Chapter - 2 : Calculus

2.1 Function of single variable

A real valued function y = f(x) of a real variable x is a mapping whose domain S and
co-domain R are sets of real numbers. The range of the function is the set y  f(x) : x  R ,

which is a subset of R.

2.2 Limit of a function

The function f is said to tend to the limit  as x  a, if for a given positive real number
 > 0 we can find a real number  > 0 such that
f(x)     whenever 0 < |x  a| < 

Symbolically we write lim f(x)  

x a

Left Hand and Right Hand Limits

Let x < a and x  a from the left hand side.
If |f(x)   1 | < , a<x<a or lim f(x)   1
x a

then  1 is called the left hand limit.

Let x > a and x  a from the right hand side.

If |f(x)   2 | < , a < x < a +  or lim f(x)   2
x a

then  2 is called the right hand limit.

If  1   2 then lim f(x) exists. If the limit exists then it is unique.

x a

Properties of Limits
Let f and g be two functions defined over S and let a be any point, not necessarily in S
And if lim f(x)   1 and lim g(x)   2 exist, then
x a x a

 lim Cf(x)  C lim f(x)  C 1 C a real constant.

x a x a

 lim  f(x)  g(x)  lim f(x)  lim g(x)   1   2

x a x a x a

 lim  f(x)g(x)   lim f(x)  lim g(x)   1 2

x a  x a   x a 

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 f(x)   xlim f(x)  1

 lim    a  2  0
x  a g(x)


  lim g(x) 
x a  2

g x 
lim  f  x     1 
2

x a

Standard Formulae

sinx ax  1
lim =1 …x in radians lim = na (a > 0)
x0 x x0 x
tanx e x 1
lim = 1 …x in radians lim =1
x0 x x0 x
1
limcosx = 1
x0 lim1  x) x =e
x0

xn  an n(1  x)
lim  nan1 lim 1
xa x  a x0 x

Solved Example 1 :
Solution :
 1 Let h > 0, we have
Show that lim sin   does not exist.
x 0
x
lim f(x  h)   4  h  1
2

Solution : h 0  
For different values of x in the interval = 17  h  h  8  
 1 = 17 if h (h + 8) < 1
0 < | x | <  the function sin   takes
x
 (h  4)2  17  h  17  4
values between 1 and 1.
and lim f(x  h)  (4  h)2  1
 1 h 0
Since lim sin   is not unique limit does
x 0
x = 17  h(h  8)
not exist.
= 16 if h ( h  8) >  1

or (h  4)2  15 or h  4  15
Solved Example 2 :
 lim f(x)  17 and lim f(x)  16
Show that lim  x 2  1 does not exist, x  4 x 4
x 4

The limit does not exist.

where  is the greatest integer function.

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2.3 Continuity
Let f be a real valued function of the real variable x. Let x0 be a point in the domain of f
and let f be defined in some neighbourhood of the point x0. The function f is said to be
continuous at x = x0 if
i) lim f(x)   exists and
x  x0

ii) lim f(x)  f(x 0 )

x  x0

Types of discontinuity
A point at which f is not continuous is called a point of discontinuity.
If lim f(x)   exists, but lim f(x)  f(x 0 )
x  x0 x  x0

then x0 is called the point of removable discontinuity.

In this case we can redefine f(x), such that f(x0) =  , so that the new function is
continuous at x = x0.
For example :
 sin x  / x ; x0
The function, f(x) = 
4 ; x0

has a removable discontinuity at x = 0, since lim f(x)   and a new function can be
x 0

defined as

 sin x  / x ; x0

f(x) = 
1 ; x0

If lim f(x) does not exist, then x0 is called the point of irremovable discontinuity.
x  x0

For Example :
1
f(x) = at x = 0
x
Here limf(x) does not exist. Also f(0) is not defined.
x 0

1
 f(x) = has an irremovable discontinuity at x = 0.
x

Note : In case of an irremovable discontinuity, it does not matter whether or

how the function is defined of the point of discontinuity.

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Properties of continuous functions

 Let the functions f and g be continuous at a point x = x0 Then,
i) cf, f  g and fg are continuous at x = x0, where c is any constant.
ii) f/g is continuous at x = x0, if g(x0)  0
 If f is continuous at x = x0 and g is continuous at f(x0), then the composite function
g(f(g)) is continuous at x = x0.
 A function f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous at every point in
(a, b)
lim f  x   f  a  and lim f  x   f  b 
x a x b

 If f is continuous at an interior point c of a closed interval [a, b] and f(c)  0, then there
exists a neighbourhood of c, throughout which f(x) has the same sign as f(c).
 If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] then it is bounded there and attains its
bounds at least once in [a, b].
 If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b], and if f(a) f(b) are of opposite signs, then
there exists at least one point c  [a, b] such that f(c) = 0.
 If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] and f(a)  f(b) then it assumes every value
between f(a) and f(b).

