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Unit - 1
Nouns
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Nouns
1.3 Noun and Noun Phrase
1.4 Kinds of Nouns
1.4.1 Proper nouns
1.4.2 Common nouns
1.4.3 Collective nouns
1.4.4 Material nouns
1.4.5 Abstract nouns
1.5 Nouns: Countability
1.5.1 Coun table nouns
1.5.2 Uncountable nouns
1.6 Nouns: Gender
1.6.1 Masculine and Feminine forms
1.6.2 Common/dual gender
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Unit End Questions2

1.0 Objectives
This unit will give you a fairly good idea about the most common of the parts of
speech – Nouns. In Hindi you call them संा
1.1 Introduction
Nouns are naming words. Every language has its own set of nouns and the list is
open ended i.e. newer nouns one added to the older ones with the changing times.
1.2 Definition of Nouns
A Nouns is the name of a person place or thing. A thing includes a quality (fear)
a
material (gold), a collection (herd, army), a state (adherence) and an action
(cheat,
mock, movement)
1.3 Noun and Noun Phrase
A noun is often called a' noun phrase. A noun phrase can be a single-word noun:
Teachers love their pupils. (noun phrase: teacher)
But a noun phrase is usually longer than a single word because it consists of an
adjective or a determiner plus a noun.
A good teacher loves his pupils. (noun phrase: a good teacher)
1.4 Kinds of Nouns
Nouns can be classified into five kinds:
1. Proper nouns
2. Common nouns
3. Collective nouns
4. Material nouns
5. Abstract nouns3

1.4.1 Proper nouns

A proper noun is the name of a particular person or thing, i.e. a name used for an
individual person or place, river, or mountain etc.:
Mary, Rahul, Godavari, India, Everest
1.4.2 Common nouns
A common noun refers to any and every person or thing of the same kind or class,
 not to a particular person or thing:
cow, dog, girl, boy, man, woman
Common nouns Proper nouns
girl Latha
dog Rover
man Aslam
1.4.3 Collective nouns
A collective noun is the name of a collection, group of people, or things of the
same kind: class, team, government jury, federation
1.4.4 Material nouns
A material noun is the name of a material, substance, or ingredient things are
made
of. They can be articles of food or drink as well:
iron, copper, steel, gold, coal, silver, rice, wheat, milk, water, tea, sugar
Note: A material noun is a type of common noun but a distinction is made between
the two. A common noun is usually a countable noun but a material noun is an
uncountable noun.
The cow gives us milk.
Cow is a common noun (countable), but milk is a material noun (uncountable).
1.4.5 Abstract nouns
An abstract noun is the name of a quality, state, or concept:
beauty, sweetness, childhood, love4

Note: Concrete nouns are names of material things, i.e. things having a material
form, shape or size. Abstract nouns are the names of qualities found in various
kinds of objects. Since they have no material form, they cannot be seen or
touched.
We can know of them only through our mind:
Concrete nouns Abstract nouns
sugar weetness
book beauty
milk hatred
Patna fear
We can see sugar but cannot see sweetness, so sugar is a concrete noun and
sweetness an abstract noun. In short, concrete nouns refer to physical properties
and abstract nouns to mental roperties.
1.5 Nouns: Countability
Nouns are of two kinds from the viewpoint of countability:
a) Countable nouns b) Uncountable nouns
1.5.1 Cou table nouns
Nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns:
a book one book two books
an egg one egg two eggs
Generally a noun used in answer to the question how many? is a countable noun:
How many films did you watch?
I watched six films.
How many flights are there from here to Delhi?
There are only two flights.
Note: Common nouns and collective nouns are by and large countable.
1.5.2 Uncountable nouns
Nouns that cannot be counted are called uncountable nouns:5

milk, water, ink, sugar, butter

(not, a milk, one water, two sugar)
A noun used in answer to the question how much? is an uncountable noun.
When we want to refer to the quantity of these items we use values of
measurement which are countable:
How much milk do you need?
We need a litre of milk.
Note: a) Material nouns and abstract nouns are uncountable. So are proper
nouns, though they can be used as countable nouns in special
situations:
There are two Indias, the rural and the urban.
b) Certain nouns can be used both as countable and uncountable
depending on the context.
Uncountable Countable
I prefer chicken to fish. These chickens are lovely.
Petrol catches fire easily. Shall we make a fire out here?
1.6 Nouns: Gender
Gender is of four kinds:
Masculine (denotes male)
Feminine (denotes female)
Common (denotes both male and female)
Neuter (denotes neither male nor female)
Masculine Feminine Common Neuter
boy girl student gold
man woman teacher rice
brother sister doctor flower
uncle aunt child river6

bull cow diplomat table

Note: The words masculine and feminine can be used as adjectives to describe the
looks or qualities of human beings. In this sense masculine means: having the
characterstics of a man, so it can be used of a woman or girl as well.
The lady standing in the centre has masculine looks.
Similarly with feminine. Notice that in this sense masculine/feminine indicates
characteristics or attributes, not sex.
1.6.1 Masculine and feminine forms
The feminine of nouns is formed in two ways:
i) by adding ess to the masculine form
ii) by adding she/girl/woman to the masculine form
i) By adding ess to the masculine form
actor
baron
count/earl
duke
god
heir
host
hunter
Actress
Baroness
Countess
Duchess
Goddess
heiress
hostess
huntress
lion
master
murderer
priest
prince
shepherd
tiger
waiter
lioness
mistress
 murderess
priestess
princess
shepherdess
tigress
waitress
Note: a) English has only a small number of feminine forms (noun + ess).
Professional activities are often referred to in the common gender.
The feminine forms authoress, poetess, directress, inspectress are no longer in
use.
She is the director of this institute. (not, directress)
She is an inspector of police. (not, inspectress)
b) The feminine form of hero is heroine.7

ii) By adding she/girl/woman

he-goat she-goat
boy-friend girl-friend
student woman student
businessman businesswoman
policeman policewoman
sportsman sportswoman
salesman saleswoman
statesman stateswoman
But in many cases, the feminine form is not derived from the masculine form. In
the examples listed below, the feminine form is a totally new word, not related to
the masculine form phonetically.
bachelor - maid/spinster gander - goose
boar - sow gentleman - lady
boy - girl hart - roe
brother - sister horse - mare
buck - doe husband - wife
bull/ox - cow lord - lady
bullock - heifer man - woman
cock - hen nephew - neice
colt - fi lIy sir - madam
dog - bitch stag - hind
drake - duck uncle - aunt
drone - bee wizard - witch
father - mother fox - vixen
friar/monk - nun mon/dual - gender8

1.6.2 Common/dual gender

1) Nouns denoting profession
Most of the nouns denoting profession/occupation are in the common gender:
ambassador doctor minister pupil
artisan editor monarch reader
artist enemy monitor relation
artiste engineer musician scientist
author fool neighbour secretary
baby foreigner novelist servant
captain friend orphan singer
child infant person speaker
clerk judge player student
collector lawyer poet teacher
cook lecturer politician typist
cousin librarian president worker
criminal magician principal writer
dancer trlagistrate professor
1.9 Conclusion
 Now you have a basic idea about the kinds of nouns and gender.
1.10 Unit end Questions
1. Name any ten nouns around you and classify them accordingly.
2 How are feminine forms formed in English. Give examples.9

Unit – 2
Pronouns
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition
2.3 Kinds of Pronouns
2.3.1 Personal pronouns
2.3.2 Possessive pronouns
2.3.3 Reciprocal pronouns
2.3.4 Demonstrative pronouns
2.3.5 Reflexive pronouns
2.3.7. Relative pronouns
2.3.8 Interrogative pronouns
2.3.10 Indefinite pronouns
2.4 Pronouns: Number
2.5 Pronouns: Gender
2.6 Pronouns :Persons
2.7 Summary
2.8 Exercises
2.0 Objectives
In this unit we shall discuss Pronouns as used in English10

2.1 Introduction
Pronouns are what you understand as सवनाम in Hindi. They are not open ended.
The list of pronouns in every language is limited.
2.2 Definition
Pro means 'for' or 'acting as.' A pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun or a
noun
phrase. In other words, it has all the characteristics of a noun: it can function
as a
subject/object/complement in a sentence.
A pronoun is used to avoid the repetition of nouns or noun phrases:
1. Suresh went to the market because Suresh wanted to buy a pen.
i.e. Suresh went to the market because he wanted to buy a pen.
2. Walking is a form of exercise. Walking is easier than swimming.
i.e. Walking is a form of exercise. It is easier than swimming.
But a pronoun is different from a noun in that it cannot take a premodifying
adjective nor can it take a determiner or a prefix/suffix. The form of a pronoun
is
fixed.
2.3 Kinds of Pronouns
There are nine kinds of pronouns:
i) Personal Pronouns
ii) Possessive Pronouns
iv) Demonstrative Pronouns
v) Reflective Pronouns
vii) Relative Pronouns
viii) Interrogative Pronouns
ix) Indefinite Pronouns
2.3.1 Personal pronouns
I, we, you, he, she, it, they11

These seven pronouns are called personal pronouns. On the basis of their role in a
 speech act, these can be divided into three:
First Person, Second Person, Third Person
2.3.2 Possessive pronouns
my, our, your, his, her, their, its (determiners)
mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, its (predicative use)
They are used to express ownership/possession/relationship.
Determiners are followed by a noun.
This is my room.
The possessive pronoun in its predicative use cannot be followed by a noun.
We don't say:
This is mine room.
We say:
The room is mine.
Note: Its is always used as a determiner, never as a predicative.
This is a lock and that is its key. (not, ... that key is its.)
2.3.3 Reciprocal pronouns
each other, one another
These are used to express mutual/reciprocal relationship:
They love each other/one another.
Like any other pronoun, each other and one another have no intrinsic reference;
therefore they have to have an antecedent. But unlike other pronouns, these cannot
normally appear as the subject of a main clause because the antecedent should be
in the sentence itself. Typically these occur as object of a verb or a preposition
in a
sentence that has a plural subject.
1. No two artists approve of each other's works.
But we cannot say:12

2. If there are two children of the same age it is always good to put them in the
same class. Each other can help in doing the homework.
But we can say:
The children can help each other in doing the homework.
Even though there are enough contextual clues in (2) as to the antecedent of each
other the sentence is not possible.
Note: Traditional grammar makes a distinction between each other and one
another. It requires that each other be used of only two people/things and one
another of more than two. In current English both are used interchangeably, with a
slight preference for each other.
2.3.4 Demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
They are used to point to (demonstrate) people or things they stand for:
1. This is our new house.
2. That is the bridge built by the British.
Demonstrative pronouns have number contrast:
this these
that those
The basic function of demonstratives is to indicate the nearness or distance of
the
person or object referred to, from the speaker.
Some of the uses of demonstrative pronouns are shown below:
a) When pointing:
This is my brother, Ravi.
That is his new car.
b) When a specific category is implied:
Those who apply late will not be considered.
c) When there is a reference to a previous statement or a statement that
follows:13

This is what I told them.

 That is my opinion on the matter.
Note: Difference between it and this
It is a personal pronoun, whereas this is a demonstrative pronoun. As a
demonstrative pronoun this indicates nearness and also identifies a person or
thing.
The use of it does not convey these shades of meaning, so this is preferred to it
for
making a formal announcement or introduction:
This is All India Radio giving you the news. (not, it)
Mum, this is Iaya, my friend. (not, it)
In an answer, however, it is preferred to this when a contracted form is used.
What's this?
It's a new electronic device. (not, this)
But when a contracted form is not used, this is okay.
What is this? This is a new electronic device.
2.3.5 Reflexive pronouns
Form:
A reflexive pronoun is formed by attaching self/selves to the objective form of
the
pronoun:
myself, ourselves, yourself/selves, himself, herself, themselves, itself
a) A reflexive pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun in the objective case
i.e.,
as a direct object:
Govind saw Govind in the mirror.
Govind saw himselfin the mirror.
This is used to avoid an awkward construction 'Govind ... Govind' .
Gayatri laughed at Gayatri.
Gayatri laughed at herself.14

Note: .Reflexive means 'bent back', i.e. 'bending the subject back to the
subject.' A
reflexive pronoun is used when the subject and the object refer to the same person
or thing. This can be seen from the agreement between the subject and the
reflexive object:
I saw myself in the mirror.
We dressed ourselves in the kitchen.
You sent yourself a birthday card.
They wrote themselves a 'Thank you' note.
He hurt himselfwhile playing.
She taught herself the piano.
One should avail oneself of this chance.
b) It can be used as an indirect object as well:
Sujatha made herself a new dress.
Raghu gives himself airs.
2.3.7. Relative pronouns
who, whom, which, what, that
A relative pronoun relates or refers back to a noun or pronoun called its
antecedent.
It also joins clauses. So it is a pronoun as well as a conjunction. Relative
pronouns
introduce relative clauses and noun clauses:
Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
I don't know who is standing at the gate.
Which is used also as a sentence relative pronoun to introduce the relative c in a
sentence:
They eat snakes, which is unusual.
2.3.8 Interrogative pronouns
Who, whom, whose, which, what15
 The forms of relative pronouns and interrogative pronouns are identical, but their
functions are different: the former join clauses, the latter ask questions.
a) Who can come as the subject or as the object in a clause. Here who refers
only to persons, not to things:
Who discovered America? (as subject)
Who did you invite for lunch? (as object)
Who are you talking about? (as object of the preposition)
In current English, whom is rarely used as the object; who is the preferred
form.
b) Whose is the possessive form of who; it can stand for both animate and
inanimate nouns in interrogative expressions.
Do you know whose book won the award this year? (refers to author)
I borrowed a book from the library whose pages are all torn. (refers to
book)
c) Which is used for both people and things when there is an implied choice or
selection:
Which card game do you like to play?
Which teacher do you like best?
d) What as subject or object is used to refer to things only:
What is in your pocket?
What's wrong with you?
Note: a) Who is used for asking questions about a person's name, what for
seeking information about a person's profession.
Who is that gentleman talking to your father? He is Mr Reddy.
What is he? He is an artist.
b) Which presupposes a set and the person is being asked about his choice.
What, on the other hand, does not presuppose any set and there is no choice
implied.16

Which do you want? The red one.

What do you want? Some coffee.
2.3.10 Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns constitute a heterogenous set. One can go about classifying
them differently using different criteria.
A) Universal pronouns:
each, every, all
Each refers to two or more people or things, whereas every refers to three or
more.
Further, each presupposes a set (supplied by the context), every does not.
Rajeev walked into the room and gave a sweet to everyone (not, each)
Both each and every take of-constructions following them. So does all.
All can occur immediately before a noun. Therefore it is more like a determiner.
At times a definite article can intervene between all and the noun.
All the girls want to imitate Karen.
Each of you should attend the function.
Everyone of them came to see me in hospital.
B) Assertive pronouns:
There are five sub-classes in this:
a) much, many
more Milk More hats
most Mosy
b) little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest
Less goes with uncountable nouns and fewer with countable nouns.
Occasionally, less can be found with count nouns, too. Expressions
denoting periods of time, sums ,of money etc. take less.
There is less orange juice in my glass.
There are fewer public holidays this year.17
c) several, enough
Several occurs with plural countable nouns only. Enough can occur with
both countable and uncountable nouns. Enough, unlike several, can precede
or follow the head noun.
Hanif and I met and spoke to several craftspersons at the fair.
Have you packed enough food for a day?
Have you packed food enough for a day?
d) one
The use of one as a pronoun is typical of British English. In American
English his is used in place of one's.
One should love one's neighbour.
One should not think too much of oneself.
In question tags we/you is preferred to repeating one.
One cannot live all alone, can we/you? (not, one)
One/ones can substitute for a countable noun.
This mirror has cracked. I need to buy a new one.
These grapes are sour. I like sweet ones.
One can be premodified by the, that, this and which.
I have read a number of stories, but this is the one I like best.
I don't fancy this model, can I have that one?
Which one? The one in the corner?
One/ones is usually left out after these/those/either/neither/firstllastlnext.
These cars are smaller than those. (not, those ones)
The last to arrive was the bl ind man. (not, last one)
Here are two shirts. You can take either. (not. either one)
e) someone, somebody, something
Some usually goes with positive statements/questions.18

Something must be done before it is too late.

Can someone help me with accounts?
I hope somebody picks up the phone.
C) Non-assertive pronouns:
a) anyone, anybody, anything
Any, unlike some, has some special occurrence properties. It does not occur
with positive statements unless there is a modal element like can/will. A
negative also can licence any.
The citizens will not believe anything. (not, The citizens believe anything).
I can challenge anybody.
b) either
Either as a pronoun refers to one out of a set of two. Note that either is
always singular.
Eitheryou make up your mind quickly, or we leave you and go.
Either of the two proposals is acceptable to me.
D) Negative pronouns:
a) no, no one, nobody, none, nothing
No can precede a 'noun, therefore it is like a determiner.
Madhuri showed no interest in the new film.
The rest of the n- series have only nominal function. These generally take
an affirmative verb; they do not allow a not in the sentence.
The police did nothing to control the mob.
(not, The police could not do nothing.)
There are certain varieties of non-standard English where a double negative
is common.
b) neither19

Neither is the negative counterpart of either. It is always used in the

singular. It can come before a noun.
Neither of the allegations is true.
Neither allegation is true.
 2.4 Pronouns: Number
Like nouns, pronouns too, have number. But the number system of pronouns is
different from that of nouns because an s is not added to pronouns to turn them
into
plural. The singular and plural forms of pronouns are fixed.
singular plural
I, me, my, mine, myself we, us, our, ours, ourselves
you, your, yours, yourself you, your, yours, yourselves
he, his, him, himself she, her, hers, herself they, them, their,
theirs,
themselves
it, its, itself, one, oneself this, that, much, little these, those, ones, both,
many, some
each, either, neither, few, each other, one
another
none, no one, someone, anyone, everyone
somebody, nobody, anybody, everybody
something, nothing, anything, everything
Note: you, all, any, some, none, who, which and that can be used in both numbers.
You are a clever fellow. All is not lost.
You are brave men. . All are well here.
(Thou, the singular second person pronoun is archaic.)
2.5 Pronouns: Gender
Gender is of four kinds:
i) Masculine20

ii) Feminine
iii) Common
iv) Neuter
The gender system of pronouns is different from that of nouns because a suffix
like
ess is not used to mark gender distinctions. The gender of pronouns is fixed.
i) Masculine pronouns
he, him, his, himself
ii) Feminine pronouns
she, her, hers, herself
iii) Common gender pronouns
I, we, you, they Personal Pronouns
mine, ours, yours, theirs Possessive Pronouns
myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves Reflexive Pronouns
each other, one another Distributive Pronouns
each, either, neither
everybody, nobody, anybody Indefinite Pronouns
somebody, everyone, noone
anyone, someone, one none
ho, which, what, that, Relative Pronouns
who? which? what? Interrogative Pronouns
iv) Neuter gender pronouns
it, its, itself
anything, nothing, something, everything
2.6 Pronouns :Persons
Person is a grammatical category which has three divisions:21

The first person refers to the person speaking or writing (I, we), the second
person
to the person addressed (you) and the third person to the person spoken or written
about (he, she, they). In a speech situation the first and second person are
necessarily present, the third person mayor may not be present.
i) First person
I, me, my, mine, myself,
we, us, our, ours, ourselves
ii) Second person
you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves
iii) Third Person
he, his, him, himself,
she, her, herself,
it, its, itself,
they, them, their, theirs, themselves
2.7 Summary
You have been given a detailed understanding of the pronouns in English in this
unit.
2.8 Unit End Question
Fill in the blanks with the right alternative:
i) She doesn't obey parents. (his, her)
ii) It is who has broken this chair. (he, him)
iii) He is not such a man can help us. (who, as)
iv) I don't know the man is standing there. (who, which)
v) One shouldn't betray friends. (one's, his)
vi) ______ of the two sisters is married. (none, neither)
vii) ______ of the two boys will get a prize. (anyone, either)22

viii) ______ of the two girls has short hair. (each, everyone)
ix) Everyone of the guests has taken seat. (his, their)
x) He and I believe in doing work sincerely. (my, our)
xi) My watch broke yesterday is now useless. (that, which)
Choose the right alternative and fill in the blanks:
i) Who you food and money? (gives/does give)
ii) What the accident? (did caused/caused)
iii) What is she? She is . (Mary/a nurse)
iv) He acquitted as a statesman. (well/himself well)
v) ______ is the tallest girl in the class? (Which/What)
vi) ______ is he speaking to? (Who/Whom)
vii) ______ he gone yet? (has/hasn't)
viii) Do you know who ? (she is/is she)
ix) They are looking at . (he/him)
x) Who is he? He is . (a teacher/Rakesh)
III. Correct these sentences:
1. My father, that lives in France has sent me a watch.
2. It are they who create problems everywhere.
3. I haven't yet read the book who is lying on the shelf.
4. She is 0 e of those who does what she says.
5. One can't live all alone, can one?
6. They each wants to get a medal.
7. This is a fan and that is it's switch.
8. Do you know as to when will Jennifer get back?
9. Everyone of these two boys was rewarded.
10. I am the man who have won a prize.23

11. I think foolish to tease a snake.

12. This is mine own car.
13. He always prides on his wealth.
14. He addressed to the chair.
15. Which colour is gold?
IV. Put a tick (V) against the correct sentence.(s):
1. a) It was Anil who helped me.
b) It was Anil that helped me.
2. a) It is Shweta whom I want to see.
b) It is Shweta that I want to see.
 3. a) This apple is green. I want red one.
b) This apple is green'. I want a red one.
4. a) Look at the boy who is in shorts.
b) Look at the boy that is in shorts.
5. a) He is the greatest thinker that was ever born.
b) He is the greatest thinker who was ever born.
6. a) They eat snakes, which is nauseating.
b) They eat snakes, which are nauseating.
7, a) A girl who has short hair she looks like a boy.
b) A girl who has short hair looks like a boy.
c) A girl that has short hair looks like a boy.
8. a) They enjoyed last night.
b) They enjoyed themselves last night.
c) They enjoyed themselves a party last night.
9. a) It is BBC giving you the news.
b) This is BBC giving you the news.24

Unit – 3
Adjectives and Determiners
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition
3.3 Kinds of Adjectives
3.3.1 Adjectives of quality
3.4 Degrees of Comparison
3.4.1 Comparative degree
3.4.2 Superlative degree
3.5 Comparatives and Superlatives
3.5.2 Comparison: structure
3.6 Determiners
3.6.1 Categories of Determiners
3.7 Differences between Adjectives and Determiners
3.8 Determiners: Usage
3.9 Summary
3.10 Exercises
3.0 Objectives
In this Unit we shall give details about Adjectives. We shall also describe modern
English grammar entity of Determines and how they differ from Adjectives.
3.1 Introduction
Adjectives in English are equivalent of in Hindi. However, Hindi has so far,
no exclusive entity of Determiners.25

3.2 Definition
Adjective says something more about a noun. An adjective can take an adverb of
degree (intensifier) like too/very. It has comparative and superlative forms as
well.
Adjectives in English are not affected by number or gender or case because they do
not have to agree with the noun they modify.
3.3 Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives are of five kinds:
3.3.1 Adjectives of quality
black, white, long, short
good, bad, hot, cold
They describe the shape, or size, or colour etc. of a person or thing.
Milk is white.
Today is a cold day.
Fire is hot.
Proper adjectives
 Indian, American
Roman, Elizabethan
These are formed from proper nouns, particularly from names of geographical
places (continents, countries, states). Adjectives like these describe origin or
source:
Indian goods, Japanese toys
3.4 Degrees of Comparison
A significant formal feature of attributive adjectives is that they can be graded.
This is known as degrees of comparison. This is a property adjectives share with
adverbs.
There are three degrees of comparison:26

i) positive ii) comparative iii) Superlative

bold bolder boldest
sweet sweeter sweetest
long longer longest
3.4.1 Comparative degree
i) An adjective in comparative degree is normally followed by than.
1. Tom is taller than John.
2. She is older than him.
3. This picture is more beautiful than that one.
ii) Comparative form + of comparative form + of is used in the construction
the + comparative form + of + the two:
1. He is the wiser of the two.
2. This is the better of the two.
iii) Comparative form + to
to is used with Latin comparatives
1. He is junior to me.
2. She is senior to him.
iv) Preferable + to
to is used with preferable as well:
1. Fish is preferable to red meat.
2. Honey is preferable to sugar.
Note: a) preferable is not used with more.
not Fish is more preferable to red meat.
b) than + noun/pronoun (object form)27

In this construction than is a preposition used before a noun/pronoun to express

comparison between two people or things. Since than is a preposition here it takes
a pronoun in the object form:
1. He is taller than me.
2. He is older than her.
3. She is richer than him.
In this construction purists used to insist that the pronoun following than must
be
in the subject form.
e.g. 'He is taller than I'
This is now considered archaic. In current English, the objective form is
preferred
in both formal and informal usage.
c) than + noun/pronoun (subject form)
In this construction than is a conjunction used after a comparative
adjective/adverb
to introduce an adverb clause of comparison, so than takes a pronoun in the
subject
form:
She loves her more than I do (love her).
She is much better rcday than she was yesterday.
He earns much more than she (does).
She works harder than he (does) .
3.4.2 Superlative degree
Superlative degree is used in the structure the + superlative + of/in/on.
This construction is used to compare more than two people or things:
1. This is the best offer of all.
2 This is the oldest church in India.
3 Everest is the highest peak on earth.
Note: a) In this construction we can't use,
all other, any other, anyone else, anybody else, anything else28

not She is the tallest of any other girls.

b) of is used with people or things and in and on with place:
She is the best of the candidates.
He is the richest man in the village.
c) the is obligatory before the superlative form of the adjective.
1. January is the coldest month.
2. This is the safest way.
3. Philosophy is the most difficult subject to learn.
d) However, most is used in the following without a definite article. Here
it is not a superlative; the meaning is that of the intensifier very.
Rashid is most unhappy. (meaning, very unhappy)
This is a most interesting story. (meaning, very interesting)
ii) one of the + superlative + plural noun
This construction, too, is used to compare more than two people or things:
1. Kalidasa is one of the greatest poets.
2. jaisalmer is one of the hottest places in summer.
Note: a) A plural noun is always used after the superlative:
One of the brightest objects.
One of the cheapest bags.
3.5 Comparatives and Superlatives
Formatiom
i) Adjective+er/est
Adjective of one syallable adder in the comparative form and est in
superlative form:
Positive
Tall
comparative
taller
superlative
tallest29

Long
Short
Sweet
longer
shorter
sweeter
longest
shortest
sweetest
ii) Adjective+r/st
One syllable adjectives ending in e add r in the comparative form and
st in the superlative form:
Possotove
Fine
Brave
wise
comparative
finer
braver
wiser
superlative
finest
bravest
wisest
iii) Double Consonant +er\est
Possotove
Big
Fat
Hot
Sad
Glads
Silm
thin
comparative
bigger
fatter
hotter
sadder
gladder
slimmer
thinner
superlative
biggest
fattest
hottest
saddest
gladdest
slimmest
thinnest
iv) i + er/est
If a one- syllable adjective ends in consonant + y, y is changed into i when er/
est is added:
positive comparative
easy easier
dry drier30

holy holier
funny funnier
happy happier
But vowel + y is not changed into i:
gay gayer gayest
v) Irregular forms
positive
bad
good
well
little
much
many
far
far
old

old
comparative
worse
better
better
less
more
many
more
farther
further
elder
older

superlative
worst
best
best
least
most
most
farthest
furthest
eldest
(of people only)
oldest
(of people and things)
vi) Adjectives of more than two syllables form their comparative/superlative by
adding more to the comparative form and most in the superlative:
positive comparative superlative
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
intelligent more intelligent most intelligent
important more important most important31

3.5.2 Comparison: structure

Positive degree
i) With the positive degree as +adjective +as is used in the affirmative:
1. He is as gentle as a lamb.
2. Virtue is as important as money.
3. She is as tall as him.
This construction indicates equality between two people or things.
Note: Some of the idiomatic comparisons are:
as black as coal/ pitch
as brave as a lion
as bright as silver
as busy as a bee
as clear as crystal/day
as cunning as a fox
as cold as ice
as dry as dust/ bone
as easy as ABC
as firm as a rock
as fresh as a daisy
as gentle as a lamb
as green as grass
as black as coal/pitch as happy as a lark
as brave as a lion as hot as fire
as bright as silver as light as a feather
as busy as a bee as proud as a peacock
as clear as crystal/day as quiet as a mouse
as cunning as a fox as red as blood
as cold as ice as sharp as a needle/razor
as dryas dust/bone as smooth as velvet
 as easy as ABC as stupid as an ass
as firm as a rock as sure as death
as fresh as a daisy as tough as leather
as gentle as a lamb as white as snow
as green as grass as weak as a kitten
ii) as ... as construction can be replaced by like in certain contexts:
1. She is as gentle as a lamb. i.e. She is gentle like a lamb.
2. He is as tall as me. i.e. He is tall like me.
Note: a) as + noun/pronoun (object form)32

In as ... as the first as is an adverb used before adjectives or adverbs and the
second
as a preposition. In this construction as ... as means 'to the same extent' and
expresses comparison between two people. Since the second as is a preposition it
takes a pronoun in the object form:
1. She is as old as him.
2. He is not as generous as me.
b) as + noun/pronoun (subject form)
When as ... as means 'to the same extent', the first as is an adverb and the
second as
a conjunction because it functions as a clause introducer.
Since the second as is a conjunction, it takes a pronoun in the subject form:
1. She works as hard as he (does).
2. I ran as fast as I could.
3. He is not as innocent as he looks.
4. He loves her as much I (do).
3.6 Determiners
A determiner signals the coming of a noun in a sentence.
3.6.1 Determiners fall into the following categories:
A. articles
a, an, the
B. possessives
my, our, your, his, her, their, its
C. demonstratives
this, that, these, those
These are used to point out people or things.
This car is red. That girl is tall.
D. distributives
each, every, either, neither33

