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Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and

Tasks: Increasing Livelihood Security

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-00680-8_2

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Succession of embankments due to erosion and poor hydrological conditions in river (Courtesy
A. A. Danda)
Chapter 2
Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An
Overview of Opportunities, Threats
and Tasks

Shafi Noor Islam

Abstract The Sundarbans, spreading over 10,000 km2 area, is one of the largest
productive deltas in the world, and is located in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna
river basin over parts of Bangladesh and India. The coastal mangrove wetland is
playing a potential role in balancing the ecology, community socio-economy, and
livelihoods of the community. It is a hotspot of mangrove biodiversity with 373 fau-
nal and 324 floral species. The ecosystem is dynamic, fragile and complex owing to
several climate-, soil-, and water- related stress factors. Climate change and several
anthropogenic interventions have transformed the natural landscape with significant
changes in the social matrix. The salinity intrusion of water is the most sensitive and
serious threat for mangrove ecosystem in the coastal region, more in Bangladesh.
Since the diversion of Ganges freshwater at Farakka Barrage in India since early
1975, salinity levels have increased drastically in the coastal region in Bangladesh.
The reduction of Ganges flow has made disastrous effects on agriculture, fisheries,
hydro-morphology, drinking water and mangrove coastal ecosystem. All these
factors, individually and collectively, pose serious threats to livelihood and food
security for the coastal community in Sundarbans, and what’s more, to the ecological
balance. E-flow assessment methodologies are discussed in this chapter with refer-
ence to attempts made in Bangladesh. It is believed that the present coastal mangrove
wetland ecosystem conservation and planning policy is inadequate. In this backdrop,
the article suggests in this introductory chapter thrust on future policies for better
management, monitoring and conservation of the Sundarbans in a transboundary
mode towards improved livelihood.

Keywords Sundarbans mangrove · Wetland · Ecosystem · Biodiversity · Salinity

intrusion · Agricultural crop production · Food security · Management and
conservation

S. N. Islam (*)
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
(FASS), Universiti Brunei Darussalam, BE-1410, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong, Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
e-mail: shafi.islam@ubd.edu.bn; shafinoor@yahoo.com

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 31

H. S. Sen (ed.), The Sundarbans: A Disaster-Prone Eco-Region, Coastal Research
Library 30, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00680-8_2
32 S. N. Islam

2.1 Introduction

The coastal wetlands in Sundarbans, spreading over 10,000 km2 area across
Bangladesh and India, are playing a potential role in ecological balance and local
socio-economic improvement. The coastal mangrove is the most dynamic and
potential eco-region in the world. The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest
in the world which has been declared as World Natural Heritage Site (WNHS) by
UNESCO in Bangladesh in 1997, and as World Heritage Site in 1987 in the Indian
counterpart of the mangrove forest. It is hotspot of biodiversity with 373 faunal and
324 floral species (Milliman et al. 1989; Khan 1993; Hughes et al. 1994; Gopal and
Wetzel 1995; Islam and Gnauck 2008). Over 3.5 million coastal people are directly
dependent on the Sundarbans heritage site goods and services (Islam and Gnauck
2008, 2009a, b; Islam et al. 2017).
The Sundarbans is the largest unique mangrove ecosystem of the world. The
significance of this unique ecosystem is greatly felt due to its unique biota and source
of multiple resource bases for the regional economy. The Sundarbans Reserve Forest
(SRF) in Bangladesh comprises of 6017 km2 and in India it encompasses 4000 km2
area. Within the SRF, there are three wildlife sanctuaries located in the southern part
of Bangladesh. The SRF area is recognized as internationally important as the
Ramsar Site and as a repository for globally significant biodiversity and dynamic
sensitive ecosystem (Richards 1990). Moreover, it has a unique position not only for
forestry but also in terms of deltaic landscapes, eco-tourism, culture and heritage.
The natural beauty and the universal value of the forest property have given us
natural heritage. The importance of the site is its floristic composition,
economic uses.
However, it is a dynamic, fragile and complex ecosystem largely influenced by
different stress-related factors in the fields of soil, water and climate, further
interacting with each other. The anthropogenic interventions in the Sundarbans
have transformed natural landscapes through the process of fire, hunting, agriculture,
shrimp farming, along with climate change and industrial pollution (Hughes et al.
1994; Gopal and Wetzel 1995; Islam and Gnauck 2008). The present management
and conservation strategy is inadequate. Therefore, it is virtual and essential to
conserve Sundarbans World Natural Heritage in twenty-first century of interest to
both Bangladesh and India. In this backdrop, the article suggests thrust on future
policies for better management, monitoring, and conservation of the Sundarbans
towards improved livelihood and food security.

2.2 Ecosystem Concept

The ecosystem concept can apply from a micro level to the global scale, and energy
is playing a central role in an ecosystem. Energy flows one-way through an ecosys-
tem that is from sunlight to producer, through food chain, and ends up as heat
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 33

dissipated in the atmosphere. In contrast, natural materials and mineral nutrients

either flow one-way or cycle within an ecosystem (Fujimoto 2000). On the other
hand, ecologists consider ecosystems to be the basic units of ecology and of the
earth’s surface. An ecosystem is thus a space where species interact with the physical
environment (MEA 2003).
The ecosystems can be defined as a relationship between biotic and abiotic
characteristics.
The meaning of ecosystem means the functions of biotic and abiotic factors, like

Ecosystem ¼ f ðbiotic and abiotic characteristicsÞ ð2:1Þ

or, on the other hand,

Ecosystem ¼ f ðs; cl; a; pm; o; mo; r; w; e; t; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Þ

