al. (2002), continue in the same manner writing that, “The
feature distinguishing such [compressed course] formats from
traditional formats is that compressed courses are completed in a
relatively short amount of time” (1). Short-term, compressed course
format allowing students to cover a semester-long course within 4-8
weeks is actually the main feature of both AL and IL; however, there
are other distinctions among them that will be discussed later.

One of the most thorough investigations of AL (Boyes et al., 2004)

offers the following interpretation of the term: “A definition of
accelerated learning is arrived at that includes brain-based techniques,
philosophical approaches to what counts as intelligence, as well as
classroom dynamics. The following are included in the overarching
definition offered in this report:

 that which justifies its approach to teaching and learning by

citing scientific research into ‘way the brain physically works’
and/or brain architecture, commonly referred to as ‘brain-based’
learning;
 that which supposedly accelerates learning by using the
techniques and practices referred to in 2.1, such as NLP, the
power of positive suggestion, supportive environments, and the
enhancement of self esteem;
 that which includes multiple intelligences theories, including
emotional intelligence; and theories attached to multi-sensory
(visual auditory kinesthetic: VAK) engagement;
 that which supposedly accelerates learning by stimulating the
learner to be motivated and attach meaning to the content of
what is being learnt;
 the use of recall-enhancing techniques such as mind mapping,
mental rehearsal techniques, and brain exercises and mental
stimulation techniques such as Brain Gym.

These are considered to be the core dimensions of accelerated

learning in this literature survey” (Boyes et al, 2004, p. 3). These
attributes are

41
critical yet incomplete. Here we should underline a clear identification
of three fundamental principles of AL:

 Expectation of the learner’s high motivation

 Wide utilization of the learner’s intellectual and emotional
capacities, and
 Application of all potentially beneficial methods and techniques
to activate and enhance these capacities.

The definition offered by The Free Dictionary, though limited to the

language learning, seems to be the most detailed:
Accelerated Language Learning developed based on the
research and theories of Georgi Lozanov’s suggestopedia. The
term now associated to many methods in education that work to
accelerate learning. The term ‘accelerated learning’ is a very
broad term and encompasses many different techniques,
methodologies and approaches to teaching and learning. Some
methods which would generally be considered to fall under the
title of accelerated learning would be: mind maps, Brain Gym or
Edu-Kinesthetics, concert texts, reading to music, multiple
intelligences theory, various memory techniques, the use of
music to influence the emotional and mental state of learners,
state setting in a broader sense, the use of songs to aid learning,
pattern spotting, the implementation of chunking,
suggestopedia, Neuro-linguistic programming, the use of drama,
suspension of disbelief etc. (The Free Dictionary)

The list of methods and techniques used to accelerate learning can be

extended.

In short, AL can be defined as “Combining adult learning theory and

whole brain learning theory in the learning environment to achieve a
faster learning rate” (Glossary of Terms).

AL is sometimes interpreted as accelerated or intensive scheduling in

which colleges fill the summer semester or offer courses during
interim, modular, regular term, and over the weekends thus
compressing the total length of the undergraduate program to two or
three years. An example of such an approach can be seen in the
accelerated schedule at Cooley Law School: “This schedule is an
intensive, full-time program recommended only for those students who
are advised or feel confident they can manage five classes (15 credits)
per term. Students selecting this option attend classes five days per
week for two years (24 months)” (The Accelerated Schedule). Another

42
version of such scheduling is given in Doyle and Yantis (1977) who
define intensive scheduling as “an innovative approach to scheduling
courses in which students study one subject for concentrated period of
time and in which formal classroom contact time between the students
and the instructor is limited to time-compressed format” (1). Andersen
(1982) discusses intensive scheduling as an alternative to the
concurrent method of arranging high school students' classes. He
defines intensive scheduling as the placing of students into one class
for three or four hours a day for four or five weeks. Intensive
scheduling has been shown to be an effective educational medium
(Hottenstein, 1998). This is actually one of the factors that ensures the
success of AL, as will be demonstrated below.

To complete the discussion of the AL definition, it would be interesting

to cite Meyer, the author of the Accelerated Learning Handbook, who,
leaving pedagogy aside, offers his pragmatic interpretation of AL:

Accelerated learning is, first and foremost, an end, not a means.

...accelerated learning is the results, not the methods used. It is
essential to associate accelerated learning with outcomes, not
particular methods (games, music, color, activities, etc.). And
whatever methods do not produce an accelerated or enhanced
learning are not [AL – P.S.] — no matter how clever, or creative,
or fun they might be... The purpose of AL is to awaken learners
to their full learning ability. (Meyer, 2000, xxi).

This elucidation may be attractive for learners; however, what is

important for educators is, first of all, the means to achieve the goal of
AL, i.e., methodology. Recall, how we learn determines what we
eventually learn (Ryan, 2008). In a sense, AL is both a means and an
end.

Due to incomplete or conflicting interpretations of AL and IL and

insufficient research, these effective instructional methods do not find
wider application in universities and colleges though corporate training
systems, as mentioned above, are often completely based on
accelerated approaches. Misunderstanding about AL can be seen in the
Glossary of Terms on the British Government Standards Site, which
omits the main characteristics of AL, i.e. its short-term format, calling it
just “An approach to learning based on research into learning styles
and how the brain works. Draws particularly on ideas from multiple
intelligences and brain-based learning” (The Standards Site). The
Glossary of NCES defines accelerated programs as, “Completion of a
college program of study in fewer than the usual number of years,

43
most often by attending summer sessions and carrying extra courses
during the regular academic term” (Glossary NCES), which points to a
very limited attribute of AL. Even professional studies done by experts
on the basis of existing literature without direct exposure to or
experience in accelerated teaching and learning demonstrates
deficient understanding of AL (e.g., Boyes, 2004) and leads to flawed
conclusions.

Taking all available interpretations of AL into consideration and

addressing what is common in all of them, we can identify the
following characteristics of this approach:

 AL is a specific form of education aimed at achieving the desired

learning outcomes in a shorter, compared to the conventional
learning, period of time
 It is a complex methodological system advocating holistic
approach to learning
 It utilizes all available pedagogical and psychological means to
enhance learning
 It integrates a number of advanced and effective educational
and psychological theories, teaching practices and instructional
tools
 It appeals to the learner’s intellectual and emotional potential
and counts on high intrinsic motivation
 It focuses on the adult learner’s needs, goals, life conditions and
learning outcome applications
 It is a truly learner-centered and practical approach to learning

AL is actually a compressed, condensed, fast, short-term delivery of

regular courses. Two major quantitative parameters distinguish AL
from the conventional instructional format accepted at most colleges
and universities: duration and frequency of the lessons. AL in its
typical form presents an attempt to compress a conventional semester
17- or 18-week long course into eight, six or even four weeks. It is
evident it would be extremely hard to keep students focused and
excited about learning for more than a few weeks at a time.
Commonly this compression is achieved through extending the
duration of each lesson from one to three, four or more hours, and
increasing the frequency of these lessons from one or two per week to
three or four and more per week. Thus, the whole course becomes
shorter in duration and is perceived by students as a more doable and
time-efficient. A comparison of the accelerated and conventional
courses can be demonstrated based on these quantitative parameters.

44
Table 1. Comparison of major quantitative parameters in conventional
and accelerated formats.

Type of the course Conventional Accelerated

Duration of lesson (hours) 1 3 – 4 and more
Frequency per week 1-2 3 – 4 and more
Duration of the course in weeks 17 – 18 4–6–8

In reality, as seen in the Table 1, students ultimately do not gain any

time savings because they need to spend the same amount of hours in
the class, for instance:

 Conventional format: 1hr x 2.5 classes/week x 18 weeks = 45

hrs
 Accelerated format: 3.75 hr x 3 classes/week x 4 weeks = 45
hrs

The reward of taking an accelerated course, however, is a reduced

duration of the overall learning process that may result in faster
completion of the program. This factor, in many cases, may be critical
for working adult learners. Though attractive to many learners, this
compression of the courses invites some educators’ and researchers’
critique (e.g., Boyes et al., 2004), which necessitates a better
explanation of what AL really is and how learners can achieve quality
outcomes in a short learning time.

Accelerated or Intensive Learning: Similarities and Differences

AL is also linked to intensive learning (IL), however these two

approaches, though very much alike, are different. Actually, there are
five terms that refer to both such programs; accelerated, intensive,
fast, compressed or short-term. All these programs are fast,
compressed and short term, implying that one and the same course
material can be delivered in a significantly shorter period of time as
compared to the conventional course format. For instance, a Beginning
Algebra course that at a traditional university is normally taught during
one semester, in an accelerated format may be covered in one month.
Therefore, all of such programs can be called accelerated; however,
the term intensive learning, besides a compressed format, entails also
an increase in the productivity of learning (Serdyukov & Serdyukova,
2004). This means that by taking an intensive course rather than an
accelerated one a learner can expect either to go through an even

45
shorter learning process obtaining the same learning outcomes as in
an accelerated course, or to gain more knowledge and skills within the
same time frame. To differentiate the specificity of each approach, the
following definitions were offered:

Accelerated learning is attributed to a specially organized short-

term course in which the same learning outcomes can be achieved in
the same number of class hours as in a traditional course but delivered
in shorter course duration (e.g., in 4-6 weeks instead of 15-16). It does
not necessarily imply the use of special accelerated techniques. It is
usually taught in longer and more frequent sessions (e.g., 4 hours
twice a week), and also can be called a compressed course. (The major
characteristics signify a quantitative change).

Intensive learning is similar to AL having a compressed, short-term

course format; however, in an intensive course the same or better
outcomes can be achieved in fewer class hours than in a traditional or
in an accelerated course due to more effective instructional methods
and increased productivity of learning. It is taught in longer and
normally very frequent sessions (e.g., 4 hours 4-5 times a week). (The
major characteristics are both qualitative and quantitative changes).
(Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006b, 46).

Whereas accelerated learning pursues only the goal of compressing

the duration of the course by shortening the course format through
scheduling that is a quantitative change, intensive learning also
attempts to achieve greater efficiency of learning through both
compressing instructional time and applying effective instructional
tools and strategies thus increasing cost and time efficiency, which is
both quantitative and qualitative change. The comparison between
conventional, accelerated, and intensive courses of English as a
Foreign Language helps to illustrate the difference (Table 2). Two
parameters are utilized for comparison here: the learning outcome
which is constant and evaluated as the number of words necessary to
achieve a certain level of communicative competence, and the number
of hours required to attain this goal, which is variable.

As seen in Table 2, the learning outcomes in all three course formats

were the same (the number of words necessary for everyday
communication). The time it took to develop communicative
competence, however, varied from 500 hours in the conventional 10-
month long course, and the same 500 hours in an accelerated 5-
month long course, to only 120 hours in an intensive two-month long
course.

46
Table 2. Comparison of instructional formats for English as Foreign
Language courses

Instructional Conventional Accelerated Intensive

Format\Course 10 months 5 months 2 months
Duration
Number of hours 500 Hours 500 Hours 120 Hours
needed to acquire a (4 words/ hr.) (4 words/ (16.6 words
communicative hr.) / hr.)
competence based on
a 2000-word
vocabulary

Clearly, the intensive format is more efficient as students acquire the

same vocabulary in significantly shorter course duration and in fewer
instructional hours. The measure of efficiency in this case is taken as
the ratio of two quantitative parameters: the number of words in the
exit learner vocabulary and the number of hours it takes to master
them, so eventually it equals the number of words learned per hour.
This comparison proves that an intensive course is more efficient than
a traditional and even an accelerated course: 16.6 words/hour vs. 4.0
words/hour. So, the factor of efficiency of this intensive course is 4.15
(16.6:4.0) (Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006b); hence, the benefits of an
intensive course versus an accelerated course.

Many ESL/EFL programs in the USA are called “intensive” only because
they are conducted in a relatively short period of time due to the
concentration of classes. We argue that “intensive,” according to
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, means not only
“concentrated,” but also “constituting or relating to a method designed
to increase productivity,” which in learning means achieving the same
outcomes in a shorter time, or better outcomes in the same period of
time as in non-intensive, traditional or even accelerated courses.

Another essential aspect of both AL and IL is a single-subject delivery,

i.e. when the courses of the curriculum are taught consecutively, one
at a time, rather than a number of parallel courses traditionally taught
simultaneously (sometimes up to four or even more) each day during a
semester. In this format students can focus like a laser on one course
at a time rather than on several courses in the traditional model that
sacrifices depth of understanding for the curricular breadth.

47
Instruction at practically all conventional universities is based on a
parallel model of instruction that is implemented in the several-
subjects-at-a-time format. This format engages students in a number
of different courses per day during the whole semester. In the AL
model used at National University, as well as in some other schools
(e.g., Cornell, Tusculum, St. Olaf, Elizabethtown, and Colorado
Colleges, LeTourneau and Breyer State Universities), however,
students enjoy a sequential (linear) model taking one course at a time.

These two models can be represented graphically (Greiner et al.,

2005) covering four courses per semester each:

Conventional universities National University

Parallel model Sequential model

2
1 2 3 4
3

Semester Semester

Thanks to this approach students obtain not several separate, loosely

connected outcomes but well-organized, interrelated and cumulative
learning outcomes building a cohesive system of knowledge. We argue
that a sequential, one-course-at-a-time model of adult higher
education meets the needs of adult learners better than the traditional
parallel, several-course-at-a-time model.

The advantage of this approach is self-explanatory: a "one-course-at-

a-time" instructional model reduces the complexity of the instructional
process organization and, at the same time, of learning thus allowing
its easier adaptation to an individual learning style. According to
National University students’ comments, this format helps to liberate
students' minds and gives them an opportunity to focus their attention
and energy on one subject, as well as adapt to one teaching/learning
style at a time. Csikszentmihalyi’s research suggests that “deep
concentration”, “immersion” in an activity, and “undivided
intentionality” lead to increasingly rewarding “optimal experiences”
which nourish and strengthen the self (1982). He comments: “Optimal

48
experience stands out against this background of humdrum everyday
life by excluding the noise that interferes with it in normal existence”
(ibid. 22). This is true when we consider adult working learners’ hectic
lifestyles and complicated everyday experiences. Scott and Conrad
(1992) also assert that “concentrated study may cultivate skills and
understandings which will remain untapped and undeveloped under
the traditional system” (ibid 417).

A theoretical hypothesis can therefore be formulated: the lesser the

logistical complexity of a learning process, the more focused the
students remain, and the better the eventual outcomes. By reducing
the complexity of the traditional parallel model, the efficiency of
learning can be increased (Serdyukov & Serdyukova 2004). This
concept is well aligned with the adult learning theory allowing flexible
adjustments of learning to working adults’ idiosyncratic lifestyles.

Making the learning process intensive by minimizing waste of the

learning time, a faster rate of learning may be expected which will
result in achieving the planned outcomes in a shorter time. The
formula of intensive learning therefore can be devised: The more
organized and effective is the instructional system, the more the
student is focused, the more effort produced, the better the effect of
learning, the faster rate of learning, and the shorter the process
duration. That is why all accelerated and intensive courses are always
short, from two weeks to one or, at most, two months in duration. If
there is no significant effort applied in learning, then there is no effect,
no increase in productivity and consequently, no opportunity to
shorten the duration of the course.

Intensive learning can be explained by the Uniform Motion Equation:

d=v·t
where d is distance, v is velocity, and t is time. If we take d to be the
learning outcomes, v the learning effort, and t the course duration, we
will see that when we take d for a constant, and increase v (the effort),
then t (duration of the process) will decrease (Serdyukov & Serdyukova
2006a), which can be calculated by dividing the outcome d by the
effort v:
d
t =−
v

AL and IL approaches are sometimes associated with immersion

programs that intend to achieve certain learning outcomes in a short
time (Shekhter, 2005). The essence of the immersion learning is a

49
consistent concentration of the learning and learners on a subject area
or a certain learning process that may allow accomplishing the course
goals in a very limited time (see, for instance, the article ‘Varieties of
immersion in teaching business English to university students of
business and economics: the Ukrainian approach’ by Oleg Tarnopolsky
in this issue). M. Berlitz introduced this concept in foreign language
instruction insisting that only the target language should be spoken in
class, starting with the teacher's greeting on the first day. The method
of complete or total immersion learning is based on incessant intensive
target language communication (See Immersion Method). Using the
principle of immersion some foreign language programs produced
outstanding results. As an example we can point to once popular
English language boat cruises in Russia that immersed a large group of
adults in leaning a foreign language (usually English) in isolation from
their native (Russian) language for some 20 days. The main condition
for all participants was not to use Russian in any situation while on
board the ship where an English language environment was strictly
enforced during all 20 days of the cruise combined with regular English
classes every day. The outcome was that learners were actually unable
to speak their primary language after such an immersion; instead,
they conversed only in English.

To demonstrate the differences between all three instructional

approaches, intensive, accelerated and conventional, their major
common features were compared (Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006b). A
learning system can be described using such features as course
duration (short vs. long); instructional process character (intensity);
lesson duration; frequency of lessons (per week); structural model of
learning (a conventional parallel model offering a number of courses at
a time, or a sequential model when students take one class at a time);
methodological approach; student motivation; learning environment;
learning efficiency and the instructor. Class size is also an important
factor: an intensive course works better for a class of 12-15 students,
an accelerated class accommodates up to 25 students, and a
conventional one – 25 or more students.

A comparative analysis of these features of three different types of

instructional formats, as shown in Table 3, demonstrated that IL and AL
have several common features: they are both short (compressed) in
duration, have lengthy classes (up to 4-6 hours), use a sequential
structural model, normally enjoy high to very high student motivation,
and increase learning efficiency. As different from IL, AL uses standard
learning environment and mostly traditional methodology with some
innovations, and the instructor from a conventional university usually

50
can successfully teach accelerated courses though acknowledging the
differences. IL, on the contrary, requires a particular learning
environment and a highly effective, specially trained instructor.

Table 3. Comparative features of three instructional approaches

Approach Intensive Accelerated Conventional

Feature
1. Course Short (4-8 wks) Compressed Long (15-18 wks)
duration (5-12 wks)
2. Process Intensive Traditional Traditional

3. Session 4-5 hrs 3-6 hrs 1-2 hrs

duration
4. Frequency 4-6 per week 1-3 per week 1-2 per week

5. Structural Sequential (one at Sequential (one at Parallel (several at

model a time) a time) a time)
6. Methodology Special Mostly traditional Traditional

7. Motivation Very high High Varied

8. Engagement Active Varied Varied

9. Learning Special Standard Standard

environment
10. Learning Very high High Various degrees
efficiency
11. Class size 12-15 students 20-25 students 25 students and
more
12. Instructor Specially prepared No special No special
requirements requirements requirements

As mentioned above, many schools have been using AL for years.

National University’s programs, for example, utilize 1x1 course model
based on a typical AL approach (Serdyukov et al., 2003, 2006b), which
delivers all courses in a one-month long, one-course-at-a-time
compressed format. It is worthwhile to note that conversion of the
traditional semester course into an accelerated or, particularly, into
intensive course necessitates modifications not only in the
instructional format but also in the instructional methodology. One of
the reasons is that methods, strategies and activities applied in a
regular classroom may not work in the accelerated short-term or
intensive course where instructional time may extend up to 5-hour
long, usually evening classes, with adult students studying after a
hard day on the job.

51
Further Applications and Research

Though Meyer (2000) believes it is only the results that primarily

matter in AL, for educators is critical to understand how the results are
achieved, what methods are used and in what way, and which
innovative techniques can be used to increase the efficiency of
teaching and learning. AL and IL practices have a long and
complicated history, yet research in their instructional methodology is
scarce, which is correctly noted by Boyes et al. (2004). The reasons are
several: most of AL and IL is usually undertaken by the practitioners
who are tired of the often boring and ineffective practices; these
approaches are still marginalized by the traditional educators and
educational theorists who are too skeptical about innovative
approaches to teaching and learning to be open and objective; many
applications have been commercial (private colleges, schools, classes
and corporate training), therefore no investigations were even
envisaged; research of teaching and learning practices is certainly a
very complex and costly endeavor, particularly when the brain is
involved. Under these conditions very few researchers, not mentioning
practitioners, can afford to conduct consistent investigation of
instructional practices based on the application of innovative
approaches.

It does not mean, of course, that research has not been conducted at
all, as has been demonstrated above, or it should not be undertaken.
Seamon (2004), for instance, conducted a thorough investigation
evaluating short- and long-term differences in instructional
effectiveness between intensive and semester-long courses. This
research confirmed that “Students in the intensive version of the
course performed significantly better than students in the semester
length course on posttests of content and questions tapping higher-
order learning.” Wlodkowski and Kasworm (2003) produced evidence
that accelerated learning programs are more effective with
nontraditional learners and have similar or better learning outcomes. It
is essential, nevertheless, to study the application of special
instructional strategies and techniques in various accelerated and
intensive courses and long-term effects of such learning.

In the growing Web-based learning, AL can be delivered via online

classes, which is being done at National University, though no
research has been identified showing that IL can also be implemented
in an online environment. Success of online AL depends on the quality
of principal factors described above: course instructional design,
instructor’s professionalism, students’ preparedness, attitude and

52
motivation, flexibility of schedule, convenience of the course structure
and learning process, effectiveness of the Web-based learning
delivery, ease of course navigation, intensity of interactions in the
discussions, expediency and clarity of feedback, availability of all the
necessary learning materials and tools, and institutional support.

Blended or hybrid formats that have been becoming popular lately can
be viewed as a temporary compromise between online and classroom-
based formats and may be regarded as a déjà vu phenomenon. This
trend to integrate live, face-to-face learning into web-based
educational systems stems from current technical limitations of the
online environment for some practical learning experiences, such as
chemistry or physics labs involving experiments and manipulations
that need hands-on operations. It also relates to learning activities
requiring direct student interactions, such as dramatization, games
and role playing which cannot be done without gathering students in
one place. However, with the development of multimedia, hypermedia,
computer-based simulations, telecommunications and computer-
mediated communication, these limitations will eventually disappear.
Some of these activities can be implemented today using synchronous
iLink sessions. These blended formats, though in some ways beneficial
for establishing personal, face-to-face contact and accomplishing some
vital classroom activities, impose considerable restrictions on learning
convenience and flexibility as they demand simultaneity, which often
creates conflict of interests and interferes with students’ busy
schedules. Asynchronicity of learning remains one of the key success
factors of web-based learning (Ryan & Serdyukov, 2005).

All these new approaches and their applications, as well as basic

principles, strategies and tools of AL and IL, must be further
investigated. Some directions for research were identified by Scott &
Conrad (1992, 446-450). Major topics for research can also include the
following:

1. Current instructional approaches and methodologies: Their

theoretical foundations.
2. Accelerated and intensive learning: How do they work in the
classroom and what should be improved? Pros and cons, and
how can we use them in teaching our students?
3. Teaching adults: What are the best ways to enhance their
learning outcomes?
4. Instructional design: How to optimally structure and plan the
course, the lesson, and the whole instructional process?

53
 5. Effective presentation of the new material: What are the most
effective modalities, formats and strategies?
6. Student activities: What are the best methods and strategies for
collaborative and individual work in onsite, online or blended
environments?
7. Educational technology: when and how to make it work best?
8. Student learning styles and their multiple intelligences: How to
use them to enhance learning?
9. Student attitudes and dispositions: How to affect them for better
learning?
10. Student motivation: How to raise it?
11. Time management: How to help students to manage it more
efficiently, especially in an online class, and how to increase time-
efficiency of learning in general?
12. Student readiness to learn: How to improve learning
productivity of busy adults?

Conclusion

Accelerated learning may be a response to the currently growing

demand for better education within a short time frame. Intensive
learning, which is a higher level of accelerated learning, is an attempt
to raise time and cost-efficiency of learning. The similarities between
these two instructional approaches are numerous; however, the
principal difference is clear: intensive learning is capable of providing
quality learning outcomes due to utilizing all available resources,
including the learner’s intellectual and emotional potential, thus
increasing productivity of learning. Hence methodologies of teaching
and learning in these two approaches differ, as well as conditions and
implementation factors. Intensive learning requires more effort on the
part of both learners and instructors; it may be more costly, however it
can provide greater time-efficiency which, in many cases, may be a
decisive factor in choosing the program. So the demand for
accelerated and intensive learning programs is different. Both
approaches are demand-driven; however, they have sound theoretical
foundation and considerable proof that it works supplied from
numerous international practical implementations.

As much as online education is gaining ground based on accessibility,

convenience, flexibility with constantly rising learning efficiency, the
innovative approaches discussed in this article will also undeniably
continue to grow in view of an increasing public demand for
accelerated and intensive programs. Scott and Conrad support this

54
deduction: “Given adult and part-time student demographic trends,
intensive courses probably will proliferate in the future” (ibid. 411). We
can see this tendency is gaining momentum.

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Immersion Method. Retrieved 10/15/07, from

http://www.study.ru/support/lib/note49.html

About the Author

Peter Serdyukov
Doctor of Pedagogic Sciences, Ph.D.
Professor
Teacher Education Department
National University
La Jolla, CA USA
Email: pserdyuk@nu.edu
Major research interests: accelerated and intensive learning; online
learning; adult education; instructional design, teacher preparation,
innovative approaches in teaching, educational technology
applications.

59
Varieties of Immersion in Teaching Business English
to University Students of Business and Economics:
The Ukrainian Approach

Oleg Tarnopolsky

Abstract

The article discusses the general approach and practical experience

of introducing immersion into Business English teaching to students
majoring in Business and Economics at Ukrainian universities. Two
principal types of immersion are analyzed: immersion through
simulation of profession-oriented activities and immersion through
learning professional subjects in English. Both of these types are
divided into lower-level and higher-level varieties. Some data is
given concerning the implementation in teaching practice of
Ukrainian universities of both types and all the four varieties of
immersion programs discussed in the article.

Key Words

Business English teaching, immersion, immersion through

simulation of profession-oriented activities, immersion through
learning professional subjects in English, continuous simulation,
total immersion, sheltered immersion.

Introduction: Two Types of Immersion

Teaching second/foreign languages by way of immersion has

become a well-established practice both in North America and
Europe since the introduction of the so-called “Canadian French
immersion” programs (Calvé, 1991; Rehorick & Edwards, 1994).
Clark (2000) defines “immersion” as a method of teaching
second/foreign languages by way of teaching one or several
academic subjects in students’ target language. Immersion
programs have proved their efficiency in what concerns the
development of target second/foreign language communication
skills of secondary school students. What is less researched is the
use of such programs for developing target second/foreign language
communication skills of tertiary (university) students. However,
there are no reasons to believe that university subjects cannot be
taught in the target language if students’ command of that
language is sufficient for learning their professional subjects in it.
This article discusses the experience of two Ukrainian universities in
introducing such immersion through learning professional subjects

60
in English, which is considered to be the principal type of target
language immersion for university students.

The article also discusses another, auxiliary, type of target language

immersion that is less known in the West since it was introduced in
Cold War times in the former Soviet Union. That kind of immersion
was developed by Plesnevich (1976) and may be called immersion
through simulation of profession-oriented activities. The essence of
this approach is a continuous simulation of professional activities
that students will do in their professional work after graduation, but
carrying out those activities in the target language only (mostly
English) and during foreign language classes. This auxiliary type of
immersion may be a good preliminary step toward introducing the
principal type of immersion since it trains students at lower levels of
target language command in using it for professional purposes in
sheltered foreign language classroom conditions. Thereby, students
are getting psychologically, linguistically, and communicatively
prepared for later (at higher levels of target language command)
acquisition of professional knowledge by means of that target
language in much less sheltered conditions of learning professional
subjects in relevant university courses that relate to their major.

Therefore, it is reasonable to start discussing the practical

experience gained in what concerns introducing immersion for
teaching students at Ukrainian universities with the auxiliary type of
immersion. It should be noted that the experience to be described
was gained in the area of teaching Business English only to students
majoring in Business and Economics.

Immersion through Simulation of Profession-Oriented

Activities: The First Variety

This variety of the type of immersion under consideration was

developed, as it has already been pointed out, on the basis of the
concept of continuous simulation in Business English teaching
(Tarnopolsky, 2000). That concept later became the foundation for
elaborating the coursebook Business Projects (Tarnopolsky,
Kozhushko, et al., 2002) designed for teaching Business English to
university students of Business and Economics. In the coursebook
Business Projects, continuous simulation was made the organizing
and principal learning activity for an entire course on Business
English for students of Business and Economics. All other learning
activities led to that one and prepared learners for it. Continuous
simulation was designed as such an organization of the Business
English course when learning develops as continuous modeling and
enacting of business activities and communication in class. The

61
enactment is done in the framework of almost life-size functioning
of an imaginary company “organized” and “run” by students
themselves.

This is immersion through simulation of profession-oriented

activities in its pure form. Playing, i.e., doing continuous simulations,
students pursue the explicit goal of organizing and making succeed
their imaginary company while acquiring Business English is a side
effect. The experiments, tests, and tryouts that were carried out
demonstrated that the side effect was much more successful than
traditional and explicit learning of Business English using traditional
Business English coursebooks. The students’ learning motivation
also was found to be considerably higher (Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko,
2002a; Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko, 2002b; Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko,
2003). Those experiments, tests, and tryouts were carried out at
Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law with the second
year students of the Department of Economics and Business
Management and the Department of Finances and Economics.

The approach through continuous simulation just discussed was

designed for the beginning and intermediate levels of learning
Business English and for the students who had already attained the
intermediate level in their General English communication skills
before they started their Business English studies. This was just the
case with the students of the above-mentioned departments who
participated in the experiments, tests, and tryouts aimed at
checking the efficiency of the coursebook Business Projects, and the
continuous simulation approach embodied in it. Those students had
a course of General English in their first year of studies at the
university that allowed them to achieve the required intermediate
level in their English communication skills by the end of that year.
They started their Business English studies in their second year at
the university (the beginner level of Business English), and were
supposed to attain the intermediate level in Business English by the
end of that year. The already-mentioned experiments, tests, and
tryouts convincingly proved that they really achieved such a level,
and much more successfully than the students in control groups
who did not enjoy the benefits of being taught through continuous
simulation approach (Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko, 2003).

One feature of this approach is focusing students’ language studies

on what may be called General Business English (Tarnopolsky,
2004). Business English as the language of business communication
exists in a number of varieties. For instance, the language of
marketing has some differences as compared to the language of
finance, but they both belong to Business English. It may be said

62
that each variety of Business English is distinguished from the
others first of all by some specific ESP that is included into it for
achieving the particular goals set in a definite area of business
activities. For instance, in the field of marketing Business English
(General Business English) used by specialists is greatly modified by
the specific ESP of marketing. The same concerns the language
used by people employed in finances, management, etc. All such
kinds of ESP cannot be taught in detail in university courses of
Business English that have to limit themselves mostly to some core
business language (General Business English) used in whatever
area of business communication. That was the reason of limiting the
immersion program based on continuous simulation to students’
acquisition of General Business English only in the framework of the
program taught.

On the other hand, the success of the program in making students

achieve the intermediate level in their Business English
communication skills allowed to develop the next approach (the
second higher-level variety of the same type of immersion) – the
one used for teaching Business English at the advanced level. Here
the goal set was learners’ acquisition of not only General Business
English but mostly of some particular kinds of ESP characteristic of
different particular areas of business communication. Thus, the
approach was aimed at making the students efficiently gain
command of those advanced Business English communication skills
that require the use of some specific ESP. But again, as already
mentioned, the approach in question was only another variety of
the same type of immersion since it was also based on a simulation
of profession-oriented activities. The only change was that this time
it was a more advanced and sophisticated degree of such a
simulation.

Immersion through Simulation of Profession-Oriented

Activities: The Second Variety

This second variety of immersion through simulation of profession-

oriented activities was based on the so called total immersion
(Grant, Meeler & Misak, 2003). Total immersion presupposes
teaching different academic subjects in the target language without
any recourse to the students’ mother tongue. It also excludes any
specific focusing on language forms that may be a source of
additional difficulties for students studying an academic subject in
the language that is not their native one. The approach was used
for organizing mini-courses on different professional subjects – but
again not in standard university courses on those subjects. The mini-
courses were taught in the framework of Business English

63
program for senior university students majoring in Business and
Economics, i.e. within the course of Business English. The mini-
courses on finances, marketing and management were designed
just as ordinary university courses on such subjects – including
lectures, seminars, practical tasks, and tests – with the difference
that they were given in English only and during classes of English
only. So in this case again Business English and some kinds of ESP
related to particular areas of business activities were learned not
explicitly but implicitly by doing something else. That doing
something else was actually studying professional mini-courses,
those that were included into the students’ target language training,
thus allowing them to acquire advanced Business English
communication skills as a side effect of learning such mini-courses.

The mini-courses were introduced into Business English programs

for the third year students of Dnipropetrovsk University of
Economics and Law (again the Department of Economics and
Business Management and the Department of Finances and
Economics). By the end of their third year of studies those students
were supposed to attain the advanced level in their Business English
communication skills starting from the intermediate level at the
beginning of the year. The students in the experimental groups
(where the mini-courses were introduced) were those who in their
second year of studies were learning Business English through the
continuous simulation approach. And again, as testing students’
Business English communication skills proved, the results were
considerably higher than in comparable control groups – those
learning Business English using traditional approaches and
traditional coursebooks designed for the advanced level of Business
English studies. It was the same with students’ learning motivation
which was much higher in the experimental groups (Tarnopolsky &
Kozhushko, 2005). What was also proved was the fact that
experimental groups students really gained command of some
specific ESP (e.g., the ESP used in the area of finances) that was
required for business communication on specific professional issues.
It did not happen in control groups where students mostly remained
within the framework of General Business English.

Yet, it should be stressed again that this approach is still a variety

of immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities
but not real immersion through learning professional subjects in
English. Students do learn professional subjects in English but they
learn them within the English course as fragments of those subjects
(mini-courses) and not as systemic academic courses. It may be said
that in this situation we have a simulation of learning professional
courses but not the genuine learning of those courses.

64
On the other hand, this simulation is very close to reality. There is
only one final step left to be made – to pass from such “artificial”
mini-courses in classes of English (the final stage of preparation for
genuine immersion) to actual teaching of academic subjects in
English in full-size university courses on those subjects (genuine
immersion). It means passing from the auxiliary type of immersion
(immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities) to
its principal type (immersion through learning professional subjects
in English). How this can be organized will be discussed in the
following parts of the article. But before, it seems advisable to dwell
on two final points concerning immersion through simulation of
profession-oriented activities.

The first of these points is the fact discovered in our long-term (five
years) studies of immersion through simulation of profession-
oriented activities. One of those studies (Tarnopolsky, Kozhushko &
Zhevaga, 2006, 2006a) revealed that students who had been
learning their Business English by means of both varieties of
immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities
demonstrated much greater confidence in their Business English
communication skills than those learners who had been acquiring
those skills in a more traditional manner. Eighty-five percent of
students from the experimental groups in the second year of study
and 88 percent in the third year of study felt that they had
adequately gained the absolute majority or all of the skills required
for efficient professional business communication in English. The
situation in control groups was quite different. Only 31% of the
students in the second year and only 42% of the students in the
third year felt such confidence, and that means that the majority of
learners did not feel themselves adequately prepared for
professional Business English communication (Tarnopolsky,
Kozhushko & Zhevaga, 2006). Besides, it was found out that
immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities had
had a great positive emotional impact both on the students and the
teachers from the experimental groups. Nothing like such impact
could be observed in the control groups (Tarnopolsky, Kozhushko &
Zhevaga, 2006a). Therefore, it can be safely asserted that in
classes of English immersion through simulation of profession-
oriented activities demonstrated its overall advantage in all aspects
over more traditional approaches when teaching Business English to
university students of Business and Economics.

The second point that should be emphasized is a theoretical one.

Immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities can
be considered as one of several ways of implementing a broader
concept of second/foreign language learning – that of experiential
learning, or learning by doing, when students implicitly learn their

65
target language by way of explicitly doing something else, but doing
it in the target language. This general approach ensures direct links
between language learning and genuine life-size communication in
that language (in our case, professional communication), thereby
accelerating and improving the development of relevant
communication skills.

If considered from the point of view of its influence on language and

communication skills acquisition, the principal type of immersion –
that of learning professional subjects in English – belongs to the
same category. It is also experiential learning of Business English
for students and the following two parts of the article discuss how to
make it feasible in Ukrainian universities at the departments
specializing in Business and Economics studies.

Immersion through Learning Professional Subjects in

English: The First Variety

This variety of immersion through learning professional subjects in

English was developed by my doctoral student Zoya Korneva (2004)
for the third year students of the Department of Management and
Marketing at the National Technical University of Ukraine “Kyiv
Polytechnic Institute.” The variety was designed for those students
who in their third year of studies at the university reached only the
intermediate (not advanced) level of Business English. It is a typical
situation for many Ukrainian universities since a number of students
there majoring in Business and Economics do not enjoy equal
opportunities for Business English studies in comparison with the
students of Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law
discussed above (they have less classes on Business English, do not
pass through the process of acquiring it via simulation of
profession-oriented activities, etc.). Just for such “weaker”
categories of students this variety of immersion through learning
professional subjects in English was elaborated.

The approach was based on the so-called sheltered immersion

(Freeman, 2000) that allows, among other things, to use students’
mother tongue in the process of teaching the academic subject in
the target language. Sheltered immersion is used when the mother
tongue can considerably facilitate learning eliminating those
language difficulties that otherwise could become insurmountable
obstacles to learners’ adequate comprehension of the subject
matter of an academic course. Sheltered immersion is different
from partial immersion (Grant, Meeler & Misak, 2003), also allowing
for the use of learners’ mother tongue. But in partial immersion this
use is limited to the initial stage of teaching an academic subject in

66
the target language. Later, the mother tongue is “pushed out” and
totally replaced with the target language (the so-called pull-out
classes).

In the sheltered immersion model developed by Korneva (2004), the

professional subject to be taught by means of immersion was
“Management of International Economic Activities.” Following the
model developed, students listened to the lectures in the course
delivered in their mother tongue (Ukrainian). But at the end of
every lecture its content was summarized in English and students
received handouts with glossaries of the principal English terms for
the basic professional notions discussed in the lecture. Practical
classes/seminars in the course were held mostly in English, and
students were required to prepare and write their final course
papers in English, too.