Solved Example 3 : x
 The function f(x) = is discontinuous
Determine the point of discontinuity of the x

x at x = 0.
function f(x) =
x Note : |x| = x when x > 0 and |x| = x
Solution : when x < 0.
x
For x < 0, = 1 Solved Example 4 :
x
Find the limit if it exists, as x approaches
x zero for the function f(x) given by
For x > 0, = +1
x
if x < 0, f(x) = x
 f(0) = 1 x = 0, f(x) = 1
and f(+0) = +1 x > 0, f(x) = x2
Also the function is not defined at x = 0 Solution :
If x < 0, f(0) = lim f  x   lim x  0
x 0 x 0

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If x > 0, f(+0) = lim f  x   lim x 2  0 Solution :

x 0 x 0
lim f(x)  2  (1)  3 for x < 2,
Thus f(0)  f(0) each being zero. x 2

Since the limit on the left = the limit on the x2

= 1
|x2|
right at x = 0 the function f(x) has limit 0 at
x = 0. lim f(x)  2  (1)  1 for x > 2,
x 2

Note : The limit at x = 0 is not equal to

x2
f(0) = 1, and hence the function is =1
|x2|
discontinuous at x = 0.
 The one sided limits do not coincide.
Solved Example 5 : Thus the function is not defined at x = 2.
x 3  x 2  16x  20  x = 2 is the only point of discontinuity.
  x  2
2
Let f(x) = 
The jump at this point = 1  (3) = 2
k ifx  2

Solved Example 7 :
if x  2
x  2 for x2
Find k if f(x) is continuous at x = 2. Show that f(x) =  2 is
x  1 for x2
Solution :
discontinuous at x = 2 and determine the
For x  2 we have
jump of the function at this point.
x 3  x 2  16x  20
f(x) = Solution :
x  2
2

lim (x  2)  4
x  2
 x  2  x  5
2

= =x+5
 x  2
2
x  2

lim x 2  1  3
 lim f(x)  lim(x  5)  7  The limit on the left  the limit on the right.
x 2 x 2

 The function has discontinuity at the

We have f(2) = k
point x = 2
 f(x) is continuous at x = 2.
 The jump of the function at x = 2 is
Now lim f(x)  f(2)
x 2
f(2 + 0)  f(2  0) = 3  4 = 1
i.e. 7 = k
Note : If f(x0  0)  f(x0 + 0), then
Solved Example 6 : f(x0 + 0)  f(x0  0) is called a jump
x2 discontinuity of the function f(x) at x0.
For the function f(x) = x  find the
x2

point of discontinuity and determine the

jump of the function at this point.

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2.4 Differentiability
Let a real valued function f(x) be defined on an I and let x0 be a point in I. Then, if
f  x   f  x0  f  x 0  x   f  x 0 
lim or lim
x  x0 x  x0 x  0 x

exists and is equal to  , then f(x) is said to be differentiable at x0 and  is called the
derivative of f(x) at x = x0.
If f(x) is differentiable at every point in the interval (a, b) then f(x) is said to be
differentiable in (a, b).

Properties of differentiation
 Let the functions f and g be differentiable at a point x0. Then
i) (cf) x0 = cf(x0), c any constant.
ii) (f  g)x0 = f(x0)  g(x0)
iii) (fg)(x0) = f(x0) g(x0) + f(x0) g(x0)

 f  g  x 0  f   x 0   f  x 0  g  x 0 
iv)    x 0   , g  x0   0
g g2  x 0 

 If f is differentiable at x0 and g is differentiable at f(x0) then the composite function

h = g(f(x)) is differentiable at x0 and
h(x0) = g(f(x0)) f(x0)
 If the function y = f(x) is represented in the parametric form as
x = (t) and y = (t), and if (t), (t) exist, then

dy / dt    t 
f(x) =    t   0
dx / dt   t 

Note : If a function is differentiable at x = x0, then it is continuous at x = x0.

However the converse need not be true.

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Standard formulae

Function Derivative Function Derivative

x 1
k(constant) 0 sin1
a a  x2
2

x 1
xn nxn1 cos 1
a a2  x2
x a
logx 1/x tan1
a a  x2
2

x a
ex ex cot 1
a a  x2
2

x a
ax axloga sec1
a x x2  a2
x a
sin x cos x cosec 1
a x x2  a2

cos x  sin x sin h x cos h x

tan x sec2x cos h x sin h x

1
cot x  cosec2 x sin h1 x 2
x 1
1
sec x sec x tan x cos h1 x
x2  1
1
cosec x  cosec x cot x tan h1 x 2
x 1

Solved Example 8 :  f(x) is continuous at x = 0

Show that the function f(x)  f(0)
Now f(0) = lim
x cos(1/ x),
2
x0
x 0 x
f(x) = 
0 x0   1 
 lim  x cos     0
x 0
  x 
is differentiable at x = 0 but f(x) is not
continuous at x = 0. Hence f(x) is differentiable at

Solution : x = 0 and f (0) = 0

We have lim f(x)  0  f(0) for x  0 we have

x 0

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 1   1   1  At x = 0, we have y = | x |
f(x) = 2x cos    x 2   sin      2 
x   x   x 
y x
 
 1  1 x x
 2x cos    sin  
x x
y
lim  1
 1 x  0 x
Now lim f   x  does not exist as lim sin  
x 0 x 0
x y
lim 1
does not exist. Therefore, f(x) is not x  0 x
continuous at x = 0. Since the right and the left side derivative
are not equal, the function f(x) = |x| is not
Solved Example 9 : differentiable at the point zero.
y  x is defined and continuous for all x
3

investigate whether this function has a Solved Example 11 :

derivative at x = 0. d n
Show that
dx
 
x  nxn1
Solution :

y = 3
x  x  3 x at x = 0 Solution :
Let y = xn
y = 3
x Let x receive a small increment x and let

y 3 x 1 the corresponding increment in y be y

  
x x 3
 x 
2 then
y + y = (x + x)n
y 1
 lim  lim   By subtraction, y = (x + x)n  xn
x  0 x x  0 3
 x 
2

y  x  x   x  x  x   xn
n n n

 There is no finite derivative.   

x x x  x  x

 x  x   xn
n
y
Solved Example 10 :  lim  lim  nxn1
x  0 x x x  x x  x  x
Investigate the function f(x) = | x | for
dy d n
differentiability at the point x = 0 
dx
 nxn1 or
dx
 
x  nxn1

Solution :

y = f(x) = | x |
y = | x + x |  | x |

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2.5 Mean Value Theorems

Rolle's Theorem
The theorem states that
 if f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] and
 if f(x) exists in open interval (a, b) and
 if f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one value c in (a, b) such that f(c) = 0

Geometric Interpretation
y
f(c) = 0

y = f(x)
f(a) = f(b)

a c b x

There exists at last one point at which slope of the tangent is 0 or the tangent is parallel
to x-axis

Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem

The theorem states that
 if f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] and
 if f(x) exists in open interval (a, b)
Then there exists one value c such that

f(b)f(a)
f(c) =
ba

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Geometric Interpretation
f(b)f(a)
f(c) =
ba

f(b)

f(a)

a c b
There exists at last one point at which the tangent is parallel to the secant through the
end points.

Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem

The theorem states that
 if f(x) and g(x) are both continuous in closed interval [a, b] and
 if f(x) and g(x) both exist in open interval (a, b)
Then there exists at least one value c such that
f (c) f(b)f(a)

g(c) g(b)g(a)

2.6 Maxima and Minima

A function f(x) is said to have a maximum value at x = a if f(a) is larger than any other
values of f(x) in the immediate neighbourhood of ‘a’. It has a minimum value if f(a) is less
than any other value of f(x) sufficiently near ‘a’.

Finding Maximum and Minimum values of y = f(x)

dy d2 y dy
 Get and 2 . Solve = 0 and consider its roots. These are the values of x
dx dx dx
dy
which make = 0.
dx
 For each of these values of x, calculate the corresponding value of y and examine
d2 y
the sign of .
dx 2
 If the sign is ve the corresponding value of y is a maximum.
If the sign is +ve, the corresponding value of y is minimum.

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Note : Maximum and minimum values of a function occur alternately in a

continuous function. (The graph of a continuous function has no break
gaps)
A maximum is not necessarily the greater value and a minimum is not
necessarily the least value of the function.

Stationary Points and Turning Points

dy dy
A stationary point on a graph is any point at which = 0. A value of x for which =0
dx dx
does not necessarily give either a maximum or minimum. A turning point is a maximum or
minimum point.

Solved Example 12 : 1
Hence x = gives a minimum value of y
Find the maximum and minimum points on 3

the curve y = 2x3 + 5x2  4x + 7 and x = 2 gives a maximum value of y

Solution : 1 8
for x  , y6 ; for x   2, y  19
Differentiating the equation we have 3 27

dy 1 8 
 6x 2  10x  4   3 , 6 27  is a minimum point
dx  

d2 y (2, 19) is a maximum point.

 12x  10
dx 2
Solved Example 13 :
Now
Find the maximum and minimum values of
dy
 0 if6x 2  10x  4  0 x 2  2x  4
dx the function
x 2  2x  4
or 3x 2  5x  2  0
Solution :
i.e. (3x  1) (x + 2) = 0
x 2  2x  4
dy 1 Let y =
i.e.  0, when x  or  2 x 2  2x  4
dx 3
(x 2  2x  4)(2x  2) 
1 d2 y  2 
for x  , 2  14 and  is positive dy (x  2x  4)(2x  2)
3 dx Then =
dx (x 2  2x  4)2
d2 y
for x  2,  14 and  is negative dy
dx 2  = 0 when x 2  4
dx
or x = 2

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In this case it is much more convenient to dy

Note : If the sign changes from
dy dx
find the changes of sign of than to
dx + to  the point is a maximum point; if
d2 y the sign changes from  to +, the point
work out the value of .
dx 2 is a minimum point.
The denominator must be positive and
therefore only the sign of the numerator Solved Example 14 :
need be examined. Find the maximum and minimum values of
Near x = 2 the function 4 cos x  3 sin x.
2
If x is slightly less than 2, x < 4; Solution:
dy Let y = 4 cos x  3 sin x
is ve
dx
dy
If x is slightly greater than 2, x2 > 4; Then = 4 sin x  3 cos x
dx
dy
is +ve d2 y
dx = 4 cos x + 3 sin x
dx 2
dy
Here changes from ve to +ve dy
dx = 0 when  4 sin x  3 cos x = 0
dx
Near x = 2
3
If x is slightly less than 2, x2 > 4; or tan x =
4
dy
is +ve 3 4
dx and then (i) sin x = , cos x 
5 5
If x is slightly greater than 2, x2 < 4;
3 4
dy (ii) sin x = , cos x 
is ve 5 5
dx
 tan  is negative.
dy
Here changes from +ve to ve
dx d2 y 16 9
In the first case, 2
=   5
 x = 2 gives a minimum value of y, dx 5 5

1 and  is +ve
y ;
3 d2 y 16 9
In the second case, 2
=   5
and x = 2 gives a maximum value of y, dx 5 5
y=3 and  is ve
This the maximum value is 3 and the  The minimum value
1  4  3
minimum is . = 4    3    5
3  5  5

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 Notes on Calculus

and the maximum value Let ABCD by rectangular sheet and let a
4  3  square of edge x m be cut from each
= 4  3    5
5  5  corner.
When the flaps are folded up, the
Solved Example 15 :
dimensions of the rectangular box
Find the maximum and minimum values of
obtained are 8  2x, 3  2x and x meters.
f(x, y) = 7x 2  8xy  y 2 where x, y are
Let V cubic meters be the volume of the
2 2
connected by the relation x  y  1 . box then
Solution : V =  8  2x  3  2x  x
Since x 2  y 2  1,  4x 3  22x 2  24x ;
we can put x  cos  , y  sin  dV
 12x 2  44x  24
dx
f(x, y) = 7 cos2   8 cos  sin   sin2  = F()
d2 V
1 cos 2 1 cos 2 and  24x  44
F(  ) = 7  4 sin2  dx 2
2 2
dV
= 4  3 cos 2  4 sin2
dx
 