ð2:2Þ

where, ‘s’ is soil, ‘cl’ is climate, ‘a’ is air, ‘pm’ is parent material, ‘o’ is organism,
‘mo’ is microorganism, ‘r’ is relief of topography, ‘w’ is water, ‘e’ is energy, and ‘t’
is time, etc.
The equations (Eqs. 2.1 and 2.2) represent the scientific expressions and under-
standing of the definition of ecosystem. In Eq. 2.2 the potential elements which
ensure the functions, like soil, climate, air, parent material, organism, microorgan-
ism, relief of topography, water, energy, or time are the potential factors that
characterize an ecosystem in a particular region, and the area, where Sundarbans,
the important natural heritage site, represents one such (Miah and Bari 2002). Over
and above, the Sundarbans ecosystem is characterized by a very dynamic and
complex environment due to the effect of tidal flooding and cyclones (Islam 2003;
Erdogan and Kuter 2010), besides various stress-related factors. This, as a conse-
quence, reflects on various species – their population and symbiotic relationships
creating an equilibrium at a given time – under continual drift over time.

2.3 Geographical Setting and Dynamics Changes

The Sundarbans stretches over 10,000 km2 and located at the south-western extreme
of Bangladesh and south-east of the state of West Bengal in India (Hussain and
Acharya 1994). The area is situated in the Ganges trans-boundary catchment area,
and lies between latitude 21 310 N and 22 300 N and between longitudes 89 E and
90 180 E (Katebi 2001). Out of this approximately 70% are lands and 30% are water
bodies.
The Ganges-Brahmaputra and Meghna river systems and drainage basin is 1.76
million km2 in area (Fig. 2.1) (Islam 2006). The Sundarbans stretches from the
Hoogly on the west in India to the Meghna, the estuary of the Ganges and
 34

Fig. 2.1 The Geographical location of the Sundarbans in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river in the catchment area. (Source: Islam and Gnauck 2008)
S. N. Islam
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 35

Brahmaputra, on the east, located in Bangladesh. It covers the southern portions of

the districts, viz. South 24 Parganas in India, to Khulna and Barishal in Bangladesh
(Islam 2003). There is evidence to suggest that due to geomorphological processes
the Bengal Basin is tilting, diverting fresh water through the Ganges-Brahmaputra
river system to the east. It was thus only natural that the eastern part of Bengal was
marked by its greater agricultural produce and greater population growth compared
to the western part. This was made possible by the silt deposit because of the shift in
the river system (Islam and Gnauck 2008; Islam 2016).
The Indian part of the delta is thus being denied fresh water from upstream,
resulting in increased salinity (Islam and Gnauck 2008; Islam 2016). The entire
region is subject to violent storms, particularly during the monsoon months, as the
Bay of Bengal frequently sees the development of cyclonic depressions (Islam and
Gnauck 2008) making livelihood fragile and uncertain.

2.4 Characteristic Features

2.4.1 Coastal Geo-hydrology

The entire Sundarbans area, comprising of many islands, is deltaic active and
hydrologically dynamic. The coastal morphology is further characterized by differ-
ent features like, vast networks of rivers and channels, heavy water discharge
carrying sediment, strong tidal waves, cyclone and surges. The three divisions in
Bangladesh are (i) Eastern region, (ii) Central region, and (iii) Western region, and in
Indian part it is named as the south-eastern region. The central region runs east from
the Tetulia River to the big Feni River estuary, including the mouth of the combined
flows of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) Rivers (Akter et al. 2010; Islam
et al. 2017). This is the reason that this region is characterized by heavy sediment
input, formation of new chars (sedimented raised bed), and river bank erosion, and
accretion. The western region covers the coastline westward from the Tetulia River
to the international boundary located at the Harinbhanga River (Fig. 2.1). This
region is mostly covered with dense mangrove forests having a reduced river bank
erosion. The rivers of the region are mostly stable; land accretion does not occur
massively (Jalal 1988). Figure 2.2 shows the Sundarbans mangrove wetlands and the
river system in the mangrove forest areas in both countries. The southeastern part of
the Sundarbans in West Bengal (India) starts from Harinbhanga river in the east to
Hoogly River in the west. In between, the Gosaba, Matla and Suparnakhali river
systems are playing a potential role to protect the coastal landscape and balance the
Sundarbans coastal deltaic ecosystem (Fig. 2.2). The central region in Bangladesh
has deltaic characteristics. The GBM rivers discharge at the rate of about 1.5 million
m3 s1 during the peak period (Hasan and Mulamoottil 1994). The fluvial and tidal
landscapes and related features are created by four mighty rivers (Ganges – Brah-
maputra – Meghna and Hoogly river) in the Ganges coastal deltaic wetlands regions
between Bangladesh and India (Islam 2003; Islam and Gnauck 2007a, b). All the
 36
S. N. Islam

Fig. 2.2 The Sundarbans coastal mangrove delta and river system. (Source: The figure prepared by author through ArcGIS 10.2 in 2013)
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 37

rivers have its origin in the Himalayas and carries an estimated annual sediment load
of 2.4 billion tons (Elahi et al. 1998) and having a profound effect on the floodplains.
Silt deposition in the forest poses a threat to the river flow but supports vigorous
growth of mangrove vegetation. The silt deposition causes a rise of the forest floor
but due to irregular flow of tidal water, mangrove regeneration does not take place
properly. Area is densely populated and plays important economical role – wood
production and agricultural cultivation with allied activities.