They refer to each member of a class separately:

I have met seven girls. Each girl is smart/Every girl is smart.
E. number expressions
another, many, several, some, any, no, few, enough,
a number of, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, some of, many of,
one, two, three ... (cardinal numbers)
F. quantifiers
much" some, no, any, little, enough,
a lot of, lots of, plenty of, much of, some of
G. interrogatives
what, which
They combine with nouns to form interrogative expressions used in questions:
What colour is the sky?
Which girl is the tallest?
3.7 Differences between Adjectives and Determiners
i) The form of adjectives can change,
tall taller tallest
Determiners, on the other hand, have an invariant form.
a boy, the gi rl
ii) An adjective can be used before a noun, or as a complement to 'to be'. But
determiner comes only before a noun.
adjective determiner
A good book. This book is good. almy/every book
iii) More than one adjective can be used to modify a noun, but more than
onedeterminer is not allowed in a noun phrase.
She is a tall, beautiful girl. (but not, an every book.)34

iv) A determiner always comes before an adjective, not after it.

a red pen
her new hat
3.8 Determiners: Usage
Derminers of number/quantity
A. Some and any
i) some is used with affirmative verbs:
1. I have got some milk. (not, any milk)
2. He has got some good friends. (not, any friends)
ii) any is used with negative verbs:
3. I haven't got any gold. (not some gold)
4. She hasn't got any dogs. (not some dogs)
Note: any is used with negative adverbs as well:
hardly, scarcely, barely,
never, neither, nor, seldom, too
1. He has hardly any money.
2. She has never written any poems.
3. He is too poor to buy any gold rings.
4. They seldom go for any function.
But enough takes some, because it is positive in meaning:
She is rich enough to buy some gold rings.
iii) any is used after if or whether and expressions of doubt:
1. Ring me up if you need any help. (not some)
2. I don't think you will have any difficulty here. (not some)
3. asked her if/whether she had any money with her. (not some)
iv) Either some or any can be used in ordinary questions:35

1. Have you got some ink?

2. Have you got any ink?
A question like this is indifferent to the response, so the reply can be either
positive
(yes) or negative (no):
1. Will you buy some fish? Yes, I will. No, I won't.
2. Have you got any milk? Yes, I have. No, I haven't.
v) A question expressing request takes some:
Could you give me some milk, please? (not any milk)
vi) A question expecting a positive response takes some:
Have you got some eggs? Yes, I have.
vii) In an affirmative sentence any means 'no matter who/which/what', i.e., 'no
one in particular':
1. Any option is feasible.
2. You may call on me any day you like.
viii) some can be used with a singular countable noun that is vague or unknown:
Some gentleman is waiting to see you.
ix) some can be used before definite numbers to mean 'approximately' or
'about':
There are some twenty people at the gate.
x) some can be used before a noun to mean considerable number or amount or
extent:
1. That is some help/relief/satisfaction.
2. He is really some poet/singer.
Note: Any is not possible in place of some in any of the cases from viii-x.
a) not any/no any
no any is never used instead of not any.
She hasn't got any rings. (not no any rings).36

b) no/not any
No or not any can be used after have, but have got usually takes not
any, not no:
He hasn't got any friends. (not He has got no friends.)
c) some/any/no +nouti
They can be used as adjectives of number and as adjectives of quantity. So
they can be used with a countable or an uncountable noun. With countable
nouns, the form is plural:
1. She has some friends.
2. He doesn't need any money.
3. They did not sell any calendars.
4. She has no toys.
But the noun is in the singular form when not any/no means 'not even
one/not a single':
1. He has no telephone (not even one car)
2. She has no umbrella. (not even one umbrella)
3. He hasn't got any house. (not even one house.)
So the choice of a singular or plural noun depends on the meaning of no/any i.e.,
'not some/not one'.
8. No and none
i) no behaves like a determiner but none doesn't, so we can use no + noun but
not none + noun:
1. He has no gold. (not none gold)
2. This chair has no arms. (not none arms)
ii) no «noun can be used to express contrast/the opposite:
1. He is no scholar. (He is not a scholar)
2. She is no beauty. (She is not beautiful)37

Notice that in this construction the noun does not take alan:
He is no a leader.
iii) no + good
In this construction good is treated as a noun because by origin it is a noun
meaning advantage; so no is used as determiner.
It's no good repenting now.
C. All and both
i) These are predeterminers and are therefore followed by a determiner.
1. All the boys are playing.
2. Both these cars are white.
3. All his friends deserted him.
D. Another/other
i) another is always used with a singular noun:
1. Tell me another story.
2. He is now engaged to another girl.
ii) Other meaning 'the second of the two' takes a singular noun:
The other bank of this river is very dirty.
ii) other or the other can take a singular or plural noun:
1. I will talk to you some other time.
2. John is intelligent but the other boys are dull.
Note: another is not used with an or the because it is a determiner:
1. I would like another cup of tea. (not, an another)
2. This pen is broken. Give me another please. (not an another/the
another one)
E. Much and many
i) much is used before singular uncountable nouns to denote quantity:
 1. He hasn't got much courage. (not, many)38

2. I haven't got much time. (not, many)

ii) many is used before plural countable nouns to denote number:
1. I haven't got many passes. (not, much)
2. She hasn't got many 'options. (not, much)
iii) much and many are used with how to ask questions:
1. How many dogs have you got?
2. How much coffee do you want?
iv) much and many are usually used in negative and interrogative sentences:
1. There isn't much squash in this bottle.
2. There aren't many girls in my class.
3. Was much money wasted over the project?
4. Were many men hurt in the firing?
v) many modifying an object in affirmative sentences is preferably replaced by
these determiners.
a number of, a lot of, lots of, plenty of
1. She bought a number of combs.
2. He has got a lot of shoes.
3. She has bought plenty of vegetables.
vi) much modifying an object in an affirmative sentence is usually replaced by
these determiners.
a lot of, plenty of, a large quantity of,
a good deal of, a great deal of
We have had a lot of rain this year.
He has plenty ofleisure.
vii) much and many are used in affirmative sentences when they are modified
by so as/too/how.
so many boys so much noise39

as many questions as much gold

too many problems too much pain
how many teachers how-much butter
Talking about the past causes him too much pain.
viii) many an/a takes a singular countable noun:
Many a tree has been cut down.
Many an egg is rotten.
In common speech, however, many alan is rarely used. A lot of/plenty of is
used instead.
Plenty of trees have been cut down.
F. Few and little
i) few denotes number. Plural countable nouns are used with few, a few, and
the few:
I have few hopes in life
The children played for a few minutes.
They sold the few dogs that they had.
ii) little denotes quantity, so singular uncountable nouns are used with little,
a
little, and the little:
She has little confidence in herself.
All I ask for is a little help from you.
I have spent the little money I had.
iii) few and little are used in a negative sense because they mean 'not any'
He has few friends. (i.e., no friends)
He has little money. (i.e., no money)
a few and a little are positive, they mean some:
He has a few friends. (i.e., some friends)
He has a little money. (i.e., some money)40
v) the few means 'not many, but all that are there', the little means 'not much,
but all that is there'.
I have already read the few books that I have. (not a few)
He has spent the little money he had. (not a little)
the few/the little + noun is usually followed by :l relative clause.
The few statues (that) he bought are damaged.
She has sold the few horses (that) she used to keep.
G. Distributives each and every
i) each is used for two or more people/things.
ii) every is used for more than two people/things. Every is not used of only
two.
I saw two movies last week. Each of them had a murder plot. (not every
movie)
There are six electronics shops in this street. Each shop is selling radios at a
discount. (not every shop)
Note: emphatic each
each is made emphatic by using each and every:
Each and every vote is valuable.
But neither every nor each and every can be used when the reference is to
only two people or things.
iii) Both each and every take a singular countable noun, not an uncountable
noun:
Each city in India is famous for its variety. (not, cities)
Every ritual has a meaning. (not, rituals)
iv) Every can be used with plural expressions indicating 'intervals in time and
space':
every three hours, every few kilometers
He has to take medicine every four hours.41

She was stopped every two kilometers by her fans.

(each is not possible here).
v) each + of can function as a predeterminer, every + of cannot Each of the
boys/them has a bag.
not, Every of the boys/them has a hat.
H. Either and neither
i) either means one of the two:
You can take either half of this apple.
ii) neither means 'not one nor the other of the two':
There are two reports about the accident. Neither report is true.
Thus both either and neither are used for only two people or things.
iii) When the number is greater than two, either/neither is replaced by any:
I have six copies of the novel. You can take any copy you like.
I can't spare any copies of the novel.
iv) either and neither take a singular countable noun:
either side, neither report.
Note: a) either and both
Either means 'both/each of the two' when the existence of the one implies
the existence of the other, i.e. when two things are complementary to each
other: '
either side of a road (both sides)
either bank of a river (both banks)
I. Demonstratives
In English an adjective has the same form for both singular and plural
nouns but demonstratives show agreement of number between a
demonstrative adjective and its noun:
i) this/that takes a singular noun, these/those takes a plural noun.42

This car is brown. These cars are blue.

That girl is tall. Those girls are tall.
Note: these or those kind of or sort of is permissible only in colloquial style:
I don't like these kind of movies.
J. Possessives
Possessives are like adjectives in that they can come in a prenominal (i.e.
before a noun) position and also in the complement position of be. But
unlike adjectives, possessives have distinct forms in these two positions.
We may refer to these two uses of possessives as
a) the determiner use
This is my book.
and
b) the predicative use.
This book is mine.
not, This is mine house.
ii) A (determiner) possessive is made emphatic by using own/very own after
it:
This is my own car.
That is her very own house.
iii) A possessive + noun denoting the part of one's body or dress/clothing is
preferably replaced by the + noun:
1. I hit him on his head. (I hit him on the head.)
2. He caught her by her hair. (He caught her by the hair.)
3. I caught him by his collar. (I caught him by the collar.)
K. Interrogatives
i) What is used to ask general questions about colour/shape/size etc.:
1. What colour is the sky?43

2. What size (of shoes) do you want?

Note: a) what + age/length/height etc. is normally expressed by how +
adjective:
1. What age is she? = Howald is she?
2. What height are you? = How tall are you?
b) But what + colour/shape/size can't be replaced by how:
1. What colour is gold?
2. What shape is this table?
3.9 Summary
Now you have a clear-cut concept of the terms Adjectives and Determines.
3.10 Unit End Question
I. Choose the rig t alternative:
1. This girl is the wisest all. (of/than)
2. He is the of the two. (stronger/strongest)
3. He is junior me but senior her. (to/than- to/than)
4. This is the temple in India. (oldest/eldest)
5. He is richer than . (anyone else/any)
6. This route is of all. (the most shortest/shortest)
7. This pen is than that. (more cheaper/cheaper)
8. Chicken is preferable red meat. (to/than)
9. He is duller than . (all other boys/all boys)
10. The climate of Delhi is better than . (London/that of London)
11. I am feeling very . (hungry/hungrily)
12. It is getting . (colder and colder/cold and cold)
II. Choose the correct one from the pairs given and put a v', as shown in
example (1):44

1. a) It is nonsense sheer.
b) It is sheer nonsense. V
2. a) Could you give me some sugar, please?
b) Could you give me any sugar, please?
3. a) He is going to buy an another car.
b) He is going to buy another car.
4. a) She is too poor to give me some money.
b) She is too poor to give me any money.
5. a) My hair is shorter than Mary.
b) My hair is shorter than Mary's.
6. a) I would rather resign than flatter my boss.
b) I would rather resign than to flatter my boss.
7. a) All these women are fond of gossip.
b) These all women are fond of gossip.
8. a) My elder brother always gives me toffee.
b) My older brother always gives me toffee.
9. a) This book is unique.
b) This book is the most unique.
10. a) It is not so easy to cook as to eat.
b) It is not so easy to cook as eat.
11. a) She is elder than her brother.
b) She is older than her brother.
12. a) I am fairly better today.
b) I am rather better today.
III. Fill in the blanks choosing the right word:
1. Tom is than John. (elder, older)45

2. This cloth is to that. (better, superior)

3. There are girls than boys here. (less, fewer)
4. This is the tree in the forest. (oldest, eldest)
5. Which is the of the three sons? (wiser, wisest)
6. Which is , March or May? (hotter, hottest)
7. This is best book in the market. (very the, the very)
8. I saw her ago. (few days, a few days)
9. He is rich as her. (so, as)
10. He is older than . (me, I)
11. She is as tall as . (he, him)
12. This flower smells . (sweet, sweetly)
IV. Put a V against the correct phrase:
"'. a) neither girl
2. a) a few money
b) neither girls
b) a little money
3. a) not some pens b) not any pens
a) much easier b) more easier
:>. a) richer than all men b) richer than all other men
6. a) quite impossible b) more impossible
a) preferable to b) preferable than
8. a) so old as him b) as old as him
9. a) more important and b) more and more important
more important
Correct the sentences, if necessary:
1. I have read a few books I had.46

2. Tell me if you have some doubt.

3. He hit her on her head.
4. She is wiser than anybody here.
5. He has hardly some money.
6. His all sheep are white.
7 Milk is more preferable to fish.
8. He is taller than the two.
9. She is comparatively better today.
10. either courses of action are safe.
1. Lakshmi is wiser than braver.
2. Preetha has got no any sister.
3. There are less tables than chairs here.
4 He is the dullest of all other boys.
5 This book is the much best of all.
6. I would prefer to die than to live in disgrace.
7 My car is much more cheaper than you.
8. She has spent little money she had.47

Unit- 4
Articles
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definition
4.3 Kinds of Articles
4.4 Articles and Number System
4.5 Articles and Gender System
4.6 Indefinite Articles
4.6.1 Position of the indefinite article
4.62 Usage on the basis of sound
4.7. Definite Article: Usage
4.8 Omission of Articles
4.8.1 Proper nouns
4.8.2 Uncountable nouns
4.8.2 Plural indefinite nouns
4.9 Conclusion
4.10 Unit end Questions
14.11 References
4.0 Objective
In this unit we shall discuss a very important grammatical concept of Articles in
English.48

4.1 Introduction
Hindi has no equivalents of Articles so their usage poses a great problem to the
Indian speakers.
4.2 Definition
An article (a/an/the) is a determiner. As a determiner it signals the coming of a
noun after it.
Look at these sentences:
1. This is a book (not, This is book.)
2. This is milk (not, This is a milk.)
3. That is an egg (not, That is a egg.)
Articles are used with nouns but not all nouns are used with articles, so it is
necessary to know a) which noun requires an article and which doesn't and b)
which article to use when one is equired.
4.3 Kinds of Articles
There are two kinds of articles:
i) Indefinite a/an
ii) Definite the
Note: quantitative articles-some/any
Indefinite uncountable nouns and plural indefinite countable nouns usually do not
take an article:
1. She bought milk. (not a/the milk)
2. He bought her toys.
But nouns like these usually take a determiner some/any to indicate a certain
quantity or number:
1. She bought some milk. She didn't buy any milk.
2. He bought some toys. He didn't buy any toys.49

Since some and any (determiners) are used as substitutes for articles they may be
 called quantitative articles.
4.4 Articles and Number System
The use of articles is linked to the number system of nouns. Nan is never used
with
a plural noun:
1. This is a pen. (not, a pens)
2. That is an apple. (not, an apples)
But the is not governed by the number system, 50 it can be used with singular
nouns and plural nouns as well:
Look at the bird/s in the tree.
4.5 Articles and Gender System
In a few languages the forms of articles and adjectives are determined by the
gender of the noun but in English this is not 50. The same form is used for all
genders:
He is an actor.
She is an actress.
Please lend me an umbrella.
4.6 Indefinite Articles
4.6.1 Position of the indefinite article
i) a/an is an article and therefore belongs to the class of determiners. Being
a
determiner, its position is before the adjective.
a good book
an intelligent girl
ii) a/an is placed after predeterminers like many/much/rather/quitelwhat
1. What a man he is! (not, a what man)
2. Many a man was injured. (not, a many man)50

3. He gave such a talk that everybody fell asleep. (not, a such talk)
4. She is quite a beauty. (not, a quite beauty)
iii) a/an is placed after adjectives when they are premodified by as/so/too/how/
quite:
1. How fine a place it is !
2. It is too absurd an answer.
4.6.2 Usage on the basis of sound
The choice between a or an is determined by the initial sound of the word
following it; if the word begins with a consonant sound, use a; if the word begins
with a vowel sound, use an.
Note: that consonant and vowel refer to sound not to be the letter of the
alphabet. A
e I o u are letters of the alphabet, not sounds.
i) a + consonant sound
a is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound:
a book, a cat, a dog, a fan
a university, a European
Note: a) Words beginning with u/eu have an initial y sound, so they take a:
a unit, a utensil, a union, a utopia
a eunuch, a ewe, a eulogy, a euphemism
b) o pronounced like w is a consonant sound, so such words take a:
a one-eyed man, a one-dayer
a one-rupee note, a one-act play
ii) an + vowel sound
an is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound:
an apple, an egg, an inkpot
an hour, an honour, an heir
Note: a) an + a mute h (Silent h) /51

Words beginning with a mute h take an, not a:

heir, honest, honour, hour
honorary, honorarium
1. He is an honest man.
2. We had an hour's rest.
3. It is an honour to me.
4. This is an honorary post.
b) hotel, historical, habitual, humble
1. That is a hotel.
2. This is a historical novel.
3. He is a habitual drunkard.
4. This is a humble beginning.
an is not acceptable here because in current English the h in these
words is pronounced.
c) an + acronyms/abbreviations
an is used before acronyms/abbreviations beginning with f, h, I, m,
n, r, s, x because each of these consonants has an initial vowel sound
e/a:
f (ef) h (eich) l (el) m (em)
n (en) r (aar) s (es) x (eks)
1. He is an FBI agent.
2. This is an HMT watch.
3. He is an LLB.
4. He is an MP.
5. He is an NCC officer.
6. He has sent an 50S.52

7. This is an X-ray telescope.

d) an + number
an is used before a number beginning with a vowel sound:
This is an 18- player team.
He is an 80- year old man.
but:
This is a 5-year old child.
e) MS is an abbreviation for manuscript. The abbreviated form is usually
pronounced manuscript, not 'em- es', so it takes a. But MS pronounced like
'em- es' has to take an:
This is an M5 (em- es) of my new book.
This is a M5 (manuscript) of my new book. (not an)
f) Xmas is an abbreviation for Christmas but it is usually pronounced as
'Christmas', not 'Ex-mas', so it takes a. If pronounced 'ex-mas',
the article should be an:
a Xmas (Christmas) card. (not, an)
This is an Xmas (Ex-mas) card.
g) a/an + adverb/adjective + noun
The choice of alan does not always depend on the initial sound of the head
noun. It depends on the initial sound of what follows it immediately. It can
be an adjective or adverb placed before the noun:
an honest man, an extremely difficult problem
a great artist, a very amusing story
4.7. Definite Article: Usage
i) a/an is used before an indefinite noun, so a singular countable noun
mentioned for the first time takes a/an:
This is a pen. That is a pencil.53

This is an apple. That is an orange.

The is used before a definite noun. When a noun is mentioned again, i.e.
when it refers back to a noun mentioned already it takes the. This is called
an anaphoric function of the:
This is an old palace. People believe that the palace was built 500 years ago.
ii) The, like alan is used before a singular countable noun mentioned for the
first time when it represents a class, i.e. when the means 'all/every'. This is
called a generic or classifying function of the:
The camel is the ship of the desert.
The lion is a wild animal.
Note: Man/mankind meaning 'all men/women' does not take alan/the:
Man is mortal. (not althe man)
Mankind is searching for meaning.
iii) the is used before adjectives or participles to represent a class of people:
the rich, the poor, the dead
the dying, the injured/wounded
The rich are not necessarily happy.
The blind deserve our sympathy.
iv) the is used before an adjective to denote a quality:
the white/yellow of an egg
the evil, the good, the beautiful
v) The is used before a noun considered unique or extraordinary, i.e., a noun
treated as equivalent to a superlative adjective. In this construction the
means 'the best, the only, or precisely', so it has a heightening effect on the
noun it modifies:
She is the bride for him.
This is the place for our picnic.
He is the authority on the subject.54

vi) The is used before a noun whose identity is common knowledge or can be
easily inferred. In this construction the denotes a person's title, rank, or
profession etc.:
the president the Prime Minister
the principal the king/queen
the prophet the bench/bar
the postman the press/media
vii) The is used before a singular common noun (place/person) that can be
easily inferred from the situation:
the police station the post office
the station the radio
1. Would you close the gate, please?
2. She is listening to the radio.
3. He will be on the air tonight.
4.Turn on/off the tap, please.
Note: a) radio always takes the:
She is listening to the radio.
What's on the radio now?
b) The use of the before television is optional:
What's on the television now?
What's on television now?
But the is not used in the expression 'watch TV':
They are watching TV. (not, the TV)
viii) The is used before common nouns denoting musical instruments:
She is playing the violin/piano/sitar.
He is playing the drum/tabla.
He is accompanied on the violin by an Englishman.55

(not, She is playing harmonium.)

ix) The is used before a noun denoting a unit of measure to mean 'every':
We buy petrol by the gallon/litre.
They sell bananas by the dozen.
They are paid wages by the hour/week.
x) the is used before both countable and uncountable nouns (singular or plural)
that are made definite by:
 a) preposition/prepositional phrase
the boy with long hair
the woman in black
the milk in the bottle
the boys/girls/teachers of this school
b) a relative clause
the booklpen/milklsugar/she bought yesterday
the water/tea/coffee he drinks every day
the birds/animals that live in a forest
xi) The is used before a noun placed by the side of a noun clause (that-clause):
1. The news that the PM has resigned, is not true.
2 The fact that Columbus discovered America is known to all.
xii) The is used before a singular countable noun to denote an attribute/a
quality
The monkey in man still survives.
The dancer in her is dead.
xiii) The is used before adjectives in the superlative degree:
the best book the most beautiful flower
one of the wisest men one of the most useful animals
Note: a) the is not used in the construction like best/like most56

Which do you like best/most? (not, the best/the most)

b) the is not used before most/least when it is used in the sense of 'very':
It is a most interesting story.
xiv) The is used before adjectives in the comparative degree (of the two):
She is the taller of the two girls.
He is the wiser of the two boys.
Note: a) the ... the
In this construction expressing parallel increase/decrease the is used twice:
The older you grow the wiser you become.
The more you have the more you want.
xv) The is used before ordinal numbers and 'only':
the first prize the only hope
the only son the second son
xvi) The is used before few/little + relative clause:
I have read the few books/I have.
She has spent the little money/she had .
. (In this construction a is not possible)
viz., He has broken a few toys he bought yesterday.
xvii) The is used before the names of ranges of mountains and hills:
the Himalayas the Alps
the Khasi hills the Vindhyas
Note: the is not used before the following peaks or mountains:
Everest Kailas Kanchenjunga
Mont Blanc Olympus Snowdon
Mount Abu Parasnath
viii) The is used before names of groups of islands:57

the Andamans the West Indies

the Hebrides the Maldives
Note: the is not used before individual islands:
Crete Malta Bermuda
Ireland Sicily Sri Lanka
The is used before names of gulfs, canals, seas, and oceans:
the Atlantic (ocean) the Pacific (ocean)
the Indian ocean the Mediterranean sea
the Persian gulf the gulf of Mexico
the Panama canal the Suez canal
xx) The is used before names of rivers/channels:
the Ganga the Thames
the Rhine the Avon
the Danube the Euphrates
the Indus the Amazon
the Brahmaputra the English Channel
the Tyne the Mississipi
the Nile the Sutlej/Beas
xxi) The is used before names of these countries/states:
the Netherlands the Sudan
the Transval the Congo
the UK the USA
the Punjab the GDR
.xxii) The is used before the names of holy/great books:
the Bible the Gita
the Koran the Ramayan58

the Mahabharat the Iliad

Note: The is not used before the name of a book when it appears before the name
of the author in the possessive case i.e., before name + 's:
I have read Tulsi Dasa's Ramayan. (not, the Tulsi Dasa's Ramayan)
xxiii) The is used before names of newspapers:
the Hindustan Times the Times of India
the New York Times the Pakistan Times
the Times the Guardian
the Statesman the Economist
the Washington Post the Dawn
Note: a) The is not used after noun +'s:
I haven't yet read today's Statesman. (not, the today's Statesman)
b) There is an increasing tendency to drop the before the names of
newspapers.
c) Names of magazines/periodicals are now usually used without the:
Punch Outlook Time
Sunday Today Vogue
xxv) The is used before specifying any of the cardinal directions:
the east/west the north/south
xxv) The is used before names of inventions:
the telephone the microscope
the wheel the steam engine
Who invented the telephone? (not, telephone)
xxvi) The is used before a common noun considered unique:
the sun/moon the sky/earth
the world/universe the sea/air
xxvii) The is used before these nouns:59

cathedral, cinema, pictures, theatre, office, station, museum, zoo

I am going to the pictures.
She is going to the cinema/theatre.
They are going to the zoo.
He is in the office now.
(not, She is going to station/museum.)
viii) The is used before the parts of one's body and articles of clothing:
The stone hit him on the shoulder,
The trouser you bought fits you well.
I held him by the tielcollar.
4.8 Omission of Articles
4.8.1 Proper nouns
N0 article is used before proper nouns. So no article is used before:
i) names of people
ii) names of continents/countries
iii) names of states/cities/towns
iv) names of days/monthslfestivals
v) names of languages
vi) names of subjects of study
E.g.: 1. This is Seema/Nigel.
2. We live in Nagpur/lndia.
3. We are learning English.
4. He is a student of law/science.
Note: a) family relations
These are not normally treated like proper nouns, so no article is
used before-father, daddy, dad, mother, mum, mummy, uncle, aunt.60

Father/Daddy is at home. (not, the father/daddy)

Mother/Mummy is out. (not, the mother/mummy)
b) names of seasons
Though names of seasons can be used with or without the, it is more
common to drop the article:
spring the spring
winter the winter
Spring is in the air.
c) names of countries
The is used before the name of a country which contains a word like
kingdom, republic, union, or states:
the United Kingdom
the United States
the Indian Union
the German Democratic Republic
4.8.2 Uncountable nouns
No article is used before uncountable nouns (material and abstract nouns):
He sells milk.
She lacks confidence.
4.8.2 Plural indefinite nouns
No article is used before plural nouns that are indefinite;
Bees gather honey.
Dogs bark at night.
I love birds and animals.
Note: The is used before a plural noun only when it is made definite by a
preposition or a relative clause:
The apples that are on the tree are ripe.61

The soldiers of this battalion are well-trained.

But:
Apples are costly. (not, the apples)
4.9 Conclusion
The Unit has given you a fairly detailed idea of the term Articles
4.10 Unit end Questions
1. Name the kind of Articles with examples.
2 Give examples of situations when articles are generally omitted.62

Unit – 5
Adverbs
Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definition
5.3 Kinds of Adverbs
5. 4 Formation of Adverbs
5.6 Degrees of Comparison:
5.6.1 Formation of comparatives and superlatives
 5.7 Adverbs: Usage
5.7.1 Adverbs of time
5.7.2 Adverbs of place
5.7.3 Adverbs of degree
5.7.4 Ever and Never
5.7.5 Interrogative adverbs
5.7.8 No any, none
5.8 Conclusion
5.9 Unit end Questions
5.0 Objective
In this unit we shall describe Adverbs in English.
5.1 Introduction
Adverbs are equivalents to ि in Hindi. However we should not be misled
by the terms as it does not simply modify or verb.63

5.2 Definition
# adverb adds something more to the meaning of the verb:
# Sheetal sang sweetly. (modifying a verb)
# They secretly decided to get married. (modifying a verb)
# It can also modify an adjective or another adverb.
# He is purposely late. (modifying an adjective)
# she works extremely slowly. (modifying an adverb)
# It can also modify a pronoun, preposition, conjunction and a sentence as
well:
# Nearly everybody was late. (modifying a pronoun)
# The grapes are well within reach. (modifying a preposition)
# They don't help me just because I suffer in silence. (modifying a
conjunction)
# Fortunately he did not hurt himself. (modifying a sentence)
# An adjective too is a modifier, but it does not modify words other than
nouns nor is it used to express time, or place.
5.3 Kinds of Adverbs
Adverbs are often kinds:
i) Adverbs of time
ago, since, back, before, early, soon, already, yet, still, today,
tomorrow, then, lately, recently, once, one of these days, some
day, now, by now, right away, nowadays
They indicate the time of an action and answer to the question when.
When did you buy this car? I bought it a week ago.64

When will you do this work? I have done it already.

ii) Adverbs of place/position
here, there, near, by, up, down, in, out, everywhere, nowhere,
somewhere, anywhere, nowhere else, hither and thither
They are used to indicate the place of an action and characteristically answ
the question where.
Where is your watch? It's here.
Where is your mother? She has gone out.
Note: Hither/thither used in isolation is archaic but the phrase hither and
thither is
idiomatic.
iii) Adverbs of manner
boldly, bravely, quickly, slowly,
easily, badly, hard, fast, well
They express the manner of an action and answer to the question how?
How is she typing? She is typing carefully.
How is he working? He is working slowly.
iv) Adverbs of frequency
always, ever, never, often, seldom, everyday,
 sometimes, occasionally, usually, normally,
frequently, rarely, hardly, scarcely, once/twice a week etc.
They express the frequency of an action. They answer the question how often?
She has always helped me.
I had never told a lie.
We rarely talk to each other.
Note: In traditional grammar they are called Adverbs of Number, but in current
English they are called Adverbs of Frequency.
v) Adverbs of degree (Intensifiers)65

almost, very, very much, too, enough, so such, just,

of course, quite, rather, fairly, hardly, scarcely, much,
more, most, barely, absolutely, extremely, perfectly,
really, totally, utterly, a lot, a great deal, a bit
They express degree/intensity, so they answer the question how much/how
far/to what extent?
He is too ill to go to work.
He is rich enough to maintain a car.
In current English they are called intensifiers because they have a heightening or
lowering effect on the words they modify.
vi) Relative adverbs
when, where, why
whenever, wherever
Relative adverbs, like relative pronouns, relate or refer back to their antecedent
and
also join clauses. A relative adverb plays a double role because it functions as
an
adverb as well as a conjunction.
Relative adverbs are used to introduce relative clauses and noun clauses as well,
not only adjective clauses:
I don't know the place where she works. (adjective clause)
I don't know where she works. (noun clause)
vii) Interrogative adverbs
when, since when, where, why, how,
how many, how much, how often,
how far/long, how tall/high etc.
whenever, wherever, whyever, however
They are used for asking questions about time/place etc.:
a) time66

When do you have lunch, usually?