In the experimental study carried out by Korneva (2003, 2004) the

learning outcomes of the students from the experimental groups
(after one-semester-long sheltered immersion course) were
compared to those outcomes that were achieved by students from
two kinds of control groups. They were learning the same
professional subject in two different ways. In the first kind of control
groups students had their course on “Management of International
Economic Activities” in their mother tongue only. In the other kind of
control groups students were studying their course on “Management
of International Economic Activities” by way of partial immersion
(see above). It means that their mother tongue was allowed to be
used at the initial stages of the course and was later replaced by
“English only” teaching and learning.

The study (Korneva, 2003, 2004) demonstrated that, though the

experimental and control groups had been equalized in all aspects
(including the students’ command of English) at the beginning of
the study, after one semester the advantages of experimental
groups in what concerns the successful learning outcomes became
indubitable. First of all, it concerned the development of Business
English communication skills. There was nothing surprising in the
advantage of experimental groups in that respect over those control
groups where there was no immersion at all (the former had a great
amount of communication practice in English which the latter had
lacked). But the students from the experimental groups had the
same kind of advantage over the students from those control
groups where partial immersion had been introduced. Partial
immersion proved to be too difficult for the students, which
impeded their progress in the development of English
communication skills.

67
The advantage of the experimental groups also was manifested in
the aspect of mastering the subject taught and its content matter.
The students from those groups performed considerably better at
the end-of-the-term examination in “Management of International
Economic Activities.” The reason was that, in comparison with the
control groups where there was no immersion, the students from
the experimental groups had worked with a lot of additional
professional materials in English in their course on the subject. The
control groups that were studying in the conditions of partial
immersion had the same opportunities but, as it has already been
said, the language difficulties were too great for them. Obviously,
those difficulties impeded not only their language progress but also
were an obstacle to efficient mastery of the course subject matter,
which negatively influenced the students’ performance at the end-
of-the-term examination.

Therefore, the study carried out by Korneva (2003, 2004) proved

that immersion through learning professional subjects in English
was quite a feasible proposition for students of Ukrainian
universities majoring in Business and Economics. If such students
were below the advanced level in their English, they needed
sheltered immersion only because even partial immersion was too
difficult for them. It means that there is a need for different
immersion programs for students of Ukrainian universities
depending on their level of English. There also must be a place for
immersion of a higher degree of sophistication designed for
students who are more advanced in their English. This will be
discussed in the next part of the article.

Immersion through Learning Professional Subjects in

English: The Second Variety

This variety of immersion through learning professional subjects in

English is of the highest degree of sophistication and difficulty. It
may be called immersion proper because in such a case total
immersion is introduced when an academic subject is taught in the
target language only without any recourse to students’ mother
tongue and without any specific focusing of students’ attention on
target language forms used in the process of teaching (see Grant,
Meeler & Misak, 2003). The principal difference from the total
immersion used in the second variety of immersion through
simulation of profession-oriented activities (mini-courses on
professional subjects) is due to the fact that teaching is done not in
classes of English but in regular classes in an academic course on a
particular professional discipline. So there is not (and cannot be)

68
any “language sheltering” for students, which considerably
increases the difficulty for them.

This difficulty makes it expedient to introduce such a variety of

immersion only when students achieve the advanced level in their
command of English in general and Business English in particular.
The other expediency seems to be the introduction of immersion
programs of this kind at the end of the third or from the fourth years
of learners’ studies at the university and only after they have
experienced in their university course of English both consecutive
varieties of immersion through simulation of profession-oriented
activities (see before). In that case, total immersion in classes on
professional subjects will not come as a kind of shock to the
students but as something that they have already more or less got
used to (thanks to preceding professional mini-courses in classes of
English) and are well-prepared for (thanks to preceding simulations
in English of different kinds of professional activities, including
professional learning activities).

Just this approach was followed at Dnipropetrovsk University of

Economics and Law in the 2006/2007 academic year when
developing and introducing into practice English immersion courses
on economic disciplines for third and fourth year students of the
Department of Economics and Business Management. The relevant
study is still in progress, so that it is too early to discuss the final
results but the preliminary data demonstrates a high success of the
approach both in promoting the students’ command of English for
professional communication and in their mastering the professional
subjects being taught not in their mother tongue but in the target
language. Therefore, it can be safely concluded that the
implementation of even the most sophisticated variety of immersion
is quite feasible for Ukrainian universities under the conditions
discussed above.

Conclusion

The general considerations and practical findings reported in this

article demonstrate that immersion programs are efficient and may
be introduced in Ukrainian universities for students majoring in
Business and Economics. But these universities need both types of
such programs and all the four varieties of them to be used
depending on the specific conditions in each of those universities.

The best and most effective solution would be the consecutive

introduction of three varieties of immersion programs:

69
 1. Immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities
– the first variety: Continuous simulation of professional
activities in students’ classes of English for professional
purposes at the beginner and intermediate levels.
2. Immersion through simulation of profession-oriented activities
– the second variety: Mini-courses in English on professional
subjects in students’ classes of English for professional
purposes at the advanced level.
3. Immersion through learning professional subjects in English –
the second variety: Total immersion when an academic
subject is taught in the target language only in regular
university classes on that professional subject for third and
fourth year students.

Even if such a consecutive introduction of different immersion

approaches is impossible due to some objective reasons (see
before), there is an option of introducing the first variety of
immersion through learning professional subjects in English – the
sheltered immersion.

It may be said that the division of immersion programs for

universities suggested in this article – two basic types of such
programs with each type divided into two varieties – ensures greater
manoeuvrability and flexibility for universities in choosing the type
or types of programs to better suit their particular needs and
conditions.

It should also be noted that the findings discussed in this article

should not be considered as applicable to Ukraine only. They are
applicable to universities of all non-English-speaking countries
where English is not used as a basic language of communication but
where there is an interest in developing and introducing English
immersion programs into the process of teaching/learning
professional subjects included in the curricula.

These findings also may be of interest to those universities in

English-speaking countries that collaborate with universities-
partners in non-English-speaking countries and organize teaching
some professional courses at those universities-partners.

The article did not touch upon a fundamental issue – that of

preparing teachers to teach in immersion programs. This is a very
difficult question because those teachers should be native (or at
least quite fluent) speakers of English and at the same time
specialists in some particular professional field in which they teach
academic subjects in English to their students. In our studies this
problem was solved naturally because all our teachers engaged in

70
teaching in the immersion programs had dual tertiary education –
that with English as their major and also a degree in Economics.
Regretfully, such a solution is not always practically feasible. But
this is a subject matter to be discussed in another article.

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Business English coursebook concept. Part 1. Business Issues,
2, 2-5.

Tarnopolsky, O. & Kozhushko, S. (2002b). Let's play business: A

Business English coursebook concept. Part 2. Business
Issues, 3, 4-5.

Tarnopolsky, O. & Kozhushko, S. (2003). Acquiring Business English

in a quasi-natural business environment: A method of teaching
Business English to students of Business and Economics.
Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 18(2), 55-88.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.

Tarnopolsky, O. & Kozhushko, S. (2005). Immersion into finances:

Teaching finances or teaching Business English. Business
Issues, 1, 8-11.

Tarnopolsky, O., Kozhushko, S. & Zhevaga, V. (2006).

Teaching/Learning Business English by doing business in
English: Emotional and self-assessment aspects. Part 1.
Business Issues, 1, 11-16.

Tarnopolsky, O., Kozhushko, S. & Zhevaga, V. (2006a). Teaching/

Learning Business English by doing business in English:
Emotional and self-assessment aspects. Part 2. Business
Issues, 2, 8-11.

About the Author

Oleg Tarnopolsky
DPS, PhD
Vice-President
Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law
Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
olegtarn@fregat.com
Major research interests: Instructional methodology, English
teaching, immersion

72
 The Benefits of an Accelerated Learning Format in
Teacher Education Programs

Jan Richards

Abstract

Because our student population is increasing, 50,000 additional teachers will

be needed in the United States within the next 10 years. Overcrowded
teacher education programs in traditional universities cannot guarantee the
availability of necessary classes, however, and students desiring a teaching
credential anticipate an extended time frame for credential completion.
There is growing interest in the benefits of accelerated programs to meet
this critical need. Researchers have found that outcomes from such
compressed courses equal (or surpass) outcomes from traditional course
formats. National University employs such an accelerated format and has
been highly successful in training future teachers for California classrooms.

Key Words

Teacher education, accelerated learning, compressed learning, program

format

Introduction

Teacher retention is a critical issue in education worldwide. As baby boomers

retire, our U.S. school enrollment is projected to increase by one million
children in the next 10 years, and 50,000 additional teachers will be needed
to fill the gap (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Because teacher
education programs in traditional universities cannot guarantee the
availability of necessary classes, students desiring a teaching credential
experience frustration, anticipating a longer time frame for credential
completion and entrance into the classroom. As a consequence, there has
been growing interest in the benefits of accelerated programs to meet this
need, and nontraditional students (adult learners) are entering them in large
numbers (Wlodkowski & Kasworm, 2003).

These non-traditional learners are very practical. They have limited time for
study and need more flexibility and convenience than do traditional
students. More than 250 U.S. colleges and universities currently offer such
accelerated programs, and it is projected that 25 percent or more of all adult
students will be enrolled in accelerated programs within the next 10 years

73
(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2001). Accelerated learning is
being looked at worldwide as a possible vehicle for educating more of the
population in less time.

What Are Accelerated Courses and Programs?

These programs are structured to take less time than conventional programs
to attain a degree or credential. Accelerated courses are often taught
sequentially (one at a time) rather than in the traditional parallel fashion in
which several classes are taken at once. Rather than splitting one’s focus
between several subjects for one semester, the student focuses on one
subject at a time with deeper concentration

Most traditional universities use a parallel style format, while universities

that have accelerated programs such as National University use a sequential
model for all programs. Greiner, Serdyukov, Tatum, Subbotin, and
Serdyukova (2005) would contend that such a sequential model meets the
needs of adult learners better than the traditional parallel model since it
seems to reduce the number of distractions in students’ lives so that they
can give more focused attention to one subject. Students have shared that
this “one class at a time” format allows them to focus all their attention and
energy on one subject and that the learning tends to be deeper.

Accelerated learning formats require the same number of class hours as a

conventional format, but these hours are compressed into fewer weeks.
Accelerated courses have five common characteristics: “short duration, more
frequent and lengthier lessons, compressed learning information, efficient
activities, and intense learning processes” (Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2004).
Evidence suggests that such accelerated learning programs are very
effective with nontraditional learners, operate at lower costs, and have
outcomes that are comparable (and often superior) to traditional university
formats (Wlodkowski & Kasworm, 2003).

Who Are These Students?

“The typical adult student in an accelerated program is a thirty-six-year-old

white woman who is married, working full time outside the home, and with
more than fifteen years of work experience” (Wlodkowski, Mauldin, and
Gahn, 2001; Wlodkowski and Westover, 1999). They have limited time for
study and need more flexibility and convenience than do traditional students
(Wlodkowski, 2003). Most nontraditional students work more than 20 hours a
week and have families. They cannot do college living in a dorm! Adult

74
learners “tend to prefer single-concept, single-theory courses that focus
heavily on the application of the concept to relevant problems” (Zemke &
Zemke, 1981, p. 609). They are very efficiency-minded asking, “What is the
cheapest, easiest, fastest way to learn to do that?”

Why Do Students Choose Accelerated Classes/Programs?

What Are the Benefits?

Time is the first important reason students choose an accelerated format.

Convenience of learning is another. These are working adults who value a
program that can be finished in a shorter time. They are older than
traditional college students and are trying to balance their work life, home
life, and school. Time is precious for these adult learners and a shorter,
compressed schedule of courses is appealing. In addition, classes are
scheduled far ahead so that students see each month’s course completion as
a step toward their goal. According to Serdyukov, et al. (2005), the benefits
of accelerated learning are as follows: they

 Enhance students’ learning and development by keeping them

focused on the given subject matter and learning;
 Allow students to achieve their goals faster through condensed short-
duration courses;
 Allow compression of the overall time of instructional time while
increasing productivity of learning providing comparable or
superior outcomes;
 Offer a flexible accommodation to the needs and conditions of working
adults making learning more convenient;
 Increase accessibility, flexibility, and convenience of learning raises the
quality of education, and generally boosts students’ satisfaction.

What Are the Criticisms of Accelerated Learning Formats?

Why is Compressed Learning Controversial?

Such compression of classes is thought by some to lead to weaker learning

outcomes and that the crammed curriculum does not allow adequate time
for reflection and deep learning. Critics propose that the quality of learning is
a function of hours in the classroom. The longer the class, the more content
will be covered. In a comprehensive review of 100 articles, however, Scott
& Conrad (1991) concluded that outcomes from compressed courses equal
(and sometimes surpass) outcomes from traditional course formats. In
comparative courses such as law, computer science, and business
administration, the outcomes showed either no significant difference

75
between traditional formats and compressed formats or that outcomes of
compressed learning were stronger. The researchers added that “students
were often motivated, excited, and inspired by intensive course experiences
and that concentrated learning generated a level of satisfaction unlike that
experienced in traditional-length courses” (p. 444).

In the Seamon study (2004), for example, psychology classes were

compared — one a semester-long class and one an intensive format:

Students in the intensive version of the course performed significantly

better than students in the semester-length course on posttests of
content and questions tapping higher-order learning. The two groups
did not differ significantly in their affinity for learning…, age or GPA,
suggesting the superior performance was the result of the intensive
course format and not any pre-existing student characteristics. (p.1,
abstract)

When psychology teachers were surveyed on student preference between

intensive formats or semester-length courses, they overwhelmingly rated
the accelerated classes as more satisfying.

Quality of Accelerated Learning Courses and Accelerated Programs

Wlodkowski (2003) addresses some of the measures of quality in higher

education that have been applied to accelerated learning programs: (1)
accreditation, (2) learning, (3) student attitudes, and (4) alumni attitudes.

Accreditation

Regional accrediting bodies such as the Western Association of Schools and

Colleges (WASC) are a public indication that a college or university has met
acceptable academic standards and has the resources to provide a
satisfactory higher education experience. Departments within a school (such
as the School of Education) have their own accrediting bodies as well. In
California, for example, teacher education programs are evaluated by the
California Credentialing of Teacher Education (CCTC). National University is
approved by WASC and the credential program is in good standing with
CCTC.

76
Learning

Although there remains the strong notion that learning is less effective when
presented in less than the traditional amount of time, results of research do
not bear that out. Conversely, researchers found that time studying did not
necessarily bring more learning. When recent researchers compared the
performance of younger (traditional) students with that of older students
taking the same course in an accelerated format, the results indicated no
difference in the levels of learning (Wlodkowski and Westover, 1999;
Wlodkowski, Iturralde-Albert, and Mauldin, 2000). They found that the
average performance of the older student was in fact higher than the
average performance of younger students in traditional courses.
Consistently, the outcomes showed either no statistically significant
difference or that compressed classes were stronger.

In assessing the quality of learning, Swenson (2003) asks two important

questions: “At the end of an independent lesson…courses, or program, ‘do
learners know they should know? Can they do what they should be able to
do?’. . . There should be no differences in expectation regarding quality
practices or outcomes.” Learning should become the purpose of education
and “formats are judged by how much learning takes place” (p. 86).

Student Attitudes

Like students in traditional programs, adults in accelerated classes evaluate

their learning experience as positive (Scott and Conrad, 1992). Kasworm
(2001) found that in accelerated programs, students perceived their
experience to be “a supportive world defined for adult learners” (p. 2)
compared with their previous experience in traditional colleges during their
younger days. The students perceived that the program offered them a
world of structure: the program was predictable, the courses were taken one
at a time, and there was a foreseeable timeline to completion. “The
accelerated degree program was seen as locking them into a learning
process that held them in place and that pushed them to completion”
(Kasworm, 2001, p. 8).

Learning one subject at a time was an important asset of an

accelerated learning experience so there was no focus overload of
learned information. . . . These students valued their fellow adult
learners as key personal supporters to help them learn and cope with
the complexities of their lives. They became a quasi-family of caring
and supportive adults faced with adult life demands. (Kasworm, 2001,
p. 7)

77
Alumni Attitudes

Because alumni have acquired experience in the workplace after completing

their program in accelerated classes, their perceptions of the value of their
education are valuable. Similar to the Wlodkowski and Westover (1999)
study, the results of a 2005 alumni survey of satisfaction at National
University (NU) indicated that graduates were very satisfied with the quality
of their education. An overwhelming majority of alumni indicated that their
career success is greater as a result of their National University degree and
that they would recommend this program (Alumni Feature Assessment,
2005). When asked what convinced them to enroll at National University,
the top three responses were (1) accelerated one month format; (2) evening
course schedules; and (3) convenient/numerous learning centers.

In a university where all courses are taken in a one-course/one-month

format, these alumni results indicate that students in all schools and
departments, in undergraduate and graduate levels (1) were very satisfied
with the format and accessibility of classes; (2) believed their education was
relevant to their chosen work; and (3) viewed the academic rigor as strong.

Teacher Education Program

National University “recommends more teachers for credentialing than any

other single institution in California” (Factbook, 2006). The School of
Education is by far the largest at National University, and the credential
program is a thriving part of it. Graduates of the National University
Credential program are asked to participate in an exit survey at the
completion of the program that measures the quality of instruction and the
relevance of classes to their experience in the classroom. Like other
programs, these classes are presented in an accelerated format: one-
class/one-month both online and on ground. Classes meet two evenings a
week for 4 ½ hours as well as the final Saturday of the month for a total of
nine classes or 45 contact hours. This “situated learning” has a practical
focus that is tied to real classroom activities, observations, videos of
classroom performance, etc. The Methodology courses use practical, hands-
on learning experiences and demonstrations, the study of teaching
strategies, and lesson plan development.

In the Teacher Education Exit Survey (2004), participants were asked to (1)
rate the quality of instruction and faculty in their program; (2) rate the
degree the credential program enhanced their ability to manage behavior of
students and to teach students from diverse ethnic backgrounds; and (3)
rate the value of each class to the development of their teaching ability.
Similar to the results of the alumni survey, 83.4% of students completing

78
the Credential Program Exit Survey rated the quality of teaching as “very
good-exceptional;” 76% of the participants rated the credential program as
enhancing their ability to manage student behavior as good to exceptional
(this question connects with the real daily life experience of a teacher); 90%
rated the preparation to teach students from diverse ethnic backgrounds
very good-exceptional; and 80% rated the entire program as good to
exceptional. Student satisfaction and academic performance reported in the
Teacher Education Exit Survey mirror the results and conclusions put forth in
all studies of accelerated learning programs and courses described in this
paper.

Conclusion

The critical need to train more teachers for the classrooms of the 21 st century
is without dispute. Student populations are increasing worldwide, Baby
Boomer teachers are approaching retirement, and teacher retention rates
remain unsatisfactory. The benefits of an accelerated learning program in
which students with bachelor’s degrees can complete all class work and
required state tests of competence and be ready to enter the fieldwork
segment of their program in one year needs serious consideration. If we can
prepare our future teachers well in a shorter period of time and can
demonstrate that these students are getting a strong education, one that
readies them for today’s classroom challenges, more universities worldwide
would do well to consider adding this compressed format to their traditional
offerings. Both students and instructors appreciate the convenience, the
shorter time frame, and the real-world emphasis accelerated programs
afford. Perhaps it is time that more universities take a second look at their
options in order to serve their students more fully.

References

Alumni Feature Assessment. (2004). National University. La Jolla, CA. Copies

of these survey results are available through the Research Analyst in
the Office of Educational Effectiveness and Assessment.

Factbook. (2006.) National University. La Jolla, CA.

Greiner, C., Serdyukova, N., Subbotin, I. & Serdyukov, P. (2005). A changing

paradigm of adult learning: Accessible, accelerated, adaptable,
applicable. Proceedings of the XCCE 2006 World Conference on
Computers in Education, Cape Town, July 2005.

79
Kasworm, C. (2003). From the adult student’s perspective: Accelerated
degree programs. New Directions for Adults and Continuing Education,
97, 7-27.

Kasworm, C., A case study of adult learner experiences of an accelerated

degree program. Paper presented at the Symposium, "Accelerated
Degree Learning in Higher Education: Learners, Programs, and Policy"
at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association (AERA) "What We Know and How We Know It" (82nd,
Seattle, WA, April 10-14, 2001).

National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). Digest of education

statistics 2000. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Scott, P.A. & Conrad, C. (1992). A critique of intensive courses and an

agenda for research. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and
Research (J. C. Smart, Ed.). NY: Agathod Press.

Scott, P.A., & Conrad, C.F. (1991). A critique of intensive courses and an
agenda for research. ERIC Reproduction Document Service No. ED
337087.

Seamon, M. (2004). Short- and long-term differences in instructional

effectiveness between intensive and semester-length courses.
Teachers College Record 106(4), 635-650. http://www.tcrecord.org
ID Number: 11537.

Serdyukov, P., Tatum, B.C., Greiner, C., Subbotin, I., & Serdyukova, N. (2005,
April). What is effective in teaching and learning: Instructional
methodologies, tools, and student learning experiences? Presentation
at the 81st Annual Meeting of the Western Association of Schools and
Colleges, San Diego, CA.

Serdyukov, P. and Serdyukova, N. (2004). Intensive short-term learning:

Some approaches to contemporary adult education. Int. J. Cont.
Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, 14(1/2), 58-67.

Swenson, C. (2003). Accelerated and traditional formats: Using learning as a

criterion for quality. New Directions for Adults and Continuing
Education, 97, 83-92.

Teacher Education Exit Survey. (2004). National University. La Jolla, CA.

Copies of these survey results available through the Research Analyst
in the Office of Educational Effectiveness and Assessment.

80
U.S. Department of Education. (1999). No end in sight: A back to school
special report on the baby boom echo. Washington, DC: Author.
Retrieved 09/12/07, from
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed436487.html

Wlodkowski, R. (2003, Spring). Accelerated learning in colleges and

universities. New Directions for Adults and Continuing Education, 97,
5-16.

Wlodkowski, R. & Kasworm, C. (2003). Accelerated learning: Future roles

and influences. New Directions for Adults and Continuing
Education, 97, 93-97.

Wlodkowski, R.J., Mauldin, J.E. and Gahn, S.W. (2001). Learning in the fast
lane: Adult learners’ persistence and success in accelerated college
programs. Indianapolis: Lumina Foundation for Education.

Wlodkowski, R., Iturralde-Albert, L, and Mauldin, J. (2000). Report on

accelerated learning project: Phase 4. Denver: Center of the Study of
Accelerated Learning. Regis University.

Wlodkowski, R. & Westover, T.N. (1999). Accelerated courses as a learning

format for adults. Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education,
13(1), 1-20.a.

Zemke, R. & Zemke, S. (1981). 30 things we know for sure about adult
learning. Training: The Magazine of Human Resources Development.
Minneapolis, Lakewood Publications.

About the Author

Jan Richards
Ed. D.
Associate Professor
Department of Teacher Education
National University
Ontario, CA USA Email:
jrichard@nu.edu
Major research interests: Principal/teacher relationship, character
education, emotional intelligence

81
 Algorithms and Fundamental Concepts of Calculus

Igor Ya. Subbotin and N. N. Bilotskii

Abstract

An elementary function is one of the foundational notions of

Precalculus and Calculus courses. However, many Calculus textbooks
do not provide students with a clear definition of the elementary
function or simply avoid it completely. Many other books are saturated
with errors connected with this. In the present article, the authors
discuss their approach consisting of introducing the notion of an
elementary function via linear algorithms. Our experience in teaching
at National University, California, USA, Kiev National University of
Technology (KPI), and Kiev National Pedagogic University confirms the
effectiveness of this approach.

Key Words

Elementary functions, algorithms.

Introduction

Mathematics is the art and science of solving problems based on logic.

The main expected product of a mathematical research is an
algorithm. According to Wertheimer (1959), while solving a problem
the student is supposed to be able to develop the overall structure:

A certain region in the field becomes crucial, is focused; but it

does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural view of the
situation develops, involving changes in functional meaning, the
grouping, etc. of the items. Directed by what is required by the
structure of a situation for a crucial region, one is led to a
reasonable prediction, which like the other parts of the structure,
calls for verification, direct or indirect. Two directions are
involved: getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing what the
structure of the whole requires for the parts. (212)

This process is supposed to be supplemented with an algorithm

consisting from the main passes toward the final solution. A clear and
logically completed algorithmic block scheme is a great visual support

82
for instruction. There is a well-established tradition to use these
schemes not only to illustrate solutions or proofs, but mainly to reflect
graphically some sophisticated concepts (Triola, 2004, 272). Other
good examples are proves of the theorems written in the traditional
form in many Geometry textbooks (see, for example, Alexander and
Koeberlein, 1999, 104). More specific information regarding algorithms
in the secondary school mathematics can be found in the collection of
works NCTM (1998).

According to Google, there are dozens of different explanations

(mistakenly called definitions in some broader, rough, and non-
mathematical meaning) of the concept of algorithm. We selected here
some examples, each of which is interesting in some specific sense.

1. “An explicit step-by-step procedure for producing a solution to a

given problem” (www.racteam.com/LANLRisk/Glossary.htm).

2. “An algorithm is a procedure or formula for solving problems”

(www.stallion.com.au/html/support/glossary.html).

3. “An algorithm is a mathematical function that is used to encrypt and

decrypt information” (www.pki.vt.edu/help/glossary.html).

4. “A finite set of well-defined rules for the solution of a problem in a

finite number of steps” (www.sabc.co.za/manual/ibm/9agloss.htm).

The first statement is the best possible, general illumination of the

notion of algorithm in a common sense meaning. The second quote
underlines the equivalence between an algorithm and a formula. This
is a very thoughtful idea. Understanding of the language of formulas is
the effective shield against math phobia. Formulas are just short-
coded notations of algorithms. The third definition is very far from the
reality and, in general, is wrong. It demonstrates the unfamiliarity with
such a main mathematical concept as the function is. However, it uses
the word function, which is one of the key words for the current article.
The last one operates with the imperative concept of finite number of
steps. Actually there are many algorithms in mathematics that use
infinite numbers of steps. Even the algorithm for a long division of 1 by
3 is infinite. Perhaps, the authors of this “definition” mean that the
algorithm consists from a finite number of rules and directions. Finite
algorithms play a central role in our consideration. More useful and
precise information about the algorithm can be found in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm.

83
In Mingus (1998), the following, more suitable description of the
general notion of algorithm is given:

An algorithm is a computational recipe for the systematic execution

of a procedure designed to solve a specific problem that maintains
the following characteristics:

1. Input data along with a finite set of instructions are given.

2. A computing agent reacts to the input and instructions and
carries out the steps.
3. Intermediate results are stored and used.
4. The computation is carried out in a discrete, stepwise fashion.
5. The computing agent interprets the set of instructions in such a
way that computation is carried out deterministically, without resort
to random methods. (34)

First, we recall that the concept of algorithm is intuitive. In general, we

can describe it as “an explicit step-by-step procedure for producing a
solution to a given problem”
(www.racteam.com/LANLRisk/Glossary.htm). In Malcev (1980), the
notion of algorithm is defined using the following restrictions:

1. The Discreteness of an Algorithm: an algorithm is a process of the

sequential constructing of a value in a discrete time such that the main
initial system of values is given at the beginning; at each following
moment the system of values is derived by the given rule (program)
from the system of values presented at a preceding moment.

2. The Determination of an Algorithm: the system of values at a

present (non-initial) moment is uniquely determined by the system of
values at a preceding moment of time.

3. The Elementary Character of an Algorithm Stages: the rule

(program), by which at every moment a system of values is derived
from the system of values presented at a preceding moment must be
simple and local.

4. The Directedness of an Algorithm: if the way of determining of some

value from a preceding value cannot be realized, then in this case the
clear direction defining the result of the algorithm needs to be given.

5. The Array Property of an Algorithm: the initial system of values

might be chosen from a potentially infinite set.

84
It is well known that the algorithms are equivalent to the enumerative
functions. By the famous Church's thesis (Maltsev, 1980) the class of
the latter coincides with the class of recursive functions. So, the
notions of an algorithm and a recursive function are equivalent. This
idea is a very constructive power tool allowing us to justify the
existence and, more importantly, inexistence of any possible
algorithmic process. We need to admit that behind any mathematical
concept there is an algorithm realizing computations or proofs. We will
apply the concept of algorithm for clarification of some very basic
ideas of Calculus course.

All key concepts of Calculus deal with elementary functions, such as

polynomials, rational functions, exponential functions, logarithmic
functions, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, and so
on. Well-known examples of non-elementary functions are the
Dirichlet function (f(x) = 0 for all rational numbers x; and f(x) = 1 for all
irrational x); the function f(x) = [x] (the whole part of a number), f
x
e
(x)   dx, f (x)  sin(x2 )dx ; and others. We cannot expect
x
clear understanding of central Calculus theorems such as theorems of
continuity, differentiability, and integrability, without detailed
comprehension of the notion of elementary functions. Actually, one
can say that the traditional Calculus course in general is the
mathematical analysis of elementary functions. At the same time,
there is a strange paradox: some Calculus textbooks do not contain
even the term "elementary functions" (Smith, 1996; Fincy, 2001;
Barnett, 1996); other popular textbooks and dictionaries just substitute
the definition of an elementary function with some approximate
narrative descriptions, or just assume that this notion is intuitively
known (Borowski, 1991; Thomas, 2000; Jonston, 2001). One also
cannot find a reasonable consistency in the textbooks, in trying to get
a more or less rigorous definition of the elementary functions. Here is
an example of a relatively good definition of the elementary function
extracted from the popular Calculus textbook Larson (1994):

An elementary function is one that can be formed as sum,

product, or composition of functions from the following list:
polynomial functions, rational functions, functions involving
radicals, logarithmic functions, exponential functions,
trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions.

85
Notice that there is no keyword “finite” in this definition. Also, the list
of basic elementary functions, from which one can obtain all others, is
questionable.

Similar definitions from different books are dealing with distinct sets of
basic elementary functions and operations.

Before the appearance of the article Pugachov (1964), many textbooks

and dictionaries (see, for example, the very popular dictionary
Bronshtein, 1984) defined an elementary function as a function that
can be expressed with a single formula. In Pugachov (1964), the author
analyzed such an approach and constructed some counterexamples to
such kinds of definitions. However, the definition offered in Pugachov
(1964) is also far from being perfect. For instance, there are no
constants in the list of basic elementary functions, which implies, in
particular, that y = e is not an elementary function.

Perhaps one of the best possible definitions of the elementary function

useful for the beginner can be found in Schkil (1994).

The following functions are the basic elementary functions:

1. The power function y  xα (α is a real number);

2. The exponential y  (a  0, a  1)
function ax
3. The logarithm function y  loga x (x  0, a  0, a  1) ;
4. The trigonometric function y  sin x ;
5. The inverse trigonometric functions y  arc sin x, y  arc tan x ;
6. The constant function y = C.

All other elementary functions could be generated from the list above
by:

1) Applying the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division to the basic elementary functions and
numbers, and
2) Using composition of some basic elementary functions, or, in
other words, constructing a composite function.

Definition 1 (Schkil, 1994): A function that could be formed as an

analytic expression using some basic elementary functions listed
above with the help of the finite amount of operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplications, division, and function composition on the

86
basic elementary functions and numbers, is called an elementary
function.

However, according to Vilenkin (1978), the list of the basic elementary

functions can be reduced to the following:
1 p p
y  x, y  (x  0), y  ex , y  ln x(x  0), y  sin x, y  arcsin x (-  x  ).
x 2 2

Let us briefly explain this choice. The main ideas of the classification
in Vilenkin (1978) are that the class of functions from the general
Calculus could be described by the following: select some main
functions from this class and define the operations to be applied to
these functions in order to get a function from this class (the closure
property). Based on this concept, the authors proved that the above-
mentioned set of basic elementary functions is sufficient for the
Calculus needs. Another interesting and central question is: why do we
choose the set of basic functions listed above? In Vilenkin (1978), the
authors observe that the multiplicative group Rx of the field R of all real
numbers is a direct sum of the group D of order two and the
multiplicative group R+ of all positive real numbers. The group D
defines the sign of a number and the group R + its absolute value. One
of the remarkable mathematical facts is that the groups R + and Q (the
additive group of the field R) are isomorphic. This way we justify the
existence of the functions y  ex , y  ln x(x  0) from the list above. The
justification for trigonometric functions is coming from the definition of
the exponential function of a complex variable. It is interesting to note
that this approach is also based on the homomorphism of the additive
group of real numbers on the group  | y  R} , or on the
T {e iy

multiplicative group of all complex numbers with the module is 1. The

function y  arcsin is included in the list as the inverse function
x
for y  sin x .

Using Definition 1, one can easily prove that all rational functions
(including polynomials), all power functions with any real exponent,
trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are elementary. The
operations of addition and multiplication, and inverse operations of
subtraction and division are chosen here as the main operations of a
numerical field. The principle of selecting the above functions as the
basic elementary functions can be rigorously justified using Group
Theory methods. This approach definitely cannot be used for
introducing elementary functions to beginners since it is based on
some deep ideas of Abstract Algebra.

87
A numerical function is determined by its domain and its mapping
relation, which is a computational algorithm allowing us calculate a
value of the function corresponding to the given value of the
independent variable. So we can think of functions as computational
algorithms. It is logical to select from the set of all functions the
subset of elementary functions imposing some specific restrictions on
these computational algorithms. From this standpoint, it is natural to
give the following new definition.

Definition 2: A function is called an elementary function if it can be

represented using a linear algorithm (an algorithm which does not
include loops and branching), each node of which is either computing
of a value of one of the basic elementary functions or performing
addition and multiplication of real numbers.

Note that our definition avoids the operations on functions including

the composition of functions. Moreover, even more complicated for the
beginner, the concept of a composite function becomes clear with the
algorithmic approach. This could be useful in the study of such a
critical topic as the rule of differentiation of composite functions (the
chain rule). Another benefit of this approach is clarifying the concept of
a mathematical formula as a short record of a computational
algorithm. This approach also explains the above-mentioned concept
of a function given by a single formula. It just means a single linear
algorithm defining a function. There are some simple examples of
functions that are initially defined by branching algorithms but could
be represented via linear algorithms. For instance, the function f(x) =
| x | can be also defined as f (x)  x2 . We would like to bring here
some less obvious examples having also some theoretical value
(Pugachov, 1964).

Let us consider the following functions:

 f1(x),   x  a1;   φ1(x),   x  a1; 

f (x), a  x  a ; φ (x), a  x  a ;
(1) 
y  2 1 2 and (2) y  2 1 2 
,
  ................................
............................
   
 fn (x), an1  x  ; φn (x), an1  x  ;

where f₁(x),f₂(x),...,fn (x), φ₁(x), φ₂(x),..., φn(x) are elementary

functions, satisfying the conditions:
φ₁(a₁)=φ₂(a₁)=A₁,φ₂(a₂)=φ₃(a₂)= A₂,...,φn-1(an-1)= φn (an) =An-1.

88
This construction does not allow us to find a value of y by using a linear
algorithm; however, by using some auxiliary functions, it is possible to
define (1) and (2) with a single formula. Let:
1  | x - a1 | 
u (x)  1- , (x) 1  | x - an1 | 
u1   n   1-  ,
2 x-a 2 x-a
1   | x - ak1 1|  | x - ak |  n1 

u (x)  1 1 , k  2, 3,..., n -1
k   
4 x - ak 1  x - ak 

It is easy to see that (1) could be represented by the following single

formula:

y(x)=u₁(x)f₁(x)+u₂(x)f₂(x)+...+un (x)fn(x).

Similarly for (2) we introduce the functions

x  a1 - | x - a1 | x  an-1  | x - an-1 |
v (x)
1
 , vn (x)  ,
2 2
x  ak -1  | x - ak -1 | x  ak  | x - ak |
v (x)  - , k  2, 3,..., n -1.
k
2 2

Now the function (2) can be written as the following single expression:

y(x)= φ₁(ν₁(x))+ φ₂(ν₂(x))+...+ φn(νn(x))- φ₁(a₁)-φ₂(a₂)-...-φ n-1 (a ).

n-1

So, since the functions (1) and (2) have been given by single formulas
(i.e. by linear algorithms) on each interval from the given finite set of
intervals, we were able to find a single linear algorithm defining each
of these functions (1) and (2) on their domains.

We were able to extend this approach on the case of infinite amount of

intervals.

Definition 3: A function f(x) defined on D(f) is called locally

elementary in D(f) if for any point x 0 ∈ D(f) there exists a δ-
neighborhood O(x0,δ)⊂ D(f) of x0 such that there is a function φ(x)
given by a single formula for which φ(xδ) = f(xδ) for all xδ∈ O(x0,δ).

For a locally elementary function f, its domain D(f) is an open set. In

connection with this, observe that not every elementary function is a

89
locally elementary function. For example, the function y = arcsin x,
where D(y) = [-π/2,π/2] is an elementary function, but not is a locally
elementary function in its domain. Moreover, there are some non-
elementary functions, which are locally elementary in their domains.
To prove this we will consider the following function given on (0, 1):

 1 
 x2 ,0  x  ; 
2
 
1 2
 2x 3 , x ; 
(3)  2 3 
y ...................
 n 1 n 
nxn1, x ;
 
 n n 1 
..................
 

It is obvious that the function y(x) is a locally elementary in D(y) = (0,

1). On the other hand, in order to define all values for this function one
should compute the values of y = xⁿ for every n∈ , which means that
the process of calculation is not linear. Notice that the function is
continuous on (0, 1). The following statement is true.

Proposition 1: If a function f is locally elementary in the domain D(f),

then it is elementary on any [a,b]⊂ D(f) where a < b.

Indeed, since f is a locally elementary, at every point of the domain

D(f) there is a neighborhood containing this point on which f(x) is
defined by a single formula. The segment [a,b]⊂ D(f) is covered by
such intervals-neighborhoods. If the set of these interval is infinite,
then by the well-known Borel's lemma there exist a finite subset of this
set also covering [a,b]. This implies that the function f(x) can be
represented with a single formula on [a,b].