2.4.2 Groundwater Hydrology and Tidal Features

Ground water issue is a potential factor in hydrology studies where water is a

valuable natural resource to man and other living beings (Rahman and Ahsan
2001). Under natural conditions, freshwater flow toward the sea limits the landward
encroachment of seawater. The surface water disturbs the dynamic balance between
freshwater and seawater, which, in turn, allows seawater to intrude into the usable
parts of aquifers (Rahman 1988; Hossain 2001; Iftekhar 2006). Ground and surface
water quality is dominated by both natural and anthropogenic influences, where the
former is governed by the local climate, geology, etc., and the latter by the construc-
tion of dams and embankments, irrigation practices, indiscriminate disposal of
industrial effluents, etc. (Rahman and Ahsan 2001).
The amount of the Ganges water flow into Bangladesh is remarkably affected by
the amount of water drawn at the Farrakka Barrage in India since 1975. The Ganges
flow in 1962 was 3700 m3 s1, whereas it was 364 m3 s1 in 2006 and 370 m3 s1 in
2010 (Goodbred and Kuehl 2000; Islam and Gnauck 2009a). The Ganges water
flows is also related to the condition of groundwater hydrology. The river water
flows and rainwater on the surface dominate and balance the groundwater condition
in the Sundarbans region, and the reduction in flow rate has resulted in increase in
high rate of saline seawater intrusion in the upstream areas. Such diversion of
upstream waters resulted in falling groundwater tables and greater salinity in down-
stream for Bangladesh especially in the Sundarbans region. Some portion, almost
16% of the flows of the Gorai River, meets the Haringhata-Baleswar estuary system
at Madhumati river and the other 85% flows to join the Passur Basin at Nabaganga
River. The last part of the Gorai River joins the sea as Baleswar River (Islam and
Gnauck 2008, 2009a, b; Islam et al. 2017).
Water salinity intrusion of the whole Sundarbans region is dependent on hydro-
logical condition and its changing behaviour. Water level inside the Sundarbans is
highly fresh and dependent on the upstream river inflows and on the tidal oscillation
at the coast (Siddiqi 2001). Tides in the Bay of Bengal are semi-diurnal exhibiting
two high water and two low water levels per day. The variations in water level and
tidal amplitude experienced at the coast are also propagated inland during each tidal
cycle. It has been observed that the tidal range in the northern fringe of the
Sundarbans mangrove forest is higher than that in the southern bay. The lowest
record of tidal range was 2.74 m and the highest in the east is higher than that in the
38 S. N. Islam

southern Bay, while the highest range was 5.12 m (Islam and Gnauck 2009a, b;
Islam et al. 2017).
The maximum inundation period during the spring tide is around 3–4 h, the
average velocity of micro-current varies from 10 to 20 cm s1. Both siltation and
erosion occur at the end of monsoon. The maximum net siltation and erosion at the
end of monsoon were found to be around 50 and 19 mm, respectively (Islam et al.
2017). The hydrological changes in the Sundarbans region will pose a new threat for
the mangrove ecosystem, its goods and services. There is close correlation with
hydrological cycle and the mangrove ecosystem in any region of the mangrove world.

2.4.3 River Hydrology

The Bengal delta is the world’s largest delta comprising of 100,000 km2 of riverine
flood plain and deltaic plain (Goodbred and Nicholls 2004). The high tide energy
results in tide dominated deltas, like the Meghna estuary, where distributaries with
linear river mouth bars are present (Miah 1989). Sediment deposition occurs only by
river flushing in the river-dominated delta, while in tide-dominated deltas, sediments
are reworked and redeposited (Goodbred and Nicholls 2004). Every year about
1  1012 m3 of freshwater is brought into the Meghna estuary by the three major
rivers the Ganges, the Jamuna and the upper Meghna (Nishat 2006). These rivers are
major source of water supply to the wetlands and make the balance of wetlands
ecosystems. The largest rivers in Asia are created from the Himalayas and Tibetan
pleatue (Jalal 1988). As a whole, the Bramaputra (Jamuna) river carries water
flowing at the rate of 60,000–100,000 m3 s1 and about 600 million tons of sediment
particles, major part of which are sand and clay in each year (Jalal 1988; FAP
24 1996; Islam and Gnauck 2008, 2009a, b; Islam et al. 2017). The reduction of the
Ganges freshwater in the upstream area is the root cause of salinity intrusion in the
south-western region which is affecting the Sundarbans coastal mangrove and saline
wetlands in both countries in Sundarbans (Nishat 2006).

2.5 Threats to the Ecosystem

2.5.1 Soils: Delineation of Problems and Risk Factors

The reduction of Ganges fresh water in the upstream area is the main reason of
salinity intrusion in the south-western part of Bangladesh and some part of south-
eastern West Bengal (India). Therefore, the result of increased salinity has damaged
vegetation, agricultural cropping systems, and changing the cultural landscapes in
the Sundarbans region. The impact of soil starts with the destruction of surface
organic matter and of soil fertility for mangrove plants production (Islam and
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 39

Gnauck 2007a, 2009a). The changes alter basic soil characteristics related to aera-
tions, temperature, moisture and the organisms that live in the soil. Figure 2.3
demonstrates the soil and water salinity intrusion pattern in the Sundarbans and
surrounding areas where soil delineation impacts are very high in agricultural
cropping system and drinking water supply and management (Islam and Gnauck
2009a, b).
The core elements of ecosystem such as soil, water, vegetation and wildlife are
strongly affected due to fresh water shortage and human influences. Water scarcity
of the Ganges flow is challenge for coastal food security and mangrove wetland
ecosystem protection, and for further improvement of coastal saline environment.
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 are displaying the real scenarios of the Sundarbans mangrove
deltaic sensitive ecosystem.
There are many reasons for the mangrove degradation in the Sundarbans Deltaic
region. More sensitive and critical issues are human uses of mangroves, fishery
development, hyper-salinity, salt pans, salt ponds, and sediment deposition, like sea
sand from low lying sand dunes, sea beaches and sand bars, which are transported or
drifted into the forest areas by over-wash fan sediment deposition particularly by
storms and tidal waves (Wolanski et al. 2009).