Since when has he been living in the hostel?
How long did you wait there?
b) place
Where are you going?
Where do you come from?
Note: whence meaning 'from where' is archaic. It is now replaced by where ...
from.
c) manner/method/means
How did he do this sum?
How do you wash your clothes?
How did you go to France?
How do you get a phone?
d) degree/to what extent
How deep is this river?
How far is it to the station?
How often do you go to the cinema?
How fast can you type?
e) cause/reason
Why are you so angry?
Why is the baby crying?
Note: wherefore meaning 'why' is archaic. It is now replaced by why.
viii) Exclamatory adverbs
How!, What!
They are used in exclamations to express degree/extent:
How dirty this place is!67

How melodiously she sings!

What a nasty guy!
What a nice friend he is!
What used after a statement is a question in form but an exclamation in sense,
because it is used as an interjection to express surprise or disbelief:
You have won a lottery. What?
This curio is one in a million. What?
ix) Adverbs of affirmation and negation
yes, yeah, no
They are used to express one's reaction or response to questions. They indicate
assertion and denial. Yes is used in affirmative sentences and no in negative
sentences.
Do you like fish? Yes I do./No, I don't.
Is he very poor? Yes, he is./No, he isn't.
Can you do this sum? Yes, I can.
Is it too hot? No, it isn't.
Note that yes cannot be followed by a negation, even when you agree with a
person. Similarly a no with a positive statement is not allowed.
I don't think that Rahim has come today.
No, he hasn't. (not, Yes, he hasn't)
Is it too hot today?
Yes, it is. (not, Yes, it isn't).
Note: No cannot be replaced by not as an adverb of negation viz., Not, I don't.
Yes is often replaced by yeah in informal style:
Do you play tennis? Yeah, I do.
Do you feel tired? Yeah, Just a little.68

x) Sentence adverbs
fortunately, luckily, surely, certainly
An adverb that modifies a whole sentence, not only a constituent is called a
sentence adverb.
a) Adverbs like these are usually formed from adjectives by adding an Iy:
fortunate + Iy (fortunately) luck + Iy (luckily)
obvious + Iy (obviously) happy + Iy (happi Iy)
b) They are used to express an opinion or viewpoint:
Fortunately, the baby was saved.
Obviously, she is innocent.
c) Sentence adverbs are placed at the beginning of a sentence. They are
marked off from the sentence by a comma because they are not essential
ingredients in a sentence.
Luckily, I had a close shave.
5. 4 Formation of Adverbs
dverbs may be formed by any of the following ways.
i) Most of the Adverbs of Manner are formed by adding Iy to the adjective:
active - actively easy - easily
quick - quickly happy - happily
careful - carefully true - truly
beautiful - beautifully due - duly
Note: The adverbial form of good is well, not goodly.
ii) Adding Iyto the noun:
month - monthly year - yearly
week - weekly day - daily
They are used as adjectives as well:69

He comes here daily. (adverb)

This is my daily routine. (adjective)
Note: a) goodly, friendly, lovely, lonely and lowly are adjectives, not adverbs.
b) kindly and leisurely are used both as adjectives and adverbs.
She flashed him a kindly smile. (adjective)
Would you kindly wait a minute? (adverb)
They are walking at a leisurely pace. (adjective)
Seema is arranging flowers leisurely. (adverb)
iii) By adding these suffixes:
-wise -ways -ward -wards
lengthwise sideways forward downwards
clockwise backward
iv) By placing a before the noun:
aflame ahead
aboard afloat
v) By placing a or be before the adjective:
abroad behind
along below
aloud beyond
anew before
vi) By joining an adjective and a noun:
sometimes meanwhile
meantime midway
vii) Adverb phrases are formed by adding a preposition in front of a noun:
at length of course
at random in fact70

viii) Some adverb phrases go together in pairs joined by and:

again and again now and then
by and by out and out
far and wide over and over
far and near to and fro
ix) Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives:
He is a fast runner. (adjective) He runs fast. (adverb)
Iron is hard. He works hard.
He is an early riser. He always gets up early.
The cork is tight. Hold the rope tight.
It is right. It serves him right.
This is a directtrain. He came here direct.
The price of petrol is high. The plane flew high.
The form of a word is not a sure guide to the class it belongs to. So a word is
categorised by its function as well as by its form.
5.6 Degrees of Comparison
Like adjectives, adverbs too have three degrees of comparison: positive,
comparative and superlative. The comparative is formed by adding -er (more in
longer ones) and the superlative by -est (most).
5.6.1 Formation of comparatives and superlatives
i) adverb + er/est
Adverbs of one syllable take er in the comparative and est in the superlative:
positive comparative superlative
fast faster fastest
hard harder hardest
high higher highest71

ii) Adverbs of two or more syllables form their comparative or superlative form by
putting more or most before them:
 positive comparative superlative
slowly more slowly most slowly
politely more politely most politely
sweetly more sweetly most sweetly
wisely more wisely most wisely
Note: The comparative form of 'early' is earl ier, (not, more early) and
superlative
form earliest (not, most early)
iii) Irregular comparatives and superlatives
positive comparative superlative
well better best
badly worse worst
much more most
little less least
far farther farthest
far further furthest
5.7 Adverbs: Usage
5.7.1 Adverbs of time
1. Ago/long ago
Ago/long ago always takes simple past tense, not present perfect tense:
He came here a week ago. (not, has come)
She left for home just a few minutes ago. (not, has left)
He wrote a novel long ago. (not, has written)
We don't say:
Columbus has discovered America long ago.72

We say:
Columbus discovered America long ago.
2. Back/far back
Back far back, too indicates past time and means 'ago', so it takes simple past
tense:
I saw her a few years back. (not, have seen)
3. Since/ever since
Since/ever since means between sometime in the past and the present time
(now). It takes present perfect tense, not simple past:
He left this place five years ago. I haven't seen him since. (not, I didn't see).
Ever since my colleague left, I haven't had any news of him. (not, I didn't
have).
4. Before
Before means 'at an earlier time', so it refers to past time:
Before I became a teacher, I worked as a clerk.
5. Seldom
Seldom has a negative meaning.
I seldom go out these days.
One seldom finds good writing these days.
6. Already/yet
i) Already means 'by this/that time'. It is used in positive statements:
He has finished the work already.
She has already typed all the letters.
We don't say:
He hasn't begun the work already.
ii) Yet has the same meaning as elreedy; i.e., 'by this/that time' but it is
chiefly used in negative statements and questions:73

He hasn't finished the work yet.

They haven't yet repaired the road.
(not, He has begun the work yet.)
iii) In positive statements yet means still, i.e., even to this time, so it
refers to future time:
I am yet to decide on the future course of action.
We have yetto find out how to reach the place.
iv) In negative interrogatives yet expresses surprise or annoyance:
Haven't you heard the news yet?
Hasn't the train got in yet?
v) In interrogative sentences already expresses surprise:
Have you heard the news already?
Have you had lunch already?
vi) In questions already expects a positive confirmatory reply i.e. Yes.
Have you finished already?
Yes, I have, I have finished already.
In questions yet is neutral, so the reply can be either positive or
negative- yes or no:
Haven't you finished yet?
Yes, I have. I have finished already.
No, I haven't. I haven't finished yet.
vii) Already is usually used with present perfect but it can be used with
other forms as well:
Guests have started arriving already.
It is 9 0' clock already.
7. Still
Still means 'even to this/that time'.74

i) It is chiefly used in affirmative and interrogative sentences:

The train is still at the station.
She is still waiting for her son.
Do you still believe in ghosts?
ii) Still is placed immediately after verb be, though with other verbs
there is an option:
They are still busy. (not, are busy sti II)
But,
He still loves her.
Or, He loves her still.
iii) Still, like yet, can be used in negative sentences to express surprise
or annoyance:
He still doesn't agree.
They still haven't finished!.
8. So far/uptill now
So far/uptill now takes present perfect, not simple past:
She hasn't written to me 50 far.
I haven't heard the news uptill now.
(But not, He didn't call me uptill now.)
9. Just
i) just is used with present perfect tense to indicate an action done
recently, i.e., in the immediate past:
The train has just got in. (i.e., The train got in a few minutes ago.)
We have just had lunch. (i.e., We had lunch a few minutes ago.)
ii) just is usually used in affirmative and interrogative sentences. It is
not used in negative sentences. We don't say:
He hasn't just left for home.75

iii) just is placed between has or have and the past participle:
He has just finished the work. (not, He just has finished the work.)
They have just got married. (not, They have got just married.)
iv) In a question just is placed before the past participle:
Hasn't Sachin just broken the record held by Haynes? (not, Hasn't
just ... )
v) just meaning 'exactly/precisely' is used before a noun phrase/clause.
It is just 7 0' clock.
 This is just what I wanted.
vi) just meaning 'at this/that very moment' is placed after the verb be:
He is just about to speak. (not, He is about just to speak)
Her new novel is just out.
vii) justmeaning 'onlylbarely' is placed after the verb 'to be' or before an
infinitive.
He just managed to catch the train.
She went home just to see her mother.
10. Present perfect and adverb of time
The present perfect form does not occur with an adverb or adverb phrase
denoting ti me:
He passed the examination last year. (not, has passed)
They left this place a week ago. (not, have left)
11 . Adverb of time and preposition
No preposition is used before an adverbial phrase of time.
He came here this morning. (not, in this morning)
She will get back next day. (not, on next day)
He worked hard all day/night. (not, on all day/night)
I was busy all morning/evening. (not, in all morning/evening)76

5.7.2 Adverbs of place

1 i) adverb of place + else
somewhere else, nowhere else, anywhere else
Here else is used to avoid an inconvenient construction-some other place/
any other place/no other place:
She has gone to some other place.
She has gone somewhere else.
Is there any other place we can go to?
Can we go anywhere else?
ii) somewhere/anywhere
a) somewhere, like some, is used in affirmative sentences:
He will get a job somewhere. (not, anywhere)
b) Anywhere, like any, is used in negative and interrogative sentences:
I didn't see her anywhere. (Not, somewhere)
Did you see her anywhere? (not, somewhere)
2. There
We distinguish between two uses of there viz., as an adverb, and as an
introductory
there. The latter is called 'introductory' because it is used just to introduce a
sentence. It is also called 'empty there' because it does not contribute to
meaning. It
is used to denote existence, not place, so it is different from there as an adverb
of
place:
There is a problem. ('empty there')
I kept the book there. (adverb of place)
i) The empty subject there can be followed by either a singular or a plural
form of the verb be, or verbs like seem, appear etc.
The choice depends on the 'number' of the complement of be.
There are at least three issues.77

There has been an attempt to blow up the building.

There seems to be a problem.
ii) A sentence cannot begin with there when the subject is definite or known
already:
There is the temple on the hill.
But we can say:
There is a temple on the hill.
3 . Direct/Directly
 i) Direct means, without interrupting one's journey/going straight:
This train goes to Delhi direct.
We drove direct to the bride's home.
ii) Directly means 'at once/without delay':
I will be at my uncle's directly.
4. First/Firstly
i) First is an adjective and an adverb as well.
Firstly is an adverb only, not an adjective.
ii) both are used in enumeration, i.e., in a list of reasons or arguments:
first, secondly, thirdly, lastly, finally etc.
In current English first is usually preferred to firstly.
Note: a) First/firstly is followed by secondly/thirdly etc.
b) In technical use first/firstly/secondlyetc. is often replaced by one,
two three:
We need to consider this product because of three reasons. One, the
price is cheap. Two, installation costs are low and three, there is
provision for after sales service.
c) first/firstly/secondly/one/two etc. is always separated from the
sentence by a comma:78

John may kindly be excused this time on three counts:

First, he is a minor.
Secondly, he is an orphan.
Thirdly, it is his first offence.
iii) first (adverb) is used when it means 'before anyone or anything else':
She came first in the exam. (not, firstly)
He reached the station first. (not, firstly)
iv) first (adverb) is used when it means 'for the first time':
When was English first introduced in India? (not, firstly)
v) first (adverb) is used when it expresses preference in general or to
something else:
We are human beings first. (not, firstly)
You ought to resign from this party first. (not, firstly)
5.7.3 Adverbs of degree
1. Much/very/very much
i) Very is used to modify adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree:
1. He works very hard. (adverb))
2. She is very tired. (adverb))
3. This is very interesting. (adjective)
4. He is very wise. (adjective)
In none of these, can very be replaced by much.
ii) Much or very much is used before a past participle when it is part of the
passive
verb:
1. He was much surprised at the news. (not, very surprised)
2. This poem has been very much admired. (not, very admired)
3. His new novel has been much criticised. (not, very criticised)
4. He is very much loved and respected in our village. (very loved)79

Note: Much/very much is used before amused,. impressed, distressed, liked,

disliked, and shocked.
I was much amused to hear about his adventures. (not very amused)
The audience was much impressed with the performance. (not, very impressed)
iii) Very much is used to modify affirmative verbs:
He likes classical music very much.
She loves this poor boy very much.
Very much is not generally used to modify negative verbs, though one can
occasionally say:
I don't like pop music very much.
iv) Much meaning 'a lot' is used to modify a negative verb:
He doesn't eat much.
She doesn't talk much.
In the affirmative much is very often replaced by a lot or good deal:
He eats much. (He eats a lot).
He talks much (He talks a lot).
v) The very and much the are used before superlative degree:
He is the very best boy in the class.
He is much the best boy in the class.
In this construction much comes before the, but very comes after the:
much the tallest, the very tallest
Note: the very (adjective)
The very can be used as an adjective meaning exactly or precisely:
This is the very book I wanted to get.
The is always used before very as an adjective.
vi) Much (but not very) is used with comparative adjectives and adverbs too:
This house is much smaller than that. (comparative adjective)80

She runs much faster than John. (comparative adverb)

2. Too/very
i) too + adjective/adverb denotes excess of a quality, i.e., in a higher
degree than is proper or necessary, so it is used in a negative sense:
Your coat is too long. (longer than it should be)
He speaks too quickly. (more quickly than he should)
ii) very + adjective/adverb
Very is an intensifier, it has no inherent positive or negative sense:
I'm very glad to see you. (not, too glad)
She types very carefully. (not, too carefully)
They are very poor. (not, too poor)
iii) too + adjective/adverb + infinitive
In this construction, too + adjective/adverb expresses cause and the
infinitive, a negative result:
1. She is too busy to worry about these matters.
(She is so busy that she can't worry about these matters.)
2. She runs too slowly to win the race.
(She runs so slowly that she can't win the race.)
This construction is not possible with an infinitive showing
positive result:
We don't say:
She is too rich to buy a car.
He is too wise_to solve this problem.
He runs too fast to win the race.
3. Too much
i) Too much and much too express excess:
It gives me too much pain.81

You eat too much.

It is much too painful.
ii) Very much denotes, beyond limit:
I love her very much.
Thank you very much.
4. Very/only too
They both denote willingness:
We will be only too glad to help you.
We will be very glad to help you.
5. Too/also/as well
i) They all mean 'in addition to':
He has got a scooter and a car too/also/as well.
ii) In informal style too or as well is preferred to also.
 He gave me food and money also.
He gave me food and money, too.
In speech, as well is often preferred to too.
He gave me food and money as well.
Note: Too or as well is usually placed after the word it modifies; there is a
comma
before too.
6. Too and either/neither/nor
i) Too is used when both the sentences are affirmative:
Sonia plays tennis.
Neeraja plays tennis, too.
ii) Either/neither/nor is used when both the sentences are negative:
He doesn't play tennis and she doesn't either.
He doesn't play tenn is and neither does she.82

Too is not used in negative sentences and either, neither or nor in

affirmative sentences.
We don't say:
He isn't rich and she isn't rich, too.
He is a leader and she is a leader either.
Note: Inversion of the subject and verb occurs when neither or nor is placed
at the beginning of a clause:
He isn't a doctor.
Neither is she. (not, neither she is)
They don't gossip about others.
Nor do we. (not, nor we do)
7. Enough
i) adjective/adverb + enough denotes a limit, i.e. to the right degree
sufficiently.
So it is used in a positive sense:
He is rich enough. (as rich as he should be)
I consider her wise enough. (as wise as she should be)
ii) adjective or adverb + enough + infinitive
In this construction adjective/adverb + enough expresses a 'cause' and the
infinitive 'a positive result':
1. He is rich enough to buy a new house.
(i.e. He is so rich that he can buy a new house.)
2. She is strong enough to bend this rod.
(i.e. She is so strong that she can bend this rod.)
We don't say:
She is poor enough to own a car.
He is weak enough to run fast.83

iii) Enough follows the adjective or adverb whereas too precedes it;
He was kind enough to help me.
He is too honest to tell a lie.
iv) Since too is negative in sense it takes any, but enough takes some
because it is positive:
He is too proud to listen to any advice
The room is spacious enough for some more chairs.
8. Little/a little
i) Little is used in a negative sense because it means 'not at all':
It is a little known fact that depression is curable. (not many know)
Little did I suspect that he would betray me. (I didn't suspect)
ii) A little is used in a positive sense because it means somewhat or to some
extent:
I have finished the work, so I feel a little relaxed now.
How about a little outing to cheer us up?
Note: The little is always used as an adjective, not as an adverb.
 The little child played with the flower.
9. Fairly/Rather
Both mean to a moderate degree, moderately, or not very.
i) Fairly is usually used with favourable adjectives or adverbs, so it expresses
one's liking or approval:
The sisters did fairly well in the exam.
i i) Rather is usually used with unfavourable adjectives or adverbs, so it
expresses one's dislike or disapproval:
Geography is fairly easy but Mathematics is rather difficult.
Pramila is fairly intelligent but Sujatha is rather dull.
We don't say:84

This problem is fairly perplexing.

The room is rather comfortable.
iii) Rather can be used with favourable adjectives or adverbs as well
when it means 'on the contrary', i.e., to make contrary additions to
remarks:
1. I was told that his is a bad film.
N0, it is rather good. (On the contrary, it is good)
2. He can be very nasty.
On the contrary. He was rather gentle with me.
iv) Rather is often used with favourable adjectives or adverbs when it
expresses a oned down version of very:
1. This story is very amusing. This story is rather amusing.
2. She is playing very well. She is playing rather well.
Fairly is never used in the sense of very.
Rather can be used with too:
1. This is room is rather too small for me.
Fairly can't be used with too and comparatives .
we don't say:
She is fairly too tall.
He is fairly better today.
10. So or so ... as
So is used before an adjective or adverb to express comparison:
As or 50 ... as is used in the negative
She is not 50 tall as her.
She is not as tall as her.
In the affirmative as ... as is used
M~ monkey is as intelligent as yours.85

(So ... as is not used in the affirmative, viz. She is so clever as her friends.)
11. Quite
i) Quite means completely or perfectly when it modifies non-gradable adjectives
or very strong adjectives or participles like these:
right, wrong, full, empty, dead, ready, unique, perfect
amazing, shocking, horrifying
1. It is quite right.
2. The hall is quite empty.
3. We are quite ready now.
4. Your remark is quite amazing.
5. I was quite shocked to hear the news.
In sentences I ike these quite heightens the effect on the adjectives or
participles it
modifies.
Note: a) Non-gradable adjectives I ike right or wrong take quite, not very.
1. That's quite right (not, very)
2. He is quite dead. (not, very)
b) Quite right/all right/quite all right
Quite right, and all right have the same meaning. They are interchangeable.
 Quite all right is substandard English. It is permissible only in vel) informal
style:
Oh, that's quite all right.
c) alright
This is not a standard spelling. The correct form is all right.
d) OK
In colloquial style all right is often replaced by OK:
1. Would you give me a lift, please? OK I will.
2. She has done OK in the exam.86

ii) Quite means not very, moderately, fairly, to a certain extent-when it modifies
gradable adjectives (i.e. such adjective as can be put into the comparative or
superlative form):
1. He is quite a good boy.
2. She is quite polite/gentle.
3. It is quite a long distance.
4. This is quite an amusing story.
In sentences like these quite has a reducing effect on the adjectives it modifies
and thus the adjective is scaled down from the expected norm, so quite disturbing
means 'less than very disturbing'.
Avoid using quite in the sense of very:
1. We admire Vikram Seth because he is a very good poet. (not, quite)
2. I am very sorry to hear the news of his death. (not, quite).
Note: a) quite/quite so
In spoken Engl ish yes is often replaced by quite or quite so to express agreement
with a remark:
It is very cold.
Quite/Quite so.
b) Quite is not used with a negative verb:
viz., It is not quite hot.
12. Hard, Hardly, Scarcely, Barely
i) Hard means with all one's force or strenuously:
1. His performance is far below average. He has to work hard. (not hardly)
2. I'm tryi ng hard to get a job. (not hardly)
ii) Hardly, scarcely, barely is negative in meaning because it means almost no/
not:
1. He hardly works.
2. He scarcely knows me.87

3. She can barely read and write.

iii) Because of its negative connotation hardly or/scarcely is used with any or
ever
not with some or never:
1. He has hardly any money. (not, some money)
2. He hardly ever helps anybody. (not, ever helps somebody)
5.7.4 Ever and Never
i) Ever means 'at any time' when it is used in questions:
1. Have you ever seen a giraffe?
2. Have they ever visited us?
3. Did you ever visit Nepal?
ii) Ever, like never, means 'at no time' when it is used with a negative verb:
1. I haven't ever been to Mandu.
2. He hasn't ever been in an aeroplane.
3. She hasn't ever tried rasgulas.
negative verb + ever is equivalent to affirmative verb + never.
I haven't ever been on an elephant.
Or, I have never been on an elephant.
Note: never + ever
Sometimes never + ever is used instead of not + ever.
I have never ever eaten a frog.
Or, I haven't ever eaten a frog.
iii) Ever is placed after a subject in question:
1. Has your rabbit ever eaten your carrots? (not, has ever your. ..)
2. Do you ever sleep in the class? (not, do ever you ... )
iv) Ever is placed after a verb in a negative statement:
1. I haven't ever seen the ocean. (not, ever haven't seen)88

2. He doesn't ever come late for lunch. (not, ever doesn't come)
v) Ever like any is not used in a positive reply to a question:
Have you ever climbed a mountain?
- Yes, I have. (not, I have ever)
vi) Ever can be used in affirmative sentences expressing doubt or condition:
1. I don't think he ever helps his old parents. (not, never)
2. If she ever goes to England she will see the British museum. (not, never)
vii) Ever can be used with comparatives (after than) or superlatives.
1. She is happier now than ever.
2. He is the finest gentleman (that) I have ever met.
viii) Never is used with an affirmative verb:
1. He has never climbed Mount Everest. (not, hasn't ever)
2. They have never visited us. (not, haven't ever)
ix) Never is used in questions expressing surprise:
1. Have you never been to the new temple?
2. Have you never watched a football match in a stadium?
Note: a) ever/never
Of the two ever is the more useful in questions:
1. Have you ever had an accident?
2. Have you ever seen a rainbow?
b) The response to a question with ever can be either positive or negative
because it is neutral:
Have you ever played in the sea?
- Yes, I have. - No, I never have.
However, a question with never expects a positive reply.
1. Have you never seen the inside of an aeroplane?89

- Yes, I have.
2. Have you never caught a cold?
- Yes, I have.
Very rarely, one may be surprised by a negative reply:
Have you never consulted a dictionary?
No, I never have.
5.7.5 Interrogative adverbs
When a question begins with an interrogative adverb, inversion of the subject and
verb takes place:
1. Why are you sad? (not, you are)
2. How is he today? (not, he is)
We don't say:
Where you are going?
When you will go home?
Notice that it is not the presence of an interrogative adverb but the subject verb
inversion that makes a sentence interrogative.
5.7.8 No any, none
They are used as adverbs as well:
1. I can walk no farther than the bus stop.
2. I can't go any further now.
3. Are you any better now?
4. She is none the worse for the accident.
5. He is none the wiser for your advice.
In a sentence like these no or none means 'in no degree or not at all', and any
 means 'in any degree at all'.
Note: a) Some is not used as an adverb, instead we use somewhat
Is she somewhat better now? (not, Is she some better now?)90

b) no+different
Since different implies a kind of comparison, no as an adverb is used to premodify
it. In this construction no means’ in no degree, or not at all”.
So it has the same meaning as none.
This song is no different from that one.
5.8 Conclusion
This unit has given you a fairly detailed idea about the usage of adverbs in
English.
5.9 Unit end Questions
1 Give the functions of Adverbs.
2 Name the kinds of Adverbs with examples.91

Unit – 6
Prepositions
Structure
6.0 Objective
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Definition
6.3 Kinds of Prepositions
6.3.1 Simple prepositions
6.3.2 Complex prepositions
6.4 Prepositions: Meanings/Relationships
6.5 Prepositions: Position
6.6 Prepositions: Meanings and Usage
6.6.1 About
6.6.2 Above
6.6.3 Across
6.6.4 After
6.6.5Against
6.6.6 Among (see Between)
6.6.7 As
6.6.8 At
6.6.9 Before
6.6.10 Behind
6.6.11Beside
6.6.12 Besides
6.6.13 Between and among92

6.6· 14 But and but for

6.6.15 By
6.6. 16 By and in or on
6.6.17 During
6.6.18 For
6.6.19 For and since
6.6.20 From
6.6.21 From and since
6.6.22 In
6.6.23 At, in, on
6.6.24 In and on
6.6.25 In and within
6.6.26 In and with
6.6.27 Into
6.6.28 In and into
6.6.29 Of
6.6.30 Of, from, or with
 6.6.31 Off
6.6.32 On
6.6.33 Opposite and in front of
6.6.34 Over
6.6-35 On, over, and above
6.6.36 Owing to or due to
6.6.37- To
6.6. 38 To, and till or until
6.6.39 Under93

6.6.40 With
6.6.41 By and with
6.6.42 Without
6.6.43 Within
6.7 Conclusion
6.8 Unit end Questions
6.0 Objective
In this unit we shall give you a detailed analysis of the various preposition as
used
in English.
6.1 Introduction
Prepositions form an important component both in Hindi and in English while in
Sanskrit most of prepositions get expressed in the appropriate of the श द प
6.2 Definition
A prepositon is a word usually placed before a noun or pronoun to show place,
time, cause, purpose, or means:
He lives in Delhi.
I will meet you at 6 p.m.
You need to leave early in order to arrive on time.
6.3 Kinds of Prepositions
i) simple
Simple prepositions consist of only one word:
in, at, on, for etc.
ii) complex or compound
Complex or compound prepositions consist of more than one word:
In front of, due to, owing to, instead of etc.94

6.3.1 Simple prepositions

aboard behind like/unlike save
about below minus since
above beneath near than
across beside notwithstanding through
after besides of throughout
against between off till/until
along beyond on/upon times
amid but opposite to
amidst by out/outside toward(s)
among despite over under/underneath
amongst down past up
around during per versus
as for plus via
at from with within
atop in round without
before inside sans worth
bar/barring concerning considering including/excluding
except/excepting following pending
Note: a) times is used as a preposition in multiplication:
Ten times ten is hundred.
b) atop, sans, save. These prepositions are rarely used in current English.
c) Versus is a latin preposition which means against-somebody/something.
6.3.2 Complex prepositions
s to
onto
as for
out of
into
upto95

according to
along with
away from
because of
but for
by means of
by reason of
by way of
by virtue of
in the light of
with regard to
in front of
due to/owing to
for the sake of
in favour of
in light of (American)
in spite of
in search of
in quest of
in the event of
in view of
with reference to
in addition to
in lieu of
instead of
in accordance with
in course of
in order to
on behalf of
together with
with an eye to
with a view to
with respect to
6.4 Prepositions: Meanings/Relationships
A number of prepositions express the same or similar meaning with a noun or
pronoun as their object.The same preposition may also express different
relationships. Some examples illustrating this are given below.
i) location
in, on, at, inside, within
There was a big commotion in the restaurant.
What were you doing inside the room?
Trust no one within these four walls.
Seetha is at home in your company.
ii) mode of transport
by, in on
He goes to school on foot.
She was sent back on horseback.
I prefer travelling by road.96

He came here in a Maruti Gypsy.

 iii) cause
because of, on account of, from, out of, for ... of, of
Raju had to stop formal education because of the need to support his family.
On account of heavy rains there have been widespread landslides this year.
Sheela hid her puppy forfear of her parents.
Out of curiosity the litttle girl opened the box.
People have been dying of a mysterious epidemic in the capital.
iv) subject matter
about, on, regarding
a book regarding corruption in high places.
a talk on linguistics
the discussion on drug abuse
6.5 Prepositions: Position
i) preposition + noun or pronoun
pre means before, so prepositions are usually placed before a noun or pronoun at
home, about him, on the table
ii) noun or pronoun + preposition
A preposition can also occur at the end of the sentence as in the following
constructions:
a) question-word questions .
A preposition placed before a question-word in an interrogative sentence changes
its position. It is usually placed at the end of a question particularly in spoken
English:
The structure of such questions is
question-word + verb + subject + preposition
What is this box for?97