The following definition naturally generalizes both notions of

elementary and locally elementary functions.

Definition 4: A function f(x) is called locally elementary on its domain

D(f) if for an arbitrary x0∈D(f) there exists a δ-neighborhood O(xo,δ)⊂ R
of the point x0 such that there is a function φ(x) given by a single
formula for which φ(xδ)=f(xδ) for all xδ∈D(f)∩O(x0,δ).

90
It is not difficult to show that every basic elementary function from the
list above is locally elementary on the corresponding domains.
Moreover, every elementary function is also locally elementary
function on its domain. In fact, if O(x0,δ) is a δ-neighborhood of a point
x0 ∈D(f), then all conditions of Definition 3 are valid. Hence O(xo,δ)⊂ R,
D(f)∩ O(xo,δ) = O(xo,δ) and all conditions of Definition 4 are also
satisfied. However, Definitions 3 and 4 are not equivalent. Class of
functions that elementary on their domains does not coincide with the
class of locally elementary in their domains functions. In particular, a
function can be an elementary function, but not a locally elementary in
its domain.

Proposition 2: (1) Any elementary function and any locally

elementary in D(f) function is locally elementary on D(f); (2) Class of
locally elementary on its domain functions includes as proper
subclasses the class of all elementary functions and the class of all
locally elementary in the corresponding domains functions; (3) The
classes of elementary functions and locally elementary in their
domains functions do not contain each other. They overlap on their
proper parts.

It is well known that a finite set of arithmetic operations on continuous

functions leads us to a continuous function. Since every basic
elementary function is continuous in its domain, it follows that every
elementary function is continuous in its domain. The same arguments
prove the following:

Proposition 3: (1) A locally elementary in its domain function is

continuous at every interior point of its domain; (2) A locally
elementary on its domain function is continuous at every point of its
domain (taking in account the one-sided continuity at the limit points).

Due to the stated above, the function (3) is continuous on (0, 1). It is
interesting to admit that this function has an antiderivative Y(x) on (0,
1) defined as the following:

91
  x3 1 
  C ,0  x 2 ;
3 1 
 
 2x4  C , 1  x  2 ; 
 2 3
(4) Y 4 2 ,
 ................... 
 n2 n 1 n
nx
  Cn x ;
n n 1 
,
 n  2 .................. 
 
n3
n
Cn1  Cn  n2
A1  a, a  R, n  □ .
(n 1) (n  2)(n  3)

It is clear that Y(x) is differentiable and non-elementary on (0, 1) but

locally elementary on this interval.

In conclusion, we would like to point out that we developed many

exercises based on the above-mentioned material. Practicing with
them helps our students to master such important concepts as the
concepts of elementary functions, composite functions, continuous
functions, and a deeper understand the topological properties of the
number line.

References

Alexander, D. & Koeberlein, G. (1999). Elementary Geometry for

College Students. Boston: Houghton Miflin Co.

Barnett, R.A. & Zeegler, M.R. (1996). Calculus for Business,

Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences. Upper Saddle
River: Prentice Hall.

Borowski, E.J. & Borwein, J.M. (1991). The Harper-Collins Dictionary.

Mathematics. New York: Harper-Collins.

Bronshtein, I.N. & Semendyaev, K.A. (1980). Dictionary of Mathematics

for Engineers and College Students. Moscow:
Nauka.

Fincy, R.L., Weir, M.D. & Giordano, F.R. (2001). Calculus. Boston:
Addison Wesley.

Jonston, L.H. & Mathews, J.C. (2001). Calculus. Boston: Addison

92
 Wesley.

Larson, R.E., Hostetler, R.P. & Edwards, B.H. (1994). Calculus with
Analytic Geometry. Lexington: D.C. Heath and Co.

Maltsev, A.I. (1980). Algorithms and Recursive Functions. Moscow:

Nauka.

Mingus, T.T.Y. & Grassl, R.M. (1998). Algorithmic and recursive

thinking. Current beliefs and their implications for the future.
The teaching and learning of algorithms in school mathematics,
32-43. Yearbook, NCTM, Reston.

Pugachov, B.P. (1964). On some error in calculus books. Uspehi. Math.

Nauks, 234.

Skill, N.I. (1994). Mathematical Analysis. Kiev: Vyscha Skola.

Smith, D.A. & Moore, L.C. (1996). Calculus Modeling and Applications.
Lexington: D.C. Heath and Co.

Thomas, G.B., Finney, R.L. & Weir, M.D. (2000). Calculus and Analytic
Geometry, (Alternate Edition). New York: Addison Wesley.

Triola, M. (2004). Elementary Statistics. Boston: Pearson Education.

Vilenkin, N.Ya. & Bloch, A.Ya. (1978). Elementary functions in the

school course of mathematics. Mathematics in School, 3, 53-57.

Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive Thinking (Enlarged Ed.). New York:

Harper & Row.

About the Authors

Igor Ya. Subbotin

PhD
Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
National University
Los Angeles, CA USA
isubboti@nu.edu

93
Major research interests: Algebra, group theory, mathematics
education.

N. N. Bilotskii
PhD
Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics,
Kiev National Pedagogic University
Kiev, Ukraine
mikbil@mail.ru
Major research interests: Mathematical analysis, algebra, mathematics
education

94
 Accelerated General Physics:
Real Challenges and Possible Solutions

Nataliya Serdyukova

Abstract

Accelerated learning approaches require effective instructional

methodology to ensure the necessary quality of the learning outcomes.
Educational and psychological research determined there should be a
sufficient number of repetitions of the same material in the learning
process to provide for understanding and retention. Simple repetition,
however, is insufficient; it takes several spaced cycles to achieve the
desired result. An Iterative Instructional Model was developed to
explain the process of effective learning based on spaced repetitions
and implemented in teaching an accelerated General Physics unit.
Theoretical foundations, research and practical implications of cyclic,
iterative learning are presented.

Key Words

General Physics, accelerated learning, cyclic learning, iteration,

retention

Introduction

Accelerated learning is a growing trend in today’s adult higher

education (Wlodkowsky, 2003). Working adults who need higher
degrees, new specializations and continuous professional development
are looking for accessible, flexible, customized, convenient and,
especially, fast educational opportunities (Greiner et al., 2005). The
major problem for adult learners is the limited time they can allocate
for learning due to their hectic lifestyles and numerous job, family and
other responsibilities (Serdyukov et al., 2003). Universities and
colleges competing for students thus have to provide a variety of
programs in new, short-term formats, including accelerated,
compressed, short-term and intensive ones. Innovative instructional
approaches, however, need more research into the nature of
accelerated learning and, especially, in particular strategies and
techniques that would help learners achieve desired learning outcomes
in a short time. Without effective teaching models for serving adult

95
learners, colleges and universities may face educational quality and,
consequently, enrollment problems. The development of new
paradigms of learning is pursued with the most important goal in
mind: teaching for long-term retention and transfer (Helpern & Hakel,
2004).

Accelerated Physics Course

The accelerated learning model used at National University is

distinguished from traditional educational systems by its 1x1 format:
one-month-long course delivery in a one-course-at-a-time learning
process. Compressing semester-long courses in the one-month format
is a complicated task, especially when the courses, such as General
Physics, require substantial knowledge base, specific learning skills
and extensive cognitive and physical efforts (Serdyukova, 2005).
Clearly, effective instructional design and non-conventional
methodological, psychological, and organizational solutions are
needed.

The General Physics course unit was first developed and introduced at
National in 2003. It includes a theoretical SCI 104 and a practical SCI
104A General Physics Lab courses, which are offered sequentially, one
after another. The need for Physics comes from teachers of Science
and Physics, as well as from engineers for whom it is a prerequisite
class. In five years, enrollment in these classes has grown from 10 to
50 students per year with a projected number of more than 100
students in the year 2007-2008 and a tendency to grow.

The challenges in teaching General Physics in an accelerated course

were identified through surveying students in the years 2004-2007.
They are as follows:

• Considerable temporal interval between students’ taking this

class and their previous learning (high school or college).
• Insufficient level of preparation in Physics and sciences in
general as well as in math obtained at high school.
• Lack of specific skills, such as conceptualization, research,
problem solving, and other cognitive skills required in a science
class.
• Short, accelerated format of instruction that compresses all
major parts of physics into a two one-month terms while
attempting to develop theoretical knowledge and practical skills
necessary for their further work.

96
The first three issues are, evidently, beyond the scope of current
research and the instructor usually has to make specific adaptations in
his or her instructional approach to students’ entry competency level.
The accelerated course format, however, needs special consideration.
A compressed, accelerated course means shorter duration but also
longer classes with shorter time intervals between them, which may
affect retention of the new information. In view of these challenges, an
accelerated General Physics two-course unit cannot be delivered in two
months using traditional methodology and necessitates an innovative
approach to course and learning process design, planning and
organization, as well as more effective instructional strategies and
techniques. The goal of these courses remains to provide learning
outcomes comparable to the traditional semester-long course offered
in the same 45-hour classes. This requirement of academic quality in
this course could be met as there had been research confirming its
feasibility based on comparing learning outcomes of Algebra courses
taught in accelerated and traditional formats (Serdyukov, Subbotin &
Serdyukova, 2003). It was expected this goal could be achieved in
General Physics classes as well.

The learning outcomes of the General Physics unit (NU Catalog, 2007)
were recognized as follows: In Physics students should to be able to:

 Identify and define physical quantities.

 Demonstrate understanding of major laws of Physics.
 Apply the laws of mechanics, hydrostatics, kinetic theory of
gases, heat and work, electromagnetism, oscillatory motion and
waves, electricity and magnetism, and optics for explaining
physical phenomena and solving problems.

In order to be able to do it, students will have to:

 Gain new knowledge and insight into everyday phenomena

based on fundamental physical principles.
 Develop critical analytical skills to evaluate physical phenomena
and their effects by developing clarity in definition, consistency
in logic and the search for adequacy of evidence.
 Develop a clear understanding of scientific method and its
application to the fundamental principles governing physical
universe.
 Be able to use this knowledge and skill in solving Physics
problems as they apply in real-life situations.

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These outcomes have very pronounced practical accent and require
effective methodological approaches. A concern regarding all
accelerated programs, however, remains as to whether students really
achieve the desired learning outcomes stated in the syllabi. Two
critical issues in achieving quality learning outcomes are
understanding and retention of knowledge, which are in fact major
goals of learning.

Repetition, Iteration and Retention

Instruction starts with an elementary acknowledgment of the fact that

repeated practice or iteration is a universal method of learning.
“Repetitio est mater studiorum,” says the old Latin proverb. Often, in
the stressful, hurried process of learning, there is little opportunity to
revisit the learned material: students abandon those learning steps
where they “performed poorly.” If students could see errors, revisit
concepts and correct their understanding of how to apply them,
learning would be reinforced. One learning experience (exposure to
knowledge) is not sufficient for full understanding and retention. It has
to be reinforced and extended by re-use in identical or similar
situations. Students should be offered the opportunity to master
content and develop skills through repeated iteration (Komerath,
2001).

According to Schoenfeld, Smith and Arcavi (1993), and Aiala et al.

(2004), the growth of understanding is highly non-linear with starts and
stops; the student develops partial understandings, repeatedly returns
to the same piece of knowledge, and periodically summarizes and ties
related ideas together. This leads to the conclusion that understanding
can be reached if we accept the need for multiple iterations toward a
solution (Hmelo, Holton & Kolodner, 2000). The same repetition
procedure applies to retention as will be shown below.

There are several major factors regarding retention, as suggested by

Robertson (1970, cited in Chang, 1998):

1. Forgetting is greatest immediately following learning; thereafter,

it declines to a stable level.
2. Retention increases with repetition. However, (a) Repetition
distributed over several periods leads to greater retention than
repetition concentrated in a single period; (b) variation in form,
style, and expression during repetition, together with repetition of
main points, may result in greater retention than repetition of the
identical message; (c) the greater the complexity and length of the

98
 message, the greater the amount of repetition necessary to
produce retention; and (d) the greater the interference from
competing messages, the greater the amount of repetition
necessary to produce retention.
3. More meaningful or more vivid material is better retained than
less meaningful or less vivid material.
4. The more completely material is initially learned, the greater is
retention.
5. Material presented first (primacy) or last (recency) is better
retained than material presented in the middle (Robertson, 1970,
cited in Chang, 1998, 28-29).

Among the many instructional strategies, repetition, or rehearsal and

recall remain the primary ones that can lead to effective learning
outcomes. There is ample evidence that repetition profoundly affects
performance. “The ‘repetition effect’ – the notion that an increased
number of learning trials improves later recall – has been robustly
demonstrated throughout many decades of work” (Chiaravalloti et al.,
2003). The amount of repetition is a primary factor involved in the
learning process. "The more repetition, the greater the depth of the
learning and the slower the rate of decay" (Robertson et al., 1984,
cited in Chang, 1998, 204). “An opportunity to review previously
presented material may affect not only the quantity of what is learned
but also the quality” (Dempster, 1991, 71).

This observation is also supported by the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-

memory model, which explains that the rehearsal loop (repetition)
helps transfer information into long-term memory from the short-term
memory: “rehearsal serves the purpose of increasing the strength built
up upon in a long-term store both by increasing the length of stay in
short-term store...and by giving coding and other strategies time to
operate” (Atkinson and Shifrin, 1968). This notion is further reiterated
explaining that learning process is gradual and cumulative – the more
review, the better retention (Estes, 1962). Unfortunately, due to the
accelerated rate of the short-term, compressed courses, this critical
methodological aspect is not always taken into account though there
are definitely opportunities to increase retention through repetition.
These repetitions can be introduced during the same class, in the
course sections or in extended work on the two-course course unit.

Massed repetitions, however, because there is not much time between

them, tend to inspire a false sense of knowing or confidence...they
received relatively little [mental] attention ... Spaced repetitions, on
the other hand, are likely to encourage exactly the kind of constructive

99
mental processes, founded on effort and concentration, that teachers
hope to foster. (Dempster, 1991, 73). Research demonstrates that
various intervals between the study and testing retention of the same
material between 30 min. to 30 days and more yield better results
(Glover & Corkill, 1987; Dempster, 1991, 72-73). Distributed practice,
or spaced effect has been studied in various situations. In math
instruction, its role was expressed as follows: “Long-term retention is
best served if assignments on a particular skill are spread out in time
rather than concentrated within a short interval” (Suidam, 1985).
There has been research of repetition and space effect in mathematics
instruction (Kwon, et al., 2005; Siegler, 2003), but no research in
Physics has been identified.

Repetition helps engage students in active, conscious processing of

material. Repetitions, especially spaced repetitions, “can foster time-
on-task and help students develop and sustain positive attitudes
towards school and learning” (Dempster, 1991, 75). Repetition of a
central theme with some variation is generally considered superior to
repetition of identical messages. This finding seems to hold across a
wide variety of research. In fact, Cox and Bogart suggest that
"repetition of identical messages beyond some critical point may
actually lead to negative response" (Robertson, 1970, cited in Chang,
1998, 30). Learners can become so used to seeing or hearing the
same information that they no longer pay attention to it. This problem,
known as advertising wearout, can be alleviated by varying the way in
which the material is presented (Solomon, 1992, 107-108). Presenting
the same information in different formats or modalities can have a
more profound effect on retention than repeating it in the same form.
Improvements in learning can be achieved by proper organization of
learning, effective use of time in the classroom, iterative process,
distribution of time between learning events, spacing effect and
multimodal learning process combining textual, oral, visual and
multimedial presentation of material (Quirk, 2000).

Immediate application of the learned material in some kind of practice

enhances retention. Solving problems and doing labs are examples of
such applications. Repetition coupled with effective techniques, such
as the generation effect (Snodegrass & Kinjo, 1998) enhances
retention. The generation effect is based on students’ better
remembering the items they have generated rather than items they
have just read and memorized explains some of the activities in the
Physics class that involve students in explaining Physics concepts, in
continuous problem solving and in experimentations in the lab. So,
both the nature of the repeating event and the number of repetitions

100
determine the time course of learning (Ofen-Noy, Dudai & Karni, 2003).

It is evident, therefore, that repetition remains one of the major

strategies for understanding and retaining new information. Even more
important than repetition itself is the time interval between repetitions.
It has been proven that better retention is achieved when there is a
sufficient interval between repetitions. Frequent repetitions may
provide for better understanding and retention; however, the number
of repetitions should be reasonably limited due to restrictions of the
planned learning process. Research warns there can be a threshold
after which the number of repetitions may not have a considerable
impact on the retention.

Simple repetition, however, does not adequately describe the learning

process based on recall. It is a two-dimensional model that takes into
account only the fact of occurrence and the number of repetitions.
Iteration as a higher level concept brings the necessary clarification in
this process allowing to describe the learning process in its complexity.

Iteration, according to the Harper-Collins Mathematics Dictionary, is a

repeated application of a mathematics procedure, where each step is
applied to the output of the preceding. Merriam-Webster’s Online
Dictionary gives the following definition of iteration: “the action or a
process of iterating or repeating: as a procedure in which repetition of
a sequence of operations yields results successively closer to a desired
result.” Iteration, however, is different from repetition in that it is not a
mere replication of the previous procedure but a recurrence at a higher
level, where at each step it adds new knowledge to the previous one.
Therefore, iteration as a process presupposes a gradually expanding
set of information added to each preceding cycle to increase the initial
knowledge and bring learning at each cycle closer to the desired
outcome. This process is essentially an approximation of the current
state of the learner and learning to the desired outcomes.

In teaching and learning, iteration is a repeated procedure carried out

during a particular course, topic or lesson that provides knowledge
presentation, activation and application through a set of
interconnected iterations or cycles. Each cycle contains a model of the
whole content area approximated to a given level of knowledge. Each
subsequent cycle is based on the preceding one and adds to it some
details thus bringing a more extended and a deeper understanding.
Learning starts with the first iteration that presents the whole topic but
at first superficially, without specific details, just major concepts,

101
relationships, and an overall structure. Every subsequent iteration
adds new details to the initial presentation thus increasing its
complexity and coverage, until the topic is exhausted. The final
iteration offers an overview of the topic, recapitulating its principal
points and placing it in the framework of the whole content area or
field of study. Therefore, iteration can serve as a mechanism for
knowledge construction and management, for improving retention of
knowledge, and for effective skill development. The basic idea behind
iterative instructional model (IIM) is that the learner should learn from
previous cycles, expand knowledge and perform better at every new
cycle. Learning actually takes place in a set of iterations (Serdyukov et
al., 2004).

The iterative process of knowledge construction using IIM unwinds like

a spiral. Its goal is gradual approximation of the current knowledge in
each of the cycles to its complete representation. Each preceding cycle
grows into the subsequent one, expanding the knowledge at each
iteration. Each cycle represents a full model of the whole topic
presented at a consecutively higher level of complexity, completeness
and detail than the previous one.

IIM is applied at the presentation cycle where the content is iterated

several times in different modalities (lecture, instructor demonstration,
text, visuals, audio-visual or multimedia show and simulations). It is
important at this cycle that the topic is presented as a whole, in its
entirety, through several increasing levels of approximation. Thus,
students perceive and process information a number of times in
multiple formats, which improves understanding and retention. In the
activation cycle where problems on a given topic of the increasing level
of complexity are offered for solution, case studies are considered,
games played, discussions held, IIM is particularly useful for knowledge
construction and skill development. In the application cycle where
students demonstrate their new knowledge and skills in dealing with
various life-based situations, IIM helps to adapt new knowledge and
skills to real-life situations. At each iteration, IIM is used differently,
utilizing the same content in a number of cycles where the conditions
of content retrieval are changing until the desired outcomes are
achieved.

Iteration comes as a further development of the concept of spiral

curriculum (Bruner, 1960) and spiral stages in learning (Piaget, 1963).
There are basically two models of the learning process: linear, or
sequential, and iterative, spiral. J. Bruner writes about a spiral
curriculum: “A curriculum as it develops should revisit these basis

102
ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the
full formal apparatus that goes with them.” It “turns back on itself at
higher levels” (Bruner, 1960, 13). Unfortunately, he does not elaborate
on this idea further.

Piaget maintained that in learning there were stages that were specific
and spiral – they would build new skills based on the previous skills
developed in the preceding stages. Subsequent stages were not simple
reproductions of the initial stages but had new goals and new actions
to achieve those goals: “The learning of logical structures is based
therefore on a kind of circle or spiral, which amounts to saying that
structures constitute the product not only of learning but also of an
internal operation of equilibration” (Piaget, 1968, 104-105).

Iterative instructional model (IIM) describes learning in the following

way:

 Learning is usually taking place in cycles based on the repetition

effect.
 The learning material of each course can be repeated and
recalled in a number of cycles determined by the course content,
goals, structure, conditions of study.
 Learning process based on iteration develops as an expanding
spiral consisting of a measured number of interconnected cycles
separated in the course by intervals.
 Student knowledge is gradually expanding at each cycle by
adding new information to each preceding cycle thus
approximating the results at each cycle to the desired outcome.
 Each cycle is based on all the previous ones and adds to them
new details thus developing a deeper understanding, increasing
its complexity and coverage, until the topic is exhausted.

Learning built on the IIM is an effective cumulative process (Serdyukov

et al., 2004). The IIM, like spiral and other sequencing strategies
(progressive differentiation, hierarchical and short-path) offers a way to
develop knowledge and skills in a particular content area from the
simple to the complex.

Research establishing the optimal number of iterations and intervals

between repetitions has not been found; hence, it is important to
determine these factors experimentally to ensure the necessary
understanding and retention for a particular subject area. One major
factor in ensuring retention is the nature of the instructional approach.
Instructional strategies and activities that reduce the effect of

103
forgetting and improve long-term retention should be organized in
learning cyclic course structure. This structure may consist of the
following four cycles: presentation of the new material coupled with a
demonstration; class analysis and discussion; group and individual
applications (problem solving and/or lab experiments); and review and
assessment. Each cycle should include iterations in the quantity (at
least 6) sufficient to ensure understanding and retention. These
iterations should be distanced in one lesson (up to 30 minutes), in the
course section concentrated on the same topic (1-3 days), and in the
unit (four weeks).

Iteration in Physics Instruction

Integration of IIM in General Physics classes at National demonstrated

that iteration can take place at various levels of the course: its parts,
topics and individual units and assignments. In the accelerated course
there are five general course iterations: introduction, midterm and
final reviews, midterm and final exams. Each of the topics has the
same cyclic structure that includes introduction, presentation, student
activities, predominantly in the form of problem solving, homework
(reading textbook and solving problems), and review.

Levels of Iteration in Physics Unit

I. Unit

Theoretical – Lab courses: Actually, lab repeats the theoretical course

in its major parts but in a different environment and with new goals.

II. Theoretical and Lab courses:

Introduction into the course (overview), reviews, midterm and final.

III. Topic in theoretical course: Introduction, presentation, analysis,

problem solving, homework, and review. Topic in the lab course:
Introduction, demonstration, lab work, calculations, homework,
review.

Note: Problem solving has its own 4-5 iterations of increasing

complexity.

104
These iterations are presented below. Recall in the learning process
there are two forms of work: class and home. Each topic is developed
in four iterations in the class and two at home making a total of six.
Iterations in the course and in the topics are arranged by the class and
home work activities as follows:

Class work Homework

1. Introduction into the course (overview)

2. Introduction into the topic

3. Detailed presentation (lecture)
4. Problem solving

5. Textbook reading
7. Homework review 6. Problem solving

8. Midterm review
9. Midterm
10. Final review
11. Final exam

6
2 4 5 7
3

Figure 1: Iterative model of the topic in the course.

Instructional cycle of a topic thus consists of six iterations organized in

three cycles, as shown above. The first three iterations (2-4) are
organized in the first cycle and integrated in the initial lesson of the
topic presenting various levels of topic coverage ensuring
understanding of new material and primary retention; two homework
iterations (5-6) that comprise the second cycle are done between two
classroom cycles on the next day or two after the first one; a review
(7), which makes up the third cycle is distanced from the first two by
two or three days. Both second and third cycles are intended to
enhance retention. All three cycles provide six iterations and ensure
spaced repetition that, as was shown above must be done on the same
day, on the next day and a few days later. A lab course that basically
repeats the structure of the theoretical course, adds another cycle with

105
several iterations on each main topic. Each lab topic cycle includes the
following six iterations: Introduction, demonstration, lab work,
calculations, homework, and review. These iterations take place a
month after the theoretical course thus adding the necessary extended
repetition and recall that proved to be critical for long-term retention
(Glover & Corkill, 1987; Dempster, 1991). Consecutive structure of the
Physics unit where the lab course follows the theoretical course offers
this opportunity for spaced extended repetition that maintains and
solidifies retention.

Iteration has five parameters: a duration of the step (cycle); its

dimension (amount of info tending to expand at each cycle); the
number of iterations (repetitions); duration of the total learning period
(fixed); and the temporal intervals between each iteration. This may be
a direction for further investigation.

Accelerated theoretical General Physics classes call for a specific

instructional design involving more frequent change of instructional
activities to maintain student alertness and attention and increase
their productivity of learning. Thus, based on iterative approach,
during one 4.5-hour class students have 3-4 short 15-minute lectures
followed by the 5-10 minute lecture demonstrations, and 3-4 problem-
solving sessions lasting up to 30 minutes. Typically used strategies
include interactive lectures, lecture demonstrations, video and inquiry,
analysis and discussion of the problem-solving techniques, Q&A, and
problem solving (on the board before the class and individual. Lab
classes, due to their specificity, cannot provide this variety of activities
and frequency of iterations. Nevertheless, lab works themselves are
modified iterations of the material learned in the theoretical course,
which thus provides another level of spaced repetition separated by 30
days.

Experimentation and Discussion

To evaluate students’ knowledge retention in Physics classes a test

was given to two groups of students: one, experimental, using IIM (17
students), and the other, control, taught in a traditional way (10
students), on the topic “Electricity.” The test included the following
questions:

1. Write the formula of the Coulomb’s Law

2. Write the formula of the Ohm’s Law
3. Write the formula of the electric power

106
4. Explain what is electric current
5. Explain what is electric resistance
6. Calculate the effective resistance of a pocket calculator that has a
1.35 V battery and through which 0.2 mA flows

These questions were given to each of the groups before the topic and
after it, before the beginning of the next topic (two days later) in both
theoretical and lab classes that were separated by approximately 30
days. The results were evaluated using a 5-point scale, and an
average point was determined for each question for all students in the
group.

Table 1: Average grades in two classes

Average grades for all tests

1st class - experimental 2nd class – control
Theoretical Lab Theoretical Lab
Before After Before After Before After Before After
1.1 2.1 3.7 4.5 0.6 1.8 1.8 2.3

According to Table 1, improvements have been observed after every

repetition of the topic in both groups; however, significantly better
outcomes were noted in the experimental group that consistently used
IIM than in the control group. Each new iteration helps to raise the
grade, which can be associated with improved retention.

To compare learning in the accelerated course format using an IIM and

a traditional semester format, let’s suppose the number of iterations in
the IIM and in traditional formats is the same being determined by the
course content and requirements, and equal to n. The duration of the
accelerated Physics unit at National is eight weeks, and at the
traditional university 17 weeks. Let’s calculate the time per one
iteration (interval between two iterations) denoted as T by dividing the
total duration of the course measured in weeks by the number of
iterations n during the same time for each format:

Accelerated model Traditional semester model

T’ = x weeks T’’ = y weeks

n n

107
While at National University students take one course at a time, at a
traditional university they normally take about four courses at a time. If
we agree the number of iterations n in each course is the same, then T
for NU will be 8, and T’ for the traditional university 17
n
4n

The ratio between T and T’ thus will be T = 8 ·4 n = 1.9

T’ n ·17

This means the time per iteration in the accelerated NU format will be
1.9 times longer than the time in the traditional semester format,
which is in line with the requirements of spaced repetition mentioned
above. We should also take into account negative interference on the
quality of learning in each particular course from three other courses
taken concurrently on the same period. This allows us to assume that
the accelerated IIM provides for better conditions for retention than
the traditional course.

To determine if there is a difference in learning outcomes between

Physics classes using the IIM and classes that do not consistently use
iteration, the final grades were compared of 35 students of three
groups who took classes using IIM and 22 students of three groups who
did not use IIM.

Table 2: Grades in Two Classes

Grades Traditional IIM

A 29.8 29.2
B 39.9 45.8
C 18.2 22.9
D 0 2.1
F 12.1 0

As follows from Table 2, the number of A’s is practically the same in

both models; however, in the accelerated courses there are more B’s
and C’s than in the traditional courses. Overall, students in the
accelerated classes earned more positive grades than in the traditional
ones: 100% versus 87.9%. It is even more remarkable that no students
failed the classes. These data demonstrate a notable improvement in
learning outcomes of the students using iterative learning.

108
Conclusion

IIM described in this article proved to be an effective instructional

model helping improve student’s understanding and retention of the
new material by revisiting basic concepts and applications presented in
the course a number of times in an increasingly more sophisticated
context. Accelerated Physics classes taught on the basis of this model
demonstrate a marked increase in productivity of learning and
improvement of recall.

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About the Author

Nataliya Serdyukova
Degree(s):
Position (title):
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
College of Letters and Sciences
National University
City, California USA
Email:
Office telephone:
Major research interests:

112
 Assessing Clinical Attributes for Therapists:
A Tool for Gatekeepers of the MFT Profession

Jan Parker, B. Charles Tatum, Brenda L. Shook, and Valerie Alexander

Abstract

This article concerns the role of psychotherapy education programs as

gatekeepers for the counseling profession. The authors report the
reliability and validity of the Clinical Attributes for Therapists Scale
(CATS), an instrument designed to assess the interpersonal skills of
students in the Master of Arts in Counseling (MAC) program at
National University. The CATS showed high reliability and validity.
Additional exploration of the CATS revealed that it adds new
information beyond traditional measures of academic achievement
(e.g., grades). The CATS can be used to make decisions about the
advancement, remediation, or dismissal of students in psychotherapist
training programs.

Key Words

Clinical attributes, psychotherapy education, counseling profession,

interpersonal skills, assessing clinical skills, professional gatekeepers

Introduction

One of the most challenging aspects of educational programs that

prepare students for careers that require professional licensure, such
as clinical psychology, medicine, nursing, and law, is screening those
students for personality traits that may interfere in their ability to
practice their chosen profession (Johnson & Campbell, 2002).
Determining the quality of students’ ability to acquire theoretical
knowledge is done by evaluating academic work; however, assessing
the students’ capacity for the application of knowledge and the use of
techniques requires a different type of evaluation. This is particularly
true in any psychotherapist training program as the therapeutic
relationship is the vehicle through which all services are delivered.
Therefore, educational institutions must assess the ability of their
students to establish and maintain a beneficial therapeutic relationship
as an integral part of the requirement of the program.

113
In our experience, as Marriage and Family Therapist (MFT) educators,
most students who have personality issues that may result in harm to
clients demonstrate problematic behavior in the classroom before they
begin to see actual clients. Two examples demonstrate this
observation. The first was a student who was in a class taught on
group psychotherapy. In that class students were required to co-
facilitate a role-play group session with other students playing the
clients. The student in question had talked at length about his
experience in the field but did a poor job co-facilitating in class. He
received many suggestions for improvement during the feedback
section both from peers and from the instructor. In the next class
session he revealed in the group that he had been so upset with his
performance as a co-facilitator that he had gone home and scratched
his arms and hit himself in the head. He displayed the scratch marks
for all to see. He was unable to understand that his inappropriate
reaction to feedback could interfere with his ability to work with clients
because clients will often have negative reactions to therapists’
interventions and therapists must be able to take negative feedback
without personalizing it. The student under discussion was ultimately
removed from the program primarily because the faculty were
committed to protecting potential clients from harm.

Another example is a student who was in a practicum class. In the first

class session the instructor assessed that the student’s level of anxiety
was so great that she could not hear accurately what was being said.
The professor had to repeat information more than a dozen times for
the student and she still did not hear it correctly. The other students
were clearly impatient and the student did not appear to notice the
non-verbal cues of others. The teacher finally had to tell her she would
talk to her privately. The full-time faculty member in charge of the
program believed this student was currently unfit for the profession
based on her level of anxiety and inability to process information. All of
her previous instructors were contacted and they verified they had
observed a similar pattern but none of them had reported the student
for assessment. In this case, the student was counseled into a different
program, but if she had insisted on staying in the MFT program, it
would have been very difficult to remove her due to the lack of
documented evidence. This is an example of how essential it is for all
faculty to report and record concerns about personality traits that may
prevent students from working effectively with clients.
The discussion of fitness and character issues in psychotherapists
began in the published literature in 1945 and has continued to the
current day (Thorne, 2000). Johnson & Campbell (2002) suggest that

114
“if certain qualities of character and specific indicators of personal
stability are prerequisite to effective practice in psychology, the
challenge for our profession is to develop valid and reliable ways to
screen candidates in those domains” (p. 50). The literature has
reported consistently that at least some students attracted to
psychology as a profession have personal limitations such as serious
emotional or characterlogical problems. A 1995 survey of Chairs of
Departments of Psychology revealed that 34 percent believed that
their program had enrolled students with enough psychological
problems to be considered impaired (Procidano, Busch-Rossangel,
Reznikoff, & Geisinger, 1995). Eight percent reported having students
who were guilty of ethical conduct that could raise concerns about
fitness for the profession. Similarly, Johnson and Campbell (2002)
found that only 51 percent of psychotherapy-related degree programs
had written policies regarding evaluation of fitness for the profession.

The reasons why training institutions or their faculty members may not
utilize standardized instruments and procedures for evaluating,
remediating, and dismissing students deemed ill-suited for the
counseling profession are complex and poorly understood. Most
institutions have some sort of screening process as part of their
admissions procedures (Johnson & Campbell, 2002). Yet, as other
authors have pointed out, it is unrealistic to assume that such
procedures could possibly identify all potentially problematic students
(Knoff & Prout, 1985; Kerl, Garcia, McCullough, & Maxwell, 2002;
Nagpal & Ritchie, 2002). A few studies have emerged in recent years
that have attempted to identify faculty and institutional concerns
pertaining to the dismissal of students unfit for the profession.
Pressures for student retention, concerns regarding poor student
evaluations, anxiety about continued employment, and apprehensions
about possible student initiated lawsuits against the institution or
supervising faculty have been expressed (Frame & Stevens-Smith,
1995; Baldo, Softas-Nall & Shaw, 1997; Gaubatz & Vera, 2002).

Another contributing factor may be the scarcity of evaluative

instruments with sound psychometric properties. We found only three
such published instruments: (a) the Personal Characteristics Review
Form (PCRF, Frame & Stevens-Smith, 1995); (b) The Basic Skills
Evaluation Device (BSED, Nelson & Johnson, 1999); and (c) The
Professional Performance Fitness Evaluation (PPFE, Lumadue & Duffey,
1999). Only one of these instruments, the BSED, has been empirically
studied (Nelson & Johnson, 1999), but that scale was developed
specifically for trainees working directly with clients and is not well

115
suited for evaluating students’ classroom behavior as predictive of
clinical skills.

It is the authors’ opinion that screening for interpersonal skills for the
counseling profession is an integral part of any degree-granting
institution (Parker, Tatum, Shook, & Alexander, 2003). The present
study investigates a screening instrument for classroom use developed
by the faculty of the Master of Arts in Counseling (MAC) program at
National University. The instrument, known as the Clinical Attributes
for Therapist Scale (CATS), was designed to evaluate the interpersonal
skills of counseling students by operationally defining and assessing
attributes commonly accepted by the profession; attributes such as
empathy, positive regard, and communication skills. The present
article reports on an analysis of the CATS, and shows reliability and
validity data collected over a six-month period with more than 300
students. In addition, the authors discuss how the CATS supplies
different information than more traditional assessments of academic
progress (e.g., grades). Establishing the reliability, validity, and utility
of the CATS may begin to fulfill the critical need for a psychometrically
sound instrument for the preclinical evaluation of the students’
psychological fitness for the counseling profession.

Method

Participants

The participants were 340 students (approximately 90 percent female)

enrolled in the MAC program in the Department of Psychology at
National University. The student data were collected between October
2002 and March 2003.

Materials

The primary instrument used in this study was the CATS (a copy of the
instrument and information on its development is available from the
authors). The CATS is a 20-item questionnaire completed by every
instructor for every class in the MAC program. Some of the items (e.g.,
restates content of communication accurately, states interpretation of
non-verbal communication accurately) were assessed separately from
the perspectives of peers, instructors, and role-play client sessions.
Instructors were asked to rate each student in the class on all 20 CATS
items on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Inadequate), 2 (Below
Average), 3 (Average), 4 (Above Average), to

116
5 (Superior). A score of 0 indicated a skill or behavior not observed in
that class. This category was included because some of the
didactic/lecture classes may not present the opportunity to assess all
of the items on the CATS in every course.

Procedure

National University has an instructional format in which a 4.5 quarter

unit class is completed in four weeks. The CATS is distributed to all
instructors teaching during a particular month. Instructors were taught
how to use the CATS by the full- or part-time faculty at their regional
location prior to being assigned to any counseling courses. Students
who receive two or more scores of 2 (Below Average) or one or more
scores of 1 (Inadequate) were evaluated for the need for intervention.

Results

The results are organized into two main sections. First we examine the
psychometric properties of the CATS. In particular, we examine (a)
whether the items on the CATS can be reduced to a smaller set of
factors, (b) the reliability of the CATS, and (c) evidence for the validity
of the CATS. The second section investigates several empirical
relationships between the CATS and other variables. Specifically, we
describe the relationships between the CATS and (a) number of
courses taken by students, (b) class size, (c) grades, (d) location at
which coursework was taken, and (e) the type of coursework taken by
the students.