2.5.2 Threats to Biodiversity

The delta front sand bodies with different shapes and sizes are unable to hold the surge
waters of advancing storm waves that can transport the bulk of sediment from seaward
face to inner of the delta plains (Farley et al. 2010). The sediment lobes submerge the
forests, wetlands surface, and tidal creeks at a steady rate with increased frequency of
storm events in the deltaic coast at present (Wolanski et al. 2009). Mangroves occur in
the waterlogged, salty soils of sheltered tropical, and subtropical shores. They are
subject to the twice-daily ebb and flow of tides, fortnightly spring, and neap tides, with
seasonal weather fluctuations. They stretch from the intertidal zone up to the high-tide
mark (GOB 2001; PDO-ICZMP 2005). These forests are comprised of 12 genera
comprising of about 60 species of salt tolerant trees. With their distinctive nest of stilt
and prop-like roots, mangroves can thrive in areas of soft, waterlogged, and oxygen-
poor soil by using aerial and even horizontal roots to gain a foothold (Islam et al.
2017). The roots also absorb oxygen from the air, while the tree leaves can excrete
excess salt. Most species typically have relatively widespread distributions, low
diversity floras, but overall alpha diversity is very high when terrestrial and aquatic
species are considered, very low beta diversity, and low eco-region endemism, while
some highly localized species exist with strong zonation along the gradients; showing
thereby several distinct mangrove habitat formations. Alterations of hydrography and
substrate have considerable impact, although restoration potential is high; mangroves
are susceptible to pollution due to particularly oil and other petroleum compounds; and
alteration of salinity levels can have dramatic impacts on mangroves. In Sundarbans a
 40

Fig. 2.3 Salinity measured in Sundarbans mangrove and the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna deltaic coastal region in 2015. (Source: Salinity intrusion model
was developed by author through ArcGIS 10.2 in 2013)
S. N. Islam
 2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks

Fig. 2.4 Lower Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna-River delta: area which exceeded threatened limit of 31.25 dS m1. (Source: Salinity intrusion model prepared
by author through ArcGIS10.2 in 2013)
41
42 S. N. Islam

large number of mangrove seeds is regularly drifted into the unfavourable sandy
substrate after the events of storms, tidal waves, south-west monsoon brace, and HAT
(Highest Astronomical Tides) phase currents along the shores of the Bay of Bengal,
which is creating another type of threat for mangrove biodiversity (Islam 2016; Islam
et al. 2017). The habitats, biotops and ecosystem also serve as habitat for especially
four dominant tree species of the Sundarbans. But the existence of these and many
more native species is endangered (Islam et al. 2019). So the native species are
approximately decreasing significantly by the year 2100 due to sea level rise
(88 cm) in the Sundarbans area compared to the year 2001. Species Biswas found
23 invasive which belong to 18 families and 23 genera. These species are highly
invasive, six species are moderately invasive and the remaining are potentialy inva-
sive (Biswas et al. 2007; Islam et al. 2019).

2.5.3 Global Warming and Future Projection

Climate change and sea level rise, induced by global warming, also influence the
ecological stability of the coastal zone; and the situation becomes serious when the
climate change phenomenon is compounded with various natural and anthropogenic
factors, and, as a result, the natural resource base of the zone is on a declining trend.
This affects the productivity of agricultural and allied fields including fishery.
Failing ecosystem productivity further degrades the coastal deltaic ecology, and
quality of life of the local communities (Dasgupta 2001). As a result of global
warming, relative Sea-Level Rise (SLR) movement has an immediate and direct
effect on the coastal inter-tidal ecosystems, particularly on vegetation. A rise of
relative SLR decreases the influences of terrestrial processes and increases the
influence of coastal marine processes (Islam 2001). The world’s great deltas are
the most densely populated, and most vulnerable of coastal areas are threatened by
sea level rise (Broadus 1993). Global warming, sea level rise, and vulnerability of
coastal wetland ecosystems are factors that have to be considered to draw long-term
management strategy for dealing with the coastal mangrove wetland issue (Fedra
and Feoli 1999). The impacts of climate change in any given region depend on the
specific climatic changes that occur in that region. Local changes can differ sub-
stantially from the globally averaged climate change (Harvey 2000). In Bangladesh
it has been projected by IPCC (2007) that 3 mm per year sea level rise may occur
before 2030 and might cause 2500 km2 land (2%) to be inundated. About 20% of the
net cultivable area of Bangladesh is located in the coastal and offshore island
(Fig. 2.5), which is under threat due to the above-mentioned causes.
A very recent study on the Ganges deltaic coastal area in Bangladesh by IPCC
report shows that the mean tidal level at Hiron Point is showing an increase of
4.0 mm per year which is higher than the global rate. Soils in this area are affected by
different degrees of salinity (Rahman 1988; IPCC 2007). About 203,000 hectare
very slightly, 492,000 hectare slightly, 461,000 hectare moderately, and 490,200
hectare strongly salt affected soils are assessed in south-western part of the coastal
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 43

area (Fig. 2.5). The climate change impact issue is a new threat for the coastal area of
Bangladesh. In Sundarbans, sea level rise would further result in saline water
moving into the delta which would be the major threat for mangrove and coastal
wetland ecosystems (IECO 1980). It was projected in respect of different SLR that
for 10 cm rise 15% of the land in Sundarbans will be inundated and will affect 17%
of the population rendering them homeless. A detailed account of climate change
and probability of inundation of land has been projected in a separate chapter by
Danda and Rahman in this book.
The Fig. 2.5 shows that 3 m SLR would cause much worse scenario for
Bangladesh when almost one-third of land could be inundated by saline water.
The reduction rate of mangrove areas will be from 50% to 75% and would be
more harmful for coastal ecosystems in the estuaries (IPCC 2007). Besides, other
environmental problems will arise in the coastal belt such as, water pollution and
scarcity, soil degradation, deforestation, solid and hazardous wastes, loss of
bio-diversity, estuary landscape damage, and river bank erosion, all of which will
create a lot of new challenging problems for human livelihood in the coastal region.