 0 if 4 3x 2  11x  6  0
= 4  5 sin  cos 2  5 cos  sin2
(3x  2) (x  2) = 0
= 4  5 sin (2  )
i.e. when x = 2/3 or 3
Since sine functions takes its maximum
2 d2 v
for x  ,  28 and
and minimum value as +1 and 1 3 dx 2
respectively.  is negative
Fmax = 4 + 5 ; Fmin = 4  5 2
Hence x  gives a maximum value of V
 Fmax = 9 Fmin = 1 3
2 11
Solved Example 16 : For x = , V= 7
3 27
A rectangular sheet of a metal is 8 meters 11
Thus the maximum volume is 7 cm.
by 3 meters; equal squares are cut out at 27
each of the corners and the flaps are then x = 3 is inadmissible, since the breadth
folded upto form an open rectangular box. itself of the sheet is 3m.
Find its maximum volume.
Solution: D C

x 3m

A B
8m
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 Notes on Calculus

1 Solved Example 47 :
x 2 1 x2
lim  lim 2 
1
x  1
2
x  x Solve e 2x
 10e x
dx
1 x 1

 1  Solution :
= lim  2  1
x  x
  
1
= 1 a positive finite limit. e
1
2x
 10e x
dx converges because

 
dx dx 
1
Hence x
1
2
converges, therefore  1 x
1
2 e 2x
dx converges and
1

converges. 1 2x
lim
x  e2x

e  10e x 
Solved Example 46 :  10 
= lim  1  x   1 , a positive finite limit

3
x 
 e 
Solve e
1
x
5
dx

Solution : Solved Example 48 :



3

1 1
1 ex  5 dx converges because 1 ex dx Solve 
1 x
dx

converges Solution :
 
3 ex 3 1 1
Now lim x
x  e  5
  lim
1 x  1  5e  x

1 x
dx diverges because  x dx
1
diverges

= 3 a positive finite limit. 1 1

and  for x > 1
x x

2.9 Double Integrals

The double integral of a function f(x, y) over a region D is denoted by  f  x,y  dxdy .
D

Let f(x, y) be a continuous function defined on a closed rectangle

R = { (x, y) / a  x  b and c  y  d }
For continuous functions f(x, y) we have
d
d b
  b 
R  
f x,y dxdy  a  c   
f x,y dy dx     f  x,y  dx  dy
   a 
c

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Note : 1.  dxdy represent the area of the region S.

S

2. In an iterated integral the limits in the first integral are constants and
if the limits in the second integral are functions of x then we must
first integrate w.r.t. y and the integrand will become a function of x
alone. This is integrated w.r.t. x.
3. If R cannot be written in neither of the above two forms we divide R
into finite number of subregions such that each of the subregions
can be represented in one of the above forms and we get the double
integral over R by adding the integrals over these subregions.

Solved Example 49 : 1
 1   3 x3 
  x    x    dx
2
=
12
 3   3  
   x  2  dydx
0
Evaluate I =
0 0 1
 1 4x 3 
  x
2
=    dx
Solution : 0
3 3 
1 1

  xy  2y    2x  4  dx
2 1
dx =  x3 x x4 
0
0
0
=    
 3 3 3 0
1
 2x 2 
  4  x 0
= 
1 1 1 1 1
=   
 2 0 3 3 3 3
=1+4=5
Solved Example 51 :
Solved Example 50 :
3 2
dxdy
1 1 Evaluate 
  x  dydx xy
2
Evaluate y 2
2 1
0 x
Solution :
Solution : 3 2 3 2
dxdy dy dx
1 1
2 1 xy = 2 y 1 x
  x 
2
 y 2 dydx
0 x
3
dy
 y log x 
2

1 1
 =
 
1
=    x 2  y 2 dy  dx 2

0 x  3
dy
1 =  log 2  log1 

1
y3  y
=   x 2 y   dx 2

0
3 x
= log 2 log y 2
3

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 Notes on Calculus

= log2 log3  log2 The region of integration 0  y  2 and 0 

3 y2
= log 2 log x can also be written as
2 2

0  x  2 and 2x  y  2
Solved Example 52 : 2  2 
y
x2
 I = 0   dy  dx
 e x  y  1 
2 2
Evaluate the double integral dxdy  2x
R
2 2
where the region R is given by =   x 2  y 2  1
 2x
dx
R : 2y  x  2 and 0  y  1. 0

2
Solution :
=   x 2  5   x  1  dx

Integrating with respect to y first, we get 0

2
 x / 2 x2  2
 x x2  5 5
 
x/2

0 ye  0 dx
x2
I = 0  0 e dy  dx = = 
2
 log x  x 2  5
2
  
2 2
1 1 2  1 4
 
2
2
2
1
=
20 xe x dy   ex  =
4 0 4
e 1   x  1 
2 0

Solved Example 53 :
= 3
5
2
 1
log5  log 5   9  1
2

Evaluate the integral 5
= log 5  1
y2 4
2 2
y
 x  y2  1
2
dxdy
0 0 Solved Example 54 :
Solution : The cylinder x 2  z 2  1 is cut by the
y planes y = 0, z = 0 and x = y. Find the
volume of the region in the first octant.
y=2 Solution :
(2, 2)
In the first octant we have z  1  x 2 . The
2
y = 2x projection of the surface in the x  y plane
is bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0 and y = x.
0 x
1
x 
It would be easier to integrate it first with  V =  zdxdy     1  x 2 dy  dx
R 0 0 
respect to y.
1
1  x 2  y 0 dx
x
= 
0

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1 In this region x varies from 0 to 2 when

= x
0
1  x 2 dx
0  x  1 for fixed x, y varies from 0 to x.