Psychometric Properties of the CATS

Factor analysis. Factor analysis is a statistical technique that allows

the researcher to find underlying relationships among a set of items,
questions, or measures. The CATS has 20 items, but a factor analysis
revealed that these 20 items can be condensed down to two general
factors. The first factor included items that related to the
demonstration of clinical skills (e.g., maintains caring, non-judgmental
and appropriate language; maintains appropriate eye contact). The
second factor included the remaining items, which related to classroom
behaviors (e.g., responds to feedback in class in a constructive
manner, participates actively and constructively in class discussions
and exercises).

117
Reliability analysis. Reliability concerns the consistency and stability
of a measurement tool such as the CATS. Three types of reliability
analyses were performed on the CATS: internal consistency, temporal
stability, and inter-rater agreement. All three analyses demonstrated
that the skills and behaviors measured by the CATS were interrelated
and stable across time, and that the raters were in general agreement
about the attributes being rated.

Validity of CATS. Whereas reliability analyses show the consistency

and stability of the CATS, validity analyses try to demonstrate that the
CATS measures what it purports to measure (i.e., it measures skills and
behaviors that are critical to the professional MFT). Validity can be
assessed in three ways in this context. The first assessment of validity
is content validity. Content validity refers to the specific content of the
CATS and whether this content is rationally related to the properties or
characteristics being evaluated. In the present context, content
validity refers to whether the items on the CATS (the content) are
relevant to the assessment of a student’s fitness as an MFT. Typically,
content validity is determined by expert judgment regarding the
content of the test. With regard to the CATS, faculty members in the
MFT program (the experts) reviewed the items and determined that
the content did measure relevant aspects of fitness (Parker, et al.,
2003). Moreover, the content of the CATS is similar to the content of
other instruments that measure professional performance or basic
counseling skills (e.g., Frame & Stevens-Smith, 1995; Kerl, et al., 2002;
Nagpal & Ritchie, 2002; Nelson & Johnson, 1999).

The second assessment of validity is construct validity. The results of

the factor analysis described above can be interpreted as supporting
the construct validity of the CATS. The two factors identified in the
factor analysis indicate that the items formed two distinct constructs
(i.e., clinical skill and classroom behavior). A more complete construct
validation would include evidence that these distinct constructs are
related to other, similar constructs. This more complete validation will
be performed in future studies.

A third assessment of validity centers on predictive validity (i.e.,

showing that the scores on the CATS predict success in the counseling
program). The primary measure of success in the MFT program is
Grade Point Average (GPA). Both of the factors identified above were
correlated with GPA; Factor 1 (clinical skill) was significantly correlated
with GPA (r = .23, p < .01), and Factor 2 (classroom behavior) was also
significantly correlated with GPA (r = .24, p < .01). Both correlations
suggest that students who receive high ratings by their

118
instructors on clinical skills and classroom behaviors tend to do better
in their course performance in the counseling program.

Descriptive Statistics and Empirical Relationships for Critical

Variables

Means, standard deviations, and correlations. At the time the

CATS was administered for each student, we recorded (a) the number
of courses completed by each student, (b) the size of the class the
student was taking, (c) the student’s grade point average, (d) an
average score for the student’s rated clinical skill (Factor 1), (e) and an
average score for the student’s classroom behavior (Factor 2). Table 1
shows the means and standard deviations for these variables, and the
bivariate correlations between all variables.

There are a number of things to note about the mean values and
correlations for these variables. In particular, it is interesting that the
average value for Factor 1 (clinical skill) is lower than the average
value for Factor 2 (classroom behavior). This difference was
statistically significant, t (1124) = -8.30, p < 001, and this indicates
that, on average, students are rated lower on their clinical skills than
on the quality of their classroom behavior. This may imply that
students in the counseling program are better prepared academically
than clinically, or that it is just more difficult to assess clinical skills
compared to classroom behaviors.

A second thing to note is that as students take more classes in the

program, GPA significantly increases (r = .164, p < .01), but ratings on
clinical skill and classroom behaviors do not significantly change.

Finally, it is interesting to note that as class size increased, the

attribute ratings (both clinical skill and classroom behavior)
significantly declined (r = -.227 and -.141 respectively, p < .01), but
GPA was unaffected (r = .027, p > .05). These latter two findings
suggests that CATS and GPA are measuring different attributes and
qualities of the students.

Location effects. The data were analyzed by location to determine

whether there were differences in the effects of the CATS at different
sites across the state. Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations,
and the sample sizes for Factor 1 (clinical skill) ratings across the eight
different locations in which the counseling program was offered in the
state of California. A one-way analysis of variance revealed that there

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were location differences, F (7, 896) = 34.57, p < .001. Inspection of
Table 2 indicates that the lowest average ratings were given in
Redding (3.16) and the highest average ratings were given in Stockton
(4.14).

Table 3 shows the means, standard deviations, and the sample sizes
for Factor 2 (classroom behaviors) ratings across the eight different
locations. Again, a one-way analysis of variance revealed that there
were location differences, F (7, 943) = 36.98, p < .001. Inspection of
Table 3 indicates, again, that the lowest ratings were given in Redding
(3.24) and the highest ratings were given in Stockton (4.44).

Lastly, Table 4 shows the means, standard deviations, and the sample
sizes for GPA across the eight different locations. A one-way analysis of
variance revealed no significant location differences, F (7, 291) = 1.28,
p > .05.

Comparing all three tables, it is interesting that, although different

locations tend to rate clinical skills and classroom behaviors differently,
all locations are very consistent in the class grades issued. This finding
suggests that clinical skills and class behavior are not just substitutes
for grades; they measure something different and add new information
to the assessment of counseling students.

Course type effects. One final analysis involved the comparisons of

courses that are theoretical in nature with courses that are more
experiential and practically oriented. Of the 18 courses in the
counseling program, six stress the theoretical dimensions of
counseling, two are almost purely experiential, and ten contain a mix
of theory and practical/experiential components (e.g., assessment,
treatment planning, diagnosis, group process). Table 5 shows the
differences in the course type for GPA, clinical skills (Factor 1), and
classroom behaviors (Factor 2). The results showed that the type of
course (theory, experiential, or mixed) produced significant differences
for the Factor 2 (classroom behavior) ratings, but not for Factor 1 or
GPA. A statistical comparison of the means (using a Bonferroni
adjustment for Type 1 errors) showed that only the theory and
experiential classes differed (p < .05) with respect to Factor 2 (ratings
were significantly higher for the experiential classes than for the pure
theory classes).

Summary of empirical relationships. Several interesting

observations can be made. First, it is interesting that the instructors
rated students lower on their clinical skills than their classroom

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behaviors, and that as students take more courses in the program
their GPA increases but the CATS ratings of clinical skill and classroom
behaviors do not change. In addition, increased class size was
significantly associated with a decline in ratings for skills and
behaviors, but not for GPA. These relationships suggest that the CATS
assessment provides different information than GPA.

Where a student took classes and the type of classes taken were
related to the CATS ratings but not GPA. Where a student took his or
her classes had a significant effect on the CATS ratings of clinical skill
and classroom behavior, but GPA did not differ across locations. The
type of class (experiential, theoretical, or a mixture of both) had no
effect on GPA or ratings of clinical skill, but did alter the ratings of
classroom behaviors (students in the classes with an experiential
component got higher ratings than students in the theory-only
classes). The point that stands out with regard to location and course
type (as well as with class size and number of courses) is that the CATS
and GPA seem to be measuring different attributes and qualities of the
students because the same variables (class size, number of courses,
location, and course type) have differential effects on these two
measures.

Discussion

An often neglected aspect of MFT training is the evaluation of the

student’s psychological fitness for the profession (Johnson & Campbell,
2002). In an earlier report (Parker, et al., 2003) we described the
development of an instrument, the CATS, designed to help evaluate
MFT students’ interpersonal skills in the classroom. The present study
reports the results of an assessment of the reliability and validity of
the CATS for more than 300 students during a six-month period. This
assessment is important because, although there have been attempts
in the past to develop a standardized tool for evaluating student
fitness (e.g., Frame & Stevens-Smith, 1995; Kerl, et al., 2002; Nagpal &
Ritchie, 2002; Nelson & Johnson, 1999), there has not been any
systematic attempt to establish the psychometric properties of these
different instruments and scales. The current study not only found
good evidence for the reliability and validity of the CATS, but also
discovered some useful empirical relationships between the CATS and
other critical educational variables.

Rather than attempt to summarize all the complex empirical findings in

the study, we will instead discuss one major underlying theme that

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emerged from the data. It is clear that the CATS is not just another way
to assess the students’ academic progress. The CATS is apparently
measuring something quite different than grades (the traditional
measure of academic achievement). Although the CATS and GPA were
correlated (see Table 1), they were affected in different ways by other
variables. For example, the number of courses a student took
improved GPA but had no effect on ratings of clinical skill or classroom
behaviors (see Table 1). On the other hand, class size was negatively
related to the CATS ratings, but was unrelated to GPA (again, see Table
1). Also, the CATS ratings were associated with the location at which a
student took the MFT classes, but GPA did not change across different
locations (see Tables 2-4). Finally, the type of courses taken by the
students (theory, experiential, or mixed) had no effect on GPA but did
influence certain elements of the CATS (see Table 5). It appears that
the CATS is “adding value” to the assessment of the MFT students and
should be used in conjunction with traditional grades.

In general, we believe that the CATS is a psychometrically sound

instrument and we advocate its use by other institutions. It is an easy
scale to administer (there are only 20 items and the instructor only
has to rate each student once at the end of the class). There are
limitations to the CATS, of course, but future research and
improvements should correct most of these problems. The strength to
this approach is that it provides tangible, objective evidence for the
fitness of students during their MFT training. The CATS can therefore
be used to assess whether students should be allowed to progress in
their training, or whether remedial steps should be taken to help
students who reveal problems that limit their fitness for the profession.
In the worst-case scenario, the CATS can also be used as one vital
piece of information to dismiss students from a program before they
do harm to themselves or others.

Directions for Future Research

A potential next step in assessing the CATS would be to compare the

scores assigned by faculty to those assigned by students’ clinical
supervisors on the clinical skills items in the instrument. This would
add another measure of validity and strengthen the results.
Additionally if other institutions adopted the CATS and measured it in
traditional learning formats other variables such as age, taking one
class at a time for one month, and each instructor having a longer

122
period of time to assess the student could be studied and might add to
the reliability and validity results.

References

Baldo, T.D., Softas-Nall, B.C., & Shaw, S.F. (1997). Student review and
retention in counselor education programs: An alternative to
Frame and Stevens-Smith. Counselor Education and Supervision,
35, 245-253.

Frame, M.W., & Stevens-Smith, P. (1995). Out of harm’s way:

Enhancing monitoring and dismissal processes in counselor
education programs. Counselor Education and Supervision, 35,
118-129.

Gaubatz, M.D., & Vera, E.M. (2002). Do formalized gatekeeping

procedures increase programs’ follow-up with deficient
trainees? Counselor Education and Supervision, 41, 294.
Retrieved May 5,
2004, from questia.com.

Johnson, W.B. & Campbell, C.D. (2002). Character and fitness

requirements for professional psychologists: Are there any?
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33(1), 46-52.

Kerl, S.B., Garcia, J.L., McCullough, C.S., & Maxwell, M.E. (2002).
Systematic evaluation of professional performance: legally
supported procedure and process. Counselor Education and
Supervision, 41(4), 321. Retrieved May 5, 2004, from questia.com.

Knoff, H.M., & Prout, T. (1985). Terminating students from professional

psychology programs: Criteria, procedures, and legal issues.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 16, 789-797.

Lumadue, C.A., & Duffey, T.H. (1999). The role of graduate programs
as gatekeepers: A model for evaluating student counselor
competence. Counselor Education and Supervision, 39, 101-109.

Nagpal, S., & Ritchie, M. (2002). Selection interviews of students for

master’s programs in counseling: an exploratory study.
Counselor Education and Supervision, 41(3), 207. Retrieved May
5, 2004, from questia.com.

123
Nelson, T., & Johnson, L. (1999). The basic skills evaluation device.
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 25, 15-30.

Parker, J., Tatum, B.C., Shook, B., & Alexander, V. (2003). Evaluation of
student appropriateness for the profession of marriage and
family therapy. Family Therapy, 30(3), 143-150.

Procidano, M.E., Busch-Rossangel, N.A., Reznikoff, M., & Geisinger,

K.F. (1995). Responding to graduate students’ professional
deficiencies: A national survey. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
35, 426-433.

Thorne, F.C. (2000). The field of clinical psychology: Past, present, and
future. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 257-274. (Original work
published in 1945).

124
APPENDIX

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson correlations for

Critical Variables in the Study.

Mean SD
Courses Class GPA Factor
Size 1
Courses 7.01 5.07
Class Size 18.62 6.94 -.038
GPA 3.35 .40 .164* .027
Factor 1 3.60 .70 -.028 -.227* .230*
(Clinical
Skill)
Factor 2 3.72 .79 .025 -.141* .241* .760*
(Classroom
Behavior)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Sample Sizes for Clinical

Skill Ratings (Factor 1) Across Eight Locations in California.

Location Mean Standard N

Deviation
San Diego 3.24 .39 132
Carlsbad 3.79 .67 100
Costa Mesa 4.03 .64 97
Los Angeles 3.67 .74 153
Fresno 3.42 .45 105
Stockton 4.14 .53 71
Sacramento 3.72 .78 114
Redding 3.16 .53 132
Total 3.60 .70 904

Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, and Sample Sizes for Classroom

Behavior Ratings (Factor 2) Across Eight Locations in California.

Location Mean Standard N

Deviation
San Diego 3.38 .49 152
Carlsbad 3.88 .73 101
Costa Mesa 4.19 .73 97
Los Angeles 3.92 .91 181
Fresno 3.44 .45 104
Stockton 4.44 .72 71
Sacramento 3.72 .73 114
Redding 3.24 .55 131
Total 3.72 .79 951

125
Table 4. Means, Standard Deviations, and Sample Sizes for Grade
Point Averages (GPA) Across Eight Locations in California.

Location Mean Standard N

Deviation
San Diego 3.34 .42 33
Carlsbad 3.32 .35 36
Costa Mesa 3.50 .26 32
Los Angeles 3.37 .40 59
Fresno 3.25 .57 32
Stockton 3.43 .21 27
Sacramento 3.29 .50 46
Redding 3.31 .28 34
Total 3.35 .40 299

Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations, Sample Sizes, and Significance

Levels for GPA, Clinical Skills (Factor 1), and Classroom Behaviors
(Factor 2) across Different Types of Courses.

Course N Mean Std. Sig. of F

Type Dev.
Grade Experiential 17 3.55 .18 NS
Point
Average
(GPA)
Theory 192 3.36 .44

Mixed 145 3.41 .33

Factor 1 Experiential 17 3.95 .44 NS

(Clinical
Skill)
Theory 192 3.63 .73

Mixed 145 3.62 .70

Factor 2 Experiential 17 4.20 .51 p < .05

(Classroom
Behavior)
Theory 192 3.65 .67

Mixed 145 3.77 .78

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About the Authors

Jan Parker
PhD
Professor
Department of Psychology
National University
La Jolla, CA USA
jparker@nu.edu
Major research interests: Evaluating student appropriateness for the
counseling profession, chemical dependency treatment, sexual
compulsivity assessment and treatment, sexual transference

B. Charles Tatum
PhD
Professor
Department of Psychology
National University
La Jolla, CA USA Email:
ctatuim@nu.edu
Major research interests: Adult Learning, accelerated learning,
cognitive psychology, research and statistics

Brenda L. Shook
PhD
Associate Professor
Department of Psychology
National University
La Jolla, CA USA Email:
bshook@nu.edu
Major research interests:
Research Interests: education, assessment, prenatal development,
domestic violence

Valerie Alexander
PhD
Associate Professor
Department of Psychology
National University
La Jolla, CA USA
Email: valexand@nu.edu
Major research interests: Mood disorders, anxiety disorders,
mindfulness, cognitive therapy, self-efficacy

127
 Using WeBWorK in an Online Course Environment

Angelo Segalla and Shandy Hauk

Abstract

WeBWorK is a free, open source, Web-based, interactive mathematics

homework system used to individualize and automate grading of
mathematics homework assignments. Previous and ongoing research
indicates that students who use WeBWorK stay on task longer than
students who use traditional paper and pencil methods and often score
higher on pre-test and post-test experiments. In this report we connect
the use of WeBWorK to an online teaching-learning environment and
address some of the benefits and issues students and instructors will
have when using WeBWorK. We include some “do and don’t”
suggestions especially for instructors to help make the program more
user-friendly for themselves and for their students.

Key Words: Web-based homework, WeBWorK, homework

Introduction

Since the introduction of rudimentary “drill and practice” teaching

machines designed to have students learn the basic facts of a subject
(Pressey, 1926), we have seen a long procession of more and more
mechanically and electronically sophisticated “machines” enter the
teaching-learning setting. Research on the effectiveness of such
apparatus is mixed for use in the traditional classroom; although
WeBWorK, one of the modern descendants of Pressey’s machine, has
been shown to be an efficient tool for homework when used as an
integral part of a mathematics course in a classroom setting, we
extrapolate its use here to the e-learning environment of online
courses. With no pretense of doing justice to the short but rich history
of machine-assisted learning systems, we mention in passing that with
the invention of the computer, Pressey’s “machine” soon developed
into an electronically sophisticated instructional tool, often in the form
of “computer assisted instruction.” With the appearance of the
internet, “e-learning” took its place in the teaching-learning
communities of schools, academe, and industry. Almost all new college
students in the United States have used a personal computer by age
18 and approximately half of entering first-year students have used
the internet; the other half will be introduced to the internet when

128
they get to college (Pew, 2002). In this paper, we address some of the
issues faced by college mathematics instructors who are, or will be,
teaching an online mathematics course and: (a) have decided to use
WeBWorK for managing the homework assignments as well as (b) are
new to the web-based WeBWorK interface. Thus, here we concentrate
mostly on how to incorporate WeBWorK into a mathematics course
and illustrate whenever appropriate some, but certainly not all, of the
features of this sophisticated descendant of Pressey’s machine. We
conclude this introduction by illustrating, in Figure 1, the most salient
feature of WeBWorK: the program can interpret student responses
written in mathematical notation.

Figure 1(a): A typical WeBWorK question and student answer

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Figure 1(b): WeBWorK response to student’s entry

How Important is Homework?

Many studies have already established the importance of homework,

especially for the advanced cognitive development expected in high
school and college mathematics (Cooper, 1989; Cooper, Lindsay, Nye,
& Greathouse, 1998; Warton, 2001). Homework is an activity related to
motivation, mastery of material, and to achievement (Keith & Cool,
1992). It is also clear from the research that homework is a necessary
but not sufficient prerequisite for satisfactory achievement on exams
(see, for example, Peters, Kethley & Bullington, 2002; Porter & Riley,
1996). However, the role of homework in student achievement is only
partly understood and research continues on the topic.

Within the liberal arts tradition at U.S. colleges, the primary purpose of
homework in college mathematics is to support the development of
knowledge of facts, connections, procedures, and reasoning for later
use in more advanced mathematics or in applications to life (e.g.,
finance). The method for achieving this goal has traditionally been
through paper and pencil homework practice with facts and concepts.
Exercise sets in most college mathematics textbooks offer drill practice
with facts followed by practice with applications, and a brief interaction
with abstract concepts. Many texts end an exercise set with mildly
non-routine problems aimed at encouraging students to deeper
reflection on concepts and their relationships. For a variety of
reasons, from pressure to “cover” a proscribed collection of chapters in

130
such textbooks to the personal epistemologies of students and
instructors, the usual practice in college mathematics teaching is to
assign problems mostly from the first two categories (drill and
application) and few from the third (concepts). Though there are efforts
to rewrite college mathematics textbooks along the lines of the reform
of calculus in the United States (e.g., Connally, Hughes-Hallett,
Gleason, Chiefetz, Flath, Lock, et al., 2004; Kime & Clark, 2001), our
discussion here is directed to those working in traditional as well as
reform settings, with the latter including the new trend of online
courses.

About WeBWorK

WeBWorK is an efficient, free, open source, Web-based, interactive

mathematics homework system used to automate the instructional
tasks of assigning, presenting, correcting, and recording mathematics
homework of the drill and application types. That is, WeBWorK is for
closed-ended mathematics problems that have solutions that can be
expressed in a finite number of ways using standard mathematics
notation. Research at colleges and secondary schools suggests that
WeBWorK is an effective learning tool when integrated explicitly and
consistently as part of a mathematics course. The mathematics
achievement (as measured by written exams) among students who
use WeBWorK for homework assignments is as good as, and often
better than, achievement among students in the same courses who
completed traditional paper-and-pencil homework assignments.
WeBWorK is not a tutorial program; it grades items and records
students’ scores. Those items can be structured by the instructor as
homework, quizzes, tests, worksheets, or other activity. The program
also keeps track of students’ solution attempts so the instructor can
keep apprised of student efforts. Simply put, WeBWorK is an electronic
homework helper that allows the instructor to concentrate less on the
labor-intensive task of checking students’ homework and more on
stimulating instructional planning and course activities.

WeBWorK is currently used in more than 100 universities and

community colleges with an estimated 80,000 students. Unlike some
other (commercial) programs that have a homework component as
part of the larger system, WeBWorK was developed explicitly and
solely for accepting answers in mathematical notation. Yet, its
versatility is such that it is also being heavily used in physics and other
science classes, and the program could easily be adapted to other
subjects.

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In WeBWorK the student first prints out a copy of the assignment, then
works on the assignment as in the traditional pencil-and-paper method.
Once items are completed, the student enters the answers in
WeBWorK. The program gives the student an immediate response on
each problem stating if the answer is correct or not. If the answer is
not correct the student is allowed another try, and another; there is no
limit on the number of tries unless the instructor limits the number of
tries as one might, in the case of a quiz. WeBWorK keeps track of how
many solution attempts a student submitted, the number of correct
answers, and the number of tries it took a student to get to the answer
submitted.

Some instructors at colleges using WeBWorK report that the program

motivates students to do more homework than they would ordinarily
do in the traditional paper-and-pencil format. The University of
Rochester, for example, reports that more than 90% of their students
complete WeBWorK assignments.

How Students Use WeBWorK

WeBWorK is simple to use for the student. Students go to the course

WeBWorK URL, log in with username and password, choose the
problem set that has been assigned and begin to do homework. The
problems are unique to each student, with built-in parameters that are
randomized by WeBWorK using the student’s id number as the
randomization seed. If the student does not complete the assignment
in one sitting, the student can log out and restart at exactly the same
place at next log in: the problem-set’s randomized parameters do not
change from session to session.

Students can work in groups on the same assignment because

WeBWorK gives each students the “same” problem but with different
parameters. One student will be asked to solve the quadratic equation
2x2 – 15x – 8 = 0, another will get 2x2 – 3x – 5 = 0.

How to Use WeBWorK as an Instructor

One of the first things an instructor new to WeBWorK should do is get

some practice using WeBWorK as a student (more on this below in
Suggestion 2). An instructor logs on to WeBWorK with a number of
homework management privileges. We do not delve into these in any

132
specific manner here since this paper is intended only as a collection of
sign posts on how to use WeBWorK, not a training program. A detailed
online “how-to” source for first-time and repeat users of WeBWorK is
available through the Web site
http://bosna.natsci.csulb.edu:8888/webwork2/. Many universities using
WeBWorK offer professional development WeBWorK workshops.
Frequently, instructors who attend the workshops, especially those
who are going to use WeBWorK for the first time, will get some
technical telephone support.

Through the WeBWorK interface an instructor can perform a host of

tasks ranging from setting due dates to changing passwords to limiting
the number of tries a student gets on each problem, to creating,
coding, and adding new problems to the database. However, the first-
time user of WeBWorK is well-served by the existing national problem
library: it contains thousands of problems to choose from for courses
from beginning algebra to differential equations.

Among the “do and don’t” suggestions below we also offer a number of
references where instructors new to WeBWorK can learn more about
the program. Among the technicalities that we do not get into here but
that are well-addressed in the references provided here, are how to:

o Create a problem set

o Select and add problems to a set
o Edit an existing problem set
o Copy a problem set from another instructor’s class
o Assign a problem set by making it visible to students
o Set up scoring parameters for a problem set
o Send email to students
o View student(s) progress
o Act as a student
o Change set data for an individual student
o Change a password
o Remove or change student status
o Write new problems or edit existing problems

Suggestions for Using WeBWorK

Based on research results and experience using WeBWorK, we offer

the following set of suggestions to instructors who will use WeBWorK
for the first time.

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Suggestion 1: Depend on your local WeBWorK administrator for
technical support.

There are several levels of authorization and responsibility in the

WeBWorK system. The most authoritative is the national “WeBWorK
Team,” a handful of mathematics and computer experts around the
country, mostly university mathematics professors, who created and
regularly improve the program. The national WeBWorK Team is the
gatekeeper of the program at the national level (as of this writing,
version 2.3.2 is out).

Locally, your university WeBWorK administrator is the gatekeeper of

the WeBWorK hardware and software, and has the authority to make
changes, answer technical questions, and fix “bugs.” The research on
human interactions around learning technology supports the following
suggestion: If you are using WeBWorK through an agreement with
another institution, find out who the local WeBWorK expert is and open
a clear channel of communication with that person. Be sure to read
some of the reference information about WeBWorK before you begin
this communication. The WeBWorK administrator will need a
spreadsheet of your class members and id numbers, but some
additional information is in order: how and why you plan to use
WeBWorK, how many students are involved, course numbers, dates,
etc. This paves the way for an efficient and smooth working
relationship. Also, be sure to negotiate a back-up method for
contacting your local WeBWorK administrator in case the primary
method fails. For example, if the primary contact method is email and
the server goes down, have a contact phone number for the local
WeBWorK administrator!

At the third level, as an instructor you have control of your WeBWorK

class(es) and have a wide enough range of authorization to make
changes — technical and not-technical — to the WeBWorK part of your
own course. In “Instructor Mode” one does not have to be a coding
expert to keep the administrative part of homework assignments
current and correct. Nonetheless, help is available for just this sort of
thing through the Web sites given below. Choose the level of
WeBWorK expertise that is most comfortable for you in making
WeBWorK an integral part of the course.

Suggestion 2: Plan to spend at least three hours on the steep side of

the learning curve to get familiar with the program before the
semester begins.

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There are several ways to do this. Some are more appropriate for full-
time faculty whose departments may have funds to allow them to
attend live training sessions. Other ways are more accessible to
adjunct faculty who may face more challenges in getting the time or
professional development funds for attending workshops. As with
mathematics learning, after the initial investment of energy to come
up the steep side of the logistic curve, regular continued exploration
about WeBWorK will improve your instructional success in using it. We
list several ways to tackle the steep part of the learning curve and to
continue learning here, starting with the most accessible.

2.1. The interactive WeBWorK users group at

http://65.206.22.46/moodle/ is a must for both experienced and
novice WeBWorK instructors. On the left side of the screen you will
see the message: “If you are new to WeBWorK start here.” Click
that link and you have begun your steep climb. Typical questions
for beginners you can get answers to at this site are how to: (a) set
up your course; (b) add or drop students; (c) build a problem set;
(d) modify due dates; (e) change passwords; (f) post messages for
the entire class; and (g) send emails to the entire class or an
individual student, including how to generate a form email that
sends a different email to each student containing that students’
grades.

2.2. Explore the many WeBWorK installations at other universities.

The national WeBWorK Team hosts a site with links to many other
university WeBWorK information sites:
http://math.webwork.rochester.edu/docs/sites/courses/links_to_co
urses.html. Some, not all, have excellent instructions on how to
use WeBWorK as a student and as an instructor.

2.3. Download the PowerPoint program “WeBWorK Workshop” from

http://bosna.natsci.csulb.edu:8888/webwork2/. This is an easy-to-
follow presentation of the basics about how to use WeBWorK as an
instructor.

2.4. Before you allow students to use the program ask your local
WeBWorK administrator to set up a practice course that will allow
you to explore both “as student” and as “the instructor.” You
probably will spend very little time in student mode because
WeBWorK is easy for students to use. To get an appreciation for the
flexibility WeBWorK offers students, visit
https://webwork.dartmouth.edu/ and click on “Demo Course.” You
will spend more time in instructor mode, of course, because

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 WeBWorK has so many features. Explore and change things to see
what happens. You will not damage the WeBWorK program globally
from a practice class. So explore away. The instructor (and
students) use copies of both the program files and problem sets.
The original files are safely stored on the cavernous servers of the
“WeBWorK team” and cannot be modified by changes you make
locally.

2.5. Attend a WeBWorK training workshop. These are usually offered

at the national and often at some of the regional MAA conferences.
For more details, see http://www.maa.org/webwork/.

Suggestion 3: As important to preparing yourself to use WeBWorK is

to prepare your students.

We found a great deal of positive influence on student use and

persistence with WeBWorK when we provided an introductory half-
hour of WeBWorK activities for students to complete in a computer lab.
The activity included a few minutes of hands-on practice logging into
and moving around a WeBWorK practice assignment followed by four
problems for students to complete. In an online course environment,
we suggest a tutorial, such as a PowerPoint Web presentation that
provides students with (1) the correct URL, (2) the log on process
(username and password), and (3) once in the program, a “Problem
Set 0” that involves students in using the basic functionality of
WeBWorK to print a problem set, preview answers in mathematical
form, submit answers, and review their work. Many of the WeBWorK
installations around the country have these tutorials available to their
students.

Suggestion 4: Cultivate a view of cautious optimism about WeBWorK.

Research on WeBWorK suggests that student achievement in courses

that use WeBWorK is highly correlated to a supportive but cautious
attitude toward WeBWorK on the part of the instructor (see, for
example, Hauk & Segalla, 2005). In fact, much research has indicated
that an attitude at either extreme (e.g., hate to best-thing-since-
sliced-bread) can interfere with optimal use of any instructional tool
(Mumtaz, 2000). Simply put: on a zero to ten scale, with zero for
loathe and ten for awestruck, an instructor attitude between four and
eight will yield the best results in terms of student willingness to work
with WeBWorK. For example, through doing problems in “student-
mode” an instructor can build an awareness of the foibles of WeBWorK
and can capitalize on the shortcomings of the interface to generate

136
online discussion of the nature of mathematical representation and
communication. Similarly, familiarity with the types of drill and
procedural items in the Problem Library opens the way for online
discussions or student-team-prepared presentations about complex
applications or conceptual foundations. These types of engagement
with mathematics (representing, communicating, problem-solving,
connecting, reasoning) are key aspects of deep understanding of
mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000).
WeBWorK items can start student activity in these areas and follow-up
assignments can extend and deepen their learning (e.g., see
Suggestions 12 and 13, below).

Suggestion 5: Anticipate and be ready for student concerns about

WeBWorK itself.

You will experience challenges and small confusions yourself as you

familiarize yourself with the student view of WeBWorK. Also, you will
learn more about the initial challenges at the sites we recommended in
Suggestion 2. A typical student puzzlement likely to find its way into
your email is: “But I did the problem right and it told me the answer
was incorrect.” Although it may be true that the student has
uncovered a glitch in the program — unlikely but possible — it is more
likely that this is a syntax issue. For example, if the student submits
x+5/x but the answer is (x+5)/x, WeBWorK will indeed say it is
incorrect. An effective suggestion to the student is: “Before you submit
your answer, use the ‘Preview Answer’ button to check that what you
entered in the answer window — in calculator notation — matches
what you mean to say.” As in any online learning environment,
additional student questions to anticipate include:

o I forgot my password, how do I find out what it is?

o Why can’t I see the correct answer like in the textbook?
o Can you extend my due date for Set 5?
o How can I see my grades so far?

Suggestion 6: Have students print out a hard copy of their

(individual) assignment.

Trying to do mathematics in front of the computer screen is not

conducive to concentrating on a problem. The “live” though silent
monitor screen, which may slip into screensaver mode, can imbue a
sense of impatience that may cause some anxiety for students. It is
also tempting to use the computer for other purposes as a break from
working on a problem, (e.g., “surfing the net”). We have found that

137
the most complete interaction with the mathematics comes when
students print out and work the problems on paper, as they would any
other mathematics assignment, and use WeBWorK only as the source
and as the instant grader of their work.

Suggestion 7: Work the problems first.

Ideally, the instructor has worked out each problem chosen for a
problem set before assigning it to the students. We say ideally
because our experience has been that three in ten instructors make it
a habit to do this. The payoff for them is that they can (1) anticipate
mathematical and syntactical errors, and (2) it enables them to post
hints for each problem in the “Set Info” window.

Suggestion 8: Periodic meetings, virtual or face-to-face, with other

faculty members using WeBWorK can be very helpful.

As noted above, instructors can join the national discussion among

WeBWorK users. Depending on the use of WeBWorK at your
institution, consider joining or creating a local faculty wiki or
“Discussion Board.” If available, a faculty (and student!) users manual
can answer a lot of questions before they get to the instructor (e.g., a
wiki Web site that both students and faculty contribute to locally). The
manual might be a short and to the point read-only document.
Whatever mechanism is used, include a section with answers to
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ).

Suggestion 9: Set course policies about communication to facilitate

student autonomy.

Online instruction is a bit of a misnomer in that teaching in an online

environment often involves other, “offline,” methods of
communication. There are several ways for students and instructors
to communicate through and around WeBWorK.

9.1. Web: Based on your experiences starting to work with WeBWorK

and on your familiarity with the students at your institution, create a
page of links to WeBWorK resources you think your students will
find useful — then you can respond to many questions about
logistical issues by pointing them to the Web page with the answer
(instead of typing up the answer) in the reply email you send.

9.2. Email: While doing their homework, students will take advantage
of the “Email Instructor” feature, as they should. Even though as

138
 an online course instructor you will be on the net more so than
instructors teaching traditional classes, it is a good idea to set some
email priority rules to keep the number of emails manageable. For
example, you might let students know in your posted course
policies that when you receive email questions the first thing you
ask yourself is: Is the answer to this question already available to a
diligent student? Encourage students to exert at least five minutes’
effort to answer their own question through the three most likely
resources: the textbook; emailing, calling, or text messaging a
classmate; the WeBWorK help page you set up (see Suggestion 9.1
above). Additionally, in the syllabus or course policies, you can
mention that you might send a very simple email in response to
questions that are answered by these resources. Anything from
“Read Section X.Y of the text and try again” to “My suggestion is to
spend 30 minutes on this on your own by first reading Section X.Y,
then working the examples through on paper for yourself. If, after
you have completed that and have come back to your WeBWorK
assignment, you still have a question, please email me again with
the details of your question.”

9.3. Telephone/messaging: Telephone and text messaging policies can

follow similar rules to those for email, above.

9.4. Online discussion: Have a WeBWorK-dedicated thread as a

“Discussion Forum” where asynchronous electronic conferencing
allows students to post and answer messages. Our experience
indicates that students may benefit from immediate communication
by messaging or calling each other with small issues while research
certainly suggests that such peer-to-peer reliance can be very good
for student learning. However, ask students to post a summary of
the problem and how they resolved it (e.g., with the help of a peer)
on the Discussion Forum as an aid to students who may have the
same or similar issue in the future.

9.5. “Set Info:” If you can anticipate some questions, place some
general hints for that assignment using the “Set Info” part of
WeBWorK– it will appear on the right hand side of the screen (see
Figure 2).

139
 QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed)
decompressor are needed to see
this picture.

Figure 2: Set Info Screen

Suggestion 10: Prepare for reluctance to learn new technology.

Some people generally resist change. Be aware that students may not
be as enthusiastic as the instructor is with the way the course is
delivered and, worse, that their homework assignment is evaluated by
a machine! Many students who feel forced to take an online course
may have some (justified) reluctance to engage in the delivery
method. Recognize this and deal with it in appropriate ways. Insight
into the challenges of the first-timer experience as online instructor
can be found in Conrad’s (2004) article. Though many potential
remedies are available in books and articles, two books we have found
particularly useful along these lines are among the large collection by
Palloff and Pratt (2003, 2005).

Suggestion 11: Set up grading to encourage WeBWorK completion.

Studies show that WeBWorK keeps students on task longer. In one

study, this translated into the fact that low-performing students using
WeBWorK achieved a higher total gain in (post-test minus pre-test)
scores than low-performing students using traditional paper-and-pencil

140
homework (Segalla, 2006.) Consider this fact when setting up your
grading scale. Perhaps making homework count as heavily as, say
quizzes or an exam, will support students to stay on task longer.

Suggestion 12: Explore ways to use WeBWorK to identify, explain,

and correct conceptual errors.

WeBWorK is flexible, but it is not an artificial intelligence program that

can pinpoint where a particular student or group of students made a
conceptual error. One way to capitalize on the information WeBWorK
gathers on student effort is to first examine the WeBWorK spreadsheet
to see how many students in the class missed (or retried a great deal)
a problem containing a particular concept. Prepare a subset of
WeBWorK problems that scaffold up to the big idea, perhaps as a
follow-up activity or quiz. You might also recommend some tutorials
and Web sites to students through the “Set Info” feature.

Suggestion 13: Motivate course discussion through challenging

WeBWorK items.

The instructor receives student performance information dynamically

in the form of a spreadsheet and can easily see how students
performed individually and as a class. As noted above in Suggestion
12, the instructor can identify homework problems that may need to
be discussed as a class. A problem that shows a large number of tries
and has a considerable number of wrong responses is one to consider
for an enhanced presentation or “Discussion Board” activity. Perhaps
even extend the deadline for completion of that particular item in
WeBWorK to allow time for online interaction around the problem.

Suggestion 14: Be familiar with “the buttons.”

There are several important “buttons” in WeBWorK available to the

student to communicate with the instructor or to check their work
before they submit it for a grade. Depending on the version of
WeBWorK you are using, these buttons may change name and location
on the screen, but wherever they are, the “Help,” “Feedback,” “Print a
hard copy,” and “Preview” buttons are important to the successful use
of WeBWorK by the students. Spend some time on encouraging your
students in their use. The flipside is that the instructor needs to take
the time and trouble to tailor these helpful buttons to their local needs.
Also, though “Set Info” is not a button, it merits the instructor’s close
attention and use.