2.6 E-flow of the Catchment River Network Including its

Water Quality

The flows of the world rivers are increasingly being modified through impound-
ments in dams and weirs, besides abstractions for agriculture and urban water
supply, drainage return flows, maintenance of flows for navigation, and structures
for flood control (MEA 2003). These interventions have caused significant alteration
of flow regimes mainly by reducing the total flow and affecting the variability and
seasonality of flows. It has been estimated that more than 60% of the world rivers are
fragmented by hydrological alterations. This has led to widespread degradation of
aquatic ecosystems by MEA or Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003). Avail-
able literatures have been reviewed for searching out available techniques for
assessing e-flow requirements. In the previous studies, the key information and
recommendations of different techniques under different environmental values
were described with their limitations, advantages and cost effectiveness. These
have been applied for e-flow assessment (EFA) in different river systems in
Bangladesh. This study assists to propose a best practice framework for the appli-
cation of techniques to EFA (Akter et al. 2010).
Akter (2010) stated based on the reports of Tharme (2000, 2003) that “there is no
specific guideline for assessing e-flow. However, several methods, approaches and
frameworks are being applied in different countries including Australia,
South Africa (SA), United Kingdom (UK) and United States of America (USA)
depending on their river function. Mainly it depends on stakeholders’ decision on the
desired character and health condition of a certain ecosystem”. In the most recent
review of international e-flows assessments, Akter (2010) recorded 207 different
EFA methodologies applied over 44 countries (Tharme 2000, 2003). Several
44 S. N. Islam

Fig. 2.5 Climate change impacts in the coastal region of Bengal Delta and Sundarbans region.
(Source: Akter et al. 2010, open access)
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 45

categorizations of these methodologies exist. Many EFA methods have been applied
in Australia and modified according to circumstances. Reviews can be found in 2009
(Tharme 2000, 2003; Akter 2010). Above researchers have set out these methods
under the headings of geomorphology and channel morphology, wetland and ripar-
ian vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, freshwater and estuarine fish, water dependent
wildlife, and water quality (Tharme 2000, 2003; Akter 2010).

2.6.1 Methodologies of Measurement of E-flow in Various

Countries

Developments in EFAs in South Africa have advanced dramatically during the past
decade (Akter 2010). Akter (2010) presented an overview of the historical and local
evolution of e-flow methodologies. Methodologies are considered the most appro-
priate for South African conditions, where there are some constraints. Those con-
straints are historical, hydrological, ecological with 11 geomorphological data on the
river systems of concern; limited finances; extreme time pressures with future water-
resource development projects; and limited manpower and expertise. Akter (2010)
stated, based on Tharme (1997), that a multi-scale approach to EFAs for
South Africa, comprising of a three-tier hierarchy of methodologies with profes-
sional judgment, is exercised at all levels. Akter (2010) recommends further
advancement of the Building Block Method (BBM) for its most effective use at
this level, for instance, by incorporating ecologically relevant hydrological indices
into the hydrological component and by biotope-level modeling. It is noteworthy
that Downstream Response to Imposed Flow Transformations, DRIFT, developed
subsequently, incorporates early elements of both these features (Tharme 2000,
2003). With rivers of high conservation priority, it would be appropriate to apply
elements of a suitable, internationally recognized habitat simulation methodology
within or in conjunction with a holistic methodology, like the BBM or DRIFT,
where the flow requirements of key, ecologically important or rare species need to be
addressed (Tharme 2000, 2003; Akter 2010). This would represent the final, most
resource-intensive level of the proposed hierarchy. Considerable effort would need
to be expended, however, in order to select the most appropriate techniques from the
wide range available, and to train and guide researchers in the development and
application of these techniques in a local context (Tharme 2000, 2003; Akter 2010).
Before Farakka Barrage construction (1934–1975), the mean of yearly maximum,
minimum and mean flow were calculated as 73,000 m3 s1, 1190 m3 s1 and
11,692 m3 s1, respectively; whereas, after Farakka Barrage construction
(1976–2005), those values were calculated as 77,438 m3 s1, 261 m3 s1 and
11,195 m3 s1, respectively (Chowdhury and Haque 1990). The detail impact analyses
are discussed and given in Table 2.1.
The relative elevation of the coastal south-west region of Bangladesh and south-
east region of West Bengal of India have been widely reported by different studies to
assess the required E-flow in the regions and the same was validated through direct
46 S. N. Islam

Table 2.1 Percentage of mean annual flow (MAF) in Ganges River (Akter 2010, p. 89, open access)
Percentage of MAF m3/s Pre-Farakka (1934–1975) Post-Farakka (1976–2005)
200% (flushing flow) 23,029 22,715
60–100% (optimum range) 6909–11,514 6815
60% (outstanding) 6909 6815
50% (excellent) 5757 5679
40% (good) 4606 4543
30% (fair and degrading) 3454 3407
10% (poor) 1151 1136