1  3/2 1
  1 cubic units. When 1  x  2, y varies from 0 to 2 x.
=
3 

1 x2   0 3  The region D can be subdivided into
2 regions D1 and D2 as shown.
Solved Example 55 :
 a cos 
  xydydx   xydydx   xydydx
 
D D1 D2
Evaluate I = r sin drd
0 0
In the region D1 for fixed x, y varies from
Solution : y = 0 to y = x and for fixed y, x varies
 a cos 
r  2
from x = 0 to x = 1.
I =  sin   2  d
0 0 Similarly for D2 the limit of integration for

1 2
 y is y = 0 to y = 2  x
2 0
= a cos2  sin d
 xydydx
D

a 2
=  cos2 d  cos   1 x 2 2x
2 0  
0 0
xydydx   
1 0
xydydx
[d(cos ) = sin  d]
x 2x
a 2 a2  xy 2 
1 2
 xy 2 
=

 cos3   = =   dx     dx
6 0 3 0
2 0 1
2 0
1 2
1 2 1
x dx   x  2  x  dx
2

2 0
Solved Example 56 : =
21
Evaluate I = D xydydx where D is the
1 2
 x3  1 x 4 4x 3 
=    2x 2   
region bounded by the curve x = y2,  6 0 2  4 3 1
x = 2  y, y = 0 and y = 1.
1 1 16 8  1  1 4 
=  2  4   4  2  
Solution : 6 2 4 3  2  4 3

1 4 11 9
=   
6 6 24 24
y2 = x
(1, 1)
Solved Example 57 :
Change the order of integration in the
D1 4 y
D2
integral I =   f  x, y  dxdy
1 y/2
(1, 0) (2, 0)

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 Notes on Calculus

Solution : Solved Example 58 :

The region of integration D is bounded by a a
xdxdy
x = y/2
Evaluate 0 y x2  y2
x=y
by changing the order of integration.
y=1
Solution :
y=4

y=a
y=4 (2, 4) (4, 4)
(a, a)
D3 y=x
y = 2x
y=x x=a
D2 R
(0.5, 1) D1 (2, 2)
y=1 (0, 0) (a, 0)
(1, 1)

(0, 0) Region R of integration

is bounded by
Here, x varies from 0.5 to 4
x=y
1 x=a
when  x  2 , y varies from 1 to 2x
2
y=0
when 1  x  2, y varies from x to 2x
y=a
when 2  x  4, y varies from x to 4
We have to change the order of integration
For changing the order of integration we
as dy dx.
must divide D into sub regions D1, D2, D3.
Here in the region R, x varies from 0 to a
 I =  f  x, y  dxdy
D
and for fixed x, y varies from 0 to x.
a a a x
xdxdy x
=  f  x,y  dxdy   f  x, y  dxdy 0 y x2  y2 = 0 0 x2  y2 dydx
D1 D2

  f  x, y  dxdy a x
1 1  y  
D3
= 0 x  x tan  x  dx
0
1 2x 2 2x

  f  x,y  dydx    f  x, y  dydx

a x
=  1  y  
1/ 2 1 1 x
= 0 tan  x  dx
0
4 4
   f  x,y  dydx a

0 tan 1  tan1 0  dx
1
2 x
=

a
  a a
dx   x 0 
4 0
=
4 4

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Solved Example 59 :  32 128 8 2   1 1 1 1 

=        
4 2 5 21 3 3   5 21 3 3 
1   x 
2
Evaluate  y 2 dxdy by changing
1006
y
=
105
the order of integration.
Solution :
Solved Example 60 :
(2, 4) y=4 3 4y

Evaluate 0 1  x  y  dxdy by changing

y = x2 x=2
the order of integration.
(1, 1) y=1 Solution :
The region is bounded by

(0, 0) y=0
y=3
The region of integration is bounded by
x=1
y=1
x2 = 4  y
y=4
x2 = y
x=2 (1, 3) y=3
We change the order of integration as dy
dx. In the region x varies from 1 to 2 and
2 x=1 y = 4  x2
for fixed x, y varies from 1 to x .
4 2

1   x 
2
 y 2 dxdy
y
(0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0)

2 x2
We have to change the order of integration
1 1  x 
2
=  y 2 dydx
as dydx.
x 2
In this region x varies from 1 to 2
2
 2 y3 
= 1 x y  3  dx and y varies from 0 to 4  x2
1
3 4y
 1 0 1  x  y  dxdy
2
x6
=   x4   x 2   dx
1
3 3
2 2 4  x2
 x5 x7 x3 x 
=      = 1 0  x  y  dydx
 5 21 3 3 1

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 Notes on Calculus

4  x2 We divide the region into two subregions


2
y2 
=   xy   dx R1 and R2
1
2 0
 R xydydx   xydydx   xydydx

  
2
2 4  x2 R R

=  x 4  x2    dx 1 2

 2  We have to change the order of integration

 
1

as dxdy in R1 and R2.

 x4
2

=    x 3  4x 2  4x  8  dx In region R1, y varies from a to 2a for a
1
2 
fixed y, x varies from 0 to 2a  y
2
x x5
4x 4
 3
In the region R2, y varies from 0 to a and
=     2x 2  8x 
 10 4 3 1 for a fixed y, x varies from 0 to ay .
241 a 2a  x
=
60  0  xydydx
x2 / a

Solved Example 61 : = 
R
xydydx   xydydx
R
1 2
a 2a  x
Evaluate 0  xydydx by changing the 2a 2a  y a ay
x2 / a = a 0 xydxdy  
0 0
 xydxdy
order of integration
2a  y ay
Solution : 2a
 x2 y   x2 y 
a
= a 
 2 0
 dy   
0
2 0
 dy

(0, 2a) 2a a
y ay 2
a 2  2a  y 
2
x2 = ay = dy   dy
0
2
R1
(0, a) (a, a) 2a
 2 y3 2 a 2
a

R2
= a  2a y 
2
 2ay 

dy 
2 0
y dy

y = 2a  x
2a a
 y 4 2ay 3   y3 
= a2 y 2    a 
(0, 0) (a, 0) (2a, 0)  8 3 a  6 0

5a 4 a 4 9a 4
=  =
24 6 24
The region R is bounded by
x=0
x=a Solved Example 62 :
1 1 x2
y = 2a  x
Evaluate 0 0 ydydx by interchanging the
x2
y=
a order of integration.