141
Conclusion

Given that homework is an important part of the teaching-learning

process in mathematics and given that human nature is what it is, the
typical college student does not spend enough time doing, checking,
and reflecting on homework to learn the subject well. WeBWorK is not
an ideal solution to the pedagogical disconnect between the
instructor’s efforts to have students master the material sufficiently
well and the typical student’s approach to homework, but it is a real
and sensible partial solution. Until something better comes along, we
highly recommend WeBWorK for mathematics homework for
traditional and online courses.

Acknowledgement

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science

Foundation under Grant Nos. DGE0203225 and 0311739 and the U.S.
Department of Education FIPSE program grant P116B060180. Any
opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in
this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the granting agencies.

References

Bloom, B. S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Kratwohl,
D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The
classification of educational goals. New York: McKay.

Connally, E., Hughes-Hallett, D., Gleason, A. M., Chiefetz, P., Flath, D.

E., Lock, P. F., Rhea, K., Swenson, C., Avenoso, F., Davidian, A.,
Lahme, B., Morris, J. Shure, P. Yoshiwara, K., & Marks, E. J.
(2004). Functions Modeling Change: A Preparation for Calculus.
New York: Wiley & Sons.

Conrad, D. (2004). University instructors’ reflections on their first

online teaching experiences. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
Networks, 8(2), 31-44.

Cooper, H. (1989). Homework. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Cooper, H., Lindsay, J. J., Nye, B., & Greathouse, S. (1998).

Relationships among attitudes about homework, amount of

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 homework assigned and completed, and student achievement.
Journal of Educational Psychology 90(1), 70-83.

Hauk, S. & Segalla, A. (2005). Student perceptions of the Web-based

homework program WeBWorK in moderate enrollment college
algebra classes. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and
Science Teaching, 24(3), 229-253.

Keith, T. Z. & Cool, V. A. (1992). Teaching models of school learning:

Effects of quality of instruction, motivation, academic
coursework, and homework on academic achievement. School
Psychology Quarterly, 7, 209-226.

Kime, L. A., & Clark, J. (2001). Explorations in College Algebra. New

York: Wiley & Sons.

Mumtaz, S. (2000). Factors affecting teachers’ use of information and

communications technology: A review of the literature.
Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 9(3), 319-342.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and

standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: A profile and
guide to working with online learners. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2005). Collaborating online: Learning

together in community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Peters, M., Kethley, B. & Bullington, K. (2002). The relationship

between homework and performance in an introductory
operations management course. Journal of Education for
Business 77(6), 340-344.

Pew Internet & American Life Project. (2002). The internet goes to
college: How students are living in the future with today’s
technology. Retrieved August 5, 2003 from
http://www.pewinternet.org

Porter, T. S. & Riley, T. M. (1996). The effectiveness of computer

exercises in introductory statistics. The Journal of Economic
Education, 27(4), 291-299.

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Pressey, S.L. (1926). A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores
- and teaches. School and Society, 23(586), 373-376.

Segalla, A. & Safer, A. (2006). Web-based mathematics homework: A

case study using WeBWorK in college algebra classes. CSULB
Exchanges Journal.

Warton, P. M. (2001). The forgotten voices in homework: Views of

students. Educational Psychologist, 36(3), 155-165.

About the Authors

Angelo Segalla
Ph.D.
Professor of Mathematics,
Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
California State University, Long Beach
Long Beach, CA USA
asegalla@csulb.edu
Office telephone:
Major research interests: Mathematics education

Shandy Hauk
Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Mathematical Sciences
School of Mathematical Sciences
University of Northern Colorado
Greeley, CO USA
hauk@unco.edu

Major research interests: Mathematics education

144
 Adding Voice/Visual Interaction
To Online Classes

Donald Schwartz and Consolacion Fajardo

Abstract

This paper discusses the addition of live voice/visual interaction to

asynchronous online learning environment, utilizing voice over internet
protocol (VoIP) technology. Reference is made to theories for
successful online learning: andragogy, intentional learning/self-
regulated learning, and engagement theory. It compares the learning
activities in a traditional classroom with those in an online learning
environment that offers both synchronous and asynchronous
interactions. It analyzes the results of a 2006 survey at National
University, a non-traditional university, as to why students enroll in
online classes and their perception of the use of the voice/visual
technology as an enhancement of their online learning experience.

Key Words

VoIP, synchronous, asynchronous

Background Information

The Sloan (2006) report showed that about 80% of students taking
online courses are at the undergraduate level. The bulk of online
students are adult or “non-traditional” learners, and more than 70% of
those surveyed said that online education reaches students not served
by face-to-face programs (Elaine & Seaman, 2006).

Theoretical Construct

Andragogy, Self-regulated Learning , and, Engagement Theory are

three different but related theories that are relevant to the question of
what characteristics, qualities, and attributes contribute to adult
learners’ success in online learning.

145
Andragogy

Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn (Lee, 1998). It
focuses on the characteristics of adult learners and a set of
assumptions for most effectively teaching adults: self-concept,
experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation.
The essence of the theory is that the adult learners need to be self-
motivated and to be active participants in their own learning (Knowles,
1970).

Intentional Learning/Self-regulated Learning

While not termed andragogy, the recommendations of the Accounting

Education Change Commission (AECC, 1990) were based on the
andragogical paradigm. AECC maintained that educators must prepare
graduates to become accounting professionals by equipping students
with lifelong learning skills. Intentional learning is the focus of the
AECC monograph and is defined as learning with self-directed intent
and choice of how and what to learn.

Smith (2001) describes lifelong learning as either self-directed learning

or self-regulated learning. Self-directed learning is the term often used
in the study of adult education outside a formal educational setting,
while self-regulated learning focuses on students in a formal
educational setting. Smith’s study focused on the review of research
on self-regulated learning.

Smith (2001) provided a self-regulated learning model that includes

what she calls self-regulatory attributes and self-regulatory processes.
Self-regulatory attributes include self-efficacy, self-awareness, and
resourcefulness. Self-regulatory processes consist of attributions, goal
setting, and self-monitoring. At the core of this model is self-
motivation. Smith posited that self-regulatory attributes and self-
regulatory processes influence the strength of the learner’s self-
motivation.

Engagement Theory

Kearsley (2000) cited another learning theory called Engagement

Theory, which may be viewed as another version of the andragogical
paradigm. The Engagement Theory posits that the learner must be

146
actively engaged in a meaningful task to achieve effective learning.
The Engagement Theory states that all learning must have three
important characteristics: (1) collaboration or the interaction among
students, teachers, and subject-matter experts via e-mail, discussion
forums, and conferencing; (2) problem-based, which means that all
student activities involve completing assignments or projects rather
than taking tests or exams; and (3) authenticity where all course
materials and activities are realistic and directly related to the
student’s interests.

Statement of the Problem

In a totally asynchronous online environment, there are no live class

sessions in which instruction and live interaction take place. The
principal means of student/instructor interaction is through threaded
discussions in which instructors periodically post discussion questions,
and students generally have a few days to post responses to the
instructor and to the responses of their classmates. However,
threaded discussions do not provide the means by which an instructor
can orally explain principles and processes, or illustrate concepts with
visuals such as a whiteboard, spreadsheet, PowerPoint presentations
and the like. Nor do they enable instructors to get instant feedback
from students to gauge their level of comprehension. Nor in
asynchronous threaded discussions can students interject questions,
debate controversial issues, or otherwise learn from a live interchange
of ideas.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to describe a new, emerging dimension of

teaching/learning strategy to accounting online courses in the form of
synchronous (live) class sessions using voice over internet protocol
(VoIP) technology that we call voice/visual learning environment to
increase interactivity and improve the learning experience of the
students in the virtual classroom. It will also include a discussion of
the benefits and limitations of the strategy.

147
Methodology

This study includes a review of literature on the underlying theories

that contribute to students’ success in online learning. It includes an
analysis of the 2006 survey at National University regarding the
reasons why students enroll in online classes, and whether the use of
synchronous chat sessions using audio/video technology rather than
text-messaging enhanced their learning experience.

Discussions

Traditional Teaching/Learning

In a traditional classroom setting, the teacher delivers the course

content to the students in a face-to-face environment where the
instructor and the students are physically together (Knowles et al.,
2005). Classroom activities require students to actively participate
rather than just passively listen to the teacher’s lectures to generate
productive interaction between students and instructor, and among the
students in the class. However, the traditional classroom setting
requires that the students and the instructor be together physically,
which for many students, especially working adults, is in conflict with
job commitments and personal schedules. This has paved the way for
online course delivery through the use of internet-based technologies.

Online teaching/Learning

Online learning is a form of distance education. It refers to an

instructional delivery in which the learners are geographically
separated from the teacher and from each other, and learning
activities take place through the use of internet and intranet
technologies. Online learning is growing rapidly. The Sloan
Consortium Study (2006) reported that overall online enrollment in the
U.S.A. increased from 1.98 in 2003, to 2.35 million in 2004, and to 3.2
million in 2005 (a 36% increase from the prior year). Online learning
utilizes a combination of audio, video, color, graphics and animation to
stimulate students’ interest. In most online courses, instructors and
students do not interact simultaneously. Asynchronous
communication takes place through what is often called threaded
discussion, in which students respond to messages posted on a forum
or Web site at times that are convenient to them. In synchronous
communication often referred to as chat sessions, students and

148
instructor meet in a virtual classroom at a scheduled time, usually for
an hour or two.

In a qualitative study to determine students’ positive and negative

experiences in hybrid class (a combination of face-to-face and online),
El Mansour & Mupinga (2007) interviewed 12 students in a hybrid
classes and 34 students in a purely online class. The results of the
interviews indicated that in the online class, convenience, flexibility,
and the instructor’s availability were positive experiences, while
technology problems and a sense of being lost in cyberspace were
negatives indicated by the students.

In another study, Durrington et al. (2006) described how to establish

an interactive online learning environment and provide strategies for
increasing student interactivity. One strategy is problem-based
learning in a synchronous chat room environment in which the
exchange of ideas is encouraged and each member of the class
participates in developing solutions to the problem. Durrington found
that students demonstrate more positive attitudes and higher levels of
performance when classes are highly interactive.

Asynchronous Threaded Discussion

In a totally asynchronous online environment, there are no live class

sessions in which instruction and live interaction take place. As stated
earlier, the principal means of student/instructor interaction is through
threaded discussions in which instructors periodically post discussion
questions, and students generally have a few days to post responses
to the instructor and to the responses of their classmates. Such
asynchronous interaction is particularly effective for questions that call
for reflection and critical thinking. But it does not allow an instructor
to orally explain accounting principles and processes, or to use visuals
such as a whiteboard, spreadsheet, PowerPoint presentations and the
like. Nor does it allow instructors to get instant feedback from students
to gauge their level of comprehension, nor for students to interject
questions, debate controversial issues, or otherwise learn from a live
interchange of ideas.

Most online communication is text-based with interpretation of

conceptual understanding contingent on the students’ ability to
express their ideas through typewritten messages. Assessing the
quality of these messages is difficult and instructors often look at

149
volume as an indicator of participation, rather than at cognitive
presence or critical thinking.

Dooley & Wickersham (2007) used content analysis based on the

critical thinking indicators by Newman, Webb & Cochrane (1995) to
measure the level of critical thinking in threaded discussion with
smaller groups compared to the whole class discussion. Twenty eight
(28) online graduate students were the subject of the study. The
authors concluded that discussion forums with fewer individuals have
the potential to provide an environment for learners to have equal
opportunity to voice their opinions and thoughts and demonstrate their
understanding to their peers and instructor.

Synchronous Voice/Visual Chat Sessions

To overcome the limitations of what is essentially a two-dimensional

text-based learning environment, some universities are adding a third
dimension to their online courses in the form of synchronous (live)
class sessions that make use of voice over internet protocol (VoIP)
technology, to provide what is here called a voice/visual learning
environment. National University, a private, non-profit and non-
traditional university of higher learning, started offering online classes
since 1999 in the School of Business and Management that included
accounting course EXE 682, a combination of financial and managerial
accounting in the MBA program. The use of VoIP technology for
voice/visual chat sessions started with a single online course in July
2005. In the second half of 2005, 10% of the online classes used VOIP.
In the first half of 2006, 30% used VoIP, and the second half of 2006,
the percentage doubled to 60% (National University, 2007). While
instructors are encouraged to use VoIP technology to provide students
with a voice/visual learning environment, the use of VoIP is not
mandatory, and some faculty members still prefer the text-based chat
sessions, perhaps because they are more comfortable with that
environment.

150
 Figure 1 - TEXT vs. VoIP CHAT SESSIONS

300
250
200
150 Text Chats
100 VoIP Chats
50
0
2nd Half 2005 1st Half 2006 2nd Half 2006

Though the system accommodates Web cams, they are not used, at
least for the time being, because of bandwidth constraints that would
seriously degrade audio quality, especially for those students with dial-
up internet connection. The technology does, however, permit a
function called application sharing in which instructors can display on
their computer screen virtually any software application, and have the
students view the instructor’s screen rather than their own, while
listening to the instructor’s oral presentation. In a similar manner,
students can present their papers or projects to their classmates. As
shown in Table 1, this voice/visual environment permits the use of a
wide variety of teaching/learning activities that come close to
matching those of a traditional classroom. In a typical voice/visual
learning environment, both the instructor and the students have
headsets with microphones, the cost of which is about $25 to $30.
There is no charge for the software.

This portion of
the screen for
application
sharing of
visuals such
. as
spreadsheets,
Powerpoint
slides,
websites, etc.

This portion of the screen for “hand

raising”, speaker’s photo, names of
participa1n5t1s, and text messaging.
 Table 1 – Comparison of teaching/learning Activities: Traditional
versus Online
Online
Learning Traditional Asynchronous
Asynchronous
Activity Classroom + Live
only
Voice/Visual
No oral Instructor orally
Instructor orally
Key communication explains key
explains
in asynchronous concepts, and
key concepts,
concepts are courses uses whiteboard,
using whiteboard,
orally handouts,
handouts,
explained by Students PowerPoint, and
spreadsheets,
Instructor download and other visual aids
PowerPoint, and
using visual view visual aids via application
other visual aids
aids to independently sharing
illustrate
Instructor builds Instructor builds
Instructor Whiteboard not
solutions to solutions to
builds solutions available in
numeric numeric problems
to numeric asynchronous
problems on the on a whiteboard
problems classes
whiteboard or spreadsheet
Both
Oral discussion: Threaded
asynchronous
Assigned discussion:
Discussion discussion Students post threaded
questions questions are responses during discussion
discussed orally a prescribed and synchronous
in class period. oral
discussion are
used
No live class
Case issues are Case issues are
Case discussion in
discussed orally discussed orally in
discussion asynchronous
in class class
classes
Instructor
No live Instructor
intersperses oral
Spontaneous interaction in intersperses oral
explanation with
interaction asynchronous explanation with
Socratic
courses Socratic questions
questions
Instructors and Instructors and
students can tell students can tell
Sharing of
personal “war Oral story-telling personal “war
real-life
stories” of not available stories” of
experiences
relevant real-life relevant real-life
experiences experiences
In-class group Depending upon In-class group Groups go into

152
work available work not separate virtual
classroom space, available classrooms for a
students can specified period of
work together in time, then return
small groups to the class
Students meet in
Team Students might
Students meet in separate virtual
assignments meet via
person if located
and study telephone or meeting rooms
reasonably close using voice/visual
groups email
communication
Students orally Students orally
present their Oral present their
Student oral
project, generally presentations project, generally
presentation
using PowerPoint not available using PowerPoint
to illustrate to illustrate
Instructor
demonstrates Instructor
software tools demonstrates
such as software tools
electronic Live such as electronic
Software
research demonstration research,
demonstration
methods, not available spreadsheet,
spreadsheet, database,
database, tax return, and
tax return, the
and the like
like
Guest speakers
Guest speakers can be invited to
Live sessions not
Guest speakers can be invited to speak to students
used
come to class from their home
or office
Both online
Online website website and
Classes are
Recording of accessible during downloadable
generally not
class the period of the recording of live
video-recorded
course sessions
are accessible

Limitations of the Live Class Sessions

The downside to live class sessions is less flexibility. Students do not

have the option of attending live class sessions at times of their own

153
choosing, although they can play back a video recording of the
sessions they miss.

Another constraining factor inherent in the current level of internet-

based technology is the delay of a few seconds between the time the
words are spoken and the time the internet delivers them to the
listeners. This requires the instructor to manually switch “the floor”
from one speaker to another by mouse clicks on participants’ names,
which slows the pace of the interaction. Also, if a student has a low-
speed internet connection, the speaker’s voice sometimes breaks up,
or speeds up; this makes the speaker sound – as one survey
respondent put it – like a Munchkin. And there are other glitches, such
as students occasionally losing their internet connection and having to
log back on.

National University 2006 Survey of Online Learners

In 2006, a survey was taken of non-traditional students who were

taking online courses at the National University. Many of the 866
respondents had full-time jobs, or were caring for small children at
home, or both. About 25% of the respondents indicated as the reason
why they were taking courses online rather than on-campus, “I am not
able to attend evening classes on campus because of my work or
personal schedule.” Another 25% answered, “The courses were offered
on-campus and I could have attended them, but I prefer the flexibility
of doing schoolwork at times that are convenient for me.” The
students in the first group would probably be unable to attend live
class sessions at a scheduled time. The students in the second group,
even though able to attend live class sessions, would probably prefer
not to. But 50% of the respondents gave reasons, such as travel
distance to the campus that would not permit them to attend
scheduled sessions. Approximately 50% of the respondents actually
did attend online courses that offered live voice/visual class sessions
(National University, 2007).

Despite the issues with the current internet technology, more than
80% of the survey respondents who had experienced live voice/visual
class sessions favored having them in their online courses. For those
students, the benefits of live class sessions outweigh both the reduced
flexibility and the technology issues, which issues are likely to be
resolved as technology improves.

154
Conclusion

Engaging the students in various synchronous as well as asynchronous

activities provides more opportunity for students to be actively
engaged in the learning process and facilitates their successful
completion of online classes. The various theories mentioned in this
study point to the fact that successful online learners are adult
students who are self-motivated (Knowles, 1970), confident in
themselves, and have a strong drive and determination to succeed
(Smith, 2001). Students demonstrate more positive attitudes and
higher level of performance when online classes are highly interactive
(El Mansour et al., 2007). Active learning, as opposed to passive
learning, has become a key concept in the online classroom.

As more universities incorporate voice/visual class sessions into their

online courses, students who, because of location or commitments at
work or at home, are unable to attend on-campus classes, will have
available in their online courses a learning environment that is
comparable to the traditional face-to-face classroom experience.

References

Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC). (1990, Fall).

Objectives
of education for Accountants: Position statement number one.
Issues in Accounting Education, 307-312.

Allen I. E. & J. Seaman. (2006, November). Making the grade – online

education in the United States, 2006, published by the Sloan
Consortium (Sloan-C).

Dooley, K. E. & Wickersham, L. E. (2007, Spring). Distraction,

domination,
and disconnection in whole-class, online discussions. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 8(1), 1-8.

Durrington, V. A., Berryhill, A. & Swafford, J. (2006, Winter). Strategies

for
Enhancing Student Interactivity in an online environment. College
Teaching, 54(1), 190-193.

El Mansour, B., & Mupinga, D. M. (2007, March). “Students’ Positive

and

155
 Negative Experiences in Hybrid and Online Classes.” College
Student Journal, 41(1).

Kearsley, G. (2000). Online Education: Learning and Teaching in

Cyberspace. Wadsworth. A division of Thomson learning.

Knowles, M.S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education:

Andragogy versus pedagogy.
Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult
learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human
resource development (6th Ed.) Woburn, MA: Butterwroth-
Heineman.
Lee, C. (1998, March). The adult learner: Neglected no more. Training,
35(3), 47-51.

National University. (2007). Survey of Online Students in the School

of
Business and Management.

Newman, D. R., Webb, B. & Cochrane, C. (1995). A content analysis

method to measure critical thinking in face-to-face and computer
supported group learning. Interpersonal Computing and
Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 3(2), 56-
77. Retrieved June 3, 2007, from
http://www.helsinki.fi/science/optek/1995/n2/newman.txt

Smith M.K. (2002, April 5). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education,
self-direction and andragogy, Encyclopedia of informal Education,
www.infed.org/thinkers/et- knowl.htm.

Smith, P. A. (2001, November). Understanding self-regulated learning

and its implications for accounting educators and researchers.
Issues in Accounting Education, 16(4), 663-700.

About the Authors

Donald A. Schwartz
JD, CPA
Professor & Chair of the Department of Accounting & Finance
National University, CA, USA
dschwart@nu.edu
(858) 642-8420

156
Major research interests:

Consolacion Fajardo
DPA
Professor and Program Lead Faculty for Accounting
National University, CA, USA
cfajardo@nu.edu
(916) 855-4137
Major research interests:

157
 A Web-based Intelligent Tutorial System

Thomas Gatton, Arun Datta, Pradip Dey, Jose Jorge Martinez

and Chaoting Ting

Abstract

Appropriate use of computer technology in the learning process has been

lacking and many Web-based and standalone tutorial systems in today’s
marketplace do not provide material that teaches students in an enjoyable
and effective way. This paper proposes a Web-based Intelligent Tutorial
System that will present material in an intuitive, interactive, and innovative
manner while focusing on ways to integrate qualitative and quantitative
methods throughout the learning experience. In this system, the lessons are
guided by the actual skill set of the student taking the course. The system
evaluates the student’s state of knowledge through examination and,
depending on the specific percentage and level of questions they answer
correctly, it will guide them through a lesson plan tailored to their learning
needs. The students take these exams at regular intervals and the lesson
plan is adjusted in accordance to their learning at each specific level. The
emphasis in this proposal is Algebra, as it provides the basis for higher
learning in any field of study.

Key Words

Intelligent tutorial systems, computer-assisted learning, mathematics

teaching, Web-based learning

Introduction

The application of computers to learning and teaching has evolved from

simple text to audio and visual communications. Computer Assisted
Instruction (CAI) and Computer Based Training (CBT) began in the early
1960s and evolved into Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction (ICAI) and
Intelligent Tutorial Systems (ITS) (e.g. Barr and Fiegenbaum, 1982; Beck,
Stern and Haugsjaa, 1996). With the introduction and expansion of the
Internet, additional components dealing with the human-computer interface
were added to the ITS and new terms, such as Web intelligence and
Intelligent Learning Environments (ILEs), were developed (e.g. Mavirkis and
Maciocia, 2003).
One of the most important application areas for an ITS is mathematics. U.S.
students are behind in mathematics skills, when compared to those of Asia

158
and Europe, and the National Research Council and the U.S. Department of
Education conducted a study (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 1999) to
evaluate teaching and learning and the use of technology. The committee
recognized that the proper use of computer technology helps the learning
process. A number of technology-based tutorial systems are now available in
the market for K12 students. However, most tutorial systems in the market-
place do not provide an innovative tutorial course that teaches students in
an enjoyable and effective manner. Learning is a complex process and use of
technology may not always promote learning. “Inappropriate uses of
technology can hinder learning--for example, if students spend most of their
time picking fonts and colors for multimedia reports instead of planning,
writing, and revising their ideas” (Bransford, et al. 1999). Developing a
tutorial system that incorporates the user’s learning goals contextually and
uses technology appropriately to meet these goals in an innovative learning
environment is a challenging task. Most systems provide tutorials that have
links to text-based pages that make learning slow and tedious. Even the
tutorials with some visual interfaces seem dry and congested with more
material than what should be presented to the student, or the interface is
not intuitive. An end user can be overwhelmed and lose interest in such a
format. There are not many tutorial systems in the market that teach math
effectively and many use a general knowledge approach with no well-defined
boundaries. It is necessary to define the elements of a good tutorial system
to address this problem.

Computer Learning and Education

What makes a good tutorial system? Some experts say that learning should
occur in context, be active, social, and reflective (Pennsylvania State
University, 2003-2007). The three learning styles are visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic and computer-based courses should utilize all three styles. Most
of the information is visual and auditory, but it can also be kinesthetic, as
the user interacts with the system via the keyboard and mouse. The
kinesthetic interaction determines how the student gets involved with the
material as they move from the passive modes, see and hear, to the active
modes, touch and react. The four basic teaching styles are formal authority,
demonstrator or personal model, facilitator, and delegator. The first style has
the teacher dictating what students learn with no concern about creating a
relationship between the teacher and students. The second style has the
teacher as a coach guiding the students and creating a relationship between
them, but it is still instructor-centered. The third style is student-centered
and the teacher facilitates the material and activities, but the learning
becomes part of the student responsibility as they collaborate with each
other. The last style is strictly student-based, as the instructor delegates the

159
responsibility of learning to the students. They work on projects in groups or
independently and the teacher assumes the role of a consultant. In order for
Web-learning to be active, social, and reflective, it should use the last two
teaching styles and emphasize the kinesthetic approach of learning, where
the student becomes involved and active.

The proposed system instructs and helps students to master basic algebra
skills geared toward Advance Placement (AP) courses and provides an
enjoyable, interesting and easy way to learn the material. The system makes
the students responsible for their learning and, because it is Web-based, the
student must be self-motivated to start and finish the course on their own.
Thus, Web-based learning systems should mainly use the third and fourth
teaching styles to be successful. One of the most important goals for the
proposed system is to provide students with a tutorial that will enable them
to develop appropriate math skills. The system will concentrate on an
ontology authenticated by a subject matter expert that corresponds to the
important skill sets needed for a full mastery of an algebra course. The
system makes the learning experience interesting through a well-designed
intelligent user interface that provides an enjoyable experience through
interactive game-like and entertaining lessons. An interactive system is a
key in the success of the student and the course is not solely text-based and
motivates and maintains student attention through active participation in the
learning process, as described in the design section of this paper. This
project will develop a system specifically for Algebra, as it is a fundamental
skill set that students must master to move forward in many areas.

The course is Web-based since the Internet is what many students are
actively involved in with a significant portion of their daily lives. Familiarity
with myspace.com, MSN, Yahoo, AIM messenger, youtube.com, and Napster
are commonplace and on the rise. Experts say that students using Algebra
with computer materials are better problem solvers (Matras, 1988). Also,
Edwards (1995) cites that a revolution in secondary education in the United
States is underway. Classes taught over the Internet will soon be remaking
today’s high schools. Education on demand 24 hours a day, seven days a
week, is now a “virtual reality.” Individualized schooling and instruction will
be available whenever and wherever a person chooses. Following this
premise, the tutorial is designed to be available online for any student to
use. One more component of the system is the use of Artificial Intelligence
(AI). According to Viadero (2007), students who use intelligent learning
systems make learning gains that translate, roughly, into the equivalent of
as much as one letter grade. He further states that since the 1970s, the
National Science Foundation, the Pentagon, and the U.S. Department of
Education have opened their wallets to seed research and development of
intelligent tutorial systems. The proposed Web-based Intelligent Tutorial

160
System uses AI methods to determine the skill sets of students and guide
them through the courses at the appropriate levels until they master the
fundamentals.

Survey of Current Systems

It is apparent that many systems emphasize the contextual approach more

than the active, social, and reflective components of learning. Some products
analyzed for this project are application-based systems, such as Encore High
School Advantage 2004, Encore Math Advantage 2007, and Weekly Reader
Mastering High School & SAT Math (2008). Also a number of Web-based
tutorials, such as Free Math Help (freemathhelp.com) and The Math Page
(themathpage.com), are evaluated for their characteristics.. A matrix of the
systems and their capabilities is included in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of Computer-Based Tutorial Systems

Only Algebra courses were considered.

Adap-
Interactive Access Soft- Administra-
Interactive Video tive
Quiz or Game through ware tor
Lesson Lesson Study
Exercise Internet Disc Function
Plan
AP
Mastery ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Online
Coolmath.com ○ ○
Encore High School
○ ○ ○ ○
Advantage 2004
Encore Math
○ ○ ○ ○
Advantage 2007
FreeMathHelp.com ○ ○
Purplemath.com ○ ○
TheMathPage.com ○
Weekly Reader
Mastering High
○ ○ ○
School & SAT Math
(2008)

Most of these systems’ lessons are text-based and, although some have
interesting graphics, navigation is still not optimal. Joshua (1996) cites that
graphics and sound have progressively supplanted the written word as a
general conveyor of information; however, not even graphics and sound
assists in learning if not done correctly.

161
Algebra Course Ontology

The ontology that is utilized for the Algebra course is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Ontological Structure for Algebra

1. Integer Exponents
1.1 Definition of Exponents
1.2 The Product Rule for Exponents
1.3 Zero as an exponent
1.4 Quotient Rule for Exponents
1.5 Negative Exponents
1.6 Power Rule for Exponents
1.7 Products to Powers Rule for Exponents
1.8 Quotients to Powers Rule for Exponents
1.9 Simplifying an Exponential Expression
2. Scientific Notation
2.1 Writing a Number in Scientific Notation
2.2 Write a Scientific Number in Standard Form
3. Radicals
3.1 Basic Rules
3.2 A Product of Two Radicals With the Same Index Number
3.3 A Quotient of Two Radicals With the Same Index Number
3.4 Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions
3.5 Rationalizing the Denominator With One Term
3.6 Rationalizing the Denominator With Two Terms
4. Rational Exponents
4.1 Rational Exponents and Roots
5. Polynomials
5.1 Definitions
5.2 Types of Polynomials
5.3 Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
5.4 Multiplying Polynomials
5.5 Binomial Squared
5.6 Product of the Sum and Difference of Two Terms
5.7 Binomial Cubed
6. Factoring Polynomials
6.1 Factoring a Polynomial
6.2 Factoring Trinomials of the Form
6.3 Prime Polynomials
6.4 Factoring a Perfect Square Trinomial
6.5 Factoring a Difference of Two Squares

162
 6.6 Factoring a Sum of Two Cubes
6.7 Factoring a Difference of Two Cubes
7. Simplifying Rational Expressions
7.1 Definitions
7.2 Simplifying a Rational Expression
8. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
8.1 Multiplying Rational Expressions
8.2 Dividing Rational Expressions
9. Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
9.1 Adding or Subtracting Rational Expressions with Common
Denominators
9.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions without
a Common Denominator
10. Complex Rational Expressions
10.1 Definitions
10.2 Methods of Simplifying a Complex Fraction
11. Complex Numbers
11.1 Definitions
11.2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers
11.3 Multiplying Complex Numbers
11.4 Dividing Complex Numbers
11.5 Square Root of a Negative Number

163
The flowchart for the proposed Web-Based AP Algebra System is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1. Proposed Web-Based AP Mastery Design

The system design consists of Web-based technology comprised of XHTML

components, ASP.NET 2.0, C#.NET 2.0, Adobe Flash and ActionScript 2.0,
and a Microsoft SQL 2005 database where the knowledge base resides. The
prospective students access the AP Mastery Online Web site where they are
presented with a splash screen and then directed to the site’s main welcome
page. From the menu they can get information for course descriptions, a
brief history of the project in an about page, a support page and how to
contact project’s administrators, and a login page. In the login page, the
students are asked to create an account and then enter their credentials.
Once logged in, they are redirected to the restricted area where they can
access courses they have permission to take. The course main menu
includes: Lessons, Video, Examples, Games, Quiz, and Mastery Exam pages.
On the main page, the students are asked to take an entrance exam for the
system to determine at what level they should start in their respective
course.

164
The lessons are mainly composed in Adobe Flash and they are interactive.
The videos are also embedded in Flash technology and they provide short
how-to instructions. Students also can look at step-by-step examples of how
to solve word problems and interact with Flash-designed games that
enhance their skills at problem solving. There is also a quiz section that is
not tracked in the database but serves as a practice session. There is a
Master Exam page that the student can take when they want to move to new
lessons. The system determines the lesson flow, as described in the
following paragraphs.

Logistics and Intelligent Components

The intelligent component logistics to determine student’s skill levels by the

system are given below, along with a UML Diagram describing the actors and
interactions. The main flow of the program is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Program Flow

 The student takes entrance exam

 The system analyzes entrance exam and determines student level
 Student takes curriculum according to the level determined by
the system
 Student takes evaluation exam
 System determines new level for the student
 Student takes new curriculum
 Student takes new evaluation exam
 System determines new level
 Process repeats until student reaches top level
 If student passes top level then diploma is printed

An additional function allows administrators to add questions for exams to

the knowledge base.

Figure 2 shows the Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagram where the
main actors of the system are the instructor, the student, the system
administrator and the database, which contains the knowledge base.

165
Figure 2. UML Diagram

When the students take the entrance exam, they are presented with a pool
of 55 questions. These questions are taken from the knowledge base and
represent five questions from each lesson in the course (a total of 11 lessons
for the Algebra course). According to the percentage of questions the
students get right from each lesson set, the system determines where the
students should start. For example, if the students get five questions right
for lessons one and five for lesson two, but then only four in lesson three and
none thereafter, the student is started at lesson three. The percentage for
question answered correctly for each lesson is averaged and then a total
average for all lessons is determined taking into consideration the average
per each lesson. Out of this formula the system determines where the
student should be. The student progress is stored in the database and used
as reference for future calculations as the student retakes the exam to
advance lessons. Getting the students to take the exams would prove as a
challenge. How does the system engage the students to take the exams,
and encourage them to want and keep going with their lessons? This is

166
where the innovation in the course is provided. During each lesson, the
student is presented the material via an assortment of media and graphic
interfaces designed to engage the students in the course. The students get
a Flash presentation designed with 3-D graphic animations for the topics.
Now and then the system will pop up a video or game for the student to play
and diversify the teaching strategy. Also, if the system determines that the
student has been inactive for a lengthy amount of time (say 15 minutes), it
will pop up snippets of Algebra-related jokes or some small puzzle to solve.
Keep in mind that the student also can go to the video, game or quiz, and
take the mastery exam on their own from the menu bar. Most of the
questions will emphasize problem solving and the games will have to do with
solving a mathematical problem. We try to emphasize interaction and make
the learning enjoyable by providing assorted learning techniques. A
sequence diagram for the system is shown here in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Sequence Diagram

167
AP Mastery Online Architecture

The system architecture is comprised of Microsoft Internet Information

Services (IIS) 6.0 as the front end and Microsoft SQL 2005 server for the
backend. Students are required to have an Internet connection to access the
courses with any browser that supports the Flash plug-in. The system will use
session and profile states to keep information the user enters, and that
needs to be posted to the active database. The site provides links where
needed plug-ins can easily be downloaded and installed. Since the students
do not install the system in their own computers, a Web and Database
server is needed to host the Web application and its components. The
recommended equipment is a datacenter class server running with dual
Xeon processors and having at least 2 GB of buffered memory. Hard drive
space needed is at least 5 GB for the operating system partition and at least
20 GB for the data partition. The machines should run Microsoft 2003 Server
Operation system.

The database prototype consists of seven tables: Scores, Users, Ontology,

Exercises, Answers, Examples, and Steps. The primary keys that will keep
the Entity-relationship Diagram (ERD) structure integrity are: ExampleID,
ExampleStepID, SubjectID, ExerciseID, ExerciseAnswersID, ScoreID, and
UserID. The ERD is shown in Figure 4.

168
Figure 4. Database Components

Conclusion and Recommendation

Education in science and mathematics in the United States has been

declining significantly. According to the Business Roundtable Newsroom
(2007), the problem-solving skills of high school age students was the largest
percentage for low performers of any developed country due to declining
interest by Americans in science, math, and engineering. The AP Mastery
Online tutorial has that statistic in perspective and strives to make these
subjects fun and attractive for students. For further design of the

169
course, a more robust intelligent system might be implemented, as well as
the use of voice interaction.

This paper proposed the improvement of online learning via different

teaching styles and a variety of technologies, and hopefully the improvement
of students’ interest in the sciences in the future. If teachers can design
tutorials that are entertaining and captivating, learning can be seen as a
game or entertainment instead of something uncomfortable to have to do for
prospective students. Finally, as an article in Ethnic NewsWatch (2007)
states, technology has changed almost every form of communication,
including the communication between student and teacher. Online teaching
and the learning processes are an appropriate communication application for
improvement.

URL: The prototype of this system can be viewed at:

http://nucri.nu.edu/wits.html

References

Barr, A., & Fiegenbaurn, E. (1982). The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence,

Volume II. William Kauffman, Inc., Los Altos, California, 229-235.

Beck, J., Stern, M., & Haugsjaa, E. (1996). Applications of AI in education.

ACM Crossroads, September 1996.

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How People Learn: Brain,
Mind, Experience, and School. National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C.

Business Roundtable. (2005, July 27). Plan calls for doubling science,
technology, engineering and math graduates in 10 years. Retrieved
Aug. 26, 2007, from
http://www.businessroundtable.org/newsroom/document.aspx?qs=58
76BF807822B0F1AD1448722FB51711FCF50C8

CollegeBoard.com. (2007). About AP. Retrieved Aug. 11, 2007, from

http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/about.html

Coolmath.com, Inc. (2007). Coolmath algebra. Retrieved Aug. 19, 2007,

from http://www.coolmath.com/algebra/index.html

Edwards, C. M. Jr. (1995, October). The Internet high school: A modest

proposal. National Association of Secondary School Principals. NASSP

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 Bulletin, 79(573), 67. Retrieved Aug. 26, 2007, from Research Library
Core database. (Document ID: 6982302).

Encore. (2004). High school advantage [computer software].

Encore. (2007). Math advantage [computer software].

FreeMathHelp.com. (2007). Algebra lessons. Retrieved Aug. 19, 2007, from

http://www.freemathhelp.com/algebra-help.html

Joshua, O. R. (1996). A hypermedia-based intelligent computer-assisted

instruction model. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Manitoba
(Canada), Canada. Retrieved Aug. 26, 2007, from ProQuest Digital
Dissertations database. (Publication No. AAT NN13227).

Matras, M. A. (1988). The effects of curricula on students' ability to analyze

and solve problems in algebra. Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Maryland College Park, United States -- Maryland. Retrieved Aug. 25,
2007, from ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. (Publication No.
AAT 8818432).

Mavrikis, M. & Maciocia, A. (2003). WALLIS: a Web-based ILE for science

and engineering students studying mathematics, Supplementary
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Artificial
Intelligence in Education, Vol. 18.