measurements (Akter 2010). On 25 May 2009, Cyclone Aila struck West Bengal in
India and south-west region of Bangladesh as a relatively weak category 1 storm,
causing embankment failures, tidal flooding and the displacement of over 100,000
inhabitants of the coastal regions, like Koyra, Shyamnagar and Dacope in Khulna
region (Akter 2010). A detailed account of the nature and extent of damage has been
presented by Paul and Chatterjee in a separate chapter in this book. At the Polder 32 in
Dacope in Khulna, Aila cyclone caused five major breaches of the embankments that
protected the island’s western margin despite a storm-surge height just 0.5 above the
spring high-tide level (Akter 2010). The exact mechanism of failure at these locations
remained unknown, while the other four of the five failures occurred at the mouths of
former tidal channels blocked by the embankments. All breach sites had experienced
~50–200 m of river bank erosion in the decade before the storm. In contrast, the
adjacent Sundarbans, 100 cm higher, was inundated only during spring high tides
(37% of all tides) to a mean depth of just 20 cm for 1.7 h day1 (Akter 2010). The
high rates of sedimentation following embankment breaches exemplify the efficiency
with which the Ganges–Brahmaputra fluvio-tidal system can disperse sediment to areas
of accommodation, particularly where land has been starved of sediment for extended
periods of time (Islam 2007a). To understand the origin of elevation offset between the
polder landscape and Sundarbans, it may be necessary to establish an account to work
out for differences among local, relative water levels, and the natural and human-altered
landscapes (Turner et al. 2001; Tress et al. 2005).

2.7 Government Policies to Upswing the E-flow

and Projected Impacts on Soil Properties, Crops
Growth, Fisheries, Forestry and Biodiversity

The salinity trends are higher in the Sathkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, Borguna,
Jhalokhati, Potuakhali, Bhola and southern part of Noakhali districts in
Bangladesh. The trends are higher in the south-western region of Bangladesh and
comparatively less saline intrusion occurred in the eastern region of the coastal
region. These trends are also affecting the whole coastal urban ecosystems (Islam
2001, 2006; Akter et al. 2010). The available drinking water and its quality are not
enough to meet the demand of the urban citizens. The surface and groundwater in the
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 47

coastal region is affected by high saline water intrusion. This is deteriorating the
quality of drinking water (Adel 2001). Due to the penetration of saline water the soil
is also becoming highly saline and soil fertility is getting low. Therefore, the urban
flora and fauna are also facing trouble to receive quality water for vegetation growth
and survival of fauna in the urban areas (Chowdhury and Haque 1990).

2.7.1 Water and Soil Salinity in the Wetlands

The wetland areas in the coastal region of Bangladesh are affected due to high rate of
water and soil salinity intrusion. In general, the annual pattern of salinity changes in
the Sundarbans region is also related with the changes of freshwater flow from
upstream rivers. The adverse effects of increased salinity on the ecosystem of the
Sundarbans mangrove wetlands are manifested in the drying of tops of Sundari
(Heritiera fomes) trees, retrogression of forest types, slow forest growth, and
reduced productivity of forest sites (DoF 2003). The peak soil salinity level was
found to be about 40.63 dS m1 in 2001 and 2002, and minimum soil salinity was
found to be about 7.81 dS m1 during the post-monsoon period of the same years,
when huge fresh water supply was available, which mean that fresh water flush out
high amount of salts in soil (IWM 2003). The salinity levels crossed the salinity
threshold value for the mangrove wetlands ecosystems in the coastal region. Some
mangrove species have dried and displaced due to high salinity penetration and
intrusion into the coastal area in Bangladesh.
The soil salinity in the southern part of the Sundarbans mangrove forest remains
less than 7.81 dSm1 during monsoon and starts to increase at a steady rate to
23.44 dS m1 during the dry season (IWM 2003). Salinity in the western part in not
reduced to low salinity range even during monsoon period; salinity increases at a
steady rate during the dry periods. Almost 265 km2 area under Heritiera fomes type
of forest is affected moderately and 210 km2 area was severely affected, which is one
of the main threats for a sustainable mangrove forest management and its ecosystems
(Islam and Gnauck 2008, 2009a, b).
The highest soil salinity levels measured were ECs 41.2 dS m1 at Nilkamal, ECs
40 dS m1 at Mirgang, and ECs 24 dS m1 at Munchiganj point in the north-western
Sundarbans mangrove coastal wetlands region. The increasing salinity levels are
major threats for both biotic and abiotic factors of mangrove wetland ecosystems in
the region (Islam and Gnauck 2009b).
The severity of salinity problem in the coastal wetlands increases with the
desiccation of the soil (Fig. 2.6).
The coastal region covers an area about 29,000 km2 or about 20% of Bangladesh.
The coastal areas of the country cover more than 30% of the cultivable lands of the
country (Jabbar 1979). About 53% of the coastal areas are affected by salinity.
Salinity causes unfavorable environment and hydrological situation that restrict the
normal crop production throughout the year (Iftekhar 2006). Soil salinity, besides on
the soil surface, is a major concern for surface water in many coastal urban towns
 48

Fig. 2.6 Salinity intrusion pattern in the Sundarbans mangrove deltaic region of Bengal coast. (Source: Salinity model figure was prepared by author through
ArcGIS 10.2 in 2013)
S. N. Islam
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 49

(Mohiuddin 2005). Based on a study of ESCAP (Economic and Social Council for
Asia and the Pacific) GOB (Government of Bangladesh) has referred six sets of
constraints for the development of a strategy for the coastal resource management in
Bangladesh (ESCAP 1988).
Policy making includes planning for coastal resources, integrated resource man-
agement, coastal wetlands and marine resources sustainability, local environmental
ecological perspective, and knowledge on coastal environment and its understanding
(Jalal 1988; Akter et al. 2010). The National Water Policy, 1999 (GOB 1999, 2001)
of Bangladesh also gives due importance on research and development of knowl-
edge and capacity building for sustainable management. In article 3 of the NWPo,
the objective was to develop a state of knowledge and capability that will enable the
country to design water resources management plans by itself with economic
efficiency, gender equity, social justice and environmental awareness (GOB 1999).
In the article 4.15, (GOB 1999) the following specific objectives were not ensured,
such as:
• Develop appropriate technologies
• Arrange awareness training and capacity building
• Develop and promote water management, and
• Educate skilled professionals for water resource management
The National Water Policy of Bangladesh provides a guideline framework for the
nation. The quality of coastal water resources is dependent on the supply of upstream
fresh water supply and its availability in the coastal region (Miah 1989). Sea level
rise and tidal inundation factors are also potential issues, therefore some coastal
issues such as coastal urban drinking water issue should be incorporated in the
NWPo in Bangladesh (Akter et al. 2010).