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Solution : 1
 2
0 y  x 0
2 1 y
= dy
(0, 1)
1
x=1
0 y
2
= 1  y 2 dy
x=0
/2

0 sin
2
(0, 0) y=0 (1, 0) =  cos d

x2 + y2 = 1 Putting y = sin  
 when y = 0  = 0 
 
 y = 1  =  /2 
The region is bounded by
again put t = sin 
y = 0 (x  axis)
 dt = cos  d
y= 1  x 2 or x 2  y 2  1
When  = 0 t=0
x = 0 (y  axis)  = /2 t=1
x=1 1
1
 t3 
 0 t dt   3 
2
Here y varies from 0 to 1 and for fixed y
0

x varies from 0 to 1 y2
1 1 x 2
1
1 1 x 2 1 1 y
2  0 0 y 2 dydx 
3
 0 0 y 2 dydx = 0 0 y 2 dxdy

2.10 Triple Integrals

A triple integral of a function defined over a region R is denoted by

 f  x, y,z  dxdydz or  f  x,y,z  dV or  f  x, y,z  d  x,y,z 

R R

Evaluation of Triple Integrals :

If the region R can be described by
x1  x  x 2 , y1  x   y  y 2  x  , z1  x,y   z  z2  x, y 

then we evaluate triple integral as

x2 y 2  x  z2  x,y  x2  y2  x   z2  x,y   
   f  x,y,z  dzdydx = x  y x  z x,y f  x,y,z  dz  dy  dx
x1 y1  x  z1  x,y  1  1   1   

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 Notes on Calculus

Note : There are six possible ways in which a triple integral can be evaluated
(order of variables of integration). We choose the one which is simple to
use.

Solved Example 63 : x
1  xy 4 
a x a
1
2 0 0 2 0  4  0
3
2 3 2
= xy dydx =   dx
0 1 1 xy zdzdydx
2
Evaluate
a
1  x6 
a
1 5 a6
Solution : = 
80
x dx    
8  6  0 48
2
2 3 2
 xy 2 z2 
2 3

0 1 1 0 1  2  dydx
2
xy zdzdydx  Solved Example 65 :
1
 / 2 1
…(Integrating w.r.t. z keeping x, y constants)
0 0 0 r
2
Evaluate : I = sin drdd
2 3
 xy 2

0 1 2xy
2
=   dydx
2  Solution :
 /2 1
2 3 r3 
3
=   xy 2 dydx I= 0 0 sin    dd
 3 0
201
 /2 
1 1
  cos 0 d
3 /2

3 0 0 
3  xy 3 
2
= sin dd =
=   dx 30
2 0  3 1

1 1  
…(integrating w.r.t. y keeping x constant) =  d   0 
2
30 3 3
1
 27x  x  dx
2 0
=

2
Solved Example 66 :
= 13  xdx log a x x  y

0 0 0 e
xy z
0 Evaluate I = dzdydr
2
 x2 
= 13    26 Solution :
 2 0
log a x
xy
0 0 e  dydx
xy z
I=
Solved Example 64 : 0

a x y
log a x
0 0 0 xyzdzdydx 0 0  e 
Evaluate I = =
2 x  y 
 e x  y dydx

Solution : log a x
 1 2 x  y  
a x y
 xyz2 
= 0 2 e

 e x  y  dx
0
I= 0 0  2  dydx
0

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log a
 1 4x 3 2x x 
1
0y 36  4x 2
= 0  2 e  2 e  e  dx
  3

log a 0x3
1 3 
=  e4x  e2x  e x 
8 4 0 2 9
x2 
 3 3 
 I =  0  36  4x  9y  dy  dx
2 2
1 3 3
= a4  a2  a  0 
8 4 8  

3 x2
Solved Example 67 :
0 4  9  x  y  3y
2 9
= 2 3  3
dx
0
Find the volume of the solid in the first
octant bounded by the paraboloid. 3
8 8 
0  3  9  x   
3/2 3/2
2
=  9  x2  dx
z  36  4x  9y 2 2
9 
Solution : 16
3

 
3/ 2

9 0
= 9  x2 dx
We have I=  dzdydx
R
Substituting x = 3 sin  we get
The projection of the paraboloid (in the first
/2
16
octant) in the x  y plane is the region in 0  27 cos    3 cos   d
3
I =
9
the first quadrant of the ellipse
/2
4x 2  9y 2  36
0 cos
4
= 144 d
 The region R is
3 1 
0  z  36  4x 2  9y 2 = 144      27 cubic units
4 2 2

2.11 Change of Variables in Double and Triple Integrals

and Jacobians
Consider the transformation given by the equation
x = x(u, v, w) ;
y = y(u, v, w) ;
z = z(u, v, w)
Where the functions x, y, z have continuous first order partial derivatives.