Pennsylvania State University. How people learn. Retrieved Aug. 23, 2007,
from
http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/research/How_People_Learn.shtml

Pennsylvania State University. Teaching styles. Retrieved Aug. 23, 2007,

from
http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/research/teaching_styles.shtml

Peppard, K., & Puckett, J. (2002). College algebra online tutorial. West Texas
A&M University. Retrieved Aug. 10, 2007, from
http://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/mps/math/mathlab/col_algebr a/

Spector, L. (2007). TheMathPage skill in algebra. Retrieved Aug. 19, 2007,

from http://www.themathpage.com/alg/algebra.htm

Stapel, E. (2007). Purplemath. Retrieved Aug. 19, 2007, from

http://www.purplemath.com/index.htm

171
University of South Dakota. (2004). What's your learning style?
Retrieved Aug. 23, 2007, from http://www.usd.edu/trio/tut/ts/style.html

Viadero, D. (2007). New breed of digital tutors yielding learning gains.

Education Week, 26(31), 9. Retrieved Aug. 25, 2007, from Research
Library Core database. (Document ID: 1252487191).

“Virtual classroom can benefit many types of students.” (16 Feb. 2006).
Mississippi Link, p. B5. Retrieved Aug. 26, 2007, from Ethnic
NewsWatch (ENW) database. (Document ID: 1016328271).

Weekly Reader. (2008). Mastering high school & SAT [computer software].

About the Authors

Thomas M. Gatton
PhD
Professor
Department of Applied Engineering
National University
La Jolla, CA 92037
Email: tgatton@nu.edu
Major research interests: Design and construction automation, artificial
intelligence, software engineering, intelligent tutorial systems

Arun K. Datta
PhD.
Senior Fellow,
Community Research Institute (NUCRI), Adjunct Professor,
National University
Email: adatta@nu.edu
Major Research Interests: Bioinformatics and health Informatics, grid
technology and its application in biological domain, educational tools and
technologies

Pradip Peter Dey

Ph. D.
Professor
Department of Computer Science and Information Systems
Email: pdey@nu.edu
National University

172
Major research interests: Computer Science, artificial intelligence, software
engineering, intelligent tutorial systems

Jose Jorge Martinez

MS
Systems Administrator
Department of Information Technology
National University
Email: jorge.martinez@jjmnetworks.com
Major research interests: Quantum computers; Web-based interactive
learning

Chaoting Ting
MS
OPT Staff
National University Community Research Institute
National University
Email: chaotingting@gmail.com
Major research interests: Intelligent-tutoring systems, human-computer
interaction

173
 Strengthening Teaching Communities
through Online Professional
Development

Robyn A. Hill

Abstract

A growing trend in higher education is the use of part-time adjunct

faculty to teach significant portions of a university’s curriculum. While
full-time faculty members remain in relatively close contact, thus
forming a stable professional community, most part-time faculty are
not closely associated with their departments, which leads to a number
of problems. These include: inadequate understanding and
interpretation of instructional documents and course requirements;
considerable differences in teaching methodologies; lack of clarity
regarding teacher interactions and functions, especially for adult
learners and within online environments; problems with adjunct
retention; and reduced student learning outcomes. In order to
integrate part-time instructors more fully into the university
community, instill a greater sense of commitment, and maintain
consistency and rigor of teaching and learning, institutions of higher
learning need to create effective, integral and continuous opportunities
for professional growth. This paper describes a professional
development model designed to achieve these goals, as well as the
results of its pilot implementation at National University in March
2007.

Introduction

A student at the university where I teach recently expressed her

frustration with an online class. After having had several excellent
instructors, the inexperience of the current one was glaringly obvious.
I asked her to do me a favor and document her concerns. A few weeks
later, she handed me a folder with printouts of the syllabus and
discussions, as well as several pages of handwritten notes. Among her
observations were the following:

 The syllabus contained erroneous information, including incorrect

testing dates and times, references to non-existent lectures, and
confusing, contradictory course requirements.
 The instructor did not log into the class until the second week of
the four-week course.

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  The instructor did not provide any lectures, PowerPoint
presentations, Web links, or other didactic materials.
 The instructor did not participate at all in several of the
discussions and his postings in the others were of a very general
nature that the student described as “vague.” In other words,
they did not impart important information about the course
content; provide clarification; support, guide, manage, model,
inspire, or otherwise advance the conversation.
 The instructor often took several days to respond to inquiries
and was not available at all on weekends.
 The instructor did not post any grades until the beginning of the
third week of the four-week course and did not provide any
substantial feedback on the assignments.

Needless to say, the students in this class did not benefit from the
expertise of this instructor in terms of his content knowledge because
any learning that occurred resulted from reading the textbooks and
student-to-student interaction in the discussions, rather than from
informative instructor postings and timely, constructive feedback on
assignments. Though it is unclear whether this particular instructor
would have been more effective in a face-to-face classroom, at the
very least, he was unable to make an effective transition to an online
teaching environment. This example serves to highlight the profound
necessity for institutions of higher learning to provide effective,
integral, and continuous opportunities for professional development to
all faculty members (Yang & Cornelius, 2005; Serdyukov & Hill, 2005).
Not only do such opportunities improve the quality and consistency of
the delivery of a university’s course offerings, but they also serve to
strengthen teaching communities and promote closer professional
collaboration between all instructors (Serdyukov & Tarnopolsky, 2000;
Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002).

Though many institutions of higher learning still employ a large

contingent of full-time faculty members, the advent of more
distributed systems, multiple campuses, and Web-based education, as
well as cost-cutting and efficiency concerns, have all led to greater use
of part-time faculty (Singleton, 2004). Certainly the professionalism
and academic credentials of the majority of these adjuncts are high.
Nevertheless, due to the fact that their backgrounds may be limited to
teaching in conventional, classroom-based colleges with a younger
student population, many adjuncts may be ill-prepared for the
challenges of the changing face of higher education, especially with
regard to adult learners and the rapidly growing popularity of distance
education. Furthermore, if these instructors are not fully integrated

175
into the professorial community of a given university, discrepancies in
the way they interpret and implement course syllabi and evaluation
criteria may lead to lower standards for academic rigor or, conversely,
requirements that are too demanding; both of which eventually may
result in poorer student learning outcomes (Serdyukov, 2001).

Whereas full-time faculty members often share a common vision and

academic culture, continuous professional development and support
for all faculty members would provide a foundation for increased
collegial collaboration and a mechanism by which all instructors could
be kept current on modifications to the curriculum, changes in school
policies, and innovations in teaching methodologies (Kabakci &
Odabasi, 2004). For reasons of quality control, consistency, integrity,
and accreditation, it is incumbent upon institutions of higher learning
to support all instructors and nurture a professional learning
community (Gold, 2001; Heaton, Pauley, & Childress, 2002; Deubel,
2003). Such a mechanism would also allow all instructors to receive
support for teaching, such as expert advice from supervisors and
peers; answers to questions about policies, procedures, and
expectations; and access to updated instructional materials. Ideally,
there would also be plentiful opportunities for interaction to exchange
opinions, suggestions, and findings in a way that would foster
collaboration within a learning community. This notion is supported by
De Vries and Kommers (2004) who note that “the big issue for an
individual is not how to become a professional, but rather how to stay
one and how to develop further as a professional…they need to reflect-
in action…and be supported by social networks of fellow professionals”
(p. 116).

National University is an example of an institution of higher learning

with a distributed system that serves a predominantly working adult
student population. Its Teacher Education Department employs
approximately 50 full-time faculty members and more than 800 part-
time adjuncts across a system that encompasses 34 learning centers
in California, Hawaii, and Nevada, as well as an extensive array of
online programs. Adjunct instructors normally teach between six and
12 accelerated, intensive one-month long courses per year both online
and onsite, depending on their qualifications, quality of work
(evaluated primarily through student evaluations), and physical
proximity to one or more of the aforementioned learning centers.

Due to the unique accelerated, one-month course format and specific

adult student population at National University, all instructors, full-
time and part-time, must possess an effective skill set that allows

176
them to teach and support working adults who are often juggling
employment, families, and schoolwork in their pursuit of a degree or
credential. Those who teach online also require both the technological
and pedagogical (or andragogical) expertise to teach and mentor these
students in a virtual environment (Schoenfield-Tacher & Persichette,
2000). In order to develop and maintain these important skill sets,
faculty members must mentor and support each other. Whereas full-
time faculty members often work together in their departments;
collaborate on projects, research, and course development; maintain
continuous communication; and attend numerous meetings that bring
them all together; the majority of adjunct instructors do not generally
communicate and collaborate with full-time faculty members on a
regular basis. Thus, problems of isolation and lack of quality control
persist. DeVries and Kommers (2004) argue that “involvement and
participation create a sense of responsibility and ownership and,
hence, greater commitment to the community” (p. 19). Therefore, at
National University, and similar institutions of higher learning, it is
imperative that continuous professional development be a priority,
both for the sake of the adjunct instructors, as well as the learning
outcomes of the students that they serve, and the success of the
university’s programs.

Although it may be feasible to arrange for face-to-face meetings with

all adjuncts and full-time faculty members at institutions with a central
campus, this is logistically more difficult and costly to arrange at
institutions with a more distributed system. Localized meetings at
specific campuses or learning centers are certainly beneficial, but may
not allow for the type of broad-based communication among whole
groups of instructors teaching the same courses or within the same
programs, for example, that would significantly improve quality and
consistency in course delivery, evaluation criteria, and student
outcomes.

Therefore, there is a need to establish a continuous online professional

development community based on integrated resources, practicality,
and personalization (De Vries & Kommers, 2004). This paper will
describe a course-specific model for teacher professional development
that we have been developing and implementing since 2003
(Serdyukov & Hill, 2005) with the express purpose of accomplishing
the following goals:

Update instructors on curricular and policy changes

177
Lack of communication can be a problem in any field, especially in
higher education where such issues as program prerequisites,
requirements, state standards, course content, accreditation concerns,
appeals procedures, and other curricular and policy changes may
critically affect both instructors and students. A central location for
communication regarding administrative changes is an efficient way to
keep everyone in the community well informed, especially if it provides
opportunities for two-way communication and timely responses and
feedback (Al-Ashkar, 2002).

Maintain instructors’ methodological competency

For schools such as National University that target primarily working

adult learners, an important factor for the instructors’ success in the
classroom is the application of principles of andragogy to teaching
(Ryan & Serdyukov, 2003). For example, instructors must understand
that adult learning is based on the andragogical assumption that adults
tend to be self-directed learners who are shaped by the accumulation
of authentic personal experience. Knowles (1991) reminds us that
adults are goal-oriented learners whose motivation tends to be
intrinsic; and whose life experiences should be viewed and utilized as a
unique resource within a learning community. Instructors must be able
to strike a balance between providing an explicit framework of study
and allowing adult learners to pursue knowledge within those
boundaries. Brookfield (1985) further emphasizes that collaborative
learning is a key aspect of andragogy where both facilitators and
learners become part of an educational process that is both active and
reflective, and where the traditional hierarchy among facilitators and
learners is more democratic.

Moreover, instructors must be well prepared for the challenges of

teaching their specific content in both online and onsite environments.
In addition, the specificity of the course format at National University
(an accelerated, one-month long course format) requires a special
approach to teaching and learning (Greiner, Serdyukov, Subbotin, &
Serdyukova, 2004). Delivery of the course content within this type of
compressed framework demands very efficient planning, organization,
and management of the instructional process, information presentation
and processing, and skill development (Serdyukov & Serdyukova,
2006). Thus, the online seminar format helps to maintain the
consistency and rigor of student learning outcomes by providing
instructors with materials, resources, and explicit, specialized expertise
to teach their courses more effectively, both online and onsite.

178
Preserve a universal level of requirements, standards and quality of
learning outcomes, stressing common ground as opposed to strict
uniformity

Though instructors certainly bring diversity to their classrooms in

terms of the delivery of content, it is essential that all instructors
within the same institution demonstrate commonalities with regard to
specific course requirements, teaching methodologies, and
assessment criteria. Not only does the establishment of such common
ground preserve accreditation status, it also allows students to make
easy transitions between instructors and classes, especially within an
accelerated, one-course-per-month format (Hill & Serdyukov, 2005).
Through the online seminar format, full-time faculty members can
explicitly express and clarify their expectations within an interactive
and collegial atmosphere.

Not only do the full-time faculty members have the opportunity to

discuss the course syllabus, assignments and rubrics, and other course
materials that might be open to interpretation, and thereby help to
improve the consistency of course delivery, but they may also clarify
other types of professional expectations. Examples include: modeling
professional correspondence and announcements, required student
contact hours, frequency and quality of participation in class
discussions, response times for student inquiries, timing and quality of
feedback on assignments, procedures for handling problems that may
escalate (such as plagiarism or academic dishonesty), and keeping
records.

Promote collaboration and create an online professional community to

overcome the physical distance among instructors and between
instructors and the college community in order to achieve the best
learning outcomes.

By creating an online community that fosters a professional culture,

adjunct instructors are much more likely to maintain and renew their
commitment to the university, thus increasing adjunct retention rates
and negating the necessity to constantly renew the pool of available
qualified instructors (Serdyukov & Hill, 2005). In the case of National
University, the majority of the instructors in the Teacher Education
Department are active practitioners with tremendous experience and
expertise. The ability to tap those resources in a systematic and

179
continuous fashion serves to benefit and enhance the entire university
community for purposes of outreach, research, curriculum
development, programmatic improvements, and better learning
outcomes for the students.

Increase student retention rates by improving the quality and

effectiveness of the instructors’ ability to teach in both online and
onsite settings, while simultaneously improving student evaluations of
both the course and the instructors.

Maintaining high student enrollment numbers is essential to the

financial stability of all institutions of higher learning. One of the most
effective ways to prevent attrition is to offer students excellent
programs tailored to their needs and taught by knowledgeable,
effective, responsive instructors. Likewise, one of the most effective
ways to increase enrollment is to build a solid reputation through word
of mouth. When students are pleased with instructor effectiveness
and their self-assessment of their learning in a particular course or
program, they are more likely to recommend the university to friends,
relatives, and co-workers (Kabakci & Odabasi, 2004).

Professional Development Web Site

Online Continuous Course

Seminar Discussion Resources
Discussion Forum
Forums

F A C U L T Y

Fig. 1. The model of online professional development

Fig. 1 represents a model for an online professional development

seminar that is course specific and designed to be conducted at least
two times a year for a week, in order to address the most important

180
issues concerning instruction and university policies. In the case of
this model developed at National University, the seminar Web site is
actually an eCollege course shell that has been designated for this
purpose. Every adjunct faculty member teaching a particular course
(or courses) that is the focus of the seminar is given access to the Web
site and is required to participate according to the expectations
specified by the full-time faculty members who are in charge of the
curricular development and maintenance of the course (or courses),
also known as Lead Faculty. One of the benefits of using the same
format for the seminars as the online courses is to familiarize
inexperienced online instructors with the basics of course navigation
and discussion board participation.

The Online Seminar Discussion Forums section consists of several

asynchronous threaded discussions that are facilitated by one or more
of the Lead Faculty members. Topics for these focused discussions
may include: university policies, curricular changes and developments,
teaching adult learners, online instructional methodologies, onsite
classroom strategies and activities, or other issues specifically related
to the course content or assignments. As opposed to chats, the
asynchronous nature of the discussions provides more consistent
opportunities for participation, for revisiting previous postings, deeper
levels of reflection, access to a broader spectrum of ideas, more
concrete connections to theory and practice, and more ways for the
facilitators to model higher order responses and offer clarification
(Gray, 2002; Kirk & Orr, 2003; Serdyukov & Hill, 2004).

A second type of forum for Continuous Discussion, which is also in the

form of an asynchronous threaded discussion, is intended to support
adjunct faculty members by providing a way for them to interact on a
continuous basis with full-time faculty members who monitor the
forums, as well as with experienced adjunct faculty members who
moderate the forums each month. This more informal setting may
also address topics similar to those listed for the online seminars, as
well a specific problem solving, and sharing and discussing educational
research.

Overall, both of these types of forums allow for greater interaction

between full-time faculty and the adjuncts who teach the courses that
they steward, as well as increased interaction among adjuncts who
teach the same courses. Again, the choice of an asynchronous format
is intentional, allowing participants the opportunity to reflect and
respond at the time and place of greatest convenience for them, thus

181
further increasing the frequency and quality of their participation
(Serdyukov & Hill, 2004).

The Course Resources component is a permanent storehouse of

information, including the most updated course syllabi; outlines;
schedules; recommended literature sources and Web links; topic
digests; instructors’ tips, guidelines and advice; instructor-created
materials; templates; sample assignments, announcements, and
correspondence; frequently used university forms (i.e. grade change);
as well as PowerPoint presentations, video clips, and other multimedia
resources.

Between 2003 and 2005, this model was implemented on a limited

basis for faculty members involved in teaching Methodology for Second
Language Development courses. Though the reaction by participants
was highly favorable, changes in university administration and course
platform providers necessitated a brief hiatus until the spring of 2007,
when the model was again implemented, this time as a pilot for the
National University School of Education. Fifty-four participants,
consisting of two lead faculty facilitators, five administrative observers,
and 47 full-time and adjunct instructors reviewed and critiqued a
variety of course materials and interacted in the online seminar
discussion forums over a nine-day period. An examination of the
course statistics showed that participants spent an average of one
hour and fourteen minutes a day in the seminar, while the two lead
faculty facilitators averaged 6 hours and 35 minutes per day. The
latter statistic demonstrates not only the level of commitment
necessary to conduct an effective seminar, but also highlights the
number of opportunities that the seminar offered the full-time faculty
members to answer questions, and offer advice, clarification, and
support.

The effectiveness of the seminar in meeting the needs of both full-time

and adjunct faculty; building a deeper level of collaboration and
commitment; and fostering practical improvements in teaching
methods and overall course delivery for both online and onsite classes
is evidenced by the following comments from the seminar feedback
survey:

“With the exception of talking with a friend who was already teaching
at National when I came on board in 1999, this is the first time that I
have been able to sit down and ‘talk’ with other faculty members in
the Teacher Education Department. It has been extremely beneficial
to learn new methods, listen to concerns (which are also my concerns)

182
and read how others have dealt with them. The level of concern and
expertise reflected by the threaded discussions is impressive. I am
extremely pleased that I was able to take part.”

“I was most appreciative of those who spoke to the onsite courses. I

have added many new methods to my repertoire from taking this
seminar. It was also good to read that my concerns were their
concerns regarding attendance, punctuality, level of excellence, etc. It
was good to have some of my techniques for dealing with these issues
validated by others. When you are a core adjunct, you do not have
the opportunity to be on campus that much nor to talk to other
instructors as we ‘core adjunct folk’ come from all over.”

“The information provided covered topics that I would have not

thought to ask as a new instructor. I also gained valuable insight into
practices that I have used in the past onsite but how to change them
so that they can also be utilized online.”

“This really was one of the best online workshops I have attended. It
was just outstanding. Please do it once or twice a year, if possible. It
really inspired me.”

An online professional development model that focuses on interaction

between full-time and adjunct faculty in order to foment an increased
sense of community, collaboration, and commitment; and course and
program level consistency and efficiency may ultimately lead to
increased adjunct and student retention, as well as improvement in
student learning outcomes. The next step is to put this model into
practice on a larger scale and to conduct a long-term examination of
student outcomes, which can be measured in the form of grades, as
well as student self-evaluations of learning that are recorded as part of
their course evaluations, and compare those results for faculty
members who were actively involved in the seminar and those who
were not. Significant benefits, however, can only be achieved when
professional development seminars like this one are established on a
continuous basis. Happily, this model shows that fostering a
professional culture through ongoing communication and collaboration
is possible, even within an institution characterized by distance,
distribution, and diversity.

183
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About the Author

Robyn A. Hill
Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Teacher Education Department
National University
City, state and country:
Email:
Office telephone:
Major research interests:

186
 How Effective is Hybrid Online Instruction
for School Administrator Prepration?

Clifford E. Tyler and Robert Kibby

Abstract

There has been a growing number of online and hybrid courses offered
leading to student dreams and goals of earning degrees and
credentials to be licensed teachers and administrators. Online
instruction and hybrid (blended) online/on-ground instruction have
become major alternatives to the traditional approach of on-ground
instruction for teacher and school administrator-training and
preparation. According to the Sloan Consortium, 2.33 million American
students were taking at least one online course in 2004, up from 1.6
million in 2002. This convenient and flexible alternative instruction
has become enormously popular with students living in remote
locations or traffic-congested urban areas, both of whom find it difficult
to travel to on-site classes.

Many colleges and universities offer online instruction that garners, on

the part of some experts, critical questions as to the validity and
quality of this approach. Some of the questions that will be addressed
as a part of this study will be: 1) Does online instruction adequately
prepare teachers and school administrators to be as effective on the
job as the traditional on-ground instruction? 2) Does this instructional
alternative offer equivalent academic rigor and standards as on-ground
instruction? 3) What should be the role of instructors in regards to
online instruction? 4) Are universities able to assess quality teacher
and school administrator candidates as effectively and accurately as
student personal contact and assessment? Although there is much
literature addressing these questions, this paper will examine these
questions from both a literature and an on-job experience.

Key Words

Hybrid, blended online/onground instruction, changing faculty role,

online interaction and response

187
Background

Concerns about online instruction have not diminished over the past
decade. Critics are suspicious of online education because courses are
often offered by divisions of extended studies or continuing education,
and taught by adjunct faculty or instructors without doctoral degrees.
Others suggest that online courses lower the quality academic
standards, diminish interaction with students and changes in
interpersonal relations, while others say that academic honesty is
compromised.

To face the challenge of online-instruction critics, universities are

making major efforts to provide quality faculty training. Efforts also
are being made to design an effective online learning environment.

This study will address the changing role of instructors teaching online
courses, the challenges they face in promoting instructor-to-student
and student-to-student interaction, and the new skills needed to
effectively operate this technology. Finally who needs to be responsible
for providing the online instructors with the quality training and
support necessary to produce outstanding candidates? The discussion
also will compare the quality of online instruction with on-ground
instruction for high academic standards and learning results. Included
in this discussion will be a comparison of the advantages and
disadvantages of online instruction and steps that universities can take
to address assessment and quality. Most importantly, there will be
discussion comparing how well prepared are school administrators for
major leadership roles and challenges by taking online courses versus
on-ground courses.

Introduction

“You mean I can complete my school administrative credential and

Master’s Degree requirements online, without traveling to an academic
center?” This is a typical question asked by students who are excited
about a major revolutionary change in higher education instruction.
There has been the growing number of online and hybrid courses
offered leading to student dreams and goals of earning degrees and
credentials to be licensed teachers and administrators.

Online instruction and hybrid (blended) online/on-ground instruction

have become major alternatives to the traditional approach of on-
ground instruction for teacher and school administrator-training and

188
preparation. Statistics pointing to a precise number of users is difficult
to compile (Hoban, 2002). According to the Sloan Consortium, 2.33
million American students were taking at least one online course in
2004, up from 1.6 million in 2002. This convenient and flexible
alternative instruction has become enormously popular with students
living in remote locations or traffic-congested urban areas, both of
whom find it difficult to travel to on-site classes (Yang & Cornelius,
2004).

Many colleges and universities offer online instruction that garners, on

the part of some experts, critical questions as to the validity and
quality of this approach. National University, headquartered in San
Diego, California, with learning centers throughout the entire state,
has offered online classes to graduate students in the School of
Businesses in 1996, and later in the School of Education since 2000.
Many other universities in California now offer an extensive online
program.

Currently, online courses constitute approximately one-third of the 650

students enrolled in the Educational Administration Credential and
Master’s Degree program. Online courses have been offered on the
Blackboard software platform, and are one month in duration. During
that month, each course is generally divided into nine units, or two
units per week plus the final exam. Throughout those units, lectures
supported by selected appropriate bibliographic sources, including
relevant journals, books, and the latest research on Web pages for
instant student access are interfaced throughout each unit. Students
are assessed by responding to the instructor and to other students
through two or three threaded discussion questions that determine
understanding of the lectures and assigned readings. The results of
the threaded discussions offer interesting exchanges of ideas and
experiences between the instructor and students, and between the
students.

Although not practiced in Educational Administration, other National

University academic schools also have scheduled chat rooms, where all
enrolled students and the instructor meet at a designated time for
more spontaneous discussions on the course content. Just this
academic year, a limited number of trained instructors used I-Linc
software as an alternative to online chat room and on-ground
instruction. Although the current version is not user friendly, nor group
interactive, it does show potential for more instructor-to-student
interaction than Blackboard online instruction, and serves to combine

189
small on-ground classes that are not economically justifiable to offer in
isolation at small Learning Centers.

Does online instruction adequately prepare teachers and school

administrators to be as effective on the job as the traditional on-
ground instruction? There appears to be little or no research available
confirming online instruction does an equivalent or better job in
preparing teachers and administrators for success and job
effectiveness as on-ground instruction. Research surveys are limited
to student perceptions of the quality of on-ground versus online
instruction. With these perceptions, many students feel that their
technology, writing, speaking and research skills have improved.
However, many students’ critical thinking, problem solving and
decision skills were best enhanced for on-ground classes, along with
better applying what they have learned with diverse populations and
situations (Hoban, Neu & Castle, 2002).

Student perceptions were comprehensively surveyed on attitudes such

as satisfaction of online instruction, preference of online learning or
on-ground learning (and vice versa), satisfaction with quality of online
instruction writing skills, satisfaction with lectures and threaded
discussions, etc. Surveyed students were generally satisfied with all of
these online components, and planned to take additional online
courses. However, some students expressed missing the human on-
ground contact with online classes. (Hoban, Neu & Castle, 2002; Hew,
Liu & Martinez, 2004).

Does online instructional alternative offer equivalent academic rigor

and standards as on-ground instruction? The survey results revealed
mixed results with on-ground instruction offering more academic rigor,
while other groups felt the rigor was comparable for both (Hoban, Neu
& Castle, 2002). Other interesting results were influenced by the
quality of the instructor, and how much personal attention the
instructor provided each student, i.e. threaded discussion responses,
prompt e-mail responses, recognition of quality contributions, etc.

National University also offers a hybrid (blended) program for

Educational Administrational Students in California. This
blended/hybrid program consists of 51% or five of the nine courses
offered online, while the remaining four courses, including the
Fieldwork or Intern Seminar, are offered on-ground at an off-site
(cohort) location. The obvious advantage of the blended/hybrid
program is that there is ample opportunity for student’s assessment
and evaluation on-ground, while students still enjoy much of the

190
advantages of online courses. Another advantage is that the on-
ground courses can be offered at or near many of the students’ work
locations utilizing some resident instructors, and minimize student
drives to scheduled on-ground courses at the nearest (frequently not
so near) National University Academic Center.

Role of Instructors

What should be the role of instructors in regards to online instruction?

Since the online environment is different from on-ground instruction,
research continuously confirms that the instructors’ most important
role is to motivate students. This means moving from being an
intellect on-stage performer to a learning catalyst online. This is
accomplished through an asynchronous virtual community between
students and their instructors, rather than synchronous face to face in
on-ground instruction (Yang & Cornelious, 2004). Although some
(usually full-time) skillful instructors will have an innate ability to
motivate students online, most will need adequate training to make it
happen.

Frequency of interaction and prompt responses to all students is

another key to successful online instruction. Studies have shown that
the single greatest factor affecting student satisfaction in distance
education course is the amount of interaction that occurs between
teacher and students. This happens from the instructor’s careful
planning of collaborative course activities (Kirby & Elizabeth, 1999).
This study is confirmed by some instructors making some fatal
mistakes by not introducing themselves online at the beginning of the
course, or immediately before the course begins. Others do not
respond to individual student threaded discussion responses (instead
respond to a group of student responses), or delay their response for
two or three days.

Students also have the responsibility of transitioning from a passive

on-ground learner to a more active online participant and learner. The
question that students should ask themselves is, “Am I ready for an
online learning environment?” Good online students should be ready
to share their professional experiences, know how to participate
online, synthesize ideas, show a sense of humor online, and work
collaboratively with the instructor and other students (Yang &
Cornelious, 2004).

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Are universities able to assess quality teacher and school administrator
candidates online as effectively and accurately as student personal
contact and assessment? Students at National University can meet
almost all their state license and Master’s Degree requirements
through online classes. Students are assessed and evaluated similarly
to traditional on-ground instruction, i.e. midterm and final exams,
research papers and projects, and from the quality of their threaded
discussions and/or chat room discussions. The only exception where
students are not evaluated for online course is administrator fieldwork
or intern classes, which are strictly on-ground. In these programs,
students apply the acquired knowledge and skills from their online (or
on-ground courses) in their field work projects and activities.

At National University, educational administration students usually

take a Fieldwork class, which requires them to complete 22 activities
in a variety of 11 categories, in collaboration with their site supervisor
(mentor) and university supervisor. Both assess and evaluate the
quality of the student activities to determine fitness and competency
to be a school administrator. Students who are already sitting
administrators enroll in an Intern Seminar, which is also a monthly
collaboration between the mentor and the university supervisor. The
University believes that the combination of the online classes and
fieldwork/intern seminars provides equivalent summative evaluation of
school administration candidates.

Challenges of Online Instruction

Several major concerns about online instruction have not diminished

over the past decade. First of all, critics are suspicious of online
education because courses are often offered by divisions of extended
studies or continuing education, and taught by adjunct faculty or
instructors without doctoral degrees. A number of universities utilize
adjunct instructors, many without doctoral degrees, and others
without adequate training, experience or skills to be effective online
instructors with students. Few of these adjunct instructors have
written the online course curriculum, which minimizes their course
ownership (Yang & Cornelious, 2004).

Closely related to the background of many of the instructors is the

offering of many online classes through extended studies or continuing
education, which have considerably lower academic standards and
rigor than those connected with academic schools. Much of this
criticism can be countered by having online courses connected with

192
academic schools that demand academic standards and rigor existing
in any on-ground class.

A second major concern is the lack of regular, face-to-face interaction

between the students and the professor, as well as interaction
between the students. The lack of personal interaction makes it more
difficult for the professor to pace or meet specific needs of students
(Arrant, Coleman & Daniel, 2002). The lack of interaction of students
makes bonding and networking more difficult, which is important for
the professional success of students. These problems have been
observed with National University instructors, who fail to maintain
consistent and regular contact with students, and follow up with
prompt threaded discussion and e-mail responses as previously
discussed. Online students have complained that few follow-up
contacts and networking result with their fellow online students after
classes.

A third major problem for online courses continues to be the student

potential of academic honesty. Although there is some new promising
technology to minimize this issue, research supports the difficulty
instructors have in making a determination that student assessment
and evaluation measures, i.e. midterm and final exams, research
papers, and threaded discussion, are truly the work of the students.
Safeguards to minimize this problem are the availability of Web pages
to monitor plagiarism, and a lock on student access to the midterm
and final exams online. However there are no safeguards for threaded
discussion and student-prepared assignments or research projects.

A final problem is the challenge of technology of online courses. Both

instructors and students have occasional difficulty with the online
course software, such as Blackboard and e-College, i.e. logging on to
access the course, final exams, and/or depositing the assignments for
the instructor. Student or faculty technical support is not always
available particularly when most needed, or there are excessive time
delays in technical help providing the needed support.

Recommendations

Several recommendations are appropriate to design an effective online

learning environment. First of all, university administrators should
plan, motivate, promote and support the online learning environment
to ensure quality online instruction in six major areas: hands-on
curriculum, staff training and technical support, student services,

193
training and technical support, copyright of intellectual property, and
academic honesty assurance.

Secondly, university administrators should not force unwilling faculty

members to teach online, but rather provide them financial incentives
to do so. Furthermore, administrators should have a process of
identifying quality faculty members to teach online, and coordinating
quality training to willing faculty members. This training should include
understanding their new roles as motivators for online instruction,
providing them software training that hosts online courses, technical
training and mentor support. Faculty training, done by knowledgeable
faculty members, also should include an identification process for
qualified adjunct professors, and provide them easy access to training.
Training should be on-going to assure quality enhancement of
instruction, providing them skills to motivate students, and to help
them understand their role change as an online instructor. Faculty
members should be involved in developing and writing quality online
courses to assure their buy in and support for online instruction.

Quality student training should also be available to help them access

and navigate their online courses, as well as providing them technical
support 24 hours a day, seven days per week. If the I-Linc Program
continues to be pursued for chat room and modified online instruction,
the software will need improvement for more user friendliness for both
faculty and students. There also should be adequate training for both
parties to access for increasing their confidence level.

Technology research should be continued to assure academic honesty,

quality and rigor for online courses. Advance technology also is
necessary for more accurate online student assessment and
evaluation. In the newer e-College online course software, students
are locked into completing a test with opportunity for accessing any
outside sources, i.e. internet, notes etc. from the computer (Hew, Liu &
Martinez, 2004). However, technology lacks the capability to assure
that student threaded discussion responses are contributions truly
from those students. Also lacking is assurance that student
assignments, i.e. reports, research papers, etc. are really the
contributions from the students. However, this challenge is also similar
for on-ground instruction.

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Conclusion

Research strongly supports an increased use of online instruction by

institutes of higher education. There appears to be little difference in
online versus on-ground instruction for preparation of school
administrators, particularly in a blended (hybrid) course instruction.
Research supports online course convenience for both instructor and
student access, and its rigor and quality is on the increase. The major
challenges continue to be: adequate training for both instructors and
students for online instruction to be a quality learning environment for
an exchange of ideas and acquisition of knowledge; and effective
assessment and evaluation of students to assure their quality and rigor
of the graduate program. Despite these challenges, online classes
hold much promise in delivering effective and quality instruction to
millions of graduate students.

References

Arant, M. P., Coleman, A. M., & Daniel, B. V. (2002, November).

Instructional strategies for online courses in education.” Mid-
South Educational Research Association Annual Meeting.
Chattanooga, TN.

Downs, E., Carlson, R. D., Repman, J., & Clark, K. Web-based

instruction: Focus on learning. Department of
Leadership, Technology, and Human Development.
Georgia Southern University.

DeTure, M. (2004, March). Cognitive style and self-efficacy: Predicting

student success in online distance education. American Journal
of Distance of Education.

DuCharme-Hanson, B. A., Dupin-Bryant, P. A. (2005, November).

Distance education plans: Course planning for adult online
learners. Association for Educational Communications and
Technology, 31-39.

Hew, K. F., Liu, S., Martinez, R., Bonk, C., & Lee, J. (2004, October).
Online education evaluation: What should we evaluate?
Association for Educational Communications and Technology.
Chicago.

Hoban, G., Neu, B., & Castle, S. (2002, April). Assessment of student

195
 learning in an educational administration online program. Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. New
Orleans, LA.

Marsh, G. E., Price, B.J., & McFadden, A. C. (2000, February). An

overview of online educational delivery applications. Society for
Informational Technology and Teacher Education International
Conference. San Diego, CA.

Yang, Y., & Cornelious, L. F. (2004, October). Ensuring quality in online

education instruction: What instructors should know.
Association for Educational Communications and Technology.
Chicago.

About the Authors

Clifford E. Tyler
Ed. D.
Associate Professor
Department of Educational Administration
National University
San Jose, CA USA
ctyler@nu.edu
Major research interests: School district/higher education partnerships;
online instruction effectiveness; effects of instructional leadership on
student achievement (K-12)

Robert Kibby
Ed. D.
Associate Professor
Department of Educational Administration
National University
Sacramento, CA USA
rkibby@nu.edu
Major research interests: School district/higher education partnerships;
online instruction effectiveness; effects of instructional leadership on
student achievement (K-12)

196
Developing a Systematic Approach to Program Review

Cynthia Shubert-Irastorza, Stacy Begin & Dee L. Fabry

Abstract

This research study focuses on the development of a systematic

evaluation process for a program review of the Master of Arts in
Teaching (MAT) Program at National University. The purpose of the
program review is to improve the overall program quality while
ensuring the consistency and congruity of individual courses within the
program, which will ultimately lead to increased student learning. The
authors created the evaluation process by integrating current research
from the fields of curriculum development, instructional design and
evaluation, and systems thinking (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005; Reiser,
R. & Dempsey, J. V., 2006; Morrison, G., Ross, S. & Kemp, J., 2003;
Mehrotra, D. 2002; Senge, P. 1990). A MAT Faculty Review Committee
consisting of course leads and a department co-chair conducted an
analysis of existing MAT program core courses utilizing multiple
criteria. Each MAT core course was systematically reviewed to
determine its degree of alignment to MAT Program Goals and the
National Board Certification Core Propositions. Alignment goals for
consistency and congruency within the courses included: course
descriptions, course texts, and learning outcomes. Misalignments
between courses and revisions needed for improvement are identified
and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Key Words

Program review, program improvement, systematic evaluation, quality

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to document the creation and

development of a comprehensive systematic program review process
that was conducted by a team of six faculty members from the
Teacher Education Department (TED) in the School of Education (SOE)
at National University during the summer and fall of 2007. The Master
of Arts in Teaching (MAT) Program is currently offered through TED and
is designed for credentialed teachers and practicing educators who are
seeking to enhance their teaching skills and expand their knowledge in
specific educational areas.

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The MAT program consists of six core courses:

1. EDT 612-Meaningful Learning through Technology (offered

through the Department of Educational Technology)
2. MAT 641-Cultural Democracy: Contemporary Local and Global
Issues
3. MAT 642-Program Design: Curriculum Theory, Design, and
Assessment
4. MAT 643-Models of Teaching: Theories, Applications, and
Practice
5. MAT 644-Foundations and Principles of Curriculum
6. MAT 640-Applications of Research for the Art of Teaching

In its fifth year, the MAT Program is faced with extensive internal and
external program reviews and evaluation requirements from sources
including the internal National University Assessment Committee’s Five
Year Review and an upcoming review from the Western Association of
Schools and Colleges (WASC) scheduled for February 2008. Collective
program review requirements focus on an intensive program self-study
that includes a comprehensive analysis of the MAT program goals,
expected student learning outcomes and evaluation criteria, as well as
an examination of program alignment to national and state teaching
standards. The required program reviews also include a thorough
examination of current course offerings and curriculum content.