2.7.2 Degradation of Mangrove Ecosystem and Biodiversity

The salinity investigation results show that the south-west Bengal coastal regions
and, within this area, the Sundarbans Natural World Heritage site, is carrying the
highest rate of water salinity rise, which is unbalancing the coastal ecosystem and
general ecology (Jagtap 1985). According to salinity approximation, this high rate of
rise is harmful to rural and urban biodiversity as well as to the urban drinking water
(Brown 1997; Islam et al. 2017). The Fig. 2.3 demonstrates the water salinity
intrusion trends in the south and south-west region of the Ganges deltaic region,
which includes the entire Sundarbans mangroves.
Four major cities and 136 small towns are located in the coastal region, and a
major portion of the inhabitants are dependent on mangrove resources in the coastal
region. Most of the towns are affected through salinity intrusion and sea level rise
impacts in the region as Sundarbans mangroves are also affected due to high salinity
intrusion. Therefore, the investigation results of salinity modelling in the South and
South-west coastal deltaic regions, including the coastal rural and urban ecosystem
50 S. N. Islam

goods and services, are under threat and the biodiversity is getting reduced (Costanza
1997; Deb 1997).
Especially, the coastal mangrove and agro-biodiversity loss is a common scenario
in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Rivers deltaic region between Bangladesh and
India (Anwar 1988). The Fig. 2.2 demonstrates the scenarios of the coastal man-
grove forest and wetland region in the Sundarbans and its Sundarbans Natural World
Heritage Site in Bangladesh. The quality of mangrove forest as well as wetland water
and soil are rapidly degrading due to high saline water intrusion and anthropogenic
influences (Anwar 1988; Miah 2001; MOWR 2005).
The study also found that the mangrove reduction rate is about 45% in both
countries (Bangladesh – India). Deforestation is rising, and land cover is changing
due to shrimp farming, salt farming, agricultural land extension, and urbanization
extension and settlement development. These development processes adversely
affect coastal fish production and lead to a loss of agro-biodiversity and coastal
floodplain biodiversity, and of livelihood, which mean to negatively influence 3.5
million people, who are dependent on natural resources in the coastal region in
Bangladesh (Anon 1995; Primavera 1997; Wolanski et al. 2009). Almost the entire
mangrove forest needs freshwater supply from the upstream. In the Sundarbans
Ganges deltaic coastal region, the two potential rivers, such as the Passur-Mongla
and Chunar-Munchigannj cause high rate of salinity intrusion. The Fig. 2.3 shows
the high salinity intrusion trends in the coastal mangrove forest and wetland region.
The salinity model also demonstrates that the salinity trends are much higher in the
south-western region of the Sundarbans mangrove wetlands regions (Anwar 1988).
The salinity was 30.37 dS m1 in 2003, whereas in 2010 the salinity was 38.32 dS m1
in the Passur-Mongla river point (Joseph 2006).
The salinity penetration in the upstream areas of the coastal zone is one of the
main obstacles to maintenance of water quality for drinking, irrigation and fisheries
purposes (Grigg 1996; Islam and Gnauck 2009b) as well as for the mangrove
ecosystem and biodiversity, in general. Already the coastal mangrove and wetland
ecosystems have been recognized as a driving force for biodiversity conservation
and coastal urban socio-economic improvement (Nishat 2003; Ahmed and Falk
2008; Islam et al. 2017).
Also, in the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers deltaic floodplain alone approximately
2.1 million ha of wetlands have been lost due to flood control, drainage, and
irrigation development (Khan et al. 1994; Goodbred and Nicholls 2004). Therefore,
coastal urban wetlands biodiversity is facing serious challenges from salinity intru-
sion, environmental changes and anthropogenic impacts (Sarker 1993; Sarker et al.
2003; Nair 2004; Ahmed and Falk 2008; Goodbred and Nicholls 2004).
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 51