106
 Notes on Calculus

The Jacobian J of the transformation is defined by

x x x
u v w
y y y
J=
u v w
z z z
u v w

  x, y,z 
The Jacobian is also denoted by J =
  u, v, w 

For a transformation in two variables x = x(u, v) and y = y(u, v) the Jacobian is given by a
  x, y 
determinant of order two. Hence J =
  u, v 

Solved Example 68 : Solution :

The transformation from cartesian Here 0     and 0    2
coordinates (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, )   x,y,z 
J=
is given by  r, ,  
x = r cos  y = r sin 
sin  cos  r cos  cos  r sin  sin 
Solution :   sin  sin  r cos  sin  r sin  cos 
x x cos  r sin  0
r  cos  r sin 
J=  r = r2 sin 
y y sin  r cos 
r  and  f  x, y,z  dxdydz
R
and
  f r sin  cos ,r sin  sin ,r sin  
R f  x,y  dxdy  R f r cos ,r sin   rdrd R

r 2 sin drdd
Solved Example 69 :
The transformation from Cartesian
Solved Example 70 :
coordinates (x, y, z) to spherical polar
The transformation from Cartesian
coordinates coordinates (x, y, z) to cylindrical
(r, , ) is given by coordinates
x = r sin  cos  (r, , z) is :
y = r sin  sin  x = r cos , y = sin , z = z
z = r cos 

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Solution : Solution :
cos  r sin  0 The equations are
  x, y,z 
J=   sin  r cos 0 = r AB  x  y = 
 r, ,z 
0 0 1 BC  x + y = 3
and  f  x, y,z  dxdydz CD  x  y = 
R
DA  x + y = 
  f r cos ,r sin ,z  rdrddz
D(0, ) C(, 2)
R 
x  y = 

x+y=
Solved Example 71 : x + y = 3

If u = x2  y2 and v = 2xy xy=

A(,0) B(2,)
Prove that
x x Substitute y  x = u and y + x = v
  x, y  u v 2x 2y Then   u   and   v  3
 =  
  u,v  y y 2y 2x
v u v u
u v  x= and y 
2 2
= 4 x2  y2   x x
  x, y 
u v
Solution : and I= 
  u,v  y y

We have x 2  y 2  x 2  y 2   2xy     2
u v

 u2  v 2 1 1

2 2 1
= 
 x 2
 y 2  u2  v 2 1 1 2
2 2
  u,v 
  4 u2  v 2 1
  x,y   |J|=
2
  u,v  1
  x  y  cos2  x  y  dxdy
2
   I =
  x, y  4 u v 2 2 R

3 
1
  u
2
 cos2 vdudv
Solved Example 72 : 2
Evaluate the integral 3
3
 cos
2
= vdv
  x  y   x  y  dxdy , where R is the
2 2
cos 3
R
3
parallelogram with successive vertices at 3 4
=
6  1  cos 2v  dv  3
(, 0), (2, ), (, 2) and (0, ) 

108
 Notes on Calculus

Solved Example 73 : 
 r 2  1 2

= 
20
e rdr =   e r d r 2
20 2
 
Evaluate I = R x 2  y 2 dxdy by changing

  1 r 2   1 
to polar coordinates, where R is the =   e    
2 2 0 2  2  4
region in the x  y plane bounded by the

circles x2 + y2 = 4 and x2 + y2 = 9.  I=
2
Solution :
Using x = r cos  Solved Example 75 :
y = r sin  Evaluate the integral  zdxdydz , where T is
T
We get dx dy = r dr d and
the hemisphere of radius a, x2 + y2 + z2 = a2,
2 3 2 3
r 
3
I=   r r dr d     3 
0 2 0
d z  0.
2
Solution :
2
19 38 Changing to spherical coordinates
=
3 0 d =
3
substitute
x  r sin  cos , y  r sin  sin , z  r cos 
Solved Example 74 :
0    2 and 0    /2
Evaluate the improper integral
We get,

 x2 dx dy dz = r2 sin dr d d
I= 0 e dx
2 / 2 a
 0 0  r cos   r
2
Solution : I = sin  dr d d

I2 = I  I 2 / 4
a4
  2    2     x2  y2  =
4 0 0 sin  cos dd
=   e x dx    e  y dy     e dxdy
0  0  00 2 / 2
a4
Put x = r cos  =
8 0 0 sin2dd
y = r sin 
2 /2
a4  cos 2 
Hence J = r =
8 0   2  d
 0
The region of integration is the entire first
2
quadrant. Hence r varies from 0 to  and  a4
=
8 0 d
varies from 0 to /2.
 /2 a 4
2
=
 I2 = 0 0 er rddr 4

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Solved Example 76 : The projection of the given region on the

Using triple integral find the volume of the x  y plane is the triangle bounded by the
2 2 2 2
sphere x + y + z = a lines
Solution : x = 0;
V = 8  dxdydz where D is the region x y
y = 0 and  1 0xa
D a b
bounded by the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 in In this region x varies from 0 to a.
the first quadrant.
 x
For fixed x, y varies from 0 to  1   b.
Substitute x = r sin  cos , y = r sin  sin  a
, z = r cos   x
2
i.e. 0  y   1   b
Jacobian | J | = r sin   a
and the limits r = 0 to a; 0    /2 For fixed (x, y), z varies from 0 to
0    /2  x y
1 a  b  c
a /2 /2  
 V = 8  0 J dddr
  x y 
0  z   1  a  b  c 
0 0

a /2 /2    
= 8 0 0 r
2
sin dddr
0
 I = 
D
dxdydz

a /2

0 r   cos 0 ddr

/2  x  x x
= 8 2
 1 b  1   c
a  a  a b
0
= 0 0 0 dzdydx
a  /2 a
= 8  r 2  0 dr
/2
= 8  r d dr
2
 x
0 0 0  1 b
a  a
 x y
a
= c 0  1  a  b  dydx
a
r  3
0  
= 4 r 2 dr = 4  
0  3 0  x
 1 b

a
x y2  a

4a 3 = c   1   y   dx
= 0 
a 2b  0
3
a
x 
2 2
 x 1
= bc   1     1    dx
Solved Example 77 :  a  2  a  
0