We don't say:
For what is this box?
Similarly:
In which room did you sleep?
Which room did you sleep in?
At whom are you looking?
Whom are you looking at?
From where does he come?
Where does he come from?
b) relative clause
A preposition placed before a relative pronoun changes its position. It is placed
at
the end of the relative clause (adjective clause):
The house in which I live is small.
The house I live in is small.
The people to whom I am talking are total strangers.
The people I am talking to are total strangers.
Note: In such relative clauses the relative pronoun (which, whom) is usually left
out.
c) exclamations
In exclamations too a preposition is moved to the end of the sentence:
What a world we live in! (not, In what ... )
What a fellow to travel with! (not, With what ... )
d) passive voice
In the passive construction the preposition is placed at the end of the sentence:
The case is being looked into.
Such a situation can't even be thought of.
Who was this symphony composed by?98

Note: A preposition is to be placed before a noun, because pre means before

insists
the prescriptive grammarian. But in current English a sentence ending in a
 preposition is considered quite idiomatic; Latin norms are a thing of the past.
6.6 Prepositions: Meanings and Usage
Prepositions have a remarkable capacity for expressing a variety of meanings. So
it
is necessary to know which preposition to use and in which sense in a particular
construction .
6.6.1 About
i) in connection with
1. He told me all about the accident.
2. He is careless about his health.
3. What are you talking about?
ii) subject matterlconcerning
That is a book about wildlife.
Note: compare with on.
This is a book on grammar.
iii) approximate time
Mother got back at about 9 p.m.
iv) moving in several directions (here and there)
She has been travelling about Europe.
Note: about and around are interchangeable in this sense:
He has been travelling about/around India.
6.6.2 Above
i) a position higher than something
The water rose above her neck.
ii) higher in rank, position, superior to
A field marshal is above a general in rank.99

iii) greater in number or value or weight or temperature

1. They gangsters were above ten in number.
2. This fish is above five kilos.
3. The temperature is above 39° Celsius today.
iv) beyond the reach of something
His honesty is above suspicion.
She is above such pettiness.
6.6.3 Across
i) on the other side of something
Our college is across the main road.
ii) moving from one side to the other side of something
This boat will carry you across the river.
iii) extending from one side to the other side
There is a rainbow across the mountains.
6.6.4 After
i) time (later than)
She came here after 8 a.m./breakfast.
I am going home the day after tomorrow.
ii) continuously, without stopping
Most people catch the same bus to work day after day.
I am monitoring the progress of the work week after week.
iii) in a definite sequence:
T comes after 5 in alphabetical order.
Your turn comes after mine.
iv) in search of something (in phrasal verbs be after and run after)
She always runs after money.100

He is now after a new job.

v) about (about the news or well-being of someone)
John asked after you and your family yesterday.
vi) in the style of/on the model of
The constitution of India is after the British model.
 vii) cause (because of)
After all that I have heard of him I can't wait to meet him.
viii) concession (in spite of)
After all we've been through, we still love each other.
6.6.5Against
i) in opposition to
This policy is against the poor people.
She is swimming against the current.
ii) in contact with
He is putting a ladder against the wall.
iii) comparison or contrast
Workers' wages are low in India as against those elsewhere.
There were eighty murders this year against ninety last year.
iv) in prevention of something
This is an effective injection against cholera.
6.6.6 Among (see Between)
6.6.7 As
Comparison
She is as tall as him.
He is as old as me.101

6.6.8 At
i) place (a definite point in space)
She is at home.
He is atthe cinema.
ii) place of learning or work or worship
She is at Oxford.
They are at office.
They are at church.
Note: In American English in is usually used instead of at with a place of
learning:
They are in school.
She is in Oxford.
In British English in means inside a building:
They are in school i.e. They are inside the school building.
iii) direction (towards)
He is gazing at the sky.
He rushed at the enemy.
iv) reaction
I am delighted at your success.
He was alarmed at the news.
We were amused at his funny stories.
v) standard or norm (used with a noun or adjective)
He is a genius at chess.
She is hopeless at tennis.
He is clever at cards.
vi) measurement (price or rate)
Bananas sell at ten rupees a dozen.102

The train is running at 80 kilometers per hour.

vii) state/condition
They are at play now.
He is at work.
Note: at indicates a temporary activity.
in indicates a permanent occupation. (He is in the army.)
viii) age
At 90, Shridhar is hale and hearty. (at the age of ninety)
Noam Chomsky became famous at 27. (at the age of twenty seven)
ix) time (point in time)
at + clock time (without the)
at + dawn or night (without the)
at noon or midday or midnight (without the)
The plane lands at 7 0' clock.
He left for France at night. (not, at the night)
Note: in is used with morning or evening or afternoon preceded by 'the.'
In the evening we will visit the zoo. (not, in evening).
6.6.9 Before
i) time (earlier than; opposite of after)
I can't leave home before breakfast.
We buy a lot of toys a few days before Christmas.
ii) position (in front of; opposite of behind)
He knelt before the king.
iii) in the presence of someone
The accused stood before the judge.
The clown performed before the audience.103

iv) order or arrangement (opposite of after)

The salutation comes after the address in a business letter.
Note: Byand Before
by means, not later than or upto the time indicated, before means earlier
than the time indicated.
Finish the work by 90' clock. (not later than 90' clock)
Finish the work before 9 0' clock. (by 8.59)
6.6.10 Behind
i) position (at the back of)
The hills are beh/ndthe clouds.
There is a park behind my house.
ii) comparison (less than)
India is not far behind developed countries in science and technology.
ii) in favour of, or support of
The whole nation is behind its army.
6.6.11Beside
i) next to, or by the side of
He is sitting beside his wife.
The hut is beside the river.
ii) in comparison with
Beside your earlier performance, this is a vast improvement.
iii) not relevant to
Your argument is beside the point.
6.6.12 Besides
in addition to
There are nine students here, besides the teacher.104

We cannot go-we have no torches. Besides it's raining.

6.6.13 Between and among
i) between + two people or things
Between is usually used with reference to two people or things:
Aligarh is between Lucknow and Delhi.
We have to choose between two evi Is.
ii) between + more than two people or things
a) between is used with reference to more than two people or things whe modified
by a definite numeral:
He divided his property equally between his four sons.
b) between is also used with reference to more than two when mutual or reciprocal
relationship is indicated:
There is a treaty of friendship between the five great powers.
(among is not acceptable here).
iii) between + noun + and + noun
And is always used to join two nouns or pronouns, so and cannot be replaced by to:
Please see me between 4 p.m. and 5 p. m.
(not, Please see me between 4 p.m. to 5 p,m.)
iv) among + more than two people or things
among is usually used with reference to more than two people or things a definite
number is not mentioned:
She is happy to be among her people again.
He likes to work among little children.
v) among + collective noun
among is also used for more than two people or things considered as a group:
He distributed sweets among the class.
She is standing among the crowd.105

(between is not possible here).

6.6· 14 But and but for
i) but meaning 'except' is a preposition. It is not a conjunction:
None but him can tackle this poblem. (not, but he)
None but me passed the test. (not, but I)
Note: but indicating contrast is a conjunction:
John is tall but Rosie is short.
His writing is good but not his spelling.
ii) but for meaning 'without or except' for and expressing a negative condition is
a preposition:
But for your cooperation I couldn't have arranged this function.
(If you had not cooperated I would not have been able to arrange this function)
6.6.15 By
i) means of travel or transport
I am going to Sri nagar by bus.
i i) a person as an agent or doer
'Adonis' is a poem by Shelley.
'Shakuntala' was written by Kalidasa.
iii) energy; power; natural phenomenon as an agent
In the 18th century the streets of London were lighted by oil lamps.
He was struck by lightning.
vi ) part of one's body or clothes
I seized him by the collar.
She caught her by the hair.
v) means of doing something (by + gerund)
She earns a lot by singing folk songs.106

He amuses himself by drawing cartoons.

vi) mode of payment
He gets his salary by cheque.
Note: We make payment in cash or kind. (not by)
vii) unit of measurement (price or rate)
we buy bananas by the dozen.
They are paid wages by the week.
Note: the is always used with a unit of measurement:
We buy butter by the pound. (not by a pound)
viii) result (because of)
The payment was made by mistake.
We can achieve great success by will power.
ix) extent
We won the match by 3 goals to nil.
They won the match by 7 runs.
x) profession
She lives by her pen.
xi) accompaniment
She was accompanied on the guitar by Eric.
xii) division or multiplication of numbers
4 divided by 2 equals 2.
5 multiplied by 3 equals 15.
xiii) dimensions or size
This room is 10ft by 20 ft. (i.e. 10ft x 20 ft)
xiv) route or passage (via or through)
He went to Sri nagar by the Iawahar tunnel.107

He got a promotion by the back door.

xv) according to (by clock/watch)
It is just 9 by my watch.
xvi) at the side of (beside)
She came and sat by her husband.
xvii) with respect to (someone's birth, marital status, or profession.)
She is an Indian by birth.
She is an Italian by marriage.
She is a politician by profession.
xviii) time (before)
He can finish his work by 4 p.m.
He ought to get back by tomorrow.
6.6. 16 By and in or on
i) by + means of travel or transport
By is used when a mode of transport (conveyance) is not modified by an a
adjective or adjective clause:
We travel by car. (not in)
ii) In is used when a means of transport is modified by an article, adjective or
adjective clause:
She came in her own car. (not by)
We set out in a small boat. (not by)
The bus she was travelling in fell into a river. (not by)
On is used instead of in with a bicycle or cycle:
He goes to school on cycle. (not in)
by + noun is always in singular form, in + noun can be in the singular or plural
form:
They came by car/bus/boat. (not cars/buses/boats)108

They came in a big bus. (not by)

They came in several big buses. (not by)
iii) on is used with foot or horseback or pony (without a or the):
He came here on foot/horseback. (not, on the horseback)
iv) on is used with a large public vehicle as a means of travel:
They are now on the plane to Japan. (not in)
They met on the Delhi- Mumbai Express. (not in)
6.6.17 During
i) whole period of time (from the beginning to the end)
I stayed in Solan during the winter.
ii) within a period of time mentioned
He had had a lot of opposition during his career as the director.
iii) at a particular time mentioned
Robbers broke into her house during the small hours of the night.
6.6.18 For
i) purpose/beneficiary
This is a surprise gift for you.
Note: for indicating purpose is also used before an indirect object:
He bought a engagement ring for her.
She made coffee for us.
ii) function
What's this gadget for?
It's a machine for washing clothes.
 iii) destination
This is a train for Jhansi.
They are passengers for Pune.109

iv) price
I bought this sari for Rs. 725/-
v) exchange
He exchanged his old cycle for a new one.
vi) choice,preference or liking
She has a taste for classical music.
He has a liking for tasty dishes.
vii) support (opposite of against)
The External Affairs Ministry is for a new foreign policy.
They are working for the consensus candidate.
viii) cause (because of)
They are dancing for joy.
Kerala is famous for its hospitality.
ix) concession (in spite of)
For all his wealth he is not happy.
For all her qualifications Rajani fared poorly at the interview.
(for all + noun is used in this construction)
x) representative of or abbreviation of something
He is speaking for his country; not for himself.
What does CRY stand for?
xi) distance
She walks (for) two kilometres every day.
Note: for denoting a specific distance is usually omitted; for is not
omitted when a vague distance is indicated:
She walks two miles every day.
but110

This river flows down for miles and miles. (not, flows down miles
xii) time (duration)
I wi II be with you for an hour or so.
Note: a) While denoting a definite period of time for is usually
omitted:
The meeting lasted three hours. (not, for three hours)
Would you wait a minute, please? (not, for a minute)
b) for is not omitted when it indicates that an action began in the pas
terminated or extends into the present (till now):
She (has) lived here fortwenty years.
(not, It has been raining a week.)
c) for is not omitted when the duration is vague. So it is not omitted
in phrases like for hours; days; weeks; months; years; centuries; for
ages; forever.
xii) time (whole period of time is mentioned)
He stayed at home for the summer. (i .e. from the begi nn i ng to the
end)
6.6.19 For and since
i) for and since are used with present perfect, present perfect progressive, past
perfect, and past perfect progressive forms.
Present Perfect is used for an action that began at a definite time in the past
and
extends into the present (ti II now):
He has lived in India for ten years.
India have not won the world cup in cricket since 1983.
I have been here for half an hour/since 9' clock.
Present perfect progressive is used for an action that began at a definite time in
the
 past and is continuing and may extend into the future as well:
He has been living in India forten years.111

He has been living in Belgaum since 1980.

She has been waiting here for one hour/since 8' 0 clock. (not, she is waiting)
Note: a) for or since is not used with a simple present or progressive tense:
We don't say:
She is absent for a week.
It is raining since Tuesday. .
b) for (but not since) is used with simple past tense when it indicates that an
action
began in the past and terminated:
She worked here for twenty years. (She doesn't work here now.)
ii) for is used of a period or length of time, since is used of a point of time:
Lisy has been working here for 10 years since1988.
It has been raining for weeks since the end of June.
People have been demanding a e.B.1. inquiry for a long time.
We have been waiting to see you since morning.
6.6.20 From
i) starting point (place)
From Delhi I will be flying to Hyderabad.
The procession is from the Boat Club to India Gate.
ii) starting point in time
She is on leave from 15 January.
He lived in Shillong from 1980 to 1990.
Note: from ... taltill expresses duration, so does from ... through used more in
American English.
There is a small difference in meaning, however:
from ... to/till means, from a point upto, whereas from ... through means, from a
point upto and including.
We work from Monday to Saturday. (Saturday not included)112

We work from Monday through Friday. (Friday included)

iii) origin or source
This gentleman is from Vienna.
This is a letter from my friend.
This is a quotation from 'Hamlet'.
iv) separation or removal
We draw water from a nearby tank.
Leaves are falling from this tree.
They regularly borrow books from the public library.
v) distance (between two places)
It is more than two kilometres from here to the top of the hill.
The bus stop is just a kilometre from my house.
vi) lower limit (of number, price, weight)
She has to type from 20 to 25 letters a day.
Apples are available from Rs 30 to Rs 60 a dozen.
vii) cause
He is suffering from fever/cold.
The shoot-out victim died from his injuries.
vi i i) protection/prevention
He saved the child from kidnappers.
This new mask reduces risk from air pollution.
ix) point of view
From a financial point of view your project is not viable.
x) considering or judging
From his appearance he seems to be innocent.
From what they say it seems to be a nice place.113
xi) material
Soap is made from coconut oil.
Most Ayurvedic medicines are made from herbs.
6.6.21 From and since
i) from and since indicate a point in time:
He has been ill since Monday.
He wi II be absent from Monday.
ii) since is always used with reference to past time, not present or future time:
She has been watching TV since 7 p.m. (not, from)
He has written ten letters since morning. (not, from)
from is used with reference to present/future time as well:
He will report for work from Monday. (not since)
iii) from is used to indicate the time at which an action starts:
The tournament will be on from Monday.
iv) from is also used in combination with to or til/:
She has to work from 9 a. m. to/till5 p.m.
(since is not possible here).
6.6.22 In
i) place (within an area, i.e., within enclosures or boundaries)
They are working in the fields.
He lives in Agra.
In is always used with a large town; city; state; province; country; continent;
world, or universe.
ii) place (indicating volume or capacity of a container)
In the cage, we saw a hungry lion.
There is milk in this bottle.114

The pronunciation of words is given in a dictionary.

In a newspaper, one often gets to read views, not news.
iii) profession or occupation
He is in the army/airforce.
She is in business/politics.
Iv) state or condition (static)
She is in the canteen.
He is in troublelin a spot.
Everything was in a mess when the new vice- chancellor took over,
He is in good/poor health.
v) othes or colours
Today, she is in jeans/tights/shorts.
They are all in black/white/red.
vi) form, shape or order
They are standing in rowslcircles.
This novel will be telecast in thirteen episodes.
The runs were being scored in ones and twos.
Arrange the names in order of merit.
vii) medium
He is writing the answers in ink.
He can speak in English.
viii) means of travel/transport
He came here in a red car.
We were taken to the venue in 3 buses.
ix) mode of payment
They are paid wages in cash/kind.115

Payment will be made in dollar/rupee.

x) quality of a person mentioned
You will always find a friend in Mr Ray.
The poet in her is alive.
xi) part of something
 There are 11 players in a team.
There are twelve months in a year.
xii) reference (about)
India is rich in manpower.
He is weak in mathematics.
xiii) time (during a period of time)
She got back in the morning/evening.
He will finish his new novel in a week/month.
xiv) time (within a period/length of time)
You can learn Engl ish in a few months.
She will leave for home in a few hours.
Note: a) within means 'before the time ends'.
He will come here within a few hours.
b) in and after
In meaning after or at the end of is used with a period oftime, after not used in
this
sense:
He will leave for home in a few minutes/in an hour. (not, after)
After is used with a point of time.;
He will leave for home after lunch/after 2 p.m.
('In' is not possible in this sense)116

6.6.23 At, in, on

i) at indicates a definite point within an area:
He is at home.
Call me at my office.
ii) in indicates an area within enclosures/boundaries:
He is in the building.
She lives in England/Europe.
iii) in indicates volume as well:
There are some eggs in this basket.
I saw a cellular phone in his pocket.
(iv) on indicates surface:
There are pictures on the wall. ~
There are cats on the roof.
Drinks are on the field now.
v) at + noun (temporary activity)
He is at play. temporary activity
They are at work.
vi) in + noun (permanent activity/occupation/profession)
She is in politics. permanent activity
They are in the army.
6.6.24 In and on
i) on + day or date
He will go home on Sunday.
I was born on September 5.
ii) on + time + date
The delegation lands on the morning of March 5.117

The ceremony starts on the even i ng of Apri I 7.

But note: The delegation lands in the morning. (without date)
iii) on + day + time
They are arriving on Sunday morning.
I begin the work on Monday evening.
But note:They are arriving in the evening.
iv) in time/on time
In time means,a little before the time scheduled or arranged, on time means,
strictly according to a time- table arranged already:
He got back in time for lunch.
The train arrived on time.
v) on a chair (without arms) or in a chair (with arms)
He is sitting on a chair, listening to the news.
He is sitting in an armchair, looking quite relaxed.
6.6.25 In and within
i) in indicates at the end of a period of time:
He will get back home in a week. (at the end of the week)
ii) within indicates before the end of a period of time:
He will get back home within a week. (before the end of the week)
6.6.26 In and with
i) with + a pen or a pencil
With is used before pen and pencil to express means or instruments when these
nouns are preceded by a:
She is writing with a pen/pencil. (not, in a pen/pencil)
ii) in + pen or pencil
'pen' and 'pencil' without 'a' take in to express medium:
We often write in pencil/ball point pen. (not, with)118

6.6.27 Into
i) place (entrance or movement to a place inside from outside)
She came into my room without permission.
He is driving into the lake!
ii) change in shape or form
Translate this into English.
A caterpillar changes into a butterfly.
iii) change in state or condition
She got into trouble.
He flew into a rage.
6.6.28 In and into
i) in indicates a static position:
He is in his room. (not, into)
ii) into indicates motion or movement within an area from outside:
He came into my room. (not, in)
iii) in indicates a state or condition:
He is in a good mood. (not, into)
iv) into indicates a change in state condition:
He flew into a rage. (not, in)
6.6.29 Of
i) relationship or ownership
He is a cousin of mine.
She is a friend of Rani's.
ii) possession of a quality
He is a man of letters.
He is a man of his word.119

This is work is of the highest calibre.

iii) part of something
The key of this lock is missing.
The brake of this car is weak.
iv) part of whole (of an institution or organization) ./
Rajiv is a member of this club. ~
Mini is a teacher of this school. .
v) origin or source
The plays of Rabindranath Tagore are as great as his poems.
The people of this country are wise.
vi) cause
They died of cholera.
She is proud of her noble birth.
vii) concerning (about)
The results of the examination have not been announced yet.
John Smith is a teacher of English.
viii)measurement
She bought 5 kilos/pounds offish.
Give me a sheet of paper.
ix) distance
There is a swimming pool within 2 kilometres of my house.
This town is to the south of Patna.
x) time
Their first child was born within a year of their marriage.
I made many resolutions on the first of January.
xi) age120

He is a boy of eighteen (years).

xii) material
This is a house of stone.
This window is made of glass.
Note: with, not of is used to indicate an ingredient:
We make sweets with sugar.
xiii) collection of people or things
Here is a bunch of keys that will unlock any door.
This is a team of international players.
6.6.30 Of, from, or with
i) of + noun denotes a material used in the process of making something:
This door is made of glass.
These chairs are made of wood.
ii) from + noun, too denotes a material used in the process of making something
but the material changes its form as a result:
Butter is made from milk.
Wine is made from grapes.
iii) with + noun indicates an ingredient i.e., one of the materials used in making
something:
We can make a house with brick.
Pudding is made with milk. (not,of or from)
6.6.31 Off
i) separation (away from something)
She fell off the horse/ladder.
Keep off the grass, please.
ii) at a distance from something121

My house is off the main road.

iii) state or condition (not engaged in an activity)
He is off duty now.
It is off season now for coolers.
Off is the opposite of on
Turn off the light.
Switch off the fan, please.
6.6.32 On
i) static position (in contact with the surface; touching something)
There is a cap on his head.
There are cups on the table.
ii) close to a place
There is a market here on the main road.
There are trees on either side of this canal.
iii) means of travel (public vehicle in transit)
they are on the train to Puri.
He is on the plane to Amsterdam.
note: in/on
in indicates a static position, on indicates movement/in transit
She is sitting in the bus/plane.
She is on the plane to Bangalore.
iv) poossessioti (havi ng)
I have no money on me at the moment.
V) means (with the help of an instrument)
she is playing rap music on the guitar.
I spoke to her on the telephone.122

vi) support oneself with the help of something

he has to live on a small pension.
students find it difficult to live on their meagre stipends.
vii) statee of being; professional activity
He is on tour today.
Thet are on holiday.
viii) cause
He has acquitted on the verdict of the jury.
The driver stopped the bus on my request.
We congratulated her on her success.
ix) direction
You can see the zoo on the left.
He pulled a dagger on the traveller.
there is now a focus on eradicating corruption in public life.
x) membership of an institution or organization (part of something)
He is on the staff of our college.
She is on the finance committee.
xi) concerning (about)
Everything you wanted to know on dinosaurs is here in this book.
This is a film on how to take good care of cats.
xii) time (on + day, date or special occasion)
She goes home on Sundays.
He will get back on the morning of June 5.
On weekends we go to the gym.
6.6.33 Opposite and in front of
i) opposite means on the other side123

There is a restaurant opposite my house.

The library is opposite the park.
ii) in front of indicates nearness (opposite of behind)
In front of the museum, there is a statue of a great man.
Right in front of the main building stands an old banyan tree.
6.6.34 Over
i) position (higher than; not in contact with the surface)
When it started drizzling, someone held an umbrella over our heads.
Many in our country have no roof over their heads.
over and above are interchangeable in this sense.
ii) position (in contact with, and covering someone or something)
There is a carpet over the floor.
She spread a blanket over her husband.
(above is not possible here).
iii) position (on the other side)
May I go over the lawns and collect my th i ngs?
Can we come overto your house this evening?
iv) position (from one side to the other)
There is a long bridge over this river.
v) in every part of something (allover + noun)
There is water allover the playing field.
The police conducted a search all over the premises.
vi) cause
The brothers often quarrel over their ancestral property.
 vii) control or authority
In this office there is no one over Mr Rao.124

The Chairman of the Board presided over the meeting.

viii) more than
This road is over 500 miles/kilometres long.
She is overforty now. (Over can be replaced by above in this sense)
ix) period of time (during)
We can sort out our problem over lunch/a cup of tea.
Think about what I told you, over the weekend.
6.6-35 On, over, and above
i) on indicates contact of one thing with another; in contact with, i.e., touching
a
thing: .
She placed her hand on his head.
The cups are on the table.
ii) over indicates absence of contact; not touching a thing i.e., higher than
something:
There is a spider over his head. (not on)
A lamp is hangi ng over the door. (not on)
ii) over and above can often be interchanged in this sense:
A plane is hovering over/above the field.
iii) Above, like over can mean more than (in price, age, or weight):
She is above twenty.
This suitcase weighs above 70 kilos.
6.6.36 Owing to or due to
Both are compound prepositions, meaning because of. They can come in any
position in the sentence:
1. The accident was due towing to the driver's carelessness.
1. Due to/owing to foggy weather, the flight was cancelled.
3. Her success due to/owing to her hard work is an inspiration for all.125

6.6.37- To
i) destination (towards)
They are going to school/college.
She is going to the market/hospital.
Note: to/from
to is the opposite of from because from means away from a place:
They are going home from school/college.
ii) direction (in the direction mentioned)
There is a river to the north of this town.
There is an ocean to the south of this country.
Note: to/on
to indicates direction, on indicates nearness (close to a place)
There are houses on either side of this road.
iii) person
I gave a ring to Mary, on her birthday.
They offered a job to John.
iv) place (from one place to another)
They are travelling from Karwar to Hampi.
A bee moves from flower to flower.
v) state or condition (change of state)
We were moved to tears by her story.
Here is a classic case of rags to riches.
vi) comparison
He prefers football to cricket. He is senior to me.
She prefers swimming to running.
Our team won the match by 3 goals to 2.126
 vii) rate
My car does 40 kilometres to the litre.
viii) about (approximate range)
He must be 4 to 5 years old.
This work will take 2 to 3 hours.
ix) concerning
You have a right to appeal against this judgement.
Voters should have a right to recall their representatives.
x) time (before)
It is 15 minutes to 9. It is a quarter to 9.
Note: a) past or after
past is used in British English: It is ten past nine.
In American English after is also used though past is the more frequent:
It is ten after nine.
b) to or of
to is used in British English: It is ten to nine.
of is used in American English. It is ten of nine.
xi) time (inclusion)
The exhibition will be open from1 a in the morning to 6 in
The market is open from Monday to Saturday .
6.6. 38 To, and till or until
i) from to (time or place)
from to construction is used for both time and place:
I work from 10 a.m to 4 p.m.
I am available from Wednesday to Friday.
Travelling from Agra to Iaipur by bus takes 6 hours.127

He keeps moving from place to place.

ii) from till or until (time)
from till or until is used only for time, not place:
He wanders from morning till evening.
(not, He wanders from street till street)
Note: Till and Until (time)
Both of them mean'up to the time specified', so there is no difference in meaning.
a) Till or Until: preposition of time
Both are used with a point in time, but till is usually preferred:
You can book your tickets from 3 p.m. till 5 p.m.
I may have to stay here till next week.
The current trend is to avoid until in sentences like these, particularly in the
from ...
till construction:
She waited here from nine to/till ten. (not, until)
b) Till or Until: conjunction of time
Both are used to express duration, so they answer the question-how long?
Until + subordinate clause is the more usual when the subordinate clause is placed
at the beginning of a sentence:
Until sufficient warning is given the police can't open fire. (not till)
The police can't open fire until sufficient warning is given.
Until you tell the truth I can't help you. (not till)
When a sentence begins with the main clause, both till and until are equally
acceptable:
Please wait here till/until the bus comes.
I have got to stay at home till/until father gets back.
6.6.39 Under
i) below something (indicates place or position)128

The mafl hid the files under his coat.

The guests are sitting under a tree.
ii) below (in rank or authority)
The council of ministers has to function under the Prime Minister.
In i) and ii), under is opposite of above/over
iii) below (a specified age)
This film is not meant for those under eighteen.
iv) state (of something or someone)
This road is under repair.
My house is sti II under construction.
v) according to
Under the rules, you can't get any concession.
Under the new legislation, age limit can be relaxed.
Your case is under consideration.
The situation is now under control.
6.6.40 With
i) in the company of
She has gone for a walk with her child.
He is living with his aunt.
Note: 'with a child' means 'in the company of one's/a child.
with child' means 'to be pregnant'.
ii) and or together with.
He likes bread with chicken curry.
She is suffering from fever with cough.
The swindler with all his associates, was arrested yesterday.
iii) possession (having a quality or characteristic)129

He is a boy with blue eyes.