2.7.3 Degraded Mangrove Ecosystem and Threatened

Community Livelihoods

The benefits of mangrove forests serve as diverse habitat for many species, including
fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks, crustaceans and many other invertebrates
(McGarigal and McComb 1999). Mangroves produce little leaf and detritus matter;
and the leaves of the mangrove trees are valuable sources of food for animals in
coastal waters (Helmer and Hespanhol 1997).
Mangrove is a rich source responsible to create fish diversity and satisfy the local
demand. Fishing is a very important issue and activity in the Sundarbans (DoF
2003). The fish production has been reduced since the land use and landscape have
been changed, which is not suitable for fish cultivation (Freemark et al. 1996; Daily
1997). At present the area is providing only shrimp and some marine fish species in
the offshore area. Up to 80% of global fish catches are directly or indirectly
dependent on mangrove wetlands (Fujimoto 2000). The Sundarbans mangrove
forest produced an average of 600 tons of nutrients per hectare to provide a great
source of natural food in the coastal offshore area (FAP 1996). It is a good service
and poles for fish traps. Fish, crustaceans and mollusks can be harvested from
mangroves. Aquaculture and commercial fishing also depend on mangroves for
juvenile and mature fish species.
Clearance of mangroves in the south-east causes a loss of coastal habitat, aquatic
resources, increased erosion, and vulnerability to natural disasters (Nishat 1988).
The coastal communities are coping with the threats under reduced resources. The
livelihood assets, such as physical asset, financial asset, human asset, natural asset,
economic asset, social asset, and cultural and heritage assets were interconnected for
maintenance of local coastal community livelihoods (Hossain and Lin 2002; MEA
2003). In general, mangrove vegetation acts as a barrier against damage due to
natural disaster. Coastal water resources have been supporting the livelihoods of the
poorer sections of society. In one instance, the Gorai River which was used to play a
potential role, by enormous opportunities for varies fisheries, aquatic resources, river
navigation, and mangrove forest goods and services (Miah 1989; EGIS 1997, 2000),
is now fully dead because of anthropogenic activities (Hidayati 2000; Miah et al.
2010). The salinity problem in soil, aggravated by the brackish water shrimp farming
introduced, increases beyond tolerable limits for agricultural crops and other vege-
tation (Adeel and Pomeray 2002; FAO 2007; Miah et al. 2010), thus affecting the
livelihood. The river water salinity shows that the upper limit (30–45 dS m1 during
the peak period) is beyond the tolerable limits for crops and vegetation (Hossain and
Lin 2002; Miah and Bari 2002; Miah et al. 2010).
The most alarming threat to the Sundarbans is destruction of fauna and flora,
because 50,000 fisherman and local coastal communities are directly dependent on
the mangrove coastal natural resources. Encroachment into the mangrove forest
created multifarious impacts on both resources and livelihoods of the local inhabi-
tants. Diverse livelihood activities of the local inhabitants in its vicinity were nearly
52 S. N. Islam

lost. Attempt is made on building of the remaining reserved forest resources (Miah
et al. 2010).
There are not enough initiatives or policies to protect mangrove ecosystems in the
south-east coast of Bangladesh. The unplanned policy has created crucial problems
on coastal ecosystems and threat for community livelihoods (Peine 1998; Richards
and Flint 1991). Especially the coastal indigenous people, who were totally depen-
dent on mangrove resources, are facing critical problem for their livelihoods from
natural hazards and cyclones. In Mexico, Nicaragua, Ecuador and Panama the
indigenous people in the coastal regions are asking for the protection of mangroves.
The demand of mangrove protection is getting popular in India, Sri Lanka, and other
parts in Asia Pacific zone too (UNEP 1995). There is an example that the Govern-
ment of India and Ecuador has banned the further cutting of mangroves for shrimp
farms, but in Ecuador, 127.5 km2of mangroves were still illegally cut even after the
ban. This type of illegal activities is continuing in many countries, even in
Bangladesh. Therefore, a common universal policy and guideline framework is
necessary to protect the mangrove forests which will secure the livelihoods of the
coastal community (Gopal and Chauhan 2006; Wolanski et al. 2009). Since 1996
afforestation programme is supported by the World Bank and Government of
Bangladesh. Several projects: Forest Resources Management Project (FRMP),
Sundarbans Biodiversity Conservation Project (SBCP), etc. are in progress. The
floral richness is one of the highest in the world mangroves and consists of no less
than 123 woody plant species (Dutta and Iftekhar 2004; Gopal and Chauhan 2006).
However, in spite of many programmes currently in progress to protect the man-
grove ecosystem and the rich biodiversity in Sundarbans across both countries it
does not appear to be adequate either to conserve the ecosystem, at the same time,
maintain the livelihood of the coastal community.

2.8 Conclusions

Factors damaging the ecology including the rich biodiversity of Sundarbans across
both countries, as well as, limitations in the various approaches currently underway
for arresting the damage and maintain the livelihood of the coastal community have
been discussed. It is amply clear that the issues and problems being trans-boundary
in nature are complimentary to each other. What’s more, the climate change phe-
nomenon, which is one of the hardest issues to be solved, making the sub-continent
increasingly disaster-prone, and complicated over time, is looming large over the
entire eco-region. Therefore, what probably is lacking is a holistic and integrated
approach covering both countries, wherever possible and necessary, since no
2 Sundarbans a Dynamic Ecosystem: An Overview of Opportunities, Threats and Tasks 53

individual effort will result in a lasting solution. Following are the immediate
suggestions of general nature.
• Mangrove wetland ecosystems have historically been considered as wastelands
unworthy of consideration for conservation. As a result, wetlands have frequently
been altered or lost because of their ecological functions and values to society not
having been understood. Therefore, it should be introduced to the people as a
common property in view of its importance and community rights (Rahman and
Haque 2003; Rahman 1995; Islam 2007b).
• Based on the present degraded environmental condition, the coastal zoning
approach should be included and that could improve land use planning, minimize
conflicts over land tenure, and identify appropriate areas for shrimp cultivation,
without destruction of mangrove wetlands and the ecology, and those areas need
to be protected. There is also need to improve information system to manage and
plan for future growth.
• Improvement of the existing mangrove wetland resource related policies, strate-
gies and common conflicts in the areas, where rural communities are dependent
on the mangrove ecosystems services, should be understood.
• Capacity building of environmental awareness and development of institutional
organizations at international level with legislation rights to regulate all activities
should be planned.
• Ensure with short- and long-term strategies planned at the trans-boundary scale
for the Sundarbans wetlands eco-region to meet food security for improved
livelihood of the coastal community for both countries, and without damage to
the ecological balance, in the Ganges-Brahmaputra deltaic landscapes in
Bangladesh and West Bengal of India.
• Both countries should show strong political commitments and wills for better
management and conservation of the mangrove forest wetlands. An integrated
wetland ecosystem management plan and policy guidelines should be developed,
based on the findings of several studies, and plan for future studies, if necessary,
to address more areas of genuine importance.

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