Find by triple integral the volume of the

a 2
bc  x
2 0  a 
tetrahedron bounded by the planes x = 0, = 1 dx
x y z
y = 0, z = 0 and   1 a
a b c bc  a  x 
3
abc
=  1   =
Solution : 2  3  a   6
0

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 Notes on Calculus

Solved Example 78 : = a 2b2 c 2  uvwdudvdw

R
Evaluate I = 
R
xyzdxdydz where D is the
Now substitute
positive octant of the ellipsoid u = r sin  cos 
x 2 y 2 z2 v = r sin  sin 
  1
a 2 b2 c 2 w = r cos 
Solution : Then J = r2 sin 
Substitute x = au, 1 /2 /2

y = bv I  a 2 b2 c 2  0 0 r
5
sin3  cos  cos  sin dddr
0
z = cw 1 /2 /2
 a 2b2 c 2  r 5 dr 0 sin3  cos d  sin  cos d
a 0 0
  x,y,z  0 0
J=  0 b 0  abc 1 /2 /2
  u,v,w  1  1  1 
= a 2b2 c 2  r 6   sin4    sin2  
0 0 c 6 4 2
 0  0  0
Let R be the positive octant of the sphere
a 2 b2 c 2
2 2 2 =
u +v +w =1 48
 I=   abc uvw  abc  dudvdw
R

2.12 Application of Integration

Solved Example 79 : The latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax
Calculate the area bounded by the is a line parallel to y  axis. The shaded
2
parabola y = 4ax and its latus rectum. portion is the desired area. As the
Solution : parabola is symmetric about the xaxis,
therefore area
y
L OLL = 2  Area OSL.
a a a
= 2  ydx  2  4axdx  4 a  x1/ 2 dx
0 0 0
S
0 (a, 0) x x3 / 2 8
a

= 4 a  a a3 / 2  0
3 / 2 x 0 3

8a 2
=
3

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Solved Example 80 : 1 3
= 0 4xdx    3  x  dx
Find the area of the region bounded by the 1

graph of y = sin x and y = cos x between 1 3

 2   x2 
x = 0 and x = /4. = 2  x 3/ 2   3x  
 3 0  2 1
Solution :
4 10
= 2 = sq. units.
3 3

Solved Example 82 :
Find the area of the region bounded by the
two parabolas y = x2 and x = y2.

/4
 Required area = 0  cos x  sinx  dx
x = y2
P
/4
=  sinx  cos x  0 B
y = x2
2 2 A
=    0  1
2 2 0 M
=  
2  1 sq. units.

Solution :
Solved Example 81 :
Let us first find the points of intersection
Find the area above the xaxis bounded solving y = x2 and x = y2
2
by y = 4x and the line x + y = 3 y = y4
Solution :  y (y3  1) = 0
y
 y=0  x=0
(1, 2)
A y=1  x=1
For the curve x = y2
(3, 0)
1 1
0 C B Now the area OBPM =  ydx 
0
0 xdx

1
 x3 / 2 
 
 3 / 2 0
Required area = area OCA + area ACB 2
 sq.units
3

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 Notes on Calculus

For the curve y = x2 Solved Example 84 :

1 Find the area of one turn of the
Area OAPM = 0 ydx archimedan spiral r = a.
1 Solution :
1
 x3  1
  x dx     sq. units.
2

0  3 0 3
2 1 1
The required area =   sq. units.
3 3 3 O
A
Solved Example 83 :
Find the area bounded by the cardioid
2 2
1 2 1
r = a(1 + cos ) The area is A = 
20
r d  a 2  2 d 
2 0
Solution :
a 2  2 
3
4
=  3 a 2
2 3 3
O A

Solved Example 85 :
Find the area bounded by the curves :
y = 2x5 + 3 and y = 32x + 3
A cardioid is symmetrical about the initial
Solution :
line.
y

1 C
Hence the required area = 2  r 2 d since
0
2

 varies from 0 to  for the upper part.

(0, 3) y=3


0 a 1  cos   B
2 2
= d
x x
 /2

= 4a 2  cos4 d  4a 2 0 cos
4
t2dt A
0
2

 y = 32x + 3
(putting  t) y
2
/2 Two curves will intersect when
3 1
= 8a 2 0 cos4 tdt  8a 2
422 2x 5  3  32x  3  2x  x 4  16   0

3a 2  In the interval (2, 0) ; 2x 5  3  32x  3

=


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and in the interval (0, 2) ; 32x + 3  2x5 + 3  x6 

0

2
x6 
=   16x 2    16x 2  
Thus the required area is given by  3  2  3  x 0

0 128 128 256

  2x  =   sq. units.
5
A =  3  32x  3 dx 3 3 3
2


  32x  3  2x 5  3 dx 
0

2.13 Partial and Total Derivatives

Functions of two variables
If three variables x, y, z are so related that the value of z depends upon the values of x
and y, then z is called the function of two variables x and y and this is denoted by z = f(x, y)

Partial derivatives of first order

Let z = f(x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y. If y is kept constant and
x alone is allowed to vary then z becomes a function of x only. The derivative of z with
respect to x, treating y as constant, is called partial derivative of z with respect to x and is
denoted by
z f
or or fx
x x
z f(x  h, y)  f(x,y)
 lim
x h  0 h
Similarly the derivative of z with respect to y, treating x as constant, is called partial
derivative of z with respect to y and is denoted by
z f
or or fy
y y

z f(x,y  k)  f(x,y)
Thus  lim
y k 0 k

z z
and are called first order partial derivatives of z
x y

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