This is a house with a garden.
iv) means (an inanimate noun as an instrument)
Remove the lid with an opener.
We can cut cloth with scissors.
His blood pressure has been kept under control with drugs.
v) ingredient (one of the materials used in making something)
We make a house with brick/stone.
We can make a cake with eggs.
vi) support (for)
We are with you in your struggle.
The whole nation stood with the government in its hour of crisis.
vii) opposition {against)
She had a quarrel with her neighbour last night.
India playa test match with England next week.
viii) reaction
He is angry with Mary/her.
Note: In British English with is always used when the cause or stimulus is a
person.
In American English at is the more usual preposition:
He is angry at Mary/her.
At is used in British English as well as in American English when the
cause of a reaction is not a person:
He is angry at the delay.
I am delighted at your success.
(with is not possible here).130

ix) separation
It is really painful to part with someone you love.
I can't afford to dispense with his services.
x) manner
The village headman listened to the farmers with patience.
She can speak English with ease.
Note: with + noun is equivalent to an adverb of manner:
Handle glass with care. (Handle glass carefully)
xi) cause
He is trembling with fear/cold.
xii) a member or employee of an organization
He is now with an insurance company.
iii) after
The meeting came to a close with a vote of thanks.
With these words I declare the function open.
xiv) concession (with all or only + noun)
With only a week to go you ought to work hard for your exam.
With all his financial liabilities he can't give me a loan.
xv) concerning (about)
He is pleased with his success.
She is angry with her children.
6.6.41 By and with
i) by + noun (to express the agent or doer in the passive)
By can be used with agent or doer, i.e. a person or a country, an institution, an
organization, a mechanical device or a natural phenomenon.
1. Floods were caused by heavy rain.131

2. He was struck by lightning.

3. This bill has been passed by Parliament.
4. The Test Match has been won by Australia.
5. This industry is controlled by the government.
6. The whole town was destroyed by fire.
(with is not acceptable in these sentences).
ii) with + noun (indicating an instrument)
The gardener cuts the grass with a lawn mower.
The sailor rowed the boat with a pair of oars.
He drove the nail into the wall with a hammer.
In these examples, with can be replaced by using, but not by by.
6.6.42 Without
i) not in the company of
She came here without her husband.
I can't live without my pets.
ii) absence of a quality
This old man is without any teeth/hair.
This is a sentence without sense.
iii) absence of means or instrument
We can't see without eyes.
A bird can't fly without wings.
iv) absence of material
We can't make an omelette without eggs.
(v) absence of means of travel or transport
We can't travel fast without a car/bus/train.
We can't fly to Ahmedabad without a plane.132

Note: without is the opposite of by (means of travel)

vi) absence of necessaries or comforts
We can't live without air/water/food.
Note: without (opposite of within) meaning 'outside' is archaic. Outside is used
instead in current English.
There is a river outside the town. (not without)
6.6.43 Within
i) time (before a specified period of time)
She got back within a month.
He is going to buy a car within a week.
Note: in and within
in indicates at the end of (after)
She got back in a week. (after a week)
 She got back within a week. (before a week)
ii) distance (not further than a specified place)
My college is within a mile/kilometre of the main road.
There is a tomb within 2 miles/kilometres of my house.
iii) limit (within limits)
This medicine is within the reach of even poor people.
These grapes are not within the reach of children.
6.7 Conclusion
We have made an indepth study of the preposition in English in this unit.
6.8 Unit end Questions
1. Name some of the prepositions of place and location with examples.
2 Differencriate between the usage of between- among, in – within, in-after,
by –with going examples.133

Unit – 7
Verbs
Structure
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definition
7.3 Kinds of Verb
7.2.1 Auxiliaries
7.3.2 Main-verbs
7.4 Auxiliaries
7.4. 1 Functions
7.4.2 Formation of question tags
7.5 Principal Auxiliaries: Usage
7.5.1 Be (am, is, are/ was, were)
7.5.2 Have
7.6 Modal Auxiliaries: Usage
7.6.1 Can/could
7.6.2 May/might
7.6.3Must
7-.6.4 Shall/should
7.6.5 Will/would
7.6.6 Ought to
7.7 Semi-Modals
7.7.1 Need
7.7.2 Dare134

7.7.3 Used to
7.8 Irregular Verbs
7.8.1 Forms
7.8.2 Verbs having different forms
7.8.3 Verbs having two forms
7.8 .4 Verbs having the same form
7.9 Conclusion
7.10 Unit end Questions
7.0 Objective
In this unit we shall give you an understanding of the kinds of verbs and model
auxiliaries.
7.1 Introduction
No sentences is generally complete without the use of verb. So the study of
verbs
is very important
7.2 Definition
A verb is a word or phrase indicating an action, event or state:
She teaches us English. - action
The accident happened at night. - event
 He is in poor health. - state
The verb is the most important part of a sentence. It is obligatory even in the
shortest of sentences:
Stop!
They left.
The stock markets fell.135

7.3 Kinds of Verb

Verbs can be broadly categorised into two, based on their function:
a) Main verbs (principal verbs)
read, write, eat, drink, etc.
b) Auxiliary verbs (helping verbs)
I do, have, can etc.
7.2.1 Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries are of three kinds:
a) Primary auxiliaries
be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being
have : has, have, had
do : do, does, did
b) Modal Auxiliaries (modal verbs)
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with another verb to express an idea such as
possibility which is not expressed by the main verb of the sentence viz., He could
come tomorrow. Modal auxiliaries are:
can - could, may - might, will- would
shall - should, must, ought (to)
c) Auxiliaries (Semi-modal/marginal auxiliaries)
need, dare, used (with to)
7.3.2 Main-verbs
All verbs other than auxiliaries are called main verbs: read, write, eat, drink,
etc.
These can be divided into two on the basis of how they form the simple past and
past participle:
a) Regular Verbs
The simple past and the past participle of regular verbs are formed by adding
d/edto the bare infinitive:136

simple present simple past/past participle

live lived (live + d)
love loved (love.s- d)
call called (call 1- ed)
pray prayed (pray + ed)
The simple past and the past participle forms of regular verbs are the same.
b) Irregular Verbs
The simple past and the past participle of irregular verbs are formed in a variety
of
ways:
simple present
go
give
take
sing
simple past
went
gave
took
sang
past participle
gone
given
 taken
sang
7.4 Auxiliaries
7.4.1 Functions
i) Auxiliaries are used primarily to show whether an action is complete, hacitual
or
continuous.
ii) Auxiliaries are also used in negation, interrogatives and emphatic statements.
iii) They are used in short answers to avoid the tedious repetition of words.
e.g. Do you like fish? Yes, I do./No, I don't.
Can you do this sum? Yes, I can./No, I can't.
An auxiliary verb allows the rest of the clause to be deleted.
Can you help me lift this box?
Yes, I can. (not, Yes I can help you lift this box.)137

7.4.2 Formation of question tags

A question tag or tag question is also called a tail question. The structure of a
question tag is:
auxiliary + subject (pronoun)
e.g. Isn't she?
The statement expresses an assumption and the question tag expresses
confirmation of the assumption. So such a statement has two parts:
1. Statement
2. Question tag
The structure of such a sentence is:
Statement Question Tag
Jane is tall. Isn't she?
You can't go for the show now. Can you?
They are on holiday. Aren't they?
A. Use of the auxiliary
i) A question tag always begins with an auxiliary verb, and not with a question-
word like who/what.
ii) A question tag is formed by repeating the auxiliary verb used in the statement
1. It's hot today, isn't it?
2. She isn't tall, is she?
Note: A question tag is formed by using do/does/did when the statement is in the
simple present/past tense:
1. You play tennis, don't you?
2. She likes fish, doesn't she?
iii) With I am the question tag takes aren't I?
1. I am innocent, aren't I? (not, amn't I?)
2. I am good, aren't I? (not, amn't I?)138

iv) With used the question tag can take didn't.

1. He used to play football, didn't he?
2. She used to go for a swim, didn't she?
v) With had better/had rather the question tag takes hadn't
1. You had better stay in bed, hadn't you?
2. You had rather wait a minute, hadn't you?
vi) With would rather the question tag takes wouldn't
You would rather resign, wouldn't you?
vii) With an imperative expressing command or request the tag is will you?
1. Switch on the fan, will you?
2. Please give me some money, will you?
viii) The imperative expressing offer or invitation takes won't you?
1. Come in, won't you?
2. Have a cup of tea, won't you?
ix) With let's expressing proposal or suggestion we use shall we?
1. Let's go home now, shall we?
 2. Let's eat something, shall we?
Note: But let expressing permission takes will you?
1. Let them play here, will you?
2. Let her come in, will you?
B. Use of the subject pronoun
i) The subject of a question tag is always a pronoun, not a noun:
1. Mary is intelligent, isn't she? (not, isn't Mary?)
2. Tom has got a scooter, hasn't he? (not, hasn't Tom?)
ii) A singular noun of a common gender usually takes he, not she/they:
1. A doctor serves the sick, doesn't he? (not, doesn't she?)139

2. A teacher loves his pupils, doesn't he? (not, doesn't she?)

iii) A singular indefinite pronoun of common gender takes they:
Everyone praised her, didn't they?
One used as a subject in the statement takes he or you in the question tag:
1. One can't eat a dozen oranges, can he?
2. One can eat a dozen oranges, can't you?
Prescriptive grammar requires one here:
One can eat a dozen oranges, can't one?
v) The subject of a question tag is always a single pronoun. Any premodifiers like
'some of/ none of' in the subject phrase of the statement are left out.
1. Some of it is bad, isn't it?
2. Some of them are bad, aren't they?
3. Most of the girls are gentle, aren't they?
4. None of you can do this sum, can you?
vi) This/that used as a subject in the statement becomes it in the question tag,
and
these/those used as a subject in the statement becomes they in the question tag.
1. This is a book, isn't it? (not, isn't this?)
2. These are dolls, aren't they? (not, aren't these?)
(vii) there is used as the subject in the question tag when the statement begins
with
there:
1. There is some milk in the bottle, isn't there? (not, isn't it?)
2. There are some cats on the roof, aren't there? (not, aren't they?)
3. There was a beggar at the door, wasn't there? (not, wasn't he?)
This is so because there is the grammatical subject.
C. Other forms:
The combination of auxiliary and pronoun comes in handy in certain other contexts
too.140

a) e.g., Sara is quite charming. Of course, she is.

Henry doesn't play cricket. Yes, he does.
Why didn't you do your homework. But I did.
b) In short answers:
Can women fly planes?
Yes, they can.
No, they can't.
Yes, it is.
No, it isn't.
c) Use of positive/negative expressions
i) positive + negative
If the statement is positive the tag is negative:
1. John speaks English, doesn't he?
2. A horse is faithful, isn't it?
ii) negative + positive
If the statement is negative the tag is positive:
1. Ann can't solve this problem, can she?
2. He didn't resign his post, did he?
 iii) A statement containing a negative word is also treated as negative, so the
tag is
positive:
1. No one cared for these orphans, did they?
2. Neither of them reached in time, did they?
3. No doctor can save him, can he?
4. She hardly ever helps anybody, does she?
Note: negative expressions are:
Note: negative pronouns:141

no one, none, neither, nobody, nothing

negative adjectives
no, neither, few, little
negative adverbs
barely, hardly, scarcely, never, seldom, too
The structure of a sentence with a question tag is either (a) or (b):
a) positive statement + negative tag
b) negative statement + positive tag
Examples:
1. She is a teacher,
2. He runs fast,
3. She isn't a doctor,
4. He doesn't love her,
5. Nothing can save him,
6. He has scarcely any money,
isn't she?
doesn't he?
is she?
does he?
can it?
has he?
7.5 Principal Auxiliaries: Usage
7.5.1 Be (am, is, are/ was, were)
I. Be as an auxiliary
i) am/is/arelwas/were + present participle (verb + ing) is used to form the
present
continuous tense:
1. He is learning English.
2. They were playing tennis.
ii) be + past participle is used to form a passive verb:
1. The letters are being typed.
2. The burglars have been caught.142

iii) em/i are + present petticip'e is used to express some plan/programme in near
future:
1. I am leaving for home tomorrow.
2. He is seeing the Prime Minister tonight.
iv) am/is/are + infinitive expresses a plan/programme in future:
Our examination is to start next week.
v) am/is/are + about + infinitive indicates immediate future:
1. He is about to make a speech.
2. She is about to leave.
7.5.2 Have
(has, have, had)
i) Have as an auxiliary
has or have + past participle is used to form the perfect tense:
I have/had finished the work.
ii·).have + direct object + past participle is used in a causative sense, so it
can be
 replaced by get + direct object + past participle:
1. I had my hair cut. (I got my hair cut.)
2. He will have the house repaired. (He will get the house repaired.)
7.5.3 Do
I Do as an auxiliary verb
i) Do (do/does/did) is used to form the negative and interrogative of simple
present
or simple past of main verbs:
1. They speak English.

They don't speak English.

Do they speak English?
He doesn't love her.
2 He Loves her Does he love her?143

She didn't write to him.

Did she write to him?
3. She wrote to him.

She didn’t write him.

Did she write to him?
ii) Do is used to make an affirmative sentence (simple present/simple past)
emphatic:
1. I know him. I do know him.
2. You reached late. You did reach late.
3. He has antique furniture. He does have antique furniture.
iii) Do is used to make a sentence emphatic or persuasive:
1. See me tomorrow.
Do see me tomorrow.
2. Please have a cup of tea.
Please do have a cup of tea.
II Do as a main verb
i) Do is a transitive verb and is followed by a noun phrase:
1. Everyone has to do one's work sincerely.
2. Do your role to the best of your ability.
3. I will do that by the end of this week.
ii) Negative/interrogative of the main verb do is formed by using do again:
1. They do their work honestly.
They don't do their work honestly.
Do they do their work honestly?
2. He did his homework.
He didn't do his homework.
Did he do his homework?144

We don't say
They don't their work honestly.
Did he his work yesterday?
7.6 Modal Auxiliaries: Usage
7.6.1 Can/could
i) Can is used to express power/ability/capacity to do something:
1. The District Collector can ban the sale of this drug.
2. Viswanathan Anand can play chess blindfolded.
3. This tanker can hold 30,000 gallons of oil.
i i) Can't is the negative form of can. It is used to express absence of power/abi
I ity
etc.
1. His eyesight is poor. He can't read in this light.
2. He is lame. He can't run fast.
Note: can + verb of perception (hear, feel, smell, see, taste)
 Can with a verb of perception does not express power or ability. It is used to
indicate that something is happening 'now', i.e, instantaneous present:
I can hear her murmuring. (I hear that she is murmuring)
I can smell something burning there. (\ get the smell of something burning)
iii) Can and able to
Be + able to is an alternative form of can for the present tense. Of the two forms
can is the more usual:
1. She can run fast. She is able to run fast.
2. They can't do the sum. They aren't able to do this sum.
iv) Has/have been able to is the present perfect form of be able to:
1. I have been able to finish the work in time.
2. She hasn't been able to see her mother in hospital.145

v) Shall/will be able to is the simple form of be able to:

1. I hope he will be able to help us.
2. I'm afraid I won't be able to reach home on time.
vi) Simple past tense forms of can are:
a) could b) was/were able to
Could is used to express a past ability only, not fulfilment or performance of an
action.
Was/were able to is used instead to express a past ability + fulfilment or
performance of an action.
1. He was happy because he was able to pass the exam.
(was able to pass the exam i.e., passed the exam.)
2. She got a medal because she was able to win the race.
(was able to win the race i.e., won the race)
Thus was/were able to is equivalent to the affirmative simple past tense of an
ordinary verb, but could is not:
1. Jane was able to pass the examination.
(i.e. Jane passed the examination.)
2. Jane could pass the examination easily, but she did not think it necessary.
(i.e. Jane had the ability/capacity to pass the examination but she did not take
the
examination).
Note: Was/were able to, too, can be used to express a past ability but could is
the
more usual because was/were able to is likely to confuse fulfillment with non-
fulfillment of an action.
vii) The negative forms of could are:
a) couldn't b) was/were + not able to
Either couldn’t or was/were not able to can be used to express non-performance of
an action in the past:
1. She couldn't save any money when she was abroad.146

i.e. She wasn't able to save any money.

2. He couldn't pass the examination at the first attempt.
i.e. He wasn't able to pass the examination.
Of the two forms couldn't is the more usual.
iii) Had been able to is the past perfect form of be able to:
He had been able to dispose of all the files.
ix) could + perfect infinitive is used to express non-fulfillment in the past, so
it is
equivalent to negative simple past tense:
Mary could have got a good job in those days.
(i.e., Mary didn't get a good job).
x) Can is often used to indicate (a) permission (b) possibility:
1. Can I go out now? - permission
2. Can it be murder? - possibility
xi) can + perfect infinitive
 could + perfect infinitive
Both constructions are used to express a deduction or assumption about a past
possibility:
1. He cannot have caught the first train in any case.
2. He could have caught the last bus.
xii) can't be/couldn't be
This construction is used to express a negative deduction or assumption about a
present action:
The flying object can't be/couldn't be a bird.
It must be an aeroplane because it has lights.
7.6.2 May/might
i) May/might expresses a request for permission:
1. May I come in?147

2. Might I use your phone?

Note: Might is more polite than may but it indicates a certain lack of confidence
on
the part of the speaker about a positive response.
ii) Can/could is often used instead of may/mightto express a request for
permission:
1. Can I use your pen, Preetha?
2. Could I borrow your bike, Rupa?
Note: a) Of all these forms may is the most formal and can the most informal, but
could is both formal and informal. Could is also the politest form to express
request.
b) Could/might (past form) indicates more politeness than the present form
can/may, so could/might is used with reference to present! future time, not past
time:
1. Could I see you tomorrow?
2. Might I see you tonight?
iii) The positive response to may/might/canicould (permission) is:
Yes, you may.
Yes, you can.
Of the two (may/can) may is the more formal.
The negative response is:
No, you can't.
No, you mayn't/may not.
No, you mustn't.
1. May I play in the park? Yes, you may.
Yes, you can.
No, you can't.
No, you may not.148

No, you mustn't.

2. Can I park my car here? Yes, you may.
Yes, you can.
No, you can't.
No, you may not.
No, you mustn't.
Of these mustn't is the most emphatic, mayn't/may not the most formal and can’t
the most informal.
Note: a) The politest form of refusal is 'I'm afraid not'.
This expression is a substitute for 'I can't allow/permit you'.
b) A negative interrogative expects a positive reply yes:
1. Can't I use your pen? Yes, you can.
2. Couldn't I borrow your bike? Yes, you can.
iv) may/might expresses possibility as well, i.e., more of doubt/uncertainty than
certainty:
1. It may rain tonight.
 2. It might rain tonight.
Note: a) Can could, too, expresses possibility:
1. This is a mad dog. It can could bite you.
2. Your purse can be/could be in the car.
b) Might indicates a greater degree of doubt/uncertainty than may:
c) Going to is used to express likelihood or probability more of certainty than
uncertainty:
The clouds are black and thick. It is going to rain tonight.
v) The interrogative form of may (possibility) is can because may/might is not
used
to ask questions about possibility. So may is always replaced by can in questions:
statements questions149

1 . 'It may rain tonight

2 . Can she get back today?

Can it rain tonight?
(not, May it rain tonight?)
Can she get back today?
(not, May she get back today)
Note: a) be likely or do you think can be used to ask questions about possibility:
1. Is rain likely tonight?
2. Do you think it will rain tonight?
b) May can be used in questions when an interrogative sentence begins with a
question word:
1. What may be the people's reaction to the new tax?
2. When may I expect your reply?
vi) The negative forms of may (possibility) are:
may not, can't
affirmative negative
1. It may rain tonight. It may not rain tonight.
It can't rain tonight.
2. She may get back today. The news may not be true.
The news can't be true.
May not is sometimes replaced by can't when a possibility is ruled out altogether.
vii) maylcanlwillimighticould + perfect infinitive
All the five forms are used to express a deduction/assumption about a past action.
But there are subtle differences:
a) may + perfect infinitive or can + perfect infinitive indicates that there was a
possibility of something happening but the result is not known yet, so there is an
element of doubt and uncertainty about it:
1. He may have caught the bus.
2. He can have caught the bus.150

These sentences mean there was a possibility of his catching the bus but we don't
know whether he caught the bus or not.
b) will + perfect infinitive, too, can be used to express a deduction/asumption
about
a past action. It has the same meaning as maylcan + perfect infinitive:
He will have heard the news.
2. The news may be true.
(i.e., There was a possibility of his hearing the news but we don't know for
sure.)
c) might + perfect infinitive or could + perfect infinitive indicates that there
was a
possibility of something happening in the past but since the action did not take
place there is no uncertainty.
1. Thank goodness, he wasn't in the plane! He might have died in the accident.
(i.e. There was a possibility of his death in the accident but since he wasn't on
the
plane he didn't die.)
2. He could have competed.
(i.e., There was a possibility of his competing but he didn't.)
d) may + perfect infinitive can't be used to indicate certainty.
viii) May have to is used to express the possibility of an obligation/necessity in
future:
1. The hall is full. We may have to stand.
2. He is travelling without ticket. Hernay have to pay a fine.
7.6.3Must
i) Must is used for emphasis. It is a positive way of expressing
duty/obligation/necessity/advice/suggestion in the present or future:
1. We must love our country.
2. We must pay income tax without fail.
3. He is very ill. He must see a doctor.
4. You must give up smoking.151

ii) Mustn't is a negative way of expressing obligation/necessity/advice. It

indicates
prohibition:
1. You mustn't smoke in here. (You are not allowed to smoke in here.)
2. We mustn't disturb the patient.
iii) must have + noun, too, expresses obligation/necessity:
1. We must have respect for human rights.
2. A teacher must have patience.
In spoken English must have + noun is usually replaced by have to have + noun:
We must have respect for human rights.
(i.e., We have to have respect for human rights.)
2. A teacher must have patience.
(i.e., A teacher has to have patience.)
Note: a) needn't
Needn't is negative in form and sense as well. It indicates total absence of obi
igationt or necessity:
1. It's Sunday. You needn't go to college today. (absence of obligation)
2. He is in good health. He needn't take any medicine. (absence of necessity)
Needn't is the negative form of both must and have to.
b) responses to must
Positive response to must is must:
Must I start at once? Yes, you must.
Negative response to must is needn't, not mustn't:
Must I start at once? No, you needn't. (not mustn't)
c) must and have to/have got to
A distinction is often made between the present tense forms of must and have to in
affirmative sentences:152

Must usually expresses a speaker's authority, i.e., obligation/

compulsion/advice/order/wish imposed on someone by the speaker/ writer:
You must go to bed now.
Have to is usually used to express external authority, i.e., obligation/
compulsion
etc. imposed by someone other than the speaker
(custom/law/rule/necessity/events/circumstances):
You have to go to bed now.
(i.e., You have to go to bed now because you need to rest after a busy day)
But this distinction ceases to exist in the past tense because had to is the only
possible past form of both must and have to.
He had to go to bed.
In the future tense, too, this distinction disappears because shall!
will/have to is often preferred to must to indicate future time more precisely
than
with must.
They will have to leave in a few hours.
In the first person, must and have to are often interchangeable.
I must buy another trouser.
or, I have to buy another trouser.
But must is preferred when an obligation or necessity requires urgent attention:
My mother is seriously ill. I must leave for home at once.
iv) Shall/will have to is the future form of have to:
He will have to catch the first bus tomorrow.
v) The negative form of shall/will have to is shan't have to/won't have to:
I have bought a car. I won't have to depend on the erratic bus service any more.
Won't have to is the more usual.
vi) must + infinitive, or must be + noun/adjective is used to express a deduction
or
assumption about a present or future action. It indicates certainty or a strong
likelihood:153

1. He is preparing the food. He must be the cook.

2. They look ferocious. They must be robbers.
3. You haven't eaten anything since morning. You must be hungry.
Note: The negative of this construction is can't/can't be, not mustn't, because
mustn't can't be used for a negative deduction/assumption:
assertive negative
1. She must be rich. She can't be rich.
2. He must be a fool. He can't be a fool.
vii) must have + perfect infinitive and must have been + noun/adjective are used
to
express deduction or assumption about a past action. They indicate certainty or a
strong likelihood:
She started early. She must have caught the bus.
The old lady is charming. She must have been quite a beauty in her youth.
Note: The negative of these constructions are can't + perfect infinitive and
can't have been + noun/adjective:
1. He must have caught the bus.
He can't have missed the bus.
2. She must have been a teacher.
She can't have been a journalist.
7-.6.4 Shall/should
i) Should/Shouldn't expresses duty/obi igation:
1. You should help your friends in need.
2. You shouldn't travel without a ticket.
Note: shouldn't
Shouldn't does not denote absence of duty/obligation. It is only a negative way of
expressing duty/obligation:
You should always speak the truth.154

i.e. You shouldn't ever tell a lie.

ii) Should/shouldn't can be used to give advice:
1. You should help the blind.
2. You shouldn't kill snakes.
Note: a) Should expressing obligation/advice is not as emphatic as must because
must indicates the speaker's authority whereas should does not. Should only
indicates the speaker's personal opinion, not his authority, so the desired action
is
not mandatory.
b) Ought to is more emphatic than should because ought to indicates adherence to
some norm or law:
1. You should get up early. (non-emphatic advice)
 2 You ought to get up early. (emphatic advice)
iii) Should is normally used when seeking advice:
What should I do now?
Ought to is hardly used when seeking advice because it sounds awkward:
(not, What ought I to do now?)
Note: Should is always used with a bare infinitive but ought takes a full
infinitive
with to:
iv) Should + perfect infinitive expresses an obligation not fulfilled or something
advisable but not done in the past:
1. You should have saved the child.
2. She should have spoken the truth.
It has the same meaning as ought to + perfect infinitive:
You ought to have saved the child.
v) shouldn't + perfect infinitive is used to express the idea that something wrong
was done in the past:
1. You shouldn't have wasted your time. (but you did)
2. He shouldn't have betrayed his friend. (but he did)155

Note: shouldn't/oughtn't + perfect infinitive and needn't + perfect infinitive

Shouldn't/oughtn't + perfect infinitive indicates that something wrong was done in
the past:
You shouldn't have/oughtn't to have pulled the dog's tail.
(i.e., It was wrong of you to pull a dog's tail but you did.)
Needn't + perfect infinitive indicates that something unnecessary was done in the
past:
You needn't have pulled the dog's tail.
(i.e., It was not necessary for you to pull a dog's tail but you did.)
Shouldn't/oughtn't + perfect infinitive indicates annoyance/irritation be needn't
+
perfect infinitive indicates a mild form of disapproval.
vi) should + infinitive is used to express a deduction or assumption about a
present
or future action:
1. He has been working non-stop. He should finish the work by 4 p.m.
(present action)
2. Since the date of examination has been postponded he should have plenty of
time to prepare himself well.
(future action)
Note: A deduction/assumption with should indicates one's expectation, not
certainty:
She should get back soon. (I expect she will get back soon.)
vii) Should + perfect infinitive can be used to express a deduction or assumption
about a past action:
1. Since he started early he should have caught the first train.
2. My letter should have reached her by now.
viii) should like/would like + perfect infinitive is used to express a wish that
was
not fulfilled in the past:
I should/would like to have seen the Taj Mahal.156

(I wanted to see the Taj Mahal but couldn't.)

ix) Should means 'in case' in constructions like the following:
1. Take an umbrella with you should it rain in the afternoon.
2. Keep this money should there be any unexpected development.
7.6.5 Will/would
i) Will you + please is used to express a request or an invitation. It is a more
pol ite
form than please + imperative:
1. Will you please switch on the fan?
2. Will you have a cup of tea, please?
(not, Please have a cup of tea.)
ii) Will you without please is usually used to express command:
1. Will you close the gate?
2. Close the gate, will you?
Note: Will you is a politer form than the imperative:
1. Close the gate. (rude command)
Will you close the gate? (polite command)
2. Sit down; (harsh command)
Will you sit down? (polite command)
I Would you is used to make a polite request:
Would you have a cup of tea?
Combined with please makes it an extremely polite request:
Would you have a cup of tea, please?
Note: a) Would you is politer than will you.
b) Will/would indicates present time.
c) Will/would can't be replaced by going to to express command or request. We
don't say:
Are you going to lend me some money, please?157

iv) Won't you is used for invitations:

1. Won't you have a cold drink?
2. Won't you have a little more?
v) Would you mind is the politest form of making a request:
1. Would you mind if I smoked a cigarette?
2. Would you mind waiting a few minutes?
Will is never used with mind:
Will you mind waiting a minute?
Note: Would you mind is used with a noun or gerund.
vi) Would like is used to express request or invitation:
1. Would you like a cup of tea?
2. Would you like to stay with me?
Note: a) Would like can be used with a noun or infinitive:
1. Would you like a cigarette?
2. Would you like to go for a swim?
b) Should like/would like
Traditional grammar demands should but in current English both should like and
would like are equally idiomatic expression. In American English should like is
rare and would like is acceptable now even in British English because the
distinction between shall and will is not strictly observed.
I would like to have a nap.
I should like to have a nap.
c) Like is not used with will. We don't say:
I will like to speak to Rekha, please.
We say:
1. I would like to speak to Rekha, please.
2. I would like to have a cup of tea.158

vii) Would is used to express occasional occurrence of a past activity:

They would often meet at night.
viii) Would is used in the indirect speech to express future time:
He told me that he would go home soon. (not will go)
ix) Will be and would be are used to express a deduction or assumption about a
present action:
1. That will be/would be the right time to make a request.
2. That will be/would be the ideal toy for your child.
x) Will be can be used to express a deduction or assumption about a future action
as well:
 1. He will be at the club on Tuesday evening.
2. They will have plenty offun tomorrow.
xi) Would be is used to express a deduction or assumption about a past state or
event:
1. They would be in their teens at the time of their marriage. (not will be)
2. She died five years ago. She would be eighty then. (not will be)
xii) Will + perfect infinitive can be used to express a deduction or assumption
about a past event:
He will have heard the news.
xiii) Would + perfect infinitive is used in the main clause of a sentence
expressing
a condition which no longer holds true:
Had he won the election, he would have become a minister.
xiv) Would is usually used with I to make a requestladvice/suggestion/opinion/
answer very polite. It has a softening effect on a verb:
1. I would request you to grant me a week's leave. (not I request ... )
2. I would advise you to have patience. (not I advise ... )
3. I would suggest another way of tackling this problem. (not I suggest ... )159

4. I wouldn't suggest her for the job. (not I don't suggest ... )
5. What's your opinion of John? I would say he is honest. (not I say ... )
6. What have you got to say in defence of Maria?
Well, I would say she is not the type who does such things. (not I say ... )
A verb like say/like etc. is categorical, not courteous.
Note: Would indicates present time in these sentences.
xv) Would is often used with rather/sooner.
1. I would rather have tea.
2. I would sooner die than live in disgrace.
(Will is not acceptable here.
I will rather die than live in disgrace.)
7.6.6 Ought to
i) ought to expresses duty or obligation:
1. You ought to obey your teachers.
2. You oughtn't to behave like this.
Note: oughtn't
Oughtn't is only a negative way of expressing an obligation. It doesn't denote an
absence of obligation.
ii) Ought/oughtn't can be used just to give advice or suggestion:
1. You ought to take some exercise.
2. You oughtn't to eat too many sweets.
Ought/oughtn't always takes a full infinitive, that is, an infinitive with to:
1. You ought to speak the truth. (not, ought speak)
2. You oughtn't to tell a lie. (not, oughtn't tell)
iii) Ought to + perfect infinitive expresses an obligation not fulfilled in the
past or
something desirable not done in the past:
1. You ought to have obeyed your parents. (but you didn't)160