Given the need to generate appropriate program evaluation

documents that would effectively capture the data required for
program reviews in a systematic, efficient, and non-duplicative
manner, a group of six faculty members volunteered to develop an
evaluation system and review process that would be applied to the
MAT Program core courses. It was with that goal in mind that the
committee worked to produce a comprehensive process.

Literature Review

From an overall program standpoint, current research supports a

systematic approach to program design, development and evaluation,
and an ongoing feedback process in which all components of the
program are regularly reviewed, updated, and evaluated based on
their continuous interrelationship with each other (Dick, Carey &
Carey, 2005; Mehrotra, 2002; Senge, 1990). The primary reason for
conducting program evaluation is to make data-driven and well-

198
informed decisions regarding program effectiveness and individual
course quality which, in turn, leads to improved instruction and
increased student learning. As Menix (2007) states, "the primary
purpose of program evaluation is to judge the merit or worth of the
total program being evaluated, as well as the individual elements of
that program" (pp. 543-544).

The systematic review processes used in this study were adapted from
instructional systems models presented by current researchers in the
field of curriculum design (Reiser & Dempsey, 2006; Morrison, Ross &
Kemp, 2003). Current research in curriculum planning and
development regularly underscores the vital importance of “program
coherence,” the degree to which the courses within a program of
studies relate to each other. As noted by Darling-Hammond and John
Bransford (2005), “Teacher preparation programs need to consider
issues of connected knowledge at the level of individual course design
and congruence at the level of the design of entire programs of study”
(p. 88). In a recent study of exemplary teacher education programs,
Darling-Hammond (2006) points out that the strongest teacher
training programs were the ones that offered coherent programs based
on a strong, shared vision of teaching, a close-knit faculty, and
consistent goals across the courses. According to Henson (2001), one
general flaw in curricula is the failure to connect or relate the
components to each other.

Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) also support the importance of program

congruence and continuity in curriculum planning in which there are
multiple opportunities for students to learn, practice and reinforce
important concepts within the curriculum. Bransford, Brown & Cocking
(1999) note that “learning is enhanced when learners encounter
mutually reinforcing ideas and skills across learning experiences,
particularly when these are grounded in strategically chosen content
and conveyed through effective pedagogies” (p. 257). Shulman and
Schulman (2004) refer to this need for repeating and reinforcing
concepts to build a deepening understanding of how program
elements relate to each other. Program evaluation criteria suggested
by Parkay and Hass (2000) include continuity, flexibility, and balance
of curricular elements as well as standards developed by professional
organizations.

The concept of systematic program evaluation that connects with

continuous ongoing learning is supported in the works of Senge (1990)
and Mehrotra (2002). According to Senge, “Without a systemic
orientation there is no motivation to look at how the disciplines

199
interrelate” (p. 12). In his discussion of Total Quality Management
(TQM), Mehrotra notes that the systemic review approach to ongoing
evaluation and improvement is based on teamwork and collaboration.
Utilizing TQM principles in creating the review and evaluation process
provided solidification of leadership, teamwork, collaboration, and
problem-solving skills.

While there is wide support for the overall concept of systematic

approaches to developing and evaluating curriculum, a search of the
literature on program evaluations that have been conducted by
individual schools results in a dearth of research on the topic. Kezar
(1999) states that “One of the most notable trends is that systemic or
comprehensive evaluation is not widespread in the literature, the
research, or programs in practice” (p. 3). The lack of research in this
area is attributed to the publication process itself. Kezar hypothesizes
that since most journals prefer original research or new ideas, the
evaluation of current programs is often overlooked.

Methodology for Part I

This study is divided into two parts. In the first part, the team
analyzed the individual courses in the MAT program. The second part
resulted in the development of a comprehensive Curriculum Map. The
final evaluation integrated data from both parts into a coherent whole.

The first step in the review process was to identify program evaluation
criteria from a recognized source. An examination of standard program
review requirements and criteria, specifically for graduate schools of
education, indicated that documented alignment with national and
statewide standards is of primary importance (National Research
Council, 2001). The five Core Propositions from the National Board of
Professional Teaching Standards and the 10 MAT Program Goals were
selected as primary criteria and applied to each of the MAT core
courses.

Review Process Criteria

Information in Figure 1 shows the steps in the process used to conduct

the overall program review. Figure 2 lists the criteria used to analyze
the individual course data for part 1 of the study.

Figure 1: Process Used for Systematic Review of the MAT Program

200
A. (Part 1) - Alignment of each course with national and state
teaching standards to include:
1. MAT Program Goals
2. National Board Certification (NBC) Core Propositions
B. (Part 2) Alignment Across and Within the MAT program –
Curriculum Map
Analysis of congruence, consistency and balance of
individual courses within the Program as reflected by:
1. Course description
2. Text(s)
3. Student Learning Outcomes

Figure 2: Summary Chart of the MAT Goals and NBC Core Propositions

MAT Goal 1: Reflect on teaching practice

MAT Goal 2: Build professional relationships/networks
MAT Goal 3: Build learning communities within schools/classroom
MAT Goal 4: Analyze cross-cultural educational issues
MAT Goal 5: Identify, describe, and apply theories of curriculum as they
relate to State-approved standards
MAT Goal 6: Implement standards-based assessment in the classroom,
school and district
MAT Goal 7: Use technology for research and teaching
MAT Goal 8: Apply multiple teaching models and assessment strategies
MAT Goal 9: Implement, assess, and evaluate standards-based curriculum
MAT Goal 10: Conduct action research in teaching

NBC Core Proposition 1: Teachers are committed to students and

learning.
NBC Core Proposition 2: Teachers know the subjects they teach and how
to teach those subjects to students.
NBC Core Proposition 3: Teachers are responsible for managing and
monitoring student learning.
NBC Core Proposition 4: Teachers think systematically about their
practice and learn from experience.
NBC Core Proposition 5: Teachers are members of learning communities.

201
MAT Program Goals and NBC Standards Data Analysis

Members of the MAT Review Committee, who also serve as core course
leads, collected and analyzed data pertaining to the MAT Program
goals and NBC Core Propositions. Each committee member completed
an analysis matrix to identify where the course goals were either
primary (P), secondary (S), or non applicable (NA) to each of the
criteria. A numerical value of 2 was assigned to the Program Goals and
Core Propositions that were designated as primary (P). A numerical
value of 1 was assigned to those that were covered as a secondary (S),
and 0 was assigned for not applicable (NA). Scores were then
converted to percentages to avoid mathematical distortion. A
comparison of percentage scores indicated which of the courses were
successfully fulfilling MAT Program goals and NBC standards and those
in need of revision. This process resulted in the cross-analysis charts
presented in Tables 1 and 2.

202
Table 1: Cross Analysis of MAT Core Course Goals and Evaluation
Criteria
CRITERIA/STANDARDS EDT MAT MAT MAT MAT MAT
612 640 641 642 643 644
MAT Goal 1: Reflect on S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2
teaching practice
MAT Goal 2: Build P-2 S-1* S-1 S-1 P-2 S-1
professional
relationships/networks
MAT Goal 3: Build P-2 S-1* S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2
learning communities
within schools/classroom
MAT Goal 4: Analyze S-1 S-1* P-2 S-1 S-1 S-1
cross-cultural educational
issues
MAT Goal 5: Identify, S-1 S-1* S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2
describe, and apply
theories of curriculum as
they relate to State-
approved standards
MAT Goal 6: Implement S-1 S-1 S-1 P-2 P-2 S-1
standards-based
assessment in the
classroom, school and
district
MAT Goal 7: Use P-2 P-2 S-1 S-1 S-1 S-1
technology for research
and teaching
MAT Goal 8: Apply S-1 S-1* S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2
multiple teaching models
and assessment
strategies
MAT Goal 9: P-2 S-1* S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2
Implement, assess, and
evaluate standards-based
curriculum
MAT Goal 10: Apply and P-2 P-2 S-1 S-1 S-1 S-1
conduct research in
teaching
15 13 12 16 17 15
Total (75%) (65%) (60%) (80%) (85%) (75%)
Primary (P) or secondary (S) indicates whether standards are primary
or secondary

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* Indicates that each criteria/standard has the potential to be primary
depending on topics selected by student for this capstone course.
Table 2: Cross Analysis of MAT Core Course Goals and NBC
Propositions
NBC Core S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2
Proposition 1:
Teachers are
committed to
students and
learning.
NBC Core S-1 S-1* S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2
Proposition 2:
Teachers know the
subjects they teach
and how to teach
those subjects to
students.
NBC Core S-1 S-1* S-1 S-1 P-2 S-1
Proposition 3:
Teachers are
responsible for
managing and
monitoring student
learning.
NBC Core P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2 P-2
Proposition 4:
Teachers think
systematically
about their
practice and learn
from experience.
NBC Core P-2 P-2 S-1 P-2 P-2 P-2
Proposition 5:
Teachers are
members of
learning
communities.
Total 7 8 7 9 10 9
(70%) (80%) (70%) (90%) (100%) (90%)
Primary (P) or secondary (S) indicates whether standards are primary
or secondary
* Indicates that each criteria/standard has the potential to be primary
depending on topics selected by student for this capstone course.

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The data from the two cross-analysis charts in Tables 1 and 2
provided information concerning the degree of alignment of each
course to the MAT Program goals and to the five NBC Propositions.
Table 2 provides a visual summary of the data followed by a narrative
discussion of the results.

Table 3: Summary of Data from Core Course Reviews

MAT MAT NBC Core

Courses Program Propositions
Goals
612 75% 70%
640 65% 80%
641 60% 70%
642 80% 90%
643 85% 100%
644 75% 90%

Table 2 results indicate that MAT 643 addressed 85% of the MAT
Program Goals while MAT 642 addressed 80% of the MAT Program
Goals. MAT 644 and EDT 612 were next with a 75% alignment each.
MAT 640 scored 60% on alignment with program goals. For the NBC
Core Propositions MAT 643 addressed 100% of the standards, while
MAT 642 and 644 met 90%. EDT 612 and MAT 641 met 70% of the
criteria.

Discussion of Findings

The review process identified a number of gaps that need to be

addressed in the MAT Program Action Plan for 2008. These need areas
will be submitted with the 2007-2008 Program Review documents for
the internal Five Year Program Review. While there is strong intent to
ensure alignment to the MAT Program goals and NBC Core Propositions
for all MAT core courses, special attention will be devoted to
strengthening the courses listed below.

EDT 612

While EDT 612 is housed outside of the Teacher Education

Department, the following recommendations will be shared with the
Educational Technology Department. Increase EDT612, Meaningful
Learning through Technology, alignment with NBC Core Propositions

205
by expanding the focus on teaching and learning in this introductory
technology course, which is taught through the School of Media and
Communications. The course description needs to be revised in order
to reflect a more concise summary of the course.

MAT 640

Review and revise MAT640, Applications of Research for the Art of

Teaching, content to reflect closer alignment with MAT Program goals
and NBC Core Propositions. MAT 640 received three primary scores for
the MAT Program Goals and the NBC Core Propositions in the
evaluation process. Suggestions include converting this capstone
research course into an e-portfolio course that presents student-
generated evidence of course alignment with, and fulfillment of, both
the MAT Program goals and NBC Core propositions. Another option for
MAT640, which is currently under consideration, is to align this
capstone course more closely with the areas of specialization so that
applied research would build and strengthen an established knowledge
base.

MAT 641

Data indicates the need for an extensive revision of MAT641, Cultural

Democracy: Contemporary Local and Global Issues. The course is
currently aligned to only two of the MAT Program Goals and two of the
NBC Core Propositions. To ensure increased attention to the
application of multiculturalism and global awareness in our diverse
classrooms, the course will receive additional review with feedback
and input from instructors and students.

Methodology for Part II

In order to conduct the second part of the systematic program review

that focused on overall program continuity and the congruency of
individual courses within the MAT Program, committee members
developed an extensive curriculum map of the six MAT core courses
used to determine areas of strength and the need for the overall
program changes.

The Curriculum Map, located in Appendix A, was based on Instructional

Systems Design models suggested by Dick, Carey and Carey (2005).

206
The map lists each of the courses and includes the following elements:
course description, required text and student learning outcomes. Each
element of the Curriculum Map was analyzed by the MAT Review
Committee as well as by other faculty members involved in the MAT
Program. Course descriptions were examined for continuity and
uniformity of purpose. In addition, the required text(s) for each of the
courses were compared to course learning outcomes for rigor, level of
complexity, and relationship. Expected student learning outcomes also
were examined, focusing particular attention on their relationship and
alignment with program goals.

Creating a large-scale visual representation of the existing syllabi and

catalog information regarding the MAT core courses produced results
that indicated serious inconsistencies in the MAT Program curriculum
and underscored areas of concern identified during the first part of the
study. The purpose of the Curriculum Map was to analyze the overall
continuity, coherence, and relationship of the core courses as a whole,
as well as the congruence and consistency of the individual courses
within the program.

Findings for Part II

Curriculum Mapping

The initial comparison of course descriptions revealed gaps in both

program continuity and individual course consistency. When looked at,
side by side, the individual course descriptions did not present a
unified program approach. Also, the individual course descriptions
varied substantially in length and format.

Course Descriptions

The primary criteria used to evaluate the course descriptions were

length, subject matter, academic level and the degree of balance
between theory and application in the courses. This approach resulted
in the following analysis:

1. EDT 612, Meaningful Learning Through Technology, has a

lengthy course description that focuses primarily on
technology. In terms of alignment with other MAT core courses,
it lacks the emphasis on classroom application required by NBC
Core Propositions.

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 2. MAT 641, Cultural Democracy, focuses on theoretical
perspectives and seems to lack a clear focus on classroom
application, which is reflected by the low scores on alignment
with NBC Core Propositions.
3. MAT 642, Curriculum Design and Program Development and MAT
644, Foundations of Curriculum, are consistent and exhibit a
balance between theory and application. They are similar in
length and format.
4. MAT 643, Models of Teaching, has a brief description that
centers on application and needs more balance by
emphasizing the theoretical side of teaching and learning.
5. MAT 640, Applications of Research for the Art of Teaching, the
capstone research course is concise and does accurately
represent the content of the course.

Textbook Analysis

A review of the texts currently required in each of the MAT core

courses helped to identify needed changes and additional textbooks
that would strengthen alignment with standards and support the
balance between theory and application as recommended by Darling-
Hammond (2006). Suggested changes and/or additions include: (a)
add the APA Manual to the EDT 612 as a recommendation; (b)
replacement of at least one text (if not both) for MAT 641 that
addresses the focal points of the No Child Left Behind legislation and
focuses on diversity, multiculturalism and the globalization of
curriculum; (c) addition of a supplementary text or supplemental
readings to MAT 643 that presents a more theoretical approach to
teaching and learning theory; (d) addition of a supplementary text or
supplemental readings to MAT 644 that balances Ornstein’s
philosophical and theoretical approach by emphasizing classroom
application; and (e) substitution of new text for MAT 640 that provides
a more flexible and practitioner-oriented approach to the development
of student-generated research documents.

Student Learning Outcomes Alignment

MAT Program goals are repeatedly reflected in the student learning

outcomes for the individual core courses. However, the alignment of
individual course student learning outcomes with MAT Program goals
needs to be increased, particularly MAT 641, MAT 640, and in EDT
612. Analysis of data indicated a need to revise the core course
student learning outcomes in order to align them more closely with

208
MAT Program goals. Areas of suggested improvement include the
following:

1. Increase the opportunity for reflection on teaching practices in

EDT 612, MAT 641, and MAT 640.
2. Increase emphasis on cross cultural issues and global
perspectives in the core courses that deal primarily with
classroom applications of teaching and learning, MAT 642, MAT
643, and MAT 644.
3. Expand the required use of technology into all core courses.
4. Include a research component in all of the core courses.
5. Make sure that Course Requirements align with learning
outcomes.

An examination of Course Requirements for the MAT core courses

indicated that a variety of requirements and assessment measures are
currently being used in all of the core courses, with the exception of
MAT 640, which focuses on the development and submission of a
three-chapter research document and an in-class presentation.
However, given the need to update and increase the alignment of
student learning outcomes with MAT Program goals and NBC Core
Propositions, there will need to be some adjustments in all of the
course assignments, activities and assessment measures. This is
particularly true for MAT 641, which is in the process of major revision.

Conclusions

As a result of this study, the MAT Review Committee produced a

systematic process for reviewing and evaluating core courses within
and across the Masters of Arts in Teaching program at National
University based on current research in the fields of curriculum
development, instructional design and evaluation, and systems
thinking.

The data that was collected from each phase of the process was
reviewed and analyzed to provide recommendations for revisions to
bring each course into closer alignment with the MAT Program Goals
and NBC Core Propositions. The resulting gap analysis and detailed
course matrix will be used by the Department of Teacher Education to
prepare the Action Plan for 2008.

A brief summary of these findings will be included in documents

submitted as part of the five-year Review of the Master of Arts in

209
Teaching Program to the internal National University Assessment
Committee in fall 2007. The findings also will be included in the
upcoming review from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
(WASC) scheduled for February 2008.

Each of the MAT faculty leads will use the data gathered in this study
to revise their course and increase the alignment to the established
criteria. Upon completion of this process, the committee will again
review the courses to determine the new alignment. The next step in
this program-wide analysis will be the review of each of the areas of
specialization within the MAT Program. The long-term goals of this
analysis are to: (a) Bring all courses into alignment with the
established criteria for the program and for the specializations and; (b)
Provide continuity and congruence in all courses offered through the
program, thereby improving instruction and increasing student
learning.

Recommendations

The research conducted in this study will be helpful to those searching

for information on conducting a systematic program review. As Kazar
(1999) suggests, there is a need for more studies that contribute to
the knowledge resources in this area. The process of systematic
program review employs a step-by-step approach that can be adapted
by other institutions to evaluate educational programs or groups of
related courses in any discipline.

The authors recommend that institutions use the systematic process

outlined in this research to align courses and to measure congruency
and continuity, essential elements in the quest for connecting
knowledge for learners. The process begins with the determination of
evaluation criteria based on program and professional standards. The
application of this criterion in a systematic manner produces data that
then drives the revision and subsequent improvement of courses
within and across a program. The ongoing use of this process results
in continuous ongoing program improvement. The authors also
recommend that institutions conducting a similar review include as
many faculty participants as possible and follow the TQM approach to
program review that emphasizes cooperation and collaboration as
suggested by Mehrotra (2002).

210
References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn:

brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful Teacher Education. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (2005). Preparing teachers for a

changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dick, W., Carey, L. & Carey, J. O. (2005). The systematic design of

instruction (6th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Henson, K. T. (2001). Curriculum planning: integrating

multiculturalism,constructivism, and education reform (2nd ed).
Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

Kezar, A. J. (1999). Higher education trends (1997-1999): Program

evaluation. ERIC Publications. Retrieved January 7, 2008, from
ERIC Trends–Program Evaluation
http://www.eriche.org/library/pgmeval.html

Mehrotra, Dheeraj. (2002, June 26). Applying Total Quality

Management In Academics. iSixSigma.com. Retrieved February
8, 2008, from
http://www.isixsigma.com/library/content/c020626a.asp

Menix, K. D. (2007). Evaluation of learning and program

effectiveness. The Journal of Continuing Education in
Nursing, 38(5), 201-8; quiz 209-10. Retrieved January 7, 2008,
from ProQuest Education Journals database. (Document
ID: 1364053461).

Morrison, G., Ross, S. & Kemp, J. (2003). Designing

effective instruction. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons.

National Board of Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). (2002).

Whatteachers should know and be able to do. Retrieved June 2,
2007, from http://www.nbpts.org/UserFiles/File/what_teachers.pdf

211
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE).
Retrieved July 20, 2007, from
http://www.ncate.org/public/unitStandardsRubrics.asp?ch=4

National Research Council. (2001). Testing teacher candidates: The

role of licensure tests in improving teacher quality. Washington,
D. C.: National Academies Press.

Ornstein and Hunkins. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, principles,

and issues (4th Edition), Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Parkay, F.W. & Hass, G. (2000). Curriculum planning: a contemporary

approach. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Reiser, R. & Dempsey, J., 2006. Trends and issues in instructional

design and technology (2nd Edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall

Senge, P. 1990. The fifth discipline. New York: Doubleday.

Shulman, L.S. & Shulman, J. (2004). How and what teachers learn: A
shifting perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(2), 257-
271. Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC).
Retrieved July 20, 2007, from
http://www.acswasc.org/about_criteria.ht

About the Authors

Cynthia Schubert-Irastorza
EdD.
Associate Professor, Co-Chair
Teacher Education Department
National University
cschuber@nu.edu
Major research interests: Program evaluation, professional
development, leadership, adult education

Stacy Begin
EdD.
Assistant Professor
Teacher Education Department
National University
sbegin@nu.edu

212
Major research interests: Program evaluation, professional
development, special education

Dee Fabry
PhD.
Assistant Professor
Teacher Education Department
National University
dfabry@nu.edu
Major research interests: Sssessment and evaluation, instructional
design, and technology integration that supports student learning

213
APPENDIX

214
Curriculum Map to Determine Course Consistency and continuity for MAT Core Courses

EDT 612 MAT 640 MAT 641 MAT 642 MAT 643 MAT 644

Course Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Syllabus
Course Created as an The purpose of This course will This course will This course This course
Description this course is to
introductory examine how examine the explores how a surveys the field
course for the provide individuals in underlying variety of teaching of curriculum
educational classroom institutional roles principles that models and with specific
uses of educators operationalize have shaped learning theories emphasis on
technology in with the culturally outcome based are applied in the foundations,
the classroom, knowledge democratic policies learning, content instructional principles, and
this course is and skills required and practices, based standards, contexts. Specific issues for public
designed to to including how formal accountability and application of some educators in
provide understand, and informal the need for models and theories California's
educators with design, political forces educational will be discussed in linguistically and
the skills and write a influence culturally reform. The course this course and culturally diverse
needed to research democratic will emphasize presented in society. The
integrate document that is programs and evaluation of student-designed course identifies
technology relevant to their culturally relevant school programs, curriculum projects. various
into the lives as curriculum student approaches to
classroom, professional development and assessment and curriculum and
develop educators implementation. The program design the
research skills course will using appropriate development,
for use emphasize review criteria design,
throughout the successes in implementation,
program, and systemic and evaluation
align multicultural of curriculum.
technology- competency Application of
based learning development and curriculum
activities with will examine the approaches will
State observable and be provided
Standards. hidden evidence of through student-
Course content organizational designed
includes transformation. analyses of
designing a curriculum.
Web Quest for
interactive

215
learning
environments,
writing an
abbreviated
literature
review, and
developing a
model for the
integration of
technology in
the classroom.
Additional
course
materials focus
on gaining
knowledge of
the
International
Society for
Technology in
Education (ISTE)
Technology
Standards and
teaching
students the
responsibilities
that come with
Internet access.

216
 EDT 612 MAT 640 MAT 641 MAT 642 MAT 643 MAT 644
Course Lockard, J., and Mertens, D.M. Freire, P. (2000). Darling- Joyce, B., Weil, Ornstein, A. &
Text(s) Abrams, P.D. (2005). Research Pedagogy of the Hammond, L. M., & Calhoun, E. Hunkins, F.
Computers for methods in oppressed. New (1997). The right (2004). Models of (2004).
Twenty-First education and York: Continuum. to learn: A teaching (7th ed.). Curriculum:
Century psychology: blueprint for Boston: Allyn and Foundations,
Educators. (6th Integrating Mandela, N. creating schools Bacon principles, and
ed.) Boston: diversity (1995). Long walk that work. San issues (4th Ed.).
Allyn and with quantitative to freedom. Francisco. Jossey- Allyn and Bacon,
Bacon, 2004. and qualitative Boston: Little, Bass Education Needham
approaches (2nd e Brown, & Co. Series. Heights, MA.
d.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Reeves, D. B.
Publications (2004). Making
standards work:
American (3rd ed.).
Psychological Englewood. CO:
Association. Advanced
(2001). Learning Press.
Publication
manual of the
American
Psychological
Association (5th
ed.). Washington,
DC:
American Psycholo
gical Association

217
 EDT 612 MAT 640 MAT 641 MAT 642 MAT 643 MAT 644
Learning 1. Integrate 1. Complete 1. Analyze and 1. Demonstrate 1. Compare and 1. Identify and
Outcomes technology a three demonstrate the knowledge contrast at least discuss the
into classroom chapter capstone program competency of a four different central
activities project applicable competencies quality educational models of foundations,
2. Develop to their (knowledge base, program, which teaching/learning, principles, and
research professional attitudes/ values/ create democratic explaining their issues for the
skills and education beliefs) to effectively learning appropriate usage field of
locate needs. The work with recent communities that in a variety of curriculum--with
educational project immigrant groups as succeed for a classroom specific
resources should reflect clear well as historically diverse population. settings expertise about
3. Align purpose, provide familiar immigrant/ 2. Analyze the 2. Conduct and linguistic and
technology- evident and logical ethnic communities. need for change, analyze a cultural diversity
based learning organization, 2. Research and reforming, and classroom in California
activities with and be of analyze the social, restructuring of observation in the public education.
State Standards publication quality. political and schools and the PK-12 setting 2. Describe and
4. Enhance (Chapter 1: interpersonal issues of 3. Design and discuss the
student Introduction) dynamics related accountability. develop an relationship
learning and 2: Literature to program 3. Investigate effective between
foster life- long Review: efficacy. literature on instructional plan, curriculum,
learning Chapter 3: 3. Diagnose school curriculum teaching materials, instruction,
through Application of climate and cultures standards work, and assessment evaluation, and
technology MAT Research (in a that impact and instruments to the resolution of
5. Foster number of optional culturally implementation measure the planning,
diversity and formats identified democratic of standards- achievement of design and
expand below). practices. based student learning delivery
global 3. Write the 4. Investigate and assessment in the outcomes within a problems.
perspectives research project analyze leadership classroom, school standards based 3. Design
6. Increase showing clear principles related to and district. unit. strategies for
communication organization, use program 4. Analyze the 4. Develop and evaluating
with students, of headings, and implementation and design and describe effective curriculum
parents and the good mechanics of develop models of implementation methods for effectiveness:
community English. leadership of curriculum increasing including
4. Use APA format principles related to including the student learning curriculum
for citations, program philosophy, outcomes by alignment
references, and implementation. assessment, integrating techniques,
format of the 5. Analyze and management and technology formative and
research project. identify dynamics of expectations as applications. summative
power and culture in they relate to the 5. Analyze evaluations, and
local/ federal and reflect on
program design and instructional
strengths and

218
5. Choose a legislation for mission of the needed areas for norm-referenced,
research topic English-speakers. school. improvement based criterion-
directly related 6. Apply and 5. Review state on the State referenced, and
to teaching connect cultural and federal Standards for the authentic
practice and democracy theory to assessment Teaching Profession evaluations.
write a clear, staff development guidelines as they and/or the National 4. Review
precise purpose practices. apply to school Board for research
statement. 7. Assess personal performance and Professional related to
6. Access and institutional expectations as Teaching Standards effective
scholarly books growth that leads to well as meeting Five Core educational
and peer reviewed multicultural the state and Propositions. programs--
journal articles competence. federal 6. Evaluate and perform and
related to the 8. Apply critical compliance issues. discuss classroom promote local
research pedagogy and social 6. Investigate the applications of curriculum
application, reconstructionist factors for current research on research.
synthesize and theory to both distinguished effective teaching. 5. Explain the
report information individual and Schools. 7. Select and inter-relatedness
in a literature societal examples of 7. Investigate explain the of curriculum
review relevant to inequities and procedures for application of design,
the topic of the imbalances of doing self-studies, effective strategies instruction,
proposal. power relative to situations, district, for developing curriculum
7. Create and educational and state learning alignment,
write an practices. personnel communities within teacher
application for requirements for schools/ classrooms effectiveness,
the completed further study. and for building and school
research professional effectiveness.
relationships/networ 6. Interpret
ks. curriculum to
public, peers,
administrators,
and others.

219
 The Revised Version of the
Educational Outcome Expectancy Scale

Brian Tilley

Abstract

The researcher revised a measure of outcome expectancies as

described in Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown, & Hackett;
1994): the Educational Outcome Expectancy Scale (EOE; Springer,
Larson, Tilley, & Gasser, 2001). Exploratory factor analysis supported a
23-item single-factor model with internal consistency of α=.93.
Convergent and criterion validity estimates using the College Self-
Efficacy Instrument (Solberg, O’Brien, Villareal, & Kennel, 1993) and
Your First College Year (Astin, 1993) are also provided. Results were
indicative of a positive, moderate correlation between educational
outcome expectancies and college self-efficacy and a significant
correlation between educational outcome expectancies and
satisfaction. Overall, the researcher found support for the EOE as a
brief, reliable measure of educational outcome expectancies as well as
a valid one when compared to related measures of self-efficacy and
satisfaction.

Key Words

Outcome expectancies, self-efficacy, satisfaction, Social Cognitive

Career Theory, education. measure

Introduction

According to Lent, Brown, & Hackett’s (1994) Social Cognitive Career

Theory (SCCT), outcome expectancies are personal beliefs about
probable outcomes. With respect to SCCT, outcome expectancies are
important because they underlie the functioning of the model. Lent et
al.’s SCCT is based on the application of social cognitive theory (SCT;
Bandura, 1986) to the career area. According to SCT, people act
partially on the beliefs they have about the possible consequences of
their actions. The areas in which these consequences can be
manifested include, but are not limited to, physical, social, self-
evaluative, and educational outcome expectancies. In other words,
outcome expectancies are domain-specific.

220
Self-efficacy and outcome expectancies are important pieces of the
SCCT model. Unfortunately, whereas self-efficacy measures abound,
outcome expectancy measures do not. In addition, the domain-
specificity of outcome expectancies has been taken quite literally, for
the most part, in the literature. The literature includes multiple
specific academic subject areas (e.g. math) in the study of educational
outcome expectancies but does not include the context in which these
academic subjects are completed (i.e., a college degree). The
researcher argues that college degree outcome expectancy is closer to
overall educational outcome expectancy than the subject-specific
measures because it takes into account both the expectations of the
student for her or his degree regardless of the area of study and for
the cumulative effect of her or his education.

As noted, outcome expectancies and self-efficacy underlie the

functioning of SCCT. The two constructs have been shown to be
positively and moderately correlated in prior research (e.g., Brown,
Lent, & Larkin, 1989; Lent, Brown, & Gore, 1997; Lent, Brown, &
Hackett, 2000). A measure of a given outcome expectancy should be
positively and moderately correlated with a measure of the same type
of self-efficacy. College education is the domain so the self-efficacy
measure selected must reflect that level of specificity.

The lone measure that attempts to capture the construct of

educational outcome expectancies using the preceding criteria is the
Educational Outcome Expectancy Scale (EOE; Springer, Larson, Tilley,
& Gasser, 2001). Tilley (2002) found that the EOE as a one-factor
measure discriminated between its factor and academic self-efficacy.
However, the EOE is six items long and that may not be enough to
fully capture the construct of educational outcome expectancies as
described in SCCT, namely that educational outcome expectancies in
college students not only cover the expectations they have in
academic areas (as the EOE does), but also focus on the overall
expectations surrounding the completion of a college degree.

Bandura (1986) provided rationale for why educational outcome

expectancies might be studied in conjunction with the variable of
satisfaction. In the article, he broke outcome expectancies into several
classes. Along with the classes of social and physical outcome
expectancies was the anticipation of self-evaluative outcomes.
Bandura (1986) stated that the anticipation of such self-evaluative
outcomes may importantly affect career behavior. Therefore, a

221
measure of satisfaction related to self and academic career should
correlate with a measure educational outcome expectancies.

The paper covers the revision process of item addition, factor analysis,
reliability, and validity estimates (convergent and criterion). The
process discussed above is driven by one goal: the development of a
reliable and valid measure of educational outcome expectancies.
According to SCCT, educational outcome expectancies are important in
the development of interests, the career choice actions a person would
make, and the extent to which a person would persist in career-
relevant behaviors (Lent et al., 1994).

It is by addressing and studying these concerns that the field will

advance understanding of the interplay between college students’
overall educational outcome expectancies and career development,
choice, and persistence. This information would be helpful to any
number of professionals working with students, such as career
counselors or college instructors. Self-efficacy and outcome
expectancies have been linked to college-related outcomes like grade
point average (e.g., Lent Brown, & Larkin, 1984; Brown et al., 1989),
persistence or continued enrollment (Brown et al., 1989; Lent, et al.,
1984, 1997; Lent, Lopez, & Brown, 1986; Tilley, 2002), and overall
achievement (Gainor & Lent, 1998). The development of a concise,
reliable, valid measure of the construct, in this case educational
outcome expectancies as measured by the revised EOE instrument,
linked to these outcomes is meant to aid the efforts of those working
with college students to both better understand and intervene with
such clients.

Study One

There were two hypotheses:

1. The EOE-R will consist of one single factor and the items will
load on that factor.
2. The EOE-R measure will demonstrate internal consistency with
a strong α level.

Item Domain

The researcher expanded the items in the EOE-R to represent an

overall view of college beyond the six RIASEC domains of college (as

222
hypothesized in Tilley, 2002); educational outcome expectancies
should represent expectancies for outcomes related to the overall
earning of a college degree. Specifically, Bandura (1986) discussed
outcome expectancies as incorporating physical outcomes (e.g.,
earning more money), social outcomes (e.g., pride), and self-
evaluative outcomes (e.g., feeling better about one’s self).

Therefore the researcher and two senior colleagues established in the

vocational psychology research community met to discuss the content
of the additional items. The group decided to produce three item types
for addition to the original EOE to create the EOE-R: items capturing
the expectations one would have as a result of getting a college
education such as physical outcomes and social outcomes, and items
capturing expectations for satisfaction as a result of achieving a
college degree.

One example of an item representing physical outcomes is “be able to

make more money.” An example of an item representing social
outcomes is “make my family proud.” The preceding items are
representative of a group of items added to the EOE-R in order to
capture the need for physical outcomes and social outcomes discussed
above. Beyond these, other items were included as representative of
the general expectations one might have for obtaining a four-year
undergraduate college degree.

In order to capture the expectations one would have as a result of

getting a college education, the researcher added 22 total items. Two
of the items were added to address the expectations for satisfaction
component discussed by Bandura (1986) and Lent et al. (1994). The
remaining 20 items were added in order to capture possible content
areas of what students expect from obtaining a college degree,
including the aforementioned items addressing physical and social
outcomes.

Method

Participants

Data were collected from students (N=1045) at a large Midwestern

university. The sample was 582 (56%) females and 463 (44%) males.
The sample included 663 (63%) freshmen, 246 (23%) sophomores, 97
(8.5%) juniors, 49 (5%) seniors, and 4 (.5%) other/grad students with
ethnic background as follows: Caucasian/White (n=927), 88%;

223
African-American (n=30), 3%; Asian-American/Pacific Islander (n=38),
4%; Latino/a-American (n=20), 2%; International Student (n=13), 1%;
Multi-Racial (n=11), 1%; Native American (n=3), .5%;
Other (n=4), .5%.

The Educational Outcome Expectancy Scale-Revised (EOE-R)

Springer et al. (2001) constructed the original EOE to measure

educational outcome expectancies. The original EOE is a six-item,
Likert-type scale that requires the participant to gauge from 1 to 6 to
what extent he or she expects an outcome (item) when he or she has
completed a bachelor’s degree (1=not at all expecting the outcome,
6=very much expecting the outcome). Item examples include [To what
extent do you expect to…] “be more competitive in the job market”
and “reduce the chance of being fired.” As noted, items were added to
create the EOE-R.

Springer et al. (2001) reported one factor (educational outcome

expectancies) that accounted for 69% of the variance. The internal
consistencies in the sample were α=.83 for the females and α=.86 for
the males with test-retest reliability (r = .48). High scores on the EOE
have been shown to be significantly related in a positive direction with
academic outcomes such as higher GPA and academic persistence
(Tilley, 2002).

Procedures

Data on the EOE-R were collected as part of two 90-minute-long mass-

testing sessions that included multiple other measures from other
researchers. Participants volunteered to take part in the study for
extra credit in psychology courses. There was no penalty for
participants that did not finish the session. There was also no penalty
for those choosing not to take part in the session.

The data from the participants on the EOE-R were factor analyzed in
order to determine whether the measure represented one-factor. As
stated in the introduction, a goal of the study was to produce a brief
one-factor measure of educational outcome expectancies.

224
Results

For the purposes of addressing Hypothesis 1 the researcher conducted

a factor analysis to investigate whether the measure clearly captures
one factor (educational outcome expectancies). A principal-axis factor
analysis was performed on the 28 items of the EOE-R. Squared multiple
correlations were used as the initial communality estimates, and the
communalities were iterated. The analysis yielded a factor with an
Eigenvalue of 9.23 that accounted for 32.97% of the total variance.
The first factor, with 23 items, was labeled college educational
outcome expectancies. The factor had loadings ranging from .45
to .74, as shown in Table 1. The items with factor loadings greater than
.40 (n=23) were internally consistent (α=.93).

Study Two

The researcher investigated the following hypotheses:

1. College-related educational outcome expectancies will be

positively and moderately correlated with college self-efficacy.
2. College-related educational outcome expectancies will be
positively and moderately correlated with college satisfaction.

Method
Participants
Data were collected from students (N=173) at a large Midwestern
university. The sample was 94 (54%) females and 79 (46%) males.
The sample included 103 (60%) freshmen, 40 (23%) sophomores, 14
(8%) juniors, and 16 (9%) seniors with ethnic background as follows:
Caucasian/White (n=157), 91%; African-American (n=6), 4%; Asian-
American/Pacific Islander (n=2), 1%; Latino/a-American (n=4), 2%;
International Student (n=2), 1%; Other (n=1), 1%.

Instruments

Educational Outcome Expectancy Scale-Revised (EOE-R)

The 23 items resulting from Study One as the EOE-R were used in
Study Two. The internal consistency of the measure in the second
sample was α=.93.