2. You ought to have consulted a lawyer. (but you didn't)

iv) Oughtn't + perfect infinitive expresses the idea that something wrong or
undesirable was done in the past:
You oughtn't to have touched a live wire. (but you did)
v) Ought to, like should, can be used to express a deduction or assumption about a
present or future action:
He ought to be back by now.
7.7 Semi-Modals
7.7.1 Need
i) Need as a non-auxiliary verb means 'require/be in the need of'. In such
sentences
 need + noun/pronoun or need + infinitive is used to express one's requirements:
I need some expert opinion on this.
She needs a week's time.
I need to know where your parents are.
In sentences like these need can be singular or plural:
1. He needs a house.
2. They need food.
ii) The negative and interrogative of need is formed with do:
1. I don't need your help.
2. Does he need my help?
iii) Need to as an auxiliary can be used to express obligation or necessity:
1. You need to pass a driving test.
2. I need to know the correct position.
Need is not much used in the affirmative. Must/have to is used instead.
iv) Need as an auxiliary is normally used in the negative form (needn't) to
express
absence of obligation or compulsion:
1. He/they needn't work hard.161

2. You/she needn't worry now.

Needn'ttakes a bare infinitive (infinitive without to):
1. You needn't go to school today. (not, needn't to go)
2. She needn't see a doctor. (not, needn't to see)
Note: Needn't is always in the plural form. It is never used in the singular:
1. He needn't hurry. (not, needs not)
2. They needn't hurry.
iv) Needn't can be replaced by don't have to/haven't got to/don't need to:
He needn't take any medicine.
He hasn't got to take any medicine.
He doesn't have to take any medicine.
He doesn't need to take any medicine.
Of these the' doesn't have to' form is the commonest.
v) The past tense forms of needn't are:
a) hadn't got to
She hadn't got to cook food herself.
b) didn't have to
She didn't have to cook food herself.
c) didn't need to.
She didn't need to cook food herself.
Didn't have to is the most usual form.
vi) The normal response to need is must
Need I go by bus?
Yes, you must.
vii) needn't + perfect infinitive expresses the idea that an action which was
neither
necessary nor obligatory was performed in the past:162

1. She needn't have bought another car. (but she did)

2. He needn't have travelled by air. (but he did)
Note: a) didn't have to/didn't need to
Didn't have to/didn't needn't to indicates that there was no obligation and so the
action was not performed:
He didn't have to travel by bus.
(i.e. He didn't travel by bus.)
b) needn't + perfect infinitive
Needn't + perfect infinitive indicates that although there was no obligation or
necessity an action was performed in the past:
He needn't have travelled by bus.
(i.e. He did travel by bus.)
 7.7.2 Dare
i) Dare as a non-auxiliary verb means 'to challenge'. In such sentences we use
dare
+ object + infinitive (with to). In these sentences dare has a singular form with
a
singular subject and a plural form with a plural subject:
1. I dare them to dismiss me from service.
2. He dares me to break this window.
ii) Dare as an auxiliary means 'to have the courage'. The negative form daren't
means 'to lack courage':
1. She daren't oppose her parents.
2. He daren't challenge me.
Note: a) Daren't always takes a bare infinitive:
They daren't raise their voice against him. (not, to raise)
b) Daren't is always in the plural form:
She/he/they daren't utter a word. (not, dares not)
The past form of daren't is dared not + bare infinitive (with to):163

He dared not fight robbers. (not, dared not to fight)

7.7.3 Used to
i) Used to/used to be expresses a past habit or state which has ceased now, so
this
construction indicates a contrast between a past situation and a present
situation:
1. I used to play football at school. (but I don't play now)
2. Her hair used to be black in her youth. (but it is not black now)
3. John used to be cheerful. (but he is not cheerful now)
This construction is used to express a habit or situation that continued in the
past
without any break, i.e., a habitual or continuous action in the past.
Note: a) Used to is replaced by would to express occasional occurrences of an
activity in the past, i.e., an activity occurring only from time to time:
1. He would often invite me to lunch. (not usee/)
2. They would often meet in a park. (not used to)
b) Used to is replaced by simple past tense to indicate that an action occupied a
period of time but is now terminated:
He lived in London for ten years.
(not, He used to live in London for ten years.)
ii) The negative form of used to is usedn't to or didn't use to:
He used to smoke. He usedn't to smoke.
He didn't use to smoke.
Didn't is the more usual in common speech, particularly in question tags:
He used to play hockey, didn't he? (not, usedn't he?)
iii) be + used to + noun/gerund means 'to be accustomed to':
1. I am now used to dust and noise.
2. We are now used to standing in a queue for long hours.
3. They are used to sleeping in the open.
Note: a) be + used to is an objective, not a modal verb.164

b) The negative of this construction is formed by placing a not after the verb be:
1. He is not used to dust.
c) Users) to is not used for a present habit or continuous action so we
don't say:
She uses to play tennis in the afternoon.
They use to have breakfast at 8 a. m.
Simple present tense is used instead:
1. She plays tennis in the afternoon.
2. They have breakfast at 8 a. m.
7.8 Irregular Verbs
 7.8.1 Forms
English verbs can be broadly classified into two:
a) Regular verbs-those which form their simple past tense and past participle
forms
by adding -ed to the bare form:
walk, call, lean, wish etc.
b) Irregular verbs-those that form their simple past tense and past participle
forms
by other means (like a vowel change):
fall, run, buy, take, set, stand, rise etc.
ii) Compounds of irregular verbs have the same forms in the simple past and the
past participle as the original verbs:
Verb Simple Past Past participle
a) fall fell fallen
befall befell befallen (same way as fa//)
b) upset upset upset (same way as set)
c) mistake mistook mistaken (same way as take)
d) understand understood understood (same way as stand)165

iii) A few irregular verbs have two forms in the simple past and past participle:
burn burnt/burned burnt/burned
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned
(But turn and earn are regular verbs taking -ed not -t)
There are a few irregular verbs with all the three forms identical:
cut cut cut
put put put
shut shut shut
7.8.2 Verbs having different forms
Most of the irregular verbs have different forms in simple past and past
participle:
simple present
be (is, am, are)
abide abide/abode
arise
awake
bear
beat
become
befall
beget
begin
behold
bend
bereave
beseech
simple past
was/were been
abided/abode
arose
awoke/awaked
bore
beat
became
befell
begot
began
beheld
bent
bereaved
besoughUbeseeched
past participle
been
abided/abode
arisen
awoken/awaked
borne/born
beaten
become
befallen
begotten
begun
beheld
bent
bereaved
besoughUbeseeched166

bet
bid
bid
bind
bite
bleed
blow
break
breed
bring
build
bust
buy
catch
chide
choose
cleave
cling
clothe
come
creep
crow
dare
deal
dig
betbe tted
bade
bid
bound
bit
bled
blew
broke
bred
brought
built
bustbusted
bought
caught
chided
chose
cleaved
clung
clothed
came
crept
crowed
dared
dealt
dug
betbetted
bidden
bid
bound
bitten
bled
blown/blowed
broken
bred
brought
built
bustbusted
bought
caught
chidden
chosen
cleaved/cloven/cleft
clung
clothed
come
crept
crowed
dared
dealt
dug167

dive
do
draw
drink
drive
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
flee
fling
fly
dived
did
drew
drank
drove
ate
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flew
dived
done
drawn
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flown
forbear forbore forborne
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
forgo (forwent) forgone
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got got
gild gilded gilded
give gave given
go went gone168

grind ground ground

grow grew grown
hang hanged/hung hanged/hung
have/has had had
hear heard heard
heave heaved heaved
hew hewed hewed/hewn
hide hid hidden
hold held held
keep kept kept
ken kenned/kent kenned
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
lie lay/lied lain/lied
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
melt melted melted
mow mowed mowed/mown
pay paid paid
prove proved proved/proven
read read read169

rend rent rent

ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
 rise rose risen
rot rotted rotted/rotten
run ran run
saw sawed sawed/sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
sew sewed sewed/sewn
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved
shear sheared sheared/shorn
shine shone shone
shoe shoed/shod shoed/shod
shoot shot shot
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
sleep slept slept170

slide slid slid

sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
smite smote smitten
sow sowed sowed/sown
speak spoke spoken
speed speeded/sped speeded/sped
spend spent spent
spin spun spun
spit spat spat (British)
spit spit spit
spotlight spotl it/spotl ighted spotl it/spotl ighted
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
stink stank/stunk stunk
strew strewed strewed/strewn
stride strode strode/strided/stridden
strike struck struck
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
swell swelled swelled/swollen
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken171

teach taught taught

tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
thrive thrived/throve thrived
light lighted/Iit lighted/lit
throw threw thrown
tread trod trodden/trod
 wake waked/woke waked/woken
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wed wedded/wed wedded/wed
weep wept wept
wet wetted/wet wetted/wet
win won won
wind wound wound
wind winded winded
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
Notes:
Awoke is the more usual of the two simple past forms awoke/awaked:
Awoken is the more usual of the past participle forms awoken/awaked.
Borne is the past participle form of bear meaning give birth to a child:
Mary has borne him two sons. (not, born)
Borne cannot be used in the passive voice:
not, Two sons have been borne by Mary.172

Borne is also used as the past participle form of bear meaning to ha e grudge or
ill-
will.
Most of the unpleasantness is due to the ill-will borne by the two parties for
each
other.
Born is used when bear means 'to originate from/to be founded':
1. He is born of rich parents. (not, borne)
2. This federation was born in 1970. (not, borne)
Born is never used in the active voice:
She has born him three daughters.
Born can be used as an attributive adjective:
Vikram Seth is a born poet.
Begat (simple past form) is now archaic.
Begotten, not begot is the past participle form.
Beholden is used only as an adjective (predicative use), never as a past
participle:
I am much beholden to you for your help.
Bereaved is used both as a past participle and an adjective meaning 'having a
close
relative friend who has died'.
He has recently been bereaved of his brother.
The bereaved parents refused to give an interview.
Bereft (past participle) is now used only as an adjective (predicative use) not as
a
past participle. It means 'be deprived of something (ability/quality etc.)':
He is bereft of all hope. (not, bereaved)
Betted is now used in American English and British as well.
Bid/bidden is used when bid means 'orderlcommand'. Bid has the same form in all
the three parts when it means 'offer a price at an auction'
Bounden (past participle) is always used as an attributive adjective, not as a
participle:173

Blowed is used only when it means damn somebody/something.

The use of Busted is on the increase.
Chided/chidden is often preferred to child.
Cleaved is now the most usual form in simple past and past participle because it
is
regarded as a regular verb.
Cleft, not cleaved is used as an attributive adjective:
 a cleft palate, a cleft stick, a cleft sentence.
Clothed is the more usual as a simple past/past participle form.
Clad is archaic as a simple past past participle form. It is now used only as an
adjective and means 'dressed':
clad in leather, ill-clad (not, clothed)
Crew (simple past form) is archaic.
Durst (simple past/past participle form) is rare in current English.
Drunken (past participle form) is now used only as an attributive adjective, not
as
a past participle and drunk (as an adjective) is used only predicatively:
a drunken brawl/argument
This man is dead drunk. (not, He is a dead drunk man)
His drunken boss abused him. (not, drunk boss)
Forbad (simple past form) is acceptable only in American English.
Forgone is used as a past participle form of forgo:
The teachers have forgone their holidays in order to conduct the exams on time.
Foregone is also used as an attributive adjective:
a foregone conclusion/result
Forwent is rarely used in current English.
Gotten (past participle form) is used only in American English. Got is used
instead
in British English:174

Gotten in British English is used as an attributive adjective, in phrases like

ill-
gotten wealth.
Gilt (simple past/past participle form) is archaic.
Hanged is used when hang means 'kill somebody/oneself by tightening a rope
around the neck':
He was hanged for cold-blooded murder. (not, hung)
Hung is used when hang means 'support something from above/fasten something
to a wall/bend downwards':
1. A number of pictures were hung/have been hung in the wall. (not, hanged)
2. He hung his head in shame. (not, hanged)
Have (simple past/past participle of heave) is found only in nautical use.
Hewn, not hewed can be used as an attributive adjective:
hewn timber (not, hewed)
Lied is the simple past/past participle form of lie meaning 'utter falsehood':
Lighted, not lit is used as an adjective (attributive use):
a lighted candle (not, a lit candle)
Molten (past participle) is now always used as an attributive adjective, not as a
verb:
molten steel/rock (not melted)
Melted (past participle) can be used as an attributive adjective as well. It is
used a
thing that is soft, not hard/solid:
melted butter/snow (not molten)
Mowed/mown can be used as a past participle.
Mown, not mowed can be used as an attributive adjective:
a new-mown lawn/hay (not mowed)
Proven (past participle) is used only in American English, proved is used instead
in British English. Proven is normally used as an adjective:175

a proven case/method (not proved)

Rotten (past participle) is now always used as an adjective (attributive!
predicative
use):
1. This is a rotten egg/film. 2. This egg/film is rotten.
Sawed (past participle) is preferred in American English but sawn in British
 English.
Both forms are equally acceptable.
Sewn, not sewed is used as an adjective:
a hand-sewn suit. (not sewed)
Shaven (past participle) is used only in American English, shaved is used instead
in British English.
Shaven is now used only as an adjective:
a shaven head, a clean- shaven face (not, shaved)
Shore (simple past form) is archaic. Sheared is the usual form in the simple past.
Sheared/shorn can be used as a past participle when shear means 'remove
fur/hair by cutting'.
Her long hair has been sheared/shorn off.
Shorn (shorn o~ is always used when it means 'deprived of something'.
Shorn of power/beauty (not, sheared)
Shined, not shone is the simple past/past participle form of shine meaning-to
polish:
He shined/has shined his shoes. (not, shone)
Shod, not shoed is used as an attributive adjective:
Shod in leather, shod for cold weather.
Showed (past participle) is rarely used in current English. Shown is used instead.
Shrunk is also used as a past form, though the British usage is shrank.176

Shrunken (past participle) is now always used as an attributive adjective not as a

verb:
a shrunken body.a shrunken mango
sunken (past participle) is always used as an attributive adjective, not as a
verb:
a sunken ship
Speeded is used when speed means 'cause something to go or move quickly'.
The simple past/past participle form of speed up (to increase speed) is speeded up
(not, sped up.)
Spit is used in all the three parts in American English.
Spotlighted is used when it means 'draw special attention to something', same as
highlighted.
Strewn is the more usual in the expression 'strewn with/strewn all over a
surface':
The floor is strewn with litter/papers. (not, strewed)
Stridden is rarely used in current English. Strode/strided is the more usual form.
Striken (past participle) is always used as an adjective:
striken with fever fear striken
Swelled (past participle) is used to indicate an increase in number/amount/volume:
1. The number of TV viewers has swelled. (not, swollen)
2. Her heart swelled with joy/pride at her success.
Swollen is used when swell means 'have a swelling on the body/grown larger in
size':
1. Her face is/has swollen. (not, swelled)
2. The river is/has swollen.
Swelled/swollen can be used when it means 'be conceited':
He has a swelled/swollen ego i.e. He is conceited.
Thriven (past participle form) is archaic. The usual form is thrived. Thrived
(simple past) is now preferred to throve.177

Trodden (past participle) is the more usual form.

Trod (past participle) is not much used in current English.
Waked is rarely used in current English, woke/woken is the usual form.
Weaved (simple past/past participle) is used when it means 'move or turn to avoid
obstructions/obstacles.'
She weaved her way through the mob. (not, move)
Wedded is the more usual form because it is now normally used as a regular verb.
 Wetted, now wet is used when it means 'moisten something deliberately':
He wetted his pen/lips again and again. (not, wet)
Wound is used when wind means 'to turn a key or handle/to coil something round
and round/to fold something round somebody or something/to end! to follow a
curving path':
Haven't you wound your watch yet? (not, winded)
Winded (simple past/past participle) is used when wind means 'to detect
somebody/ something by smelling' or 'to cause somebody to get out of breath':
1. Police dogs winded/have winded all the criminals. (not, wound)
2. They were winded by an exhausting climate. (not, wound)
Wrought (simple past/past participle from of work) is archaic. It is, however
still
used as an attributive adjective to mean 'made or shaped by hammering/ made by
rolling' etc:
a wrought-iron gate, a well-wrought urn
7.8.3 Verbs having two forms
Some verbs have both regular and irregular forms in simple past and past
participle:
Regular form verb + died burned (preferred in American
English).
Irregular form verb + t burnt (preferred in British English).178

t-form is normally used as an adjective in both American English and British

English:
a spoilt child, burnt toast, spilt milk
But a learned man, not, a learnt man.
simple present simple past past participle
burn burnt/burned burntlburned
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed
dwell dwelt/dwelled dwelt/dwelled
gird girt/girded girt/girded
kneel knelt/kneeled knelt/kneeled
lean leant/leaned lea nt/leaned
leap leapt/leaped leapt/leaped
learn learnt/learned learnt/leaned
smell smelt/smelled smelt/smelled
spi II spi It/spi lied spi It/spi lied
spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled
7.8 .4 Verbs having the same form
Some verbs have the same form in a" the three parts:
simple present
burst
broadcast
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
simple past
burst
broadcast
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
past participle
burst
broadcast
 cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt179

input
inset
knit
let
output
put
in put/i nputted
inset
knit
let
output/outputted
put
input/inputted
inset
knit
let
output/outputted
put
quit quit quit
rid rid rid
set set set
shed shed shed
shut shut shut
slit slit slit
spread spread spread
telecast telecast telecast
thrust thrust thrust
wed wed/wedded wed/wedded
Notes:
Knit has the same form in all the three parts when it means 'join firmly
together'.
Knitted (simple past/past participle form) is used when it means 'make garments
from wool/silk etc.'
Quitted (simple past/past participle) is acceptable because quit is now treated as
a
regular verb.
Ridded is not an acceptable form.
Wedded is the more usual as a predicative adjective when it means 'devoted to
something':
He is wedded to his principle. (not, wed)180

7.9 Conclusion
This unit has given you a detailed analysis of the verbs, their kinds and forms
and
usage.
7.10 Unit End Questions
I. Correct these sentences:
1. May it rain tonight?
2. I can give you some money tomorrow.
3. Have you got a sister? Yes, I have got.
4. He needs not to go home every day.
5. I have got lunch at 2 p.m.
6. She loves him very much, does she?
 7. John plays tennis, does John?
8. You are fond of fish, isn't it?
9. He doesn't has any friends.
10 He was happy because he could save a child.
II. Fill in the blanks with words given in brackets:
1. It's Sunday. You go to school today. (mustn't, needn't) [
2. you like a cup of coffee? (will, would)
3. he pass her examination this time? (can, may)
4. You don't know him well, you? (do, don't)
5. breakfast at 8 a.m. every day. (have, have got)
6. Would you mind the gate? (to close, closing)
7. He did to steal my watch. (try, tried)
III. Choose the right words from those given in brackets:
1. Have you got a car? Yes, . (I have/I have got)
2. She work very hard. (need not/needs not)181

3. He loves her very much, ? (does he/doesn't he)

_____ play football at school. (used to/would)
5. This dog is mad. You go near it. (needn't/mustn't)
6. He challenge me. (dares not/dare not)
______ home yesterday. (had to go/must go)
8. she get back tonight? (May/Can)
9. help you tomorrow. (can/shall be able to)
O. Shut the door, ? (will you/can you)
4.
I . Match the groups of words under A and B to make meaningful sentences:
A
She needn't
He has got
You like fish
You ought
She has
It's very cold,
B
to get up early.
a lot of letters every day.
isn't it?
worry now.
to work hard.
don't you?
v. Rewrite the sentences as directed:
# You must go home today. (into negative)
# The rain may stop soon. (into interrogative)
# I had lunch on the train. (into negative)
# She has got to work hard. (into negative)
# He has a new car. (emphatic)
# He must be a thief. (into negative)182

# He must have stolen my watch. (into negative)

# He must be a burglar. (use have to be)
# He had his hair cut. (negative/emphatic)
VI. Rewrite these sentences as directed:
1. It is necessary for him to get up early. (use have to)
2. It is not necessary for her to buy another car. (use needn't)
3. It is likely that he will get a first in English. (use can)
4. It is very likely that he is a thief. (use must be)
5. Please switch on the radio. (use would you mind?)
6. It was not advisable for you to tell a lie but you did. (use shouldn't +
perfect
infinitive)
7. It is our duty/obligation to love our country. (use must)
8. He lived in London but he doesn't live here now. (use used to)
9. She had the capacity to help the poor and she did. (use be able to)
10. It is likely that they were twenty when they got married. (use would be)183

Unit – 8
Conjunctions
Structure
8.0 Objective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Kinds of Conjunctions
8.2.1 Coordinating conjunctions (coordinators)
8.2. 2 Correlative conjunctions (correlatives)
8. 3 Sentence connectors
8.4 Subordinating conjunctions/subordinators
8.3 Conjunctions: Usage
8.3.1 Both ... and
8.3.2 And
8.3.3 But'
8.3.4 Or
8.3.5 No/not/never .. or
8.3.6 Either ... or
8.3.7 Neither ... nor
8.3. 8 Nor/neither
8.3.9 Not only ... but also
8.3.10 No sooner ... than
8.3.11 Hardly/scarcely ... when
8.3.12 Whether ... or (not)
8.3.13 If/whether
8.4.2 Sentence connectors: meanings184

8.5 Conclusion
8.6 Unit End Questions
8.0 Objective
In this unit we shall study various Conjunctions in English and their usage.
8.1 Introduction
A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses.
8.2 Kinds of Conjunctions
There are four kinds of conjunctions:
8.2.1 Coordinating conjunctions (coordinators)
and, but, or, nor, neither, for, yet, still, so
They are used to join grammatical units of the same class, rank or pattern:
Rhea and Sapna are coming to visit us.
The train has arrived but there is no sign of Umesh .
8.2. 2 Correlative conjunctions (correlatives)
both ... and not only ... but also either ... or neither ... nor
no/not/never ... or
They are called correlatives because they go in pairs.
These shoes are not only expensive but also of poor quality.
Neither the government nor the army knows what's going on .
8.3 Sentence connectors
also/too, besides, hence, however, likewise, moreover, otherwise, so, still, then,
though, thus, yet, only, equally, similarly, on the other hand, on the contrary.
They are used to relate the meanings/ideas of the sentences they connect.
Take the umbrella, otherwise you will get wet.
The offer was good, still he refused.185

8.4 Subordinating conjunctions/subordinators

They are used to introduce subordinate clauses and join them to principal clauses/
main clauses. There are three kinds of subordinating conjunctions:
A) Simple subordinating conjunctions:
after, although/though, as, because, before, if,
however, once, since, than, that, till/until, unless,
when, where, while, whether
He came after I had left.
B) Compound Subordinating conjunctions:
I. as far as, as long as, as soon as, so long as,
so far as, in as much as, just as
She garlanded him as soon as he arrived.
ii. in that, so that, in order that, such that,
now that, provided (that), considering (that),
granting (that), on condition that
You can go for the trek provided you are well.
i i i. as if, as though, incase
Take extra money in case you need it.
C) Correlative subordinators
as ... as so …….as
just ….as so ….the the
such ….that so ….that
no sooner ….than hardly …. when
scarcely…. when whether ….or
though ….yet if ... then
If I don't return in an hour then call the police.186

Note: a) Relative pronouns and Relative adverbs, too, can function as

subordinating conjunctions:
Relative pronouns - who/whose/whom/which/whatlthat
whoever/wh ichever/whatever
Relative adverbs - when/where/why/whenever/whereever
b) Had/WhereiShould
These verbs too, can function as subordinating conjunctions in conditional clauses
when ifis not used.
8.3 Conjunctions: Usage
Coordinators/Correlatives
8.3.1 Both ... and
i) Both takes and, not as well as:
1. I want to buy both vegetables and milk. (not, as well as)
2. This pen is both good and cheap. (not, as well as)
We don't say:
She will buy both tea as well as coffee.
He is both intelligent as well as diligent.
ii) Both ... and is restricted to two only:
She will buy both milk and sugar.
(not, She will buy both milk, sugar and tea.)
8.3.2 And
And is used in these senses:
i) plus/addition
Ten and ten is twenty.
ii) also/in addition to
She is young and beautiful.187

iii) sequence
He took out his gun and fired. (i.e., and then)
iv) result/consequence
1. Study this book and you will improve your English.
2. Give me blood and I will give you freedom.
In this construction the imperative is placed before and expresses condition
 (if and the clause is placed after and expresses result.
v) purpose
He came here and saw his mother. i.e. He came here to see his mother.
In this construction and is used as a substitute for an infinitive of purpose.
vi) continuing process
1. She can dance for hours and hours.
2. The baby cried and cried.
vii) gradual increase/decrease
1. It is getting colder and colder.
2. He is getting worse and worse.
viii) contrast
There are teachers and teachers.
i.e. There are good teachers and bad teachers as well.
In this construction nouns joined by and are repeated only once to indicate
contrast
between different kinds of the (supposedly) same person or thing.
8.3.3 But'
i) contrast/concession
1. She is very rich but she is unhappy.
2. He is poor but honest.
Notice that but introduces a word/phrase/clause contrasting it with what
preceded.188

ii) yet/however/in spite of

He worked hard but he failed in the examination.
i.e. He failed in the examination in spite of hard work.
i i i) disagreement/surprise
1. You like her very much.
But I don't. - disagreement
2. You don't like fish.
But I do. - disagreement
3. They are going to get married.
But that's unthinkable. - surprise
8.3.4 Or
Or is used in these senses:
i) alternative
She will buy a car or a scooter.
Note: Oris the more usual in questions because either ... or makes a question very
awkward:
Is Marya doctor or a nurse? (not, either a doctor or a nurse?)
Would you like coffee or tea? (not, either coffee or tea?)
ii) negative condition (if not/otherwise)
1. produce more food or you will perish. (otherwise)
i.e., If you do not produce more food you will perish.
2. Start early or you will miss the bus. (otherwise)
i.e., If you do not start early you will miss the bus.
8.3.5 No/not/never .. or
No/not/never takes or, not nor.
1. He has no car or scooter.189

2. He has not got a pen or a pencil.

3. I have never made a film or directed one.
8.3.6 Either ... or
1. My brother wi \I buy either a car or a house.
2. She will eat either rice or bread.
In such sentences the better alternative is put first:
I prefer chicken to fish, so depending on what is available I will buy either
chicken
or fish.
 (not, either fish or chicken)
8.3.7 Neither ... nor
1. She likes neither fish nor milk.
2. He can neither read nor write English.
3. He wi II buy neither a TV nor a fridge.
Note: The use of either/neither indicates a choice of two alternatives when it is
used as a pronoun/adjective/adverb:
1. I have bought two pens. You can have either.
2. Neither of the two answers is correct.
3. There are trees on either side of this road.
4. She didn't come and she didn't phone either.
5. He doesn't play tennis and neither do I.
But as a conjunction its use is not restricted to two alternatives only, so we can
say:
1. I go to office either by cycle or by bus or on foot.
2. He will learn English or Hindi or Sanskrit.
3. The clerk is neither polite, nor helpful, nor refined .
8.3. 8 Nor/neither
Nor/neither can function as a coordinator as well because norcan be used without
neither and neither can be used without nor.190

1. She does not play football. Nor do I.

Or
She does not play football. Neither do I.
8.3.9 Not only ... but also
at only is followed by but also and it means 'both ... and.' In this construction
the
more important word (noun/adjective/verb) is placed after also to make it
prominent:
1. He is not only a good worker but also a leader.
2. She is not only young but also beautiful.
Note: a) Beginning a sentence with not only makes it emphatic. In this
construction
inversion of the subject and verb is obligatory:
Not only is she tall but also beautiful. (not Not only she is tall)
b) Position of Correlatives
Correlatives are followed by the same class of words in a sentence:
1. He has not only a bicycle but also a scooter. (noun + noun)
2. He saw neither Geetha nor Urvashi. (noun + noun)
3. He neither phoned Seetha nor wrote to her. (verb+ verb)
4. She is not only young but also beautiful. (adjective + adjective)
We don't say:
He phoned neither Seetha nor wrote to her. (noun + verb)
8.3.10 No sooner ... than
No sooner is necessarily followed by than:
No sooner had the police reached than the burglars fled.
8.3.11 Hardly/scarcely ... when
Hardly/scarcely is followed by when, not than:
Hardly had I reached the station when the train steamed off. (not, than)
We don't say:191

No sooner had he gone to bed when he fell asleep.

Scarcely had he fallen asleep than he had a dream.
Notice how inversion occurs when a sentence begins with no sooner/hardly
/scarcely:
1. No sooner had he gone to bed (not, he had gone to bed)
2. Scarcely had she heard the news (not, she had heard the news)
8.3.12 Whether ... or (not)
i) Or is used when all the alternatives are expressed:
 I don't know whether she is guilty or innocent.
When only the first alternative is expressed, or not is used:
I don't know whether she is guilty or not. (innocent left out)
8.3.13 If/whether
i) If and whether are used in indirect speech when it is a yes/no question or an
alternative question:
1. He said, 'Do you like fish'?
He asked me if/whether I liked fish.
2. She said, 'Do you write poems'?
She asked me if/whether I wrote poems.
ii) Whether (not i~ is always used before infinitives and prepositions:
I don't know whether to accept or reject this offer.
It all depends on whether he accepts my terms and conditions.
We don't say:
He hasn't yet decided if to join business or politics.
My career depends on if I get a first in English.
iii) A noun clause used as the subject of a sentence begins with whether (not i~:
Whether she will come or not is uncertain.
We don't say:192

If he will take his exam this year or not is still undecided.

Sentence Connectors
Words/phrases used to introduce an idea that is related to what has been said in
the
preceding sentence or sentences are called sentence connectors. They always refer
back to an idea expressed already. Thus they establish a logical connection
between one idea and the next so as to avoid incoherence/isolation. A sentence
connector not linked with the preceding sentence becomes meaningless; for
example, we can't say:
On the contrary, he opposed me.
Instead we say:
He didn't support me. On the contrary, he opposed me.
Sentence connectors are not a separate class of words. They are a mixed bag
because they consist of three classes of words:
a) adverbs/adverbial phrases
b) preposition/prepositional phrases
c) coordinating conjunctions
1. He is tall and handsome. Also, he is very rich. (adverb)
2. I don't need a big car. Besides, it is too expensive for me. (adv./prep.)
3. She didn't help me. Nor/neither will she. (conjunction)
.1 Sentence connectors and conjunctions
i) The function of a conjunction is to join words, phrases and clauses but the
function of a sentence connector is to establish a link between one idea and the
next. It does not join clauses to make a sentence. On the contrary, it usually
introduces a new sentence, so such sentences are marked off by a full
stop/dash/comma:
1. He will buy a car or a scooter. (or as a conjunction)
2. He is tired. Or, at least he looks tired. (or as a sentence connector)193

ii) A sentence connector differs from a conjunction from the view point of its
position as well. A sentence connector usually takes an initial or final slot in a
sentence but a conjunction has a mid-position.
He will either watch TV or listen to the radio. (conjunction)
He can't sing. He can't dance either. (sentence connector)
8.4.2 Sentence connectors: meanings
Sentence connectors are used in these senses:
i) addition
also, moreover, what is more
too, either, neither, nor
I don't need a car. Moreover, it is costly.
He can't write. He can't read either.
ii) enumeration
first, secondly. furthermore, next, then, last
first and foremost, more importantly, to start with, and to conclude
You have finished your homework. Now, what are you going to do next?
iii) contrast
instead, on the contrary, on the one hand ... on the other (hand)
On the one hand science is a blessing. On the other (hand) it is a curse.
He is not poor. On the contrary, he is very rich.
iv) concession
besides, else, however, sti II, yet, nevertheless
He doesn't behave well. Nevertheless, he hopes to get votes.
You have committed a grave offence. However, I excuse you this time.
v) transition
and, now, by the way, meantime,
meanwhile, in the meantime194

The train has been delayed by 2 hours. Let's have lunch in the meantime.
vi) attitude/viewpoint
indeed, in fact, actually
The rains are late this year, in fact, they were late last year as well.
vii) result
hence, so, therefore, thus, as a result
I don't need this reference book now. So you can take it home for a week.
viii) inference
else, otherwise, in other words, then
Take a taxi. Else you'll be late for your appointment.
ix) apposition
for example, for instance, that is,
that is to say, namely, viz.
There are many places to visit round Delhi.
Youcould, for example, go to Agra.
excises
I. Correct these sentences:
Both he as well as she are singers.
He will either buy a car or a scooter.
3. She neither eats bread nor rice.
I have no pen nor pencil.
o. She hasn't got tea nor milk.
o sooner we saw a tiger when we fled away.
Hardly I had started than it began to rain.
either he can sit nor stand nor sleep.
at only hegave me food but also money.195

He can't write nor speak English.

J. Choose the right alternative:
Both he she can do this work. (as well as/and)
He has no pen paper. (or/nor)
a sooner did she receive a telegram she left for home. (than/when)
Hardly had he stood up he fell unconscious. (when/than)
He will go neither to Delhi to Bombay. (nor/or)
3. . Fill in the blanks:
He has all the facilities he doesn't make use of them.
____________ the bus arrived we took our seats.
We have filled the tanks with water, what do we do ?
It's impossible to reach by Friday. I have a wedding to attend here on the
same day.
______ sports ------------ film interest him.
 8.5 Conclusion
You have had a detailed study in this unit about the various conjunctions in
English. Their proper usage will help you in writing good and effective English.
8.6 Unit End Questions
1 Give one example each of co-ordinating conjunctions.
2 Differentiate between conjunctions and sentence connectors giving
examples.196

Unit- 9
Sentence
Structure
9.0 Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Subject
9. 2 Kinds of Simple Sentences
9.3 Formation of Simple Sentences
9.3.1Relative statements
9.3.3 Form . n of Interrogatives
9.3.5 Imperative sentences
9.3.7 Exclamatory sentences
9.4.2 Alternative question
9.4.3 Question-word questions
9.5 Conclusion
9.6 Unit End Questions
9.0 Objective
Now after a detailed study of the various important parts of speech we move on to
the study of sentence formation in English.
9.1 Introduction
A sentence is the largest grammatical unit. It usually consists of a subject, a
verb
and an object or a complement. Essentially, a sentence consists of a subject and a
verb. A simple sentence is made up of two parts, a subject and a predicate.197

9.1.1 Subject
The subject of a sentence is a word or a group of words that says who or what does
something. One may loosely characterise the subject as 'that which is being
discussed', or the 'theme' of the sentence.
The subject may have:
a) headword noun/noun-equivalent only, i.e. without an adjunct
b) headword + adjunct (modifier like adjective/determiner)
The structure of such sentences is:
Subject (without an adjunct) Predicate
Horses run
She laughed
What he says is right
Subject (with an adjunct) Predicate
A few eggs are rotten.
The sun rises in the east.
The headword is an essential ingredient but a modifier is just an adjunct. So a
sentence is not possible without a head word (noun). We can't say:
A good runs fast.
The predicate is that part of the sentence that says something about the action of
the subject.
The predicate may have:
a) headword (finite verb) only
b) headword + adjunct (complement object adverb/prepositions)
The structure of such sentences is:
a) Subject Predicate (finite verb only, without adjunct)
He died.
 Lions roar.198

b) Subject Predicate (with adjunct)

He loves her very much.
She plays the violin in the evening.
The headword (finite verb) is an essential ingredient but complement/object etc.
is
only an adjunct. If mayor may not be present, depending on the nature of the
verb .
9. 2 Kinds of Simple Sentences
Sentences are offour kinds:
i) Declarative (statements)
ii) Interrogative (questions)
iii) Imperative (commands)
iv) Exclamatory (exclamations)
9.3 Formation of Simple Sentences
9.3.1Relative statements
Declarative sentences
i) Declarative sentences are statements:
The structure of a statement is: subject + verb + other words
1. He plays football.
2. They are learning grammar.
Kinds of statements
There are three kinds of statements:
1. Affirmative 2. Negative 3. Emphatic
9.3.3 Form . n of Interrogatives
I A statement with an auxiliary verb is made interrogative by the inversion of the
subject and verb, i.e., by changing of the position of the subject and verb:
Statements Questions
1. He is tall. Is he tall?199

2. They are teachers. Are they teachers?

3. She can do this sum. Can she do this sum?
4. He should work hard. Should he work hard?
5. They will go home. Will they go home?
ii) A statement with a main verb in simple present/simple past tense is made
interrogative by introducing a dummy 'do' and placing it at the beginning of a
question:
Statements Questions
1. They play cricket on Sundays. Do they play cricket on Sundays?
2. He helps her always. Does he help her always?
3. She lives in Ranchi. Does she live in Ranchi?
4. They won the match. Did they win the match?
9.3.5 Imperative sentences
Ab imperative sentence expresses a command/order/requestladvicelsuggestion etc.
In an imperative sentence, the subject is invariably the second person pronoun
you,
which is generally unexpressed.
Come in. (You come in.)
Sit down. (You sit down.)
Words like please, kindly are to be appended to an imperative indicating request:
Please open the door. Open the door, please.
If please is at the end, it has to be separated from the main part of the sentence
by a
comma.
Note: a) don't (contracted form) is always used when you is expressed:
Note a) 1. Don't you come in. (not, Do not you come in.)
2. Don't you worry. (not, Do not you worry.)
b) Do is used to make an imperative emphatic, as in the following:
 See a doctor at once.200

Do see a doctor at once.

9.3.7 Exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences express a wide variety of emotions like sudden surprise,
delight, pain, anger, disgust etc. Some of the exclamations are:
i) What + noun + other words
What a place it is!
What a dirty place it is!
ii) How + Adjective/Adverb + other word
How tall she is!
How sweetly she sings!
iii) 0 that + clause
o that I were a prince!
iv) Alas that + clause
Alas, she died so young!
v) Would that + clause
Would that I had known him!
vi) If only + clause
If only I could get a first in English!
vii) Word + and + word
My husband and a coward!
viii) Short cries/incomplete sentences
What a friend! What an idea!
How nice of you! How absurd!
Good! Excellent! Marvellous!
Beautiful! Wonderful! Fantastic!
Fire! Murder! Oh/Alas!201

9.4.2 Alternative question

In alternative questions there is more than one question joined by or:
1. Are they doctors or nurses?
2. Do you like Maths or Science?
Each of the questions requires a full answer:
Questions Answers
1. Do you play cricket or tennis? I play cricket. I don't play tennis.
2. Have you got a car or a scooter? I have got a car.
I don't have a scooter.
3 Will you watch TV or go to the cinema? I will watch TV. I won't go to the
cinema.
Note: An alternative question is different from the ordinary question in that it
asks
one to choose one of the alternatives, so one of the answers is positive and the
other negative:
1. Do you like curds or milk? I like curds. I don't like milk.
2. Will you go for a walk or a swim? I won't go for a swim. I'll go for a walk.
9.4.3 Ques tion-word questions
Question-word questions begin with wh-words or how:
who, whose, which, what, when, where, why, and how
Question-word questions require full answers, they seek fresh information, and
therefore a short yeslno answer is inappropriate.
Questions Answers
1. Who are you? I am Megha.
2. What are you? I am a teacher.
3. Where do you come from? I come from Dhanbad.
4. When did you come? I came only yesterday.
5. How are you feeling now? I am feeling fine.202

Note: The structure of a question-word question is:

 Question-word + verb + subject
Notice that the inversion of subject and verb is obligatory as in yeslno
questions:
1. Who are you?
2. What do you want?
3. Where are you going?
9.4.6 Question tags
Question tag is a short question tagged (added) to a sentence asking for agreement
or confirmation. A sentence expresses an assumption and a question tag expects
confirmation:
He can't help us. Can he?
9.5 Conclusion
In this Unit we have studied various kinds of sentences in English.
9.6 Unit end Questions
1 Name different types of sentences in English giving examples.
2 What do you understand by ‘Head word’. Give an analysis of predicate.203

Unit -10
Times and Tense
Structure
10.0 Objective
10.1 Introduction
10.1 Definition
10. 1.1 Kinds of tenses
1.2 Compound tenses
10.3.1 Fature Tense
10.1.4 Time
10.1.5 Keeping time and tense apart
10.2 Present Tense
10.2.1 Simple present
10.2.2 Present progressive
10.2.3 Present perfect
10.2.4 Present perfect progressive
10.3 Past Tense
10.3.1 Simple past
10.3.2 Past progressive
10.3.3 Past perfect
10.3.4Past perfect progressive
10.5 Future Time
10.5.1 Simple future
10.5.3 Future perfect
10.6 Conclusion204

10.7 Unit End Questions

10.0 Objective
In this unit we shall study various tenses in English and methods of expressing
future.
10.1 Introduction
Understanding of the concept of Time and Tense in quite essential while
expressing yourself in any language.
10.1 Definition
Tense is a grammatical term. It serves as a marker/indicator of the form of a verb
.
10. 1.1 Kinds of tenses
English verbs have two tenses:
-i) Present
ii) Past
10.2 Compound Tenses
Present tense has four forms:
 i) Simple Present
ii) Present Progressive
iii) Present Perfect
iv) Present Perfect Progressive
Past tense too has four forms:
i) Simple Past
ii) Past Progressive
iii) Past Perfect
i ) Past Perfect Progressive205

All the progressive and perfective forms are compound tenses because they are
formed by combining be and/or have with the main verb:
a) be + present participle (progressive tense)
I am doing my homework.
b) have + past participle (perfect tense)
I have finished my breakfast.
10.3.1 Future Tense
There are noting like a separate future tense corresponding to present tense and
Past Tense because it does have a unique marker that can be isolated. Shall and
will are modal auxiliaries, not markers of future tense.
So instead of Future Tense we may talk about forms expressing future time-there
are a number of such forms:
i) Simple present
ii) Present progressive
iii) Be going to
iv) Be about to
v) Modal auxiliaries
Shall/will + bare infinitive
It is obvious that shall and will are not the only forms for expressing future
time.
Although there is no separate Future Tense, the term is frequently used because
the
shall/will form is still the commonest way of expressing future time.
10.1.4 Time
Time, unlike tense, is not a grammatical term because it has nothing to do with
the
form of a verb. On a linear scale time can be divided into three:
i) present time ii) past time iii) future time206

10.1.5 Keeping time and tense apart

Tense normally indicates the time of an action/state-Present Tense usually refers
to
present time and Past Tense to past time. But very often there is no
correspondence
between tense and time, i.e. between the form of a verb and the time of an action:
i) Simple Present-indicating no particular time
The sun rises in the east.
The earth moves round the sun.
Honesty fetches no rewards.
ii) Simple Present - indicating future time
Vishnu leaves for Patna next week.
I wi II go out when mother gets back.
We can't have a match if it rains.
iii) Present Progressive - indicating future time
Vishnu is leaving for Patna tonight.
The cabinet is going to take a decision on this.
iv) Present Perfect-indicating future time
I will go home after I have finished my work.
v) Simple Present - indicating past time
He goes into hiding for five years and then robs the bank.
World War" ends in 1945, and the UN comes into existence.
vi) Simple Past - indicating present time
I wish I knew her. (I don't know her.)
If only he would listen to reason. (He doesn't.)
It's time we started. (It is time to start.)
Might I see you tonight?
Could I use your phone please?
vii) Simple Past - indicating future time207

It might rain tomorrow.

If a lion appeared all would flee.
viii) Present Perfect - indicating past time (past possibility)
You may have heard the news.
He cannot have forgotten the appointment.
ix) Simple Future - indicating present time (present possibility)
These will be the toys for your baby. (probably are)
She will be about twenty. (probably is)
x) Future Simple-indicating present time
Will you have a cold drink?
Won't she have a I ittle more?
xi) Simple Future - indicating no particular time (general truths/characteristics)
Wood will float in water.
Spring will come after winter.
xii) Future Perfect - indicating past time (past possibility)
You will have heard the news.
10.2 Present Tense
i) Simple Present
ii) Present Progressive (continuous)
iii) Present Perfect
iv) Present Perfect Progressive (continuous)
10.2.1 Simple present
Form
a) The Simple Present form of an ordinary verb is bare infinitive (with or without
an s)
b) The Simple Present of have +noun is has/have +noun.208

c) The Simple Present of 'be' is am/is/are + noun/adjectives.

Uses
Simple Present is used to express things like the following:
i) eternal/universal truths
The sun rises in the east.
The earth moves round the sun.
ii) theories and principles
Light travels faster than sound.
Water freezes at zero degree centigrade.
A triangle has three sides.
iii) proverbs/sayings
A bad carpenter quarrels with his tools.
One swallow does not make a summer.
iv) natural or inherent qualities/characteristics
A mother loves her children.
The sun gives us light and heat.
Sugar is sweet.
v) professional activities
A baker bakes bread.
A cobbler mends shoes.
vi) normal activities/routine duties
He goes for a walk in the morning.
 They play football in the afternoon.
My train gets in at 10 a.m.
vii) habitual activities
Mr Jones always comes in time.209

I usually wake up at 6 in the morning.

10.2.2 Present progressive
Form
a. The Present Progressive form of a verb is:
am/is/are + present participle (verb + ing)
b. The Present Progressive form of have is: am/is/are + having (have + ing)
c. The Present Progressive form of be + adjective is: being + adjective
You are being too formal. (This use is rare.)
Note: a) -ing form of a verb necessarily occurs with a form of be:
The children are going to school.
The soldier is singing a song.
b) Present Progressive form of have + noun is having + noun.
In this construction having + noun is used as a substitute for taking/
receiving/experiencing.
She is having a bath. (She is taking a bath.)
We are having a lot of hardships. (We are experiencing a lot of hardships.)
But have + noun indicating ownership/relationship characteristics is not put into
the progressive form:
He has a brother. (not, is having)
This elephant has a long trunk. (not, is having)
10.2.3 Present perfect
Form
The present perfect form of a main verb is has/have + past participle.
The present perfect form of have as a main verb is has/have + had of be is has
been/have been
of can is has been/have been + able to210

i) When have +noun means 'to experience/to receive/to take' its present perfect
form is has/have + had + noun.
I have had a lot of calls today. (have received)
He has had a lot of opposition. (has experienced)
I have had rice and fish for lunch. (have taken)
ii) The Present Perfect form of verb be + noun/adjective is:
has/have + been + noun/adjective.
Raji has been a teacher for ten years.
They have always been kind to me.
Uses
i) Present Perfect expresses the completion of an action by the time of speaking
or
writing:
The hol idays are over. Schools have reopened.
I have written a book on English grammar.
ii) Present Perfect is used to refer to an activity or experience which has
occurred
in the past:
Mr Banerji has been to England.
Have you ever seen a rainbow?
Have you been to this restaurant?
iii) The Present Perfect in English does not (generally) take an adverb of past
time,
viz. last week, yesterday, last month.
We don't say:
Ioyati has finished her work last week.
They have got back from Nepal yesterday.
 Note: Simple Past is chosen when an adverb of past time is mentioned:
I saw Kulkarni yesterday. (not, have seen)
We found a treasure last week. (not, have found)211

iv) However, Present Perfect is used with adverbs/prepositional phrases of time

like these: so far, up till no~ for, since, just, yet already
I haven't received any reply so far. (not, I didn't receive)
10.2.4 Present perfect progressive
Form
The Present Perfect Progressive form of a verb is:
has been/have been + present participle
Uses
i) The Present Perfect Progressive indicates that an action began in the past and
is
still going on, i.e. continuing upto the ti"me of speaking or writing:
The baby has been crying.
What have you been doing?
ii) It can be used with time phrases like these:
for, since, long, how long, all the time, all day, all week Lata has been talking
all
the time.
We have been playing chess all evening.
People have been waiting for a long time.
Note: In questions in Present Perfect Progressive since when is used instead of
when:
Since when has the child been missing?
Since when have you noticed the symptoms of this disease?
We don't say:
When have you been writing this novel?
10.3 Past Tense
a) Simple Past
b) Past Progressive (continuous)212

c) Past Perfect
d) Past Perfect Progressive (continuous)
10.3.1 Simple past
Form
The Simple Past form of regular verbs is verb + died:
love - loved, work - worked, pull - pulled.
The Simple Past of irregular verbs is formed in irregular ways.
go - went, draw - drew, give - gave
The Simple Past of have is had; of be is was/were; and of can is could or was/were
+ able to.
Note: Except for th arms was/were, all t e Simple Past Tense forms remain
invariant, no ma r what the number rson of the subj ct is. Was is the past tense
form of B when the subject is e first or third p rson singular. In all other cases
the
rm is were.
Uses
i) Simple Past is used for a past action when the time of an action is mentioned.
In such a sentence an adverb of time is often used:
Mrs Rao left this place a month ago.
The screening of the film started at 7 p.m.
Note: Simple Past indicates completion of an action in the immediate or remote
past:
Ramani returned yesterday.
Newton saw an apple fall.
Past Perfect is not used to indicate completion of a single action even
in the remote past. So, we don't say:
 Columbus had discovered America.
Newton had seen an apple fall.213

ii) Simple Past is also used when the time of a past action is implied, not
expressed:
Ahmed got a job in Yemen.
He bought this car in Canada.
In sentences like these, past time is indicated by the context. The presence of a
prepositional phrase in/at + place or time also helps infer the past time:
I bought this camera in Japan. (not, have bought)
Vijay got back at 9 p.m. (not, has got back)
10.3.2 Past progressive
Form
The Past Progressive form of a (non-auxi I iary) verb is was/were + present
participle
The Past Progressive form of have is was/were + having
Uses
i) Past Progressive is used to indicate that an action was in progress for some
time
in the past:
James was polishing furniture.
The girls were singing and laughing.
ii) Past Progressive can be used in combination with Simple Past. In such
sentences
as/when/while is usually used in the subordinate clause:
While I was walking in the fields, I found a purse.
When we were having lunch, some guests arrived.
10.3.3 Past perfect
Form
The Past Perfect form of a verb is had + past participle
The Past Perfect form of had is had + had214

The Past Perfect form of be is had been

When have + noun means 'to experience/to take/to receive' its past perfect form
is:
had + had + noun:
I had had a lot of visitors last weeek. (had received)
She had had bread and butter for breakfast. (had taken)
10.3.4Past perfect progressive
Form
The Past Perfect Progressive form of a verb is had been + present participle
Uses
i) Past Perfect Progressive is used to report an action or event that happened
before
a point in the past and whose effects are still visible at that point (in the
past):
Prakash had been playing tennis for an hour when the news of his selection came
in.
The sky was clear when the league match started though it had been raining
throughout the night.
ii) It is 0 used for a repeated action in the past:
The com y had been trying to sell out its shares and wind up when the court
interven
10.5 Future Time
When modal auxiliaries (shall/will) are used to express future time, there are the
following four forms:
i) Simple Future
ii) Future Progressive
iii) Future Perfect
 iv) Future Perfect Progressive215

10.5.1 Simple future

Form
The Simple Future form of a verb is shall/will + bare infinitive
The Simple Future form of be is shall/will + be
The Simple Future form of have is shall/will + have
Uses
i) first person (I/we) + shall expresses pure future, i.e., future without
intention
determination etc. In other words, it indicates that something will happen as a
matter of course:
I shall be twenty on my next birthday.
We shall have a holiday on Independence Day.
In informal style, however, shall is often replaced by will:
I will be twenty on my next birthday.
Note: a) will is frequently used with first person to indicate pure future as well
as
intention, determination etc. The use of shall to express pure future is going out
of
style, particularly in American English.
b) won't/wouldn't is always preferred to shan't to indicate refusal/ negative
intention:
I won't give you any money. (not, shan't)
10.5.3 Future perfect
Form
i) The Future Perfect form of a verb is:
shall/will + perfect infinitive
Of the two shall have/will have, will have is the more usual, so it is used wi all
persons.
ii) the Future Perfect form of shall/will + have is:
shall/will have + had216

This construction is used when have means 'to experience/to receive/to take'.
He will have had his exam by the end of this month. (will have taken)
He will have had a lot of opposition. (will have experienced)
She will have had a lot of letters of congratulations. (will have received)
iii) the Future Perfect form of verb be is: will have been
She will have been a teacher for ten years by March next.
He will have been dead for twenty years by the year end.
Uses
i) Future Perfect expresses completion of an action by a given time in future:
He will have built a house by the end of this year.
She will have left this place by next January.
She will have been in hospital for 2 years in next July.
He will have had his exam by the end of this month.
ii) Future Perfect is often used to express a past possibility. In addition to the
modal will, can and may also can be used:
He mayican/will have won the lottery.
All the three sentences mean 'there was a possibility of his winning the lottery,
but
we do not know whether he actually won it or not'
Thus these constructions express an assumption/deduction about a past action. not
about a present or future action.
10.6 Conclusion
This unit has given you a fairly detailed idea of the concepts of the Time and
Tense.
10.7 Unit End Questions
1 What is the difference between Time and Tense.
 2 Show the difference between progressive and perfect progressive tenses in
English.
3 What are the various methods of expressing future in English.217

Unit - 11
Letters and Application
Structure
11.0 Objective
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Parts of Letters
11.2.1 Formal Letter
11.2.2 Informal Letter
11.3 Model Letters
11.3.1 Formal Letters
11.3.2 Informal Letters
11.4 Application
11.4.1 Parts of Application
11.4.2 Types of Model Applications
11.5 Conclusion
11.0 Objective
In this unit we shall give you a study of letter and application writing in
English.
11.1 Introduction
A letter is a written message form one person to another containing information.
Historically, letters were used from the time of ancient India upto the present
day.
In past various different materials like leaves, animal skin, wood, metals etc.
were
used for letter writing. You all know that letters were delivered by pigeons, men
and horses during the time of kings and queens. Today we have Postal and
Telegraph officers which deliver the letter etc.218

As communication technology has diversified, letter writing too is left for formal
communication only. Telegraph, telex and fax were also used in modern time for
sending message. Today the internet by means of emails, plays a large part in
written communication; however, these email communication are not generally
referred to as letters but rather as e-mail (or email) messages, messages or
simply
emails or e-mail, with the terms “letter” usually being reserved by communication
on paper.
Advantages of letters
Despite email, letters are still popular, particularly in business and for
official
communication letter have several advantages over email.
# A letter provides an immediate, and in principle permanent, physical record
of a communication, without need for printing.
# Letters, especially those with a signature and an organizations own
letterhead, are more difficult to falsify than e-mail and thus provide much
better evidence of the contents of the communication.
# Most people can write faster than they can type.
# Letters in the sender’s over handwriting are less impersonal than e-mail.
# Letters, if required can enclose small physical objects in the envelope with
the letter.
# Letters cannot transmit malware or virus.
11.2 Parts of Letters
Letters are generally written to send written information. There are a number of
different types of letter i.e. Application letter, cover letter, business letter,
letter of
introduction, Query letter, recommendation letter, sales letter, letter to the
editor,
letter of resignation, letter to friends, letter to family, letter of thanks and
so-on.
But broadly we can classify all the above letters into three types:-
1. Formal letters: which include all the business correspondence and queries
etc.219

2. Informal letters: which include the letters written to family and friends.
3. Applications: which include the letters for jobs, request, permission etc.
16.2.1 Formal Letter
Common feature of letters
a) Sender’s Address and date: On the top you write the sender’s address
meaning your address and data on which you are writing.
b) Addressee Address: After leaving a line, you should write the full name of
the persons you are writing to with their position or designation.
c) Salutation: Resp. sir or Resp. Madam or Dear Sir or Dear
d) Subject: In formal letters you have to always write the subject which is
indicates the content in brief.
e) Content of the letter: The letter should have three parts in the content,
firstly
an introduction explaining. Secondly, why you need the information or
sending the information along with, how it can be useful. Thirdly,
conclusion, stating your request to send the information as early as possible.
f) Signatory or Subscription: You generally use one for formal letters: Yours
sincerely, yours truly or yours faithfully and your name in the end.
11.2.2 Informal Letter
Common features of Informal letters
a) Addressee Address: You write the address of your friend or your family
member and date of the letter.
b) Salutation: You write Dear and name of your friend or person younger to
you. Respected or Resp. to persons elders to do.
c) Content: The letter should project your courtesy, delight and
expressiveness. If you write to elders please be humble and polite in your
communication and request. If you are writing to your friends or persons
younger to you, you should still be polite but friendly while sending your
information. This shows how gentle and respectful you are in your letters.220

d) Signatory or subscription: Generally, when you write to your family and

friends you write yours affectionately but you can write. Yours obediently
to your elders. In the end your name is to be written.
11.3 Model Letters
Now please find sample letters which will help to write letters or different
topics:
16.3.1 Formal Letters
This letter is a sample of request letter.
A) Write a letter to BSNL officer requesting to provide STD/ISD facility on
your phone.
B/S Vikas colony
Jaipur
April 10, 2014
The Officer in Charge
BSNL
Vikas Colony Ext.
Jaipur
Sir
Subject: Provision of STD/ISD on telephone on. 29425298.
I am a resident of Vikas Colony. The above telephone number has been
installed in my name at my residence B/5 Vikas colony, Jaipur.
Sir, I want STD and ISD facilities with a dynamic lock to be provided on
 this telephone. The requisite application form in duplicate, duly filled and
attested by a gazetter officer is being enclosed. Two copies of my recent
photographs and a photocopy of the aadhar card are also attached as proof
of my identity.
I shall be grateful if the facility is provided to me at the earliest.
Your faithfully221

Kana Ram
Encl.: 1 Two copies of application forms
2 Two photograph
3 Copy of aahar card.
(b) This sample is a letter to register a complaint
Shiv Apartments
Main Road
Jodhpur
20 April, 2014
Heavy Electronics
Karni Road
Jodhpur
Sir
Subject: Complaint against defective refrigerator
I had purchased a 250 liters, frost – free,double door whirlpool refrigerator from
your showroom on 11 Feb. 2014 vide receipt no. A2346/9. But the refrigerator is
not working properly.
It was in good working condition when it we installed, but now, after two months,
the cooling is not effective. Food kept in the fridge turns stale within twelve
hours
or so. We are facing a lot of inconvenience due to this.
Since the fridge is still in the warranty period of one year, I request you to
either
repair or replace it at the earliest.
Copy of the receipt and a copy of the warranty card is cnclosed.
Yours Sincerely
Kapil
Encl.: 1 Copy of the receipt
2 Copy of the warranty card222

(C) This sample is a letter to the Editor of the newspaper.