225
The College Self-Efficacy Inventory (CSEI)

The CSEI (Solberg, O’Brien, Villareal, & Kennel, 1993) is a measure of

college-related self-efficacy. The construct was defined as a college
“student’s degree of confidence that she or he could successfully
complete a given college-related task” (Solberg et al., 80). The CSEI is
a 20-item instrument with 3 subscales: course efficacy (self-efficacy
related to completing course requirements such as assignments and
tests; 7 items), social efficacy (self-efficacy related to working with
others in the college environment such as professors and friends; 6
items), and roommate efficacy (self-efficacy related to living and
relating with roommates such as dividing apartment space; 7 items).
The researcher conducted internal consistency tests on the current
sample and obtained a satisfactory alpha value (α=.89) for the overall
measure.

Your First College Year (YFCY)

The Your First College Year (Astin, 1993) measure is produced yearly
by The University of California at Los Angeles. The original measure
includes 50 items; in this study only the two sections measuring
satisfaction (18 items; College Satisfaction and Campus Life) were
used. The items are answered with higher scores indicating less
satisfaction, meaning that the researcher expected the YFCY and EOE-
R to be positively correlated on a conceptual level but negatively
correlated on a statistical level. Because the YFCY Campus Life Scale
asks the participant about facilities or opportunities that may not be
available to every student, individual item means were examined for
that scale.

Procedures

Data for Study Two were collected in testing sessions that included the
EOE-R, the Your First College Year measure, the CSEI, and
demographic questions. Participants volunteered to take part in the
study for extra credit in introductory psychology courses. There was no
penalty for participants that did not partake in or finish the session.

226
Results

For Hypothesis 1, the researcher expected the EOE-R to be

significantly positively and moderately correlated with the CSEI, a
measure of college-specific self-efficacy. The result was that the CSEI
and the EOE-R were significantly positively correlated (r = .27, p <
.001) for the overall sample. These findings support the first
hypothesis.

The researcher also expected the EOE-R to be significantly and

moderately correlated with the YFCY College Satisfaction Scale. The
researcher conducted a Pearson product-moment correlation between
the mean score of the YFCY College Satisfaction Scale and the
participant’s mean score on the EOE-R. The results indicated a
significant negative correlation (p < .05) with a coefficient of -.16 for
the overall sample. The correlation was significant and in a negative
direction as expected due to the reverse scoring. Only two individual
correlations between items on the YFCY Campus Life Satisfaction scale
and the EOE-R items were significant for the total sample, namely
classroom facilities (r = -.20) and orientation for new students (r = -
.17). There were two significant correlations as well, for females,
classroom facilities (r = -.28) and computer facilities (r = -.27).

Discussion

The results support both hypotheses of Study One, namely that the
EOE-R can be presented as a single factor and that the 23 items in this
sample are internally consistent. The results of the factor analysis also
show support for educational outcome expectancy as a single factor
that need not be broken down by subject or interest area. The
researcher found support for a satisfaction expectancy component to
load in a way similar to other educational outcome expectancy items.
The satisfaction expectancy items were among the highest loaders, at
.67 and .68, supporting Bandura’s (1986) statement that outcome
expectancies include a satisfaction expectancy component. With
respect to Hypothesis 2, the researcher obtained an internal
consistency estimate (α=.93) that supported his hypotheses and found
support for the EOE-R as a single-factor measure of college outcome
expectancies with 23 items that loaded at .40 or above on the factor.

The purpose of Study Two was to obtain validity estimates for the EOE-
R. Due to prior reports that educational outcome expectancies and
self-efficacy are positively and moderately correlated (e.g., Brown,

227
et al., 1989; Lent, et al., 1997; Lent, et al., 2000), it stands to reason
that a measure of a specific outcome expectancy should be positively
and moderately correlated with a measure of a similar type of self-
efficacy.

The results reflected the positive correlation between college self-

efficacy and educational outcome expectancies, as discussed in the
research above. The EOE-R and the CSEI were significantly and
positively correlated (r = .26). The result adds information to the
ongoing research on the relation between outcome expectancies and
self-efficacy by exploring educational outcome expectancies with
college self-efficacy, a construct not nearly as prevalent in the extant
research as career self-efficacy, for example. Beyond that, the result of
Hypothesis 1 is consistent with and supports the existing research.

In SCCT, the hypothesis 11A states that educational outcome

expectancies should be positively related to reinforcing consequences
that one has directly experienced (Lent et al., 1994). One of those
reinforcing consequences would be satisfaction with the college
experience. No one has tested this hypothesis in educational outcome
expectancies domain.

The researcher examined the correlations for each part of the YFCY
measure and the EOE-R separately; the institutional piece of the YFCY
was examined on an item-by-item basis (included in the Results
section). For Hypothesis 2, the researcher found a significant negative
correlation (r = -.16, p < .05) between the EOE-R and YFCY College
Satisfaction, which was the expected relation between satisfaction and
educational outcome expectancies.

Study Two provided support for the idea that educational outcome
expectancies and college satisfaction are related. The study also
supports the domain-specific rationale for further study of college
satisfaction in conjunction with educational outcome expectancies:
that the college domain is related to educational outcome
expectancies when the participants are female students at a four-year
undergraduate college. The results supported hypothesis 11A of SCCT
(Lent et al., 1994), which states that educational outcome
expectancies should be positively related to reinforcing consequences
that one has directly experienced, e.g. satisfaction.

228
Conclusion

The first conclusion is that, by virtue of both hypotheses in Study One

being completely supported, the EOE-R is indeed a solid, reliable one-
factor measure of educational outcome expectancies when applied to
students at a four-year undergraduate university. The researcher
proposes that college is a domain and need not be broken down by
interest or subject area in order to be valid. The criterion validity
estimates supported the relation between educational outcome
expectancies and college satisfaction for women. The significant and
positive correlation between the EOE-R and the CSEI supports the
research discussed throughout the paper linking outcome expectancies
and self-efficacy (e.g., Brown et al., 1989; Lent et al., 1997; Lent et al.,
2000). This provides one positive sign of convergent validity for the
EOE-R.

Limitations

The main limitation is the lack of diversity in the sample (91%

Caucasian). The research was conducted using students in a
Midwestern university that does not have a very diverse enrollment
and that shortcoming was reflected in the sample. It would be more
helpful in terms of generalizability for the study to be normed with a
sample that is more diverse.

Another limitation was that the surveys were taken at the same time
by the same group of participants. Although it was unavoidable for
purposes of data collection and assessing the mind state of the
participants, there is a possibility that part of the correlations among
the measures can be due to the rating tendencies of the participants
(e.g. participants that tend to rate items highly or lowly) and not
indicative of the true relations between constructs as described in the
Discussion.

Implications

The results of Study One and Study Two have implications not only for
the field of vocational psychology but also for the academic
environment, particularly the college environment in which the EOE-R
was validated. The first of these is the results supporting the validity of
the EOE-R. The EOE-R, even after adding items to the original EOE, is
still a relatively short measure. Because educational outcome

229
expectancies have been shown to be positively related to persistence
in obtaining a degree (Tilley, 2002), scores on the EOE-R can be used
to predict persistence.

When an academic institution is concerned about finding students who

are unlikely, for a variety of reasons, to complete their education the
institution can screen students to find out which students are at risk of
leaving a program before completion. The EOE-R could be used as a
screening instrument for identifying students at risk for withdrawing
from school. As an instrument that detects early possibility of future
early withdrawal, the EOE-R can be useful within the context of career
counseling, career-focused classes, and possibly as a screen at the
start of each semester for all students. Once the students are
identified, the institution can take action such as offering tutoring,
meetings with career counselors, or engaging other support systems.

Class time is valuable at every academic institution, especially the

growing number of colleges and universities with schedules that
condense courses into a one- or two-month period. The brevity of the
EOE-R allows it to be administered in a relatively quick fashion so that
if it were administered in a classroom setting, it would not take up
much of the time planned for other activities. In addition, the brevity
makes it ideal for administration before counseling meetings when the
client is sitting in a waiting room or during counseling meetings
without taking a significant amount of time away from the session.

As found in Study Two, the EOE-R is significantly and positively

correlated with a measure of college-related self-esteem. As discussed
in the introduction, outcome expectancies and self-efficacy are linked
conceptually in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent et al.,
1994). A number of researchers have explored this link in the
academic realm and the findings support the value of assessing
academic-related self-efficacy and outcome expectancies.

Shell, Colvin, and Bruning (1995) examined self-efficacies and

outcome expectancies for reading and writing concurrently at several
grade levels using measures for both of the above constructs as well
as a reading and a writing assessment. They found that students’ self-
efficacy was strongly and positively correlated to their performance on
reading and writing assessments and their outcome expectancy beliefs
were moderately and positively correlated to their performance on
reading and writing assessments.

230
Fouad, Smith, and Zao (2002) addressed this very issue by
investigating SCCT principles, including the roles of self-efficacy and
outcome expectancies, across educational areas of art, social science,
math/science, and reading/writing. Using structural equation models,
they found support for the SCCT-based concept of the relation of self-
efficacy and outcome expectancies in the educational domain: that
self-efficacy and outcome expectancies are positively and moderately
correlated and influential in the educational domain.

Bores-Rangel, Church, Szendre, and Reeves (1990) provided strong

support for SCCT views of career and academic self-efficacy. They
found moderate relations between academic self-efficacy and outcome
expectancies and academic achievement although academic
achievement was not measured using grade point average (GPA).
Tilley (2002) addressed the potential relation between self-efficacy and
outcome expectancies with grade point average. He studied
educational outcome expectancies and self-efficacy as they related to
academic performance (GPA), ability (ACT score), and persistence
(continued enrollment). He found that the EOE scored similar to a
measure of academic self-efficacy in predicting GPA and ACT score.
The EOE stood out as a predictor of persistence where the academic
self-efficacy measure did not, lending credence to educational OE as
an independent and important predictive construct in the domain of
education.

Overall, research has supported the positive correlation between self-

efficacy and GPA (e.g., Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1984; Brown, Lent, &
Larkin, 1989) and self-efficacy and persistence (Brown, et al., 1989;
Lent, et al., 1984, 1997; Lent, Lopez, & Brown, 1986). Another study
showed a link of outcome expectancies to achievement (Gainor & Lent,
1998). Just as with self-efficacy, there is a link provided between
educational outcome expectancies and persistence (Tilley, 2002).
Research also has found higher self-efficacy and outcome expectancies
to be positively related to better reading and writing (Shell et al.,
1995).

Given the preceding information, knowledge of a student’s academic-

related outcome expectancies, especially obtained through a non-
intrusive, time-limited approach like the EOE-R, could be quite
valuable both to academic institutions and to therapy providers.

231
Future Directions for Research

As stated in the introduction and literature review, how self-efficacy

has been studied is often an indicator for how outcome expectancies
can be studied, given that so much more of the research on SCCT has
been devoted to self-efficacy. Future research in a variety of areas on
educational outcome expectancies is made simpler because the EOE-R
is such an easily administered and scored instrument. There are still
numerous areas in the vocational literature where self-efficacy has
been studied but outcome expectancies have not. This paper provides
not only an instance of research on outcome expectancies in areas
self-efficacy is more prevalent but also validity estimates for an
instrument with which to conduct such undertakings.

References

Astin, A. W. (1993). An empirical typology of college students. Journal

of College Student Development, 34(1), 36-46.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A

Social Cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bores-Rangel, E., Church, A. T., Szendre, D., & Reeves, C. (1990).

Self-efficacy in relation to occupational consideration and
academic performance in high school equivalency students.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 407-418.

Brown, S. D., Lent, R. W., & Larkin, K. C. (1989). Self-efficacy as a

moderator of scholastic aptitude-academic performance
relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 35, 64-75.

Fouad, N. A., Smith, P. L., & Zao, K. E. (2002). Across academic

domains: Extensions of the social-cognitive career model.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 449, 164-171.

Gainor, K. A., & Lent, S. D. (1998). Social cognitive expectations and

racial identity attitudes in predicting the mathematics choice
intentions of Black college students. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 45, 403-413.

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1997). Discriminant and

predictive validity of academic self-concept, academic self-

232
 efficacy, and mathematics-specific self-efficacy. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 44, 307-315.

Lent, R. W., Brown, S.D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social
cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and
performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2000). Contextual supports

and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal
of Counseling Psychology, 47, 36-49.

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Larkin, K. C. (1984). Relation of self- efficacy
expectations to academic achievement and persistence. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 33, 265-269.

Lent, R. W., Lopez, F. G., Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1996). Latent
structure of the sources of mathematics self-efficacy. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 49, 292-308.

Shell, D. F., Colvin, C., & Bruning, R. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, attribution

and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing
achievement: Grade-level and achievement-level differences.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 386-398.

Solberg, V. S., O’Brien, K., Villareal, P., & Kennel, R. (1993). Self-
efficacy and Hispanic college students: Validation of the
College Self-Efficacy Instrument. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 15(1), 80-95.

Springer, S., Larson, L. M., Tilley, B. P., & Gasser, C. E. (2001,

August). The development of two outcome expectancy
measures. Poster presented at the American Psychological
Association 101st National Convention, San Francisco, CA.

Tilley, B. P. (2002). The Validation of the Educational Outcome

Expectancy Scale. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Iowa State
University.

233
Tables

Table 1
Factor Loading Matrix for the One-Factor Educational Outcome
Expectancy Scale-Revised
Item
Educational Outcome Expectancy item M SD I h2 total
r

19. be able to solve problems more

efficiently 4.97 1.03 .74 .55 .68
15. make great progress toward being an
expert in my field 5.17 1.03 .72 .52 .66
23. demonstrate that I can succeed on my
own 5.17 1.07 .71 .50 .66
18. be better equipped to apply for and
obtain a desired job 5.23 0.97 .70 .49 .63
21. be more satisfied with myself 4.83 1.17 .68 .46 .65
14. learn skills that would make me a good
employee in the eyes of management 5.21 0.99 .68 .46 .63
11. be more likely to influence others 4.95 1.09 .68 .46 .63
20. feel better about myself 4.78 1.20 .67 .45 .64
10. make my family proud 5.41 0.91 .65 .42 .59
8. have opportunities to use my
organizational skills 4.90 1.13 .64 .41 .60
5. to have learned skills for my career 5.42 0.92 .64 .41 .57
12. be seen as an important person 4.61 1.25 .63 .40 .92
7. to have learned to express myself 4.60 1.24 .63 .40 .61
3. be able to better serve other people 4.97 1.14 .60 .36 .54
9. be more likely to give back to the
community 4.62 1.26 .57 .32 .54
13. learn necessary mechanical skills to help
my career 4.77 1.33 .56 .31 .54
17. have a wider variety of friends 4.53 1.29 .56 .31 .56
16. be less likely to be stuck in a job I don’t
like 4.83 1.49 .53 .28 .50
4. reduce the chance of being fired 4.64 1.26 .53 .28 .50
22. be qualified to pursue an advanced
degree (e.g. Masters, Ph.D.) 4.95 1.27 .51 .26 .46
2. be able to make more money 5.17 1.06 .50 .25 .47
1. be more competitive in the job market 4.92 1.18 .46 .21 .43
6. be more likely to be friends with others
who are college educated 4.31 1.37 .45 .21 .45

Items with loadings below .40

-- make more money than my parents 4.45 1.47 .39
-- be viewed as qualified to create, design,
and/or modify products in my career 4.01 1.60 .35
-- refine my artistic talent to create a better
product (e.g. sculpture, performance,
design) 3.57 1.07 .34
-- be able to design a new product (e.g.

234
 machinery, mechanical devices) 3.39 1.67 .27
-- be more likely to work outdoors 3.24 1.42 .23
The main factor is labeled as “I.” Item loadings .40 and above are bolded.

About the Author

Brian Patrick Tilley

PhD in Counseling Psychology
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
National university
La Jolla, CA USA Email:
btilley@nu.edu
Major research interests: career/vocational counseling,
alternate/accelerated education, effects of popular culture

235
Benefits of Study Abroad and Creating Opportunities:
The Case for Short-Term Programs

David E. Smith and Darryl J. Mitry

Abstract

The 21st Century is characterized by global economic

interdependencies in business, finance and trade. University education
must now include more opportunities for students to gain firsthand
knowledge of global interdependencies and develop superior cross-
cultural skills. Nevertheless, currently less than 1% of college students
from the United States study abroad. This paper examines the reasons
behind such meager performance, and considers short-term study-
abroad alternatives for offering students more opportunities. Analysis
of data on the effect of such programs reveals several interesting
findings. Based on survey research conducted by the authors and
previous studies, the paper concludes by offering guidance to faculty
policymakers and university administrators. The paper contains
recommendations for the design of favorably competitive curricula
offerings, and suggestions for developing highly integrated and flexible
study-abroad programs that can be much less expensive, more
available and widely marketed than traditional programs.

Key Words

Study-abroad opportunities, short-term, curriculum.

Introduction

The 21st Century is characterized by global economic

interdependencies in business, finance and trade. The rapid expansion
and convergence of technology and the burgeoning entry of India,
China, and many other developing economies into the global super-
marketplace has serious implications for university education. Indeed,
globalization demands more worldly educational opportunities. Now,
most everyone realizes that inexpensive telecommunications networks
and lower costs for international transportation eliminate the major
impediments to international competition. Indeed, the word
“globalization” (Hanvey, 1982) and economic references to a “flat

236
world” (Friedman, 2005) are now an essential part of the common
vocabulary.

Study-abroad programs, whether short or long term, can significantly

enhance students’ formal education and improve their future
employment opportunities. Study-abroad programs are characterized
as academic endeavors that occur beyond the national boundaries of
the students' home country, and they can be either short- or long-
term. Several studies focusing on study-abroad outcomes have
provided evidence that such programs enhance students’ worldview
(Carlson & Widaman, 1988); the students’ global perspective (McCabe,
1994); even their cross-cultural effectiveness (Kitsantas & Meyers,
2002; Tegning & Polson, 2006). Previous research, focusing on specific
outcomes of study-abroad programs, has provided further evidence
that the programs enhance students’ worldview. For example, the
study by Carlson and Widaman (1988) surveyed 450 study-abroad
program students on whether student perspective on global issues and
cross-cultural understanding changed as a result of their participation
in the programs. The students were queried at the onset and at the
conclusion of their experience. As part of the pre- and post-
questionnaires, the students were asked to respond to a parallel set of
items within their current perspective. This technique allowed the
researchers to formulate assessments concerning students’ change in
global perspective and worldview. The same queries were made on
similar groups of students who did not participate in the study-abroad
program. The study- abroad experience resulted in higher levels of
international political concern, cross-cultural interest and
understanding when compared to the students who did not participate
in a similar program. The conclusion is that participation in study-
abroad programs provides students with an opportunity to view the
world from completely new and different perspectives.

There are the obvious benefits from study-abroad programs such as

the greater potential for acquisition of a foreign language, increased
knowledge of the different cultures, developing cross-cultural skills and
potential for transformational worldviews. Yet, less than 1% of college
students from the United States study abroad each year (NAFSA,
2007). Why do so few students from the United States take part in
such programs? Students stay in this country for a variety of reasons,
but the primary reasons concern three factors: affordability, time
constraints and flexible integration within major programs (Lewis &
Niesenbaum, 2005). With apparently enormous benefits from study-
abroad programs, the most important question is: “how can our

237
academic programs improve opportunities?” The answer can be found
in short-term study-abroad programs, where the program is less than a
semester and perhaps only one or two months in duration. Such short-
term programs can be a good option to the more costly traditional
study-abroad offerings. A one- or two-month program makes living in a
foreign country much less costly, easier, less threatening and much
less of an interruption in a student’s ordinary life responsibilities,
particularly when considering the responsibilities of older adult
students with families (Brown, Pegg, & Shively, 2006). Rapid
globalization, and the consequent growing demand for employees with
cross-cultural skills, puts pressure on university faculty and
administrators to develop and operate at least some study-abroad
programs within their curriculums, particularly within the departments
of the Business Schools. Universities can no longer sleepily ignore this
imperative to provide high-quality outcomes for their competitive
enrollments (Poole & Davis, 2006).

Survey Research on Study Abroad

The authors of this paper have experience in study-abroad curricula,

particularly short-term programs. For example, one of the authors
regularly teaches an undergraduate course during the summer called
"Global Marketing," which is only six weeks in length and held in
Denmark. The author has taught this course on weekdays at the
Copenhagen Business School’s campus since its inception 10 years
ago. Incorporated within this program is an additional study-abroad
experience available on the weekends. To increase the short-term
program’s effectiveness, it is designed to focus on the eclectic nature
of the students in the classroom environment (Xiong, 2003). A typical
class of 30 students consists of five cultures and/or nationalities. The
program has theory and case-learning components, in which students
are organized into groups that assure a diverse cultural mix. This
design guarantees a study-abroad encounter that is characterized by a
very different learning experience. The group study experience assures
a close association with students from different cultural backgrounds
within the foreign environment. This also helps free students from any
feelings of isolation, and relieves potential anxiety from confrontation
in a foreign environment.

The theoretical argument for an enhanced learning experience from

study abroad programs is supported by the previously cited studies.
The authors conducted empirical research based on a survey
instrument of 10 questions administered on a total of 150 students

238
over a five-year period. The purpose of this study was to measure the
actual extent of impact on the students enrolled in this particular
Copenhagen short-term program. Also data was collected on follow-up
and reporting of post-program experiences. The students in the
program were surveyed pre and post the study-abroad experience.
The data gleaned from this study-abroad course revealed four general
conclusions:

1. When the students returned to their home campus, many

took courses outside their major specifically because of their
participation in the program.

2. Almost half the students traveled or studied abroad again.

Those who did, make a clear connection from their experience in
Denmark to subsequent study-abroad.

3. Majority of the students demonstrated increased interest in

interdisciplinary studies.

4. All students indicated that their participation in the short-term

program had influenced their perceptions of the costs and
benefits of globalization. Students’ analysis of globalization
became more sophisticated through the strategies of interlinking
the short-term study abroad with all their other coursework.

The authors’ survey findings reveal that short-term study-abroad

programs can meet many of the same goals of students and faculty as
the long-term programs, but without the long-term disadvantages.
Although some students have expressed fears about studying abroad
since September 11, many scholars and policymakers have argued
that it is even more important now for students from the United States
to learn firsthand about other cultures. One of the chief benefits of
study-abroad programs is learning about people from different cultures
as the students live within the foreign environment.

Another research study examined the impact that these short-term

study-abroad programs have on students’ cross-cultural skills and
global understanding, and also examined the role of students’ goals for
participating in such programs and to what extent students’ goals
affect outcomes (Kitsantas, 2004). Two hundred and thirty two (N =
232) study-abroad college students were surveyed regarding their
cross-cultural skills prior to and at completion of the programs. A
factor analysis developed a Study Abroad Goals Scale (SAGS) and
revealed three common factors that students have for joining these

239
programs: (1) to enhance their cross-cultural skills, (2) to become more
proficient in the subject matter, and (3) to make friends and socialize.
As expected a priori, the empirical results find that students’ cross-
cultural skills and global understanding improve. However, students’
goals to study abroad may also influence the magnitude of these
outcomes. Goals being defined as intentions to attain some specific
standard of proficiency, within a specified time limit (Locke, Shaw,
Saari, & Latham, 1981). For example, according to Locke and Latham
(1990) goals influence the behavioral functioning and outcome by
concentrating attention and manipulating effort. Research on the
impact of goals in the acquisition of skills finds that goal setting
significantly enhances the participant’s performance (Schunk, 2000).

Therefore, this study-abroad research explored the effect of students’

goals for studying abroad on their cross-cultural skills and global
understanding. In order to assess the effect of goals, a “Study Abroad
Goals Scale” (SAGS) was devised, based on Carlson’s and his
colleagues research (Carlson, Bum, Useem & Yachimowicz, 1991;
Opper, Teichler & Carlson, 1990). It has been reported that the most
important reason for which students select to participate in study-
abroad programs are: to improve their career prospects; to improve
their cultural understanding; to study the subject matter not offered in
their home institution; and finally simply to join friends who enroll or
make new friends. The Scale items were formulated according to these
motives for participation in study abroad programs. The hypotheses
were classified as: (1) Study-abroad students return to their home
country with an improved global understanding and enhanced cross-
cultural skills. (2) Students reporting their primary goals are to develop
their cross-cultural skills would result in the highest development of
cross-cultural skills, followed by those students reporting their goal was
to become more knowledgeable in their subject area; whereas little or
no gains in cross-cultural skills or global understanding were expected
for students whose goals were generally to simply socialize.

The effectiveness instrument administered was the Cross-Cultural

Adaptability Inventory (Kelley & Meyers, 1995) and this was used in
order to assess student cross-cultural effectiveness and self-
awareness. The Global Perspective Survey (Hanvey, 1982) was
administered to the participants to assess the students’ understanding
and global perspective. All participants signed informed consent, and
they responded to the survey instruments online before departure and
upon return to the United States. Paired t-tests revealed that student’s
initial scores on all (except the perceptual acuity subscale) of the

240
Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory instrument were significantly
different at the .05 level or better, following completion of the short-
term study-abroad programs. The goals hypothesis, that students’
goals to study abroad predict the level of cross-cultural skill
development is supported. Correlation analysis shows that the
variance in students’ cross-cultural skills is largely explained by the
goals for studying abroad. As expected, the goal to develop cross-
cultural competence was most portent. Similarly, the variance in global
understanding was also explained by the students’ goals. Correlations
show that the goal to improve competence is associated with higher
levels of development in cross-cultural skills and global understanding.
Finally, no significant correlations is found for the purely socialization
goals.

The findings of these studies further confirm the value and

effectiveness of short-term study-abroad programs: these programs
enhance students’ cross-cultural skills and global understanding.
Furthermore, students’ reasons for participating in these programs
significantly predict the outcome of skills development.

Conclusions

The rapid globalization of businesses and the consequent demand for

skilled employees greatly increases the need to prepare students for
international assignments. Universities that provide study-abroad
programs that are designed to enhance students’ goals can expect to
increase their competitive advantage in the educational marketplace
by better serving their students. A recent report of the Strategic Task
Force on Education Abroad, convened by NAFSA (Association of
International Educators), has argued that after the terrorist attacks we
are in a "Sputnik moment" in which "it is time to launch a major
national effort to ensure that every college student graduates with
both an understanding of at least one foreign area and facility in at
least one foreign language. If a semester-long or year-long experience
is too costly and seems too daunting, the research suggests that a
shorter, well-planned program can help many more students to
achieve those goals” (NAFSA, 2007). Another important consideration
is that numerous students are opting to take many of their courses
online. Indeed, many universities are experiencing significant
increases in their online courses with concomitant decreases in the
percentage of on-ground classroom enrollments. The major advantage
to students enrolled in these online programs is the flexibility and
asynchronous scheduling. However, offering options for a short-term

241
study-abroad experience could greatly enhance the overall appeal of
some online degree programs, particularly those related to
international studies and foreign language studies. This addition
provides another avenue for increasing overall university program
enrollments because it adds an attractive option to these programs.

Taken together, the findings of short-term study-abroad research have

important policy recommendations for helping smaller and non-
traditional universities to be more effective as they compete with
larger traditional schools. The conclusion is that most any campus
could design favorably competitive curricula offerings. However, to be
successful, such programs must be developed as highly integrated and
flexible study-abroad programs. They also can be designed to be less
expensive, more available and more widely marketed than traditional
programs.

Recommendations and five critical factors

The advent of globalization demands more worldly educational

opportunities. Universities that respond with creative and valuable
programs that include study-abroad experiences are the most
competitive because they satisfy a real need. More universities can
succeed by incorporating short-term study abroad courses into
curriculum. Nonetheless, five factors are very important to consider
when designing short-term study abroad experiences. The five critical
factors are as follows:

1. The financial constraints of most students are real and must

be acknowledged in the design of programs. Offerings of study-
abroad experiences should be designed to cost little more than
study at home. Obviously, there is the extra expense of travel
and accommodation, but this can be kept to a minimum by
judicious use of group resources and planning. For example,
universities that already have accelerated-courses, such as the
one-month course design can quickly gear-up to offer a summer
one-month study-abroad course in all their schools. These one-
month course designs are much less costly to the student than
traditional semester-length, study-abroad programs. The student
expense can be kept very low, little more than the airfare and
cost of dormitory, and a small amount for local transportation.
The university can quickly and easily arrange extremely low-cost
one-month dormitory accommodations with cooperating
universities in other countries. Professors are often available

242
 during the their annual break and will probably want to teach a
one-month course in another country because it can count
toward satisfying the teaching load and the experience provides
a pleasant break in routine. Again, the university has very little
extra expense, simply the cost of professors’ airfare and
dormitory lodging. It is a win-win situation for everyone. Another
economical option is for stationing one or more professors for
more than one month in a foreign country, and these professors
teach sequential one-month courses.

2. The perceived and real fit of the study-abroad experience

within the academic program and its relationship to the
student’s major field of study. Students must be able to see that
the study-abroad offering is unequivocally a good fit within their
curriculum and not simply a frivolous extra course.

3. Timing of offerings. All study-abroad offerings should be

made available during the most appropriate sequence within
programs, and offered in the months when non-traditional
students are more likely to be able to schedule and enroll.

4. A small or non-traditional university must make a firm

commitment to a consistency of offerings. Study-abroad classes
that are later canceled because of low enrollment are very
detrimental to the university programs because students soon
learn that enrollments are not assured and can seriously
jeopardize their schedules. Canceling courses because of initial
low enrollments is unwise. The students will see this type of
administrative action as evidence that the university is not
serious about growing a study-abroad program component.
Conversely, consistently offering these courses, irrespective of
their initial enrollments, and following through by never
canceling classes will eventually develop an excellent reputation
for the university. The “word of mouth” eventually results in self-
supporting programs with high demand.

5. Finally, a small or non-traditional university must also make a

firm commitment to substantial advertising for the new study-
abroad offerings. Initially this is an added expense, but the
prestige and increase in university reputation more than offsets
this added expenditure.

Curriculum designers can develop appropriate programs for any

university, whether traditional or non-traditional, residential or non-

243
residential. Such programs and courses only require a little “out of the
box” thinking and sound administrative support. In the rapidly
globalizing economy of the 21st Century, university faculty and
administrations cannot ignore the increasingly competitive need to
quickly enhance their reputation for curricula with substantive and
regular study-abroad experiences. The research finding that even
short-term study-abroad programs can be highly effective means that
the process of expanding opportunities can be much more
manageable, not only for large universities but for the smaller less-
endowed institutions as well, particularly for accredited universities
with substantial experience in accelerated programs.

References

Brown, J., Pegg, S., & Shively, J. (2006, August). Consensus and
Divergence in International Studies: Survey Evidence from 140
International Studies Curriculum Programs. International Studies
Perspectives, 7(3), 267-286. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from
Academic Search Premier database.

Carlson, J. S., & Widaman, K. F. (1988). The effects of study abroad

during college on attitudes toward other cultures. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12(1), 1-18.

Carlson, J. S., Bum, B. B., Useem, J., & Yachimowicz, D. (1991). Study
abroad. The experience of American undergraduates in Western
Europe and the United States. New York: Occasional papers on
International Educational Exchange.

Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-

first century. New York: Von Holzbrink Publications.

Hanvey, R. (1982). An attainable global perspective. Theory into

Practice, 21, 162-167.

Kelley, C., & Meyers, J. (1995) Cross-intercultural adaptability

inventory. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.

Kitsantas, A., & Meyers, J. (2002). Studying abroad: Does it enhance

college student cross-cultural awareness? Educational Resources
Information Center, ED 456 648.

244
Kitsantas, A. (2004). Studying abroad: the role of college students’
goals on the development of cross-cultural skills and global
understanding. College Student Journal, 38(3), 441-452.

Lewis, T. L., & Niesenbaum, R. A. (2005, June 3). Point of view.

Chronicle of Higher Education, B20.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal-setting and task

performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal
setting and task performance. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 125-
152.

McCabe, L. T. (1994). The development of a global perspective during

participation in semester at sea: A comparative global education
program. Educational Review, 46(3), 275-286.

NAFSA: Association of International Educators. Retrieved on August 14,

2007, from www.nafsa.org.

Opper, S., Teichler, U., & Carlson, J. S. (1990). Impacts of study abroad
programmes on students and graduates. London: Jessica Kingley
Publishers.

Poole, D., & Davis, T. (2006, February). Concept mapping to measure

outcomes in study abroad programs1. Social Work Education,
25(1), 61-77. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from Academic Search
Premier database.

Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective

(3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice Hall.

Tegning, L. S., & Polson, N. (2006, April 1). In the summertime.

Kraemmerhuset, 32.

Xiong, J. (2003, September 6). CBS summer scholars.

Kraemmerhuset, 34.

245
About the Authors

David E. Smith
B.S., M. B. A., M.S., M.S., D.B.A.
Professor
School of Business and Management
National University
La Jolla, CA, USA
dsmith8@nu.edu
Major research interests: International business, strategy and
marketing

Darryl J. Mitry
B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
Graduate Faculty
Graduate School, Diplomacy
Norwich University
Northfield, Vermont, USA
dmitryusa@msn.com
Major research interests: International trade, strategy and finance

246
 2nd NATIONAL UNIVERSITY FACULTY
RESEARCH AND SCHOLARSHIP CONFERENCE 2008

The Second National University Faculty Research and Scholarship

Conference, organized by the University Research Council together
with the Graduate and Undergraduate Councils and the Faculty
Senate, will hold a University-wide peer-reviewed event for faculty to
present their research and scholarship accomplishments for the 2007-
2008 academic year on the day before the University Fall Assembly on
September 2, 2008.

The goals of the conference are:

· Offer a forum for National University faculty and scholars from
outside the University to make their research and scholarship
accomplishments visible, appreciated and shared with the
University Community; and to
· Promote research and scholarship at the University and outside,
thus enhancing the University-wide research and scholarship culture
and making National accomplishments visible to the broad
academic community.
The conference will be conducted as follows:
· A Plenary Session with two invited speakers, one from outside and
the other from National University.
· Sectional presentation by research topics.
· Poster presentations organized by schools, with authors presenting
their research, holding discussions, and answering questions.

Both full time and adjunct faculty, as well as outside scholars and
researchers, are invited and encouraged to submit an abstract
proposal by June 1. The abstract should be approximately 150 words
in length. Please include the following in the abstract: Title of the
paper, your name, school and email address. After peer review of the
abstract proposal, faculty will asked to submit a full paper by July 1.
The paper will be reviewed and the author notified of the acceptance in
the program by August 1. The abstract and paper should be in APA
format, with the paper not exceeding 12 pages. The proposals should
be sent in attachment to an email to the Conference Chair, Dr. Peter
Serdyukov at pserdyuk@nu.edu.

Thank You,
Dr. Peter Serdyukov
Chair
Organizing Committee
February 27, 2008

247
 A Note for the Authors

The Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching

An Annual Peer Reviewed Publication of National University

The Journal's mission is to collect and disseminate advanced research-

based information on teaching and learning, particularly focusing on
innovative methodologies and technologies applied primarily but not
exclusively in higher education, to enhance student learning outcomes.

NUJ publishes carefully selected, original articles describing original

research on the following topics:

 New pedagogical theories and approaches in teaching and

learning
 Innovative educational technologies and their applications
 Knowledge management
 Accelerated, short-term and intensive pedagogy
 Effective instructional methodologies
 Specific methodology of teaching particular subjects
 Online/distance/hybrid education
 Adult learning
 Curriculum development and instructional design
 Psychology of learning, of the learner and of the group
 Time and cost-efficiency of education
 Best practices

Submission of Manuscripts. A manuscript is to be submitted in

electronic form to the Editor-in-Chief or to any of the editors (editorial
board). Manuscripts are accepted for review with the understanding
that the same work has not been published, that it is not under
consideration for publication elsewhere, and that its submission for
publication has been approved by all of the authors and by the
institution where the work was carried out; further, that any person
cited as a source of personal communications has approved such
citation. Written authorization may be required at the editor's
discretion. Articles and any other material published in the NUJ
represent the opinions of the author(s) and should not be construed to
reflect the opinions of the editor(s) and the publisher.

Copyright. Upon acceptance of an article, authors will be asked to

transfer copyright to National University. This transfer will ensure the

248
widest possible dissemination of information. A letter will be sent to
the corresponding author confirming receipt of the manuscript. A form
facilitating transfer of copyright will be provided after acceptance.

If material from other copyrighted works is included, the author(s)

must obtain written permission from the copyright owners and credit
the source(s) in the article.

Form of Manuscript. A manuscript is to be prepared in APA format

using MW or MW Rich Text, font is in Verdana style, size 12pp, and
should not exceed 12 pages. The manuscript will be edited according
to the style of the journal and authors must read the proofs carefully.

Manuscripts must be submitted with full address(es) telephone and

telefax numbers, and e-mail address(es) of the author(s).

The manuscript, including the abstract, references, tables, figures and

figure captions, must be prepared to be typed on letter-size paper,
with double-spacing and ample margins all around the text (one inch
on each side). Each page should be numbered. Page 1 should contain
the article title, author and coauthor names, affiliation(s) (name of
institution with complete mailing address), and e-mail. At the bottom of
page 1 place any footnotes to the title (indicated by superscript Arabic
numerals, e.g., 1). Page 1 should also contain the name and mailing
address of the author to whom proofs should be sent. Keywords should
be listed immediately after the abstract.

Abstracts should not be more than 100 words long.

Sections should be numbered with Arabic numerals.

Notation should be legible, compact, and conform to current practice.

Each symbol must be clear and properly aligned so that superscripts
and subscripts are easily distinguishable. Numerical fractions should
preferably be put on one line e.g. 1/2 a.

Place equation numbers in parentheses at the right margin.

References to equations should use the form "Eq. (3)" or simply (3).

Footnotes should be indicated in the text with superscript letters: a,

b, c, etc.

249
References are listed consecutively in alphabetical order of the
author's name and are designed corresponding to APA style. For
journal references, the standard abbreviations for journal names
should be used. They should be listed in a separate sheet at the end of
the text material.

Figures should be numbered in Arabic numerals in the order of

appearance in the text. The author's name and figure number should
be clearly written below the figure.

Tables should be numbered with roman numerals in the order of

appearance. Every table must have a caption, which should be typed
above the table.

Every submitted paper will be acknowledged and refereed.

250