113 Munirka Enclave
Dausa
18 May, 2014
The Editor
The Daily Times
Jaipur
Subject: Attention to unexpected in prices of essential items
Dear Sir
Through the columns of your esteemed Daily, I wish to focus the attention on the
unexpected rise in the prices of essential items of daily use.
The Government’s decision in raising the prices of liquefied petroleum Gas and
petroleum products has shocked both the rich and the poor beyond imagination.
Due to these rises the prices of all essential commodities have also soared up. It
shall be very difficult for poor people to survive. Thefts and robberies shall
increase. Government should take instant measures to subsidize these products and
put a half on the like essential commodities.
I hope the authorities will do the needful before it is too late.
Yours faithfully
R.P. Singh
(D) Sample Letter of request
9 New Colony
Barmer
June 2, 2014
The Principal223

Kabir College
Barmer

Resp. Sir
Subject: Request for scholarship
This letter is to request you to offer me financial assistance as scholarship to
continue my studies.
I belong to a poor farmer family. My father’s income is too meager to make both
ends meet.
I obtained 90% marks at the senior secondary examination. I feel, I could have
performed better then if would have got proper guidance.
I would, therefore, request you to grant me scholarship to continue my studies.
Yours faithfully
Rajan
16.3.2 In formal Letters
Below we are giving some specimens of personal or informal letter. They are
offered as a guide to help you in writing your own personal letters.
(A) A letter to your friend congratulating him on his brilliant success in the
examination.
7 Main Lines
Vasant Kunj
Udaipur
15 March, 2014
My dear Namit
I am so glad to hear of your brilliant success in the examination. You have
topped the list and won a scholarship, too. My heartiest congratulations!
The news of your success has delighted us all beyond measures. Everybody
here is dancing with joy and is proud of you.224

I have no doubts you will rise from glory to glory. May your success open
for you all the golden gates of opportunities.
Best Wishes
Yours affectionately
Gaurav
(B) A letter to father telling him what you want to become in future.
108, G.T. Enclave
Sikar
10 April, 2014
My dear Father
I am glad to inform you that today my annual examinations are over. I have
done my papers well. I have full hope to get a good first division in the
examination.
My result will be declared by the end of June. Nowadays there is ample
scope of graduation. I want to do graduation in socialwork. This degree
shall give me a chance to serve the people.
I hope you will agree with me and will allow me to take admission in this
bachelor degree programme.
Anxiously awaiting your kind consent
You loving Son
Mohit
(C) To a friend condoling with him on the death of his mother.
D-2 Vijay nagar Colony
Jodhpur
 May 2, 2014
My Dear Shayam
I am most grieved to hear from you of the death of your dear mother, and I
can well imagine how greatly you must miss her every hour.225

At such a time as this, little can be said to comfort you, and time alone will
soften your sorrow for the loss of so kind a mother.
She was a pious and kind soul, may God bless her soul.
I shall be grateful, if I can help you in any manner.
Your affectionate friend
Ramesh.
11.4 Application
Application are a form of official or business letters. There are different types
of
applications. Application for leave, Application for fee concession, Application
to
allow a charge in subhects offered by you, Application for –re- evaluation,
Application for a job etc.
16.4.1 Parts of Application
An Application has following parts:
(a) Senders Address : The address of the person who is sending the letter.
(b) Date: The date on which it is written
(c) Address’s Address: The designation or the rank of the officer or authority
with address.
(d) Salutation: You address the person or officer with respect. So you shall
write Resp. Sir or not Sir/Madam can also be written.
(e) Subject: What you wish to say or want attention of the authorities.
(f) Content: It should be in three paragraphs . In the first paragraph there
should be an introduction while the in second the reason of writing and
lastly, it should conclude with polite request.
(g) Subscription: In the end of the application you should write yours faithfully
or yours truly and your name.
Note: In job Application, a bio-data is essentially required to complete a job
Application226

11.4.2 Types of Model Applications

Model Application on Different topies:
a) Application for leave
Dept. of Social Science
K V College, Baran
5 January, 2014
The Principal
K.V. College, Baran
Resp. Sir
Subject: Application for two days leave.
With due respect I wish to inform you that I have been suffering from fever
since last night. So, I am unable to attend the college. I, therefore, request
you to kindly grant me leave for two days from today ie. January 5 to
January 6, 2014.
I shall attend the college on January as I feel I shall be able to recover by
that date
Your obediently
Rohit

b) An application to the Principal requesting him to allow a change in the

subject offered by you.
4, Khatpura
Jaipur
June 7, 2014
 The Principal
M.D. Inter College
Jaipur227

Resp. Sir
Subject: Request to change in the optional subject.
Most humbly I wish to request you that I had offered economics as one of
my optional subjects. But I non feel that I cannot pull on with it. It will be
very difficult for me to pass the examination with this subject.
I, therefore request you to kindly allow me to offer public Administration in
place of Economics.
I assure you that I shall cover up and secure good marks is Public
Administration.
Trusting that my application will receive a favorable consideration.
Yours obediently
Amarshwar
B) Application to issue charcter certificate Dept. of History
Shahpura
September 12, 2014
The Principal
Government College
Shahpura
Sir
Subject: Application to issue a character Certificate
With due respect, I wish to inform you that I am nemichand of batch 2013
Pre-degree programme and request you to provide a character certificate, as
I have to prudence one for post I am about to seek.
I need a testimonial about my conduct and character. I have always been a
regular and studies student, my teachers can provide you, a forourable
impression about me.
Kindly issue me Character Certificate as early as possible.
Yours Truly228

Nemichand
11.5 Conclusion
In this unit we have given you the formats with examples of writing good and
effective letter and applications.229

Unit-12
Paragraph Writing
Structure
12.1 Definition
12.2 Construction of a paragraph
12.3 Exercises
12.1 Definition
A paragraph is a series of sentences that deal with only one idea or theme. The
sentences are connected with each other like the links of a chain and they all
develop the theme.
The first sentence of a paragraph is usually a topic sentence because it tells
uswhat
the paragraph is all about. The rest of the sentences just describe or explain the
main theme, so a good paragraph deals with only one theme in order toachieve
unity and coherence. Care should be taken not to bring a different them into a
paragraph.
A paragraph is usually a section of a printed or written text, and usually starts
ona
new line that is indented, i.e. a line further in from the margin than other lines
It
may also start from the beginning of the left margin provided each new paragraph
 begins after leaving a line.
12.2 Construction of a paragraph
Notice the construction of this paragraph:
The Rainy Season
What I like best about the rainy season are the colours. The earth is all green.
How
green the fields and forest are! How black the clouds look and how white the ponds
and rivers are! And how colourful the rainbow is! What a feast to the eyes!
Here the first sentence is a topic sentence because it describes the display of
colours in the rainy season. The whole paragraph is on this topic.230

(For the usage of paragraphs in composition see chapter on 'Essay Writing.'

12.3 Exercises
Write a paragraph on each of the following subjects:
Your Country A Handkerchief
Your Family A Fountain Pen
Your Hobby A Picnic
Your Favourite Game A Journey by Bus
A Holiday On a Railway Platform
A Rainy Day In an Examination Hall231

Unit 13
Precis Writing
Structure
13.1 Definition
13.2 Aspects
13.3 Meaning
13.4 Language
13.5 Length
13.1 Definition
A precis is a shortened form of the main points of a speech or written text. It is
also
called summary writing or summarising.
Precis writing is the art of compressing an idea into a few words, so it is a very
useful method of developing one's capacity of understanding the meaning of a
passage and restating it in as few words as possible.
13.2 Aspects
Precis writing has three main aspects:
i) meaning ii) language iii) length
13.3Meaning
i) Read the passage carefully and patiently even if you do not understand the
meaning of a few words or expressions. Try to grasp the central theme of
the passage as a whole, not in parts.
ii) Give the passage a title. If you can do so it would mean that you have
understood the meaning of the passage. But if you can't, go through it again
to find a word or phrase that will serve as a suitable title.
iii) Then pick out the main points and leave out details. A paragraph normally
contains only one idea in the topic sentence. The central idea is one that is232

related to the title. The rest in the form of an example or explanation is

mere detail. So, that can be left out. This process is very much like sifting
the grain from the chaff.
iv) If you have to make a precis of more than one paragraph the main points
contained in each paragraph should be picked up and arranged in proper
order. If you make a catalogue of points it would not be a piece of
composition. So the main points must be so arranged as to have a logical
sequence and coherence. A few disjointed sentences do not make a precis.
13.4 Language
i) A precis should be made in your own words. Picking out a few sentences
 from the passage itself is a poor reproduction, not a precis. A precis
expresses only the central theme, so words and expressions used in the
passage are usually avoided.
ii) It is written in full sentences, so telegraphic language has to be avoided.
iii) It is written in the indirect speech, so conversation or direct speech is
always put into indirect speech.
iv) It is written in the third person (helshelitlthey).
v) Use the same tense as in the passage.
vi) Avoid expressions like in my opinion/! think! believe etc. In a precis you do
not express your personal views, so expressions like these are irrelevant.
vii) Avoid quotations from the passage.
13.5 Length
Precis writing aims at compression, not expansion, so it is made in about one
third
of the length of the passage, i.e., in one-third of the number of words, and not
in
one-third of the number of sentences. A mere reproduction of one-third of the
sentences must always be avoided.
How to reduce length:
i) Avoid all illustrations examples.233

ii) Avoid all exclamations/expletives comment clauses/parentheses like these:

well, you see, you know, to tell you frankly etc.
iii) Avoid explanation or expansion. A précis is the exact opposite of
expansion.
iv) Avoid your comments on the view or opinion of the writer. Nothing is put
into a precis that is not in the passage.
v) Avoid quotations.
vi) Avoid emphatic sentences.
viii) Avoid repetitions like this:
He is an extremely old man of ninety years. (9 words)
He is ninety. (3 words)
ix) Avoid figures of speech and use simple English instead:
1. He is as brave as a lion. (7 words)
He is brave. (3 words)
2. She is as gentle as a lamb. (7 words)
She is gentle. (3 words)
Use the method of transformation/substitution:
She is in the possession of a house. (11 words)
He has a house. (9 words)
This is a chair that has not got any arms. (8 words)
This is a chair without arms . (4 words)
A house whose walls are made of glass looks lovely. (10 words)
A house with glass walls looks lovely. (6 words)
j) Use a single word for a group of words:
He is a person who looks at the bright side of a thing. (13 words)
He is an optimist. (10 words)
2. We want a government of the people, for the people234

and by the people. (14 words)

We want democracy. (3 words)235

Unit -14
Introduction
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Story
14.3 Unit End Questions
14.1 Introduction
 In this unit you shall read a story on Birbal and Birbal was an advisor in the
court
of Akbar and is very popular for his sharp intellect and sense of humour. The
stories of Birbal are very popular among kids and adults alike and forms an
indespensible part in Indian folk lore.
Birbal (1528-1583) is surely one of the most popular figures in Indian history
equally regarded by adults and children. Birbal's duties in Akbar's court were
mostly administrative and military but he was a very close friend of Akbar too,
because Akbar loved his wisdom, wit, and subtle humor. He was a minister in the
administration of Mogul Emperor Akbar and one of the members of inner council
of nine advisors. He was a poet and an author too.
It is believed that he was a son of poor Braahman of Trivikrampur (now known as
Tikavanpur) on the banks of River Yamuna. According to a popular legend he died
on an expedition to Afghanistan at the head of a large military force due to
treachery. It is also said that when Birbal died, Akbar mourned him for several
months.
The exchanges between Akbar and Birbal have been recorded in many volumes.
Many of these have become folk stories in Indian tradition. Birbal's collection of
poetry published under the pen name "Brahm" are preserved in Bharatpur
Museum, Rajasthan, India.
14.2 Story
Akbar loved hunting and used to escape to go for hunting even from his studies.
Well, later he became a better rider and hunter than any one of his courtiers.
One236

day when Akbar went for hunting, he and his some of the courtiers went so fast
that they left the others behind. As the evening fell, everybody got very hungry
and
thirsty, they found that they had lost their way and now did not know where to go.
At last they came to a junction of three roads. King was very happy to see the
roads that now he could go reach his capital through one of these roads, but which
road was to go to his capital - Agra. They were all thinking about it and could
not
decide it. In the mean time they saw a young boy coming along one road. The boy
was summoned and Akbar asked him, "Hey young boy! Which road goes to
Agra?" The boy smiled and spoke, "Huzoor! everybody knows that road cannot
move so how these roads can go to Agra or anywhere else?" and laughed at his
own joke.
Everybody was silent, didn't say a word. The boy said again, "People travel, not
the
roads. Do they?" Emperor laughed at this and said, "No, you are right." The
Emperor asked again, "What is your name, young boy?" "Mahesh Das" The boy
replied and asked the Emperor, "And who are you Huzoor? What is your name?"
The Emperor took out his Ring and gave it to the boy. "You are talking to Emperor
Akbar - the King of Hindustan (India). We need fearless people like you. You
come to the court, with this Ring I will recognize you immediately. Now tell me
the way to get to Agra. We have to reach there soon?"
Mahesh Das bowing lowly pointed towards the road going to Agra, and the King
headed on that road.
That is how the Emperor Akbar met the future Birbal.
There was a boy named Mahesh Das. When he grew up as a fine young man, he
took all his savings, along with the Ring of Seal of the Emperor Akbar, which he
received from the Emperor himself some time ago, bade his mother farewell, and
set out to the new capital of India - Fatehpur Sikri.
He was very much enchanted with the pomp and show of the new capital. He
escaped the crowd and headed towards the red walls of the palace. The palace gate
was very richly ornamented - a very beautiful gate as he had never seen before.
Mahesh wanted to enter the gate, but the guard slashed the air with his spear and
stopped him from entering the gate.237
 "Where do you think, you are going?" asked the guard. Said Maesh politely, "Sir, I
have come to see the King." "Oh! yeah, the King must be waiting for you, as when
you would come?" the guard said circastically. Mahesh smiled at this comment and
spoke "Yes, Sir, and now I am here." Mahesh told further,"I am sure you nust
have fought wonderfully well on the Emperor's frontiers, but do not risk your life
by stopping me from entering the palace."
The guard kept quiet for a moment, then said courageously, "Why do you think so?
I will chop off your head, if you do not stop talking nonsense." Mahesh was not
going to accept his defeat. He showed Akbar's Ring of Seal to the guard.
Now who was the person who did not recognize Akbar's Ring of Seal. Having seen
the seal, the guard couldn't say a word. He had to admit him, although he was not
willing to do it. So the guard thought and thought, then he said to Mahesh, "You
can go in on one condition." "What?", Mahesh asked. The guard said, "Whatever
you will get from the Emperor, you will share with me half of that."Agreed,"
Mahesh smiled and the guard let him go inside.
He went on and on, finally he could see the golden throne on which a man of
simple elegance was sitting. He quickly recognized him as the Emperor Akbar.
Pushing everyone aside, Mahesh went further and prostrated himself before the
Emperor Akbar, and said, "May your shadow always grow, O Full Moon."
Akbar smiled and asked him, "What do you want. O young man?" Mahesh rose to
his feet and spoke, "Sir, I have come here at your command." And he handed over
the Ring of Seal, which was given to him by the King so many years before.
"That's a good boy, now what do you want? What is your heart's desire? Tell me, I
will try my best to fulfil it." Mahesh remembered his promise with the guard, so
he
asked the Emperor to punish him with one hundred slashes. The King was
surprised to hear that, "But how can I do this to you, you have done nothing
wrong." Mahesh said politely, "Sir, please do not go back from your promise of
fulfilling my heart's desire."
So with great reluctance and perplexed mind, Akbar ordered one hundred lashes on
Mahesh's back. To the surprise of all, Mahesh endured every stroke without
uttering a word.238

After the fiftieth whip, he suddenly shouted, "Stop now." Akbar asked, "Why?
What happened?" Mahesh said, "Sir when I was coming here, your guard did not
allow me to come inside the palace, unless I promised him to give half of my share
of whatever I will get from you. I have taken half of my share, now it is your
guard's turn to take his share of half." Everybody broke into the laughter.
The guard was hauled to receive his humiliating bribe. The King said, "You are as
brave as you were when you were a child. You have grown into a cleverer young
man. I was trying to weed out the corrupted people from my court, but your little
trick has done what I wouldn't have done even after passing several laws. From
now on, on the basis of of your wisdom, you shall be called "Birbal" and you will
stay by my side as my advisor."
That is how Birbal was born.
Once Akbar asked Birbal to bring four fools of the first order to him. He said -
"It
is not difficult because this world is full of fools. Birbal said - "OK" and asked
some time to find them, which Akbar readily gave to him.
Now Birbal started looking for fools. He was going somewhere that he saw a man
carrying a large plate on which were kept some clothes, betel leaves and sweets.
He looked like a fool to Birbal, so he asked him - "Where are you going to? And to
whom you are carrying this?" The man replied - "My wife has remarried. Now
they have a child so I am taking this gift for them." Birbal got convinced that he
was a fool, so he considered him a candidate to take to the king.
At another time he saw a man riding a buffalo carrying a bundle of grass on his
head. Birbal thought he was also a fool, so he asked him - "Why are you carrying
this bundle on your head?" The man replied - "In fact my buffalo is pregnant, so I
 thought that she should not carry too much load, that is why I have put this
bundle
on my own head instead of putting it on it." Birbal considered him also a
candidate
to take to the king.
So next morning he took those people to Akbar's court and presented them to him
as the biggest fools. "But these are only two fools; where are the other two? I
asked you to bring four fools." King asked. Birbal folded his hands and bending a
little said - "Jehaanpanaah, The third fool is you who asked me to bring the
fools;
and the fourth fool is me who has brought these fools for you."239

When the king heard about them, he laughed a lot on their foolishness.
Because Birbal was very wise and witty, the Emperor's courtiers and other people
used to be jealous with him and used to find some way to degrade him.
One day the court barber, who was very jealous with Birbal, plotted a plan against
him. So when the King called him again to trim his beard, he went and started
trimming his beard. He said, "Sir, last night I dreamed about your father." The
King got interested, so he asked, "What did he say to you?"
"Sir, he said to me, that everything is good in paradise, but he feels a great
absence
of a good humorous man who can amuse him." The King thought and thought, but
nobody else he could think of except Birbal who could perform this kind of duty
very well. And, naturally, the only way to go to heaven was through death. For a
moment, Akbar was very sad to lose such a good man, but thinking of his father,
he made up his mind.
He summoned Birbal and said, "I think Birbal you love me very much and you can
sacrifice anything for me." Birbal tried to understand his point but couldn't
guess.
He said, "You know Majesty, I do." "Then Birbal, please go to heaven to give
company to my dear father." Birbal understood that this was a wicked plan of
somebody to kill him. He said to Emperor politely, "I will do so, but I need a few
days to prepare myself to go to heaven." The King said, "Certainly. You are giving
me such a great favour, I allow you one week to prepare yourself."
Now Birbal was worried. He thought, somebody has planned very well and he
could not escape from this plan. He thought and thought. And then he found a way.
He dug a ditch near his house which would serve as his grave, and dug a tunnel too
which would open in a room of his house. After doing this, he returned to the
Imperial Court. He said, " I am ready, His Majesty, but there two conditions."
Akbar was so happy to hear this that he forgot that Birbal could put some odd
conditions to him. He asked, "What are those conditions? Tell me soon. I will try
to fulfil them so that you can go to heaven to be with my dear father."
Birbal said, "His majesty, I wish to be buried near my house. And I want to be
buried alive so that I can reach heaven alive to amuse your dear father." The King
found this logical and agreed up on them immediately.240

So Birbal was buried alive near his house. Of course he made his way to his house
where he lived in confinement for six months. After six months, he came out of
hiding with grown beard and shabby hair and asked the permission to appear in the
Royal Court.
Looking at him Akbar cried, "Where have you been Birbal?" Birbal said, "Your
Majesty, I was in Heaven with your dear father. I had a very good time there with
your father. He was so happy with my services that he gave me special permission
to return to Earth." Akbar was very anxious to know about his father, he asked,
"Did he send any message for me?" Birbal said, "Yes Your Majesty, he said that
very few barber can make it to go to Heaven, you can make out this from my
grown beard and shabby hair, so he has asked to send your own barber to him
immediately.
Akbar understood everything. He gave Birbal a big prize, and his barber the life
 sentence.
14.3 Unit End Questions
Answer the following questions after reading the above story:-
1 What was the real name of Birbal ?
2 Who gave him the ring of seal?
3 Where did he head to after saving the money?
4 Who was the greatest fool?
5 Who were jealous of Birbal?
6 Why were they jealous of Birbal?
7 What do you learn from the stories of Birbal?
8 Who was the third fool?
9 What message was sent to Akbar from his father?
10 How can you say Birbal was witty?241

Unit - 15
Unseen passage
Structure
15.1 Exercise -1
15.2 Exercise-2
15.3 Exercise 4
15.1 Exercise -1
Sindbad was a famous sailor. He sailed in ship from one country to another. One
day he landed on an island which was covered with delicious fruits. But he could
not see any man or woman there. So, he was very much surprised. He went to
every corner of the island with his other sailors to find any living being.
Meanwhile, some of the sailors gathered fruits and flowers while they were
roaming on the island. As he was tired, he sat under a tree and began to eat his
food he had brought with him. After some time he fell asleep, when he got up, he
could not see his sailors as they all had gone, leaving him alone on the island.
Answer the questions briefly:-
a) Who was Sindbad?
b) Why was he surprised?
c) What did he do when he was tried?
d) What were the other sailors busy in gathering?
e) What did he find when he got up?
Answers:-
a) Sindbad was a famous sailor who sailed in ship from one country to another.
b) He was surprised to see an island which was covered with delicious fruits and
where no human being lived.
c) When he was tired, he sat under a tree and began to eat his food he had brought
with him.
d) The other sailors gathered fruits and flowers.
e) When he got up, he could not see his sailors as they all had gone, leaving him
alone on the island.242

15.2 Exercise-2
One day George Washington was riding along a road. On his way he saw some
soldiers trying to lift a heavy wooden log. The Colonel was giving them orders.
The log was too heavy to move without help. They needed just one man more. The
Colonel, however, would not help them. He thought he was too big an officer to
come down to the level of the soldiers.
Washington watched for minute and then asked the Colonel why did not help the
soldiers. The Colonel at once turned round and said, “Don’t you know Sir, that I
am an officer.” Washington replied, “I beg your pardon Mr. Colonel, I did not
know that you were such a great man.” He then dismounted, took off his coat,
rolled up his sleeves and helped the soldiers to pull up the log with all his
might.
The log was lifted and kept on a truck. Washington then mounted the horse again
 and said to the officer, Mr Colonel, if in future you need the help of another
man,
send for your General.” Washington, the first President of America was a great
man, indeed.
Answer the questions briefly:-
a) Who was the first President of America?
b) Why did the Colonel not help the soldiers?
c) Who helped them to lift the log?
d) How many more men were required for help?
e) What lesson do you learn from the story?
Answers:-
a) The first President of America was George Washington.
b) The Colonel thought that he was an officer and it was below his dignity to help
the
soldiers.
c) George Washington, the first President of America helped the soldiers in
lifting the
heavy wooden log.
d) Only one man’s help was required by the soldiers.
e) We learn from the story that the great men are not proud of their high
position.243

15.3 Exercise 3
A poor widow lived alone in a little house in front of which she had grown a
beautiful garden, where stood two little rose trees- one bore white rose, the
other
red rose. The widow had two children, who resembled the two rose trees. One was
called Snow white and the other Red –red. They were two best children that ever
lived. But Snow white was quieter and gentler than Rose red. Rose red liked best
to
jump about in the fields to look after flowers and catch butterflies, but Snow
white
sat at home with her mother in the house or read to her lovely stories when there
was nothing to do.
Answer the following questions briefly:-
a) What were growing in the garden?
b) What were the names given to the children?
c) What kind of children were they?
d) What did Snow white like to do?
e) What did Rose red like to do?
Answers:-
a) In the garden there were two little rose trees- one bore white rose, the other
red
rose.
b) One was called Snow white and the other Red –red.
c) They were two best children that ever lived.
d) Snow white sat at home with her mother in the house or read to her lovely
stories
when there was nothing to do.
e) Rose red liked best to jump about in the fields to look after flowers and catch
butterflies whenever she was free.244

Unit16
Transformation of Sentences
Structure
16.1 Types of Sentences
16.2 Conversion
16.3 Simple to Compound
16.4 Simple to Complex
 16.5 Practice Exercises
Sentences are divided into three classes from structural point of view i.e.
depending on the number and type of clauses that are used is a sentence. These
are:
1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
16.1 Simple Sentences
A sentence which consist of only one subject and predicate is called a simple
sentence.
The subject consists of the subject it self and the enlargement of the subject
through modifiers. The object consists of verb, complement, object, modifiers of
the object or adverbial extension.
It also has only one independent clause and states one idea. It may contain other
parts of speech such as modifiers or preposition phrases. It may also contain a
compound subject or a compound verb.
Ex.
Man is a social animal.
The sun rises in the East.
Honesty is the best policy.
She was standing at the bus stop.
She has settled down.245

The storm has subsided.

The prices have gone up.
16.2 Compound Sentences
A sentence which consists of two or more co-ordinate clauses is called a
Compound Sentence.
It has two or more independent clauses combined by a connecting or coordinating
word. The compound sentence does not have any subordinate or dependent clause.
The connecting words are called conjunctions. Some common connecting words
used to join two sentences into one compound sentence are :
and now for as well as who
yet so either or where
but also neither nor
Ex.
I went to the garden and found the children playing there.
The doctor examined the patient and prescribed him some medicines.
I looked at the poor widow and she started crying.
He tried hard but failed in his attempt.
She sang and her sister danced.
She is neither clever nor beautiful.
The orphan was both tried and hungry.
You should reads as well as write.
16.3 Complex Sentence
A sentence which consists of one main clause and one or more sub ordinate clause
is called a Complex Sentences.
It this sentence one clause is independent and it is called the main clause. The
other
clause forming part of the complex sentence is dependent and it is called a
subordinate clause. The main clause contains the main verb and is not dependent
on the other clauses(s) for its meaning. The subordinate clause expresses an idea
which is dependent on the main idea. A subordinate clause is less important than
the main clause.246

Sentences with clauses of unequal importance are called complex sentences. They
also add variety to the writing. The conjunction used to combine the clauses of a
complex sentences is called subordinate conjunction. It explains the relationship
of
one clause to the other. The common subordinate conjunctions with the
relationship they define are :
HOW WHEN WHERE WHY
as if after where because
how before wherever if
unless when since
though whenever so that
although once
even though while
since
until
Ex.
When I went there, I found the baby sleeping.
She went to the market after she had finished cooking the food.
If you know about it, please tell me.
I met Raghav before he went to Delhi.
There was a queen who was very kind and beautiful.
If you obey me I shall help you.
Converting Simple Sentences into Compound sentences
1. India wants peace. Pakistan does not want peace.
India wants peace but Pakistan does not want it.
2. Walk with care. You will stumble.
Walk with care or you will stumble.
3. He is a rogue. He is a mad man.
He is both a rogue and a mad man.
4. Take medicine regularly. You will not get better.
Take medicine regularly, else you will not get better.247

5. Try to be honest. Try to be faithful.

Try not only to be honest but also be faithful.
6. He is a liar. He is a coward.
He is a liar or he is a coward.
7. The weather was hot. The weather was not unpleasant.
The weather was hot, yet it was not unpleasant.
8. He was obstinate. He was punished.
He was obstinate therefore he was punished.
9. You can go by car. You can go by bike.
You can go either by car or bike.
10. The river is deep. I cannot swim in it.
The river is deep so I cannot swim in it.
11. Being poor they often suffered great hardship.
There were poor and often suffered hardship.
12. In spite of his weakness he appeared at the examination.
He was weak, yet he appeared at the examination.
13. By her pleasant manners she gained many friends.
She had pleasant manners and therefore gained many friends.
14. He ran fast to catch the train.
He ran fast for he wanted to catch the train.
Converting Simple Sentences into Complex Sentences
1. She lives here. This is her house.
This is her house where she lives.
2. There was a queen. She was very beautiful and kind.
There was a queen who was very beautiful and kind.
3. I shall help you. Your condition is to obey me.
If you obey me I shall help you. Or
I shall help you if you obey me.
4. Reema had loved me. She told me that.
Reema had told me that she had loved me.248
5. The woman was very kind. She helped the children.
The woman who was very kind, helped the children.
6. This is a large hotel. My uncle built it.
This is a large hotel that was built by my uncle.
7. I went there. Mother was cooking in the kitchen.
When I went there mother was cooking in the kitchen.
8. We help others. We want to receive help.
We help others that we may receive help.
9. My friend may have been married. I don't know that.
I don't know whether my friend has been married.
10. Kristina is friendly. Her sister is impolite.
Where as Kristina is friendly her sister is impolite.
11. He had taken a foolish decision. I was surprised at it.
I was surprised at what he had decided foolishly.
12. You finish your assignments. I will wait for you.
I shall wait for you until you finish your assignment.
13. I am delighted. You have achieved your goal.
I am delighted that you have achieved your goal.
14. How can I reach Mumbai tomorrow? That is the problem.
The problem is how can I reach Mumbai tomorrow.
15. Honesty is the best policy. He believes in it.
He believes that honesty is the best policy.
16.4 Practice Exercises
Exercise 1
1. I read the book. I returned it to the Library.
2. My sister was married. She resigned from the job.
3. He wants to help. He has no money.
4. The house is very expensive. He cannot buy it.
5. It is raining heavily. You must take your umbrella.249

6. He likes chocolates. I don't like chocolates.

7. Puneet must get a job.
He will starve.
8. The principal ordered him to go.
He did not go.
9. Jane didn't inform his family members.
Jane did not inform his friends.
10. She ate bananas.
She didn't eat apples.
Exercise 2
1. He is not educated.
He has become a great novelist.
2. He is a wicked person.
It is known to all.
3. The student had not come to me.
I don't know the reason.
4. She had very little experience.
She got the award for the best employee.
5. You know his name.
Then, please tell me.
6. He was not selected.
He was the best.
7. The black coat is the most poplar choice.
It is attractive.
8. The film did not get the award.
The nomination gave the director new identity.
9. The bard visited India.
It won the Grammy award.
10. I wrote the book.
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