ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

Pavement Management Branch

PavementDistress
IdentificationManualfor
Districts
 ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

Pavement Distress Identification Manual

for Districts

Prepared By: Daniel Nebro

For any comments, please contact the Pavement Management Branch by the following address;

PMB - Tel. 50 39 72
50 39 68
Table of Contents
Introduction

Background

Purpose

Scope

Applicability

Paved Roads distresses

Bleeding 2 Stoniness 35

Potholes 3 References 37

Rutting 5 Appendix I 38

Subsidence 6 Appendix II 39

Alligator Cracking 7

Patching 8

Corrugation 9

Raveling 11 1

Transverse Cracking 12 7

Longitudinal Cracking 13

Low Shoulder 14

Lacy edge 16

Swell 18

Shoving 19 4

Surface Loss 20 2

Slippage Cracking 21 5

Longitudinal Shoulder Cracking 22 3

Unpaved Roads Distress

Potholes 23

Ruts 25

Corrugation 27

Gullies 29

Loose Gravel 31

Improper Shape 32

Dustiness 34
P A V E D R O A D S D A M A G E S

Background

The Ethiopian Roads Authority highway system consists of 16048Km of roads. This system
comprises surface treatment, asphalt concrete and unsurfaced pavements ranging in
condition, age and performance. Each year, the PMS branch collects condition data of
different types of pavement in ten districts. The data is used to monitor the performance of
the pavements, to help in selection of projects and identify pavements that need future
maintenance and / or rehabilitation.

Each year the pavement Management branch prepares an annual report summarizing the
status of the roads based on the collected data. Copies of the annual report are available from
the Pavement management branch, Operation Department, and from District offices.

Purpose

This manual describes the pavement evaluation procedure used by Ethiopian roads
Authority. The purpose of this manual is to present in abbreviated form the pavement
evaluation procedure that is currently in use in the Authority in a format suitable for
implementation in different districts level. The manual aims at:
1. Providing a uniform nomenclature for description of visible defect types in pavements
2. Giving comprehensive catalogue of the major visible defect types for bituminous
surfaced and unsurfaced roads.
The following data are provided for each defect:
Name of defect
Description of features of the defect
Possible causes and attributes
Description of severity level
Measurement of defects
Possible maintenance options
Photographs of typical examples

Scope

The procedure provided within this manual is designed for identification and description of
defects by an observer on foot relaying on visual observation and experience. The manual
covers different types of damages that usually occur in bituminous surfaced and unsurfaced
roads. Damages which are related to Portland cement concrete pavements (PCC) are not
included in this manual.

Applicability
The manual is applicable for use by district personnel, counterpart engineers in contract
administration, the authority management personnel involved in maintenance and experts
who are involved in forensic investigation of pavement distresses.

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1. Bleeding or Flushing

DRAFT
• Description: Localized accumulations of bitumen at road surface, making the
road appear black and shiny

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This distress is caused by excess asphalt in
the surface layer and/ or low air void content. Contributing factors include:

Insufficient or excess covering stone

Lack of proper rolling during placement

Failure to protect a newly constructed surface from traffic until the

asphalt has cured sufficiently

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Localized bleeding

Severity 2: Generalized, Continuous Bleeding

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the affected surface area

• How to maintain

(a) Minor Bleeding can be corrected by applying coarse sand or stone screening to
bolt up (secure) excess asphalt

(b) Major Bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with motor grader.
If the surfacing is excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary.

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2. Potholes

DRAFT
• Description: Localized Bowl-shaped holes in the pavement surface.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: Potholes are caused by water penetrating
the surface and causing the base /or subgrade to become wet and unstable. They also may
be caused by a surface that is too thin or that lacks sufficient asphalt content, lacks
sufficient base, or has too many or too few fines. Potholes can also be caused by a
condition of high-severity alligator cracking.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Low density of small potholes (No. < 5 and/or Diam. <30cm)

Severity 2: High density of small and medium potholes (5 < No. <10 and Diam. > 30cm
or No.> 10 and Diam.> 100cm)

Severity 2: High density of small and medium potholes (No. > 10 and Diam. >30cm or 5
< No. > 10 and Diam. >100cm)

• How to Measure

Measure the depth, count the number of potholes, and measure the diameter of the
pothole in a length of 100mt.

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• How to maintain

DRAFT
To repair potholes take following actions:

1) Clean out hole

2) Remove any wet base

3) Shape hole so that it has vertical sides

4) Prime hole

5) Fill hole with Ac/ Surface treatment

6) Properly compact with hand tamper or any appropriate means

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3. Rutting or Channels

DRAFT
RAFT
• Description: Channalized deformation along the wheel tracks and appears about 50 to
80cm from the edge of the pavement. Ruts are noticeable after a rainfall, when the
depressions are filled with water.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: Rutting is caused by heavy loads and high
tire pressures, possibly but not necessarily aggravated by loss in bearing capacity and poor
construction methods.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: If h is smaller than 2cm

Severity 2: If h is between 2 and 4cm

Severity 3: If h is larger than 4cm h

• How to Measure

Rutting is measured by using a 1.5m- long straight edge placed across-wide placed cross-
wide the pavement above the deformed area and the height h is recorded to classify the
severity

• How to maintain

When there is rutting without cracking, repair the area by replacing the bituminous layers
by materials of better compaction and if rutting is associated with cracking, remove the
old surface, if the area shows signs of mud being pumped to the surface, remove all wet
material and reconstruct the pavement.

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4. Subsidence

DRAFT
RAFT
• Description: Vertical depression of the road surface, usually localized and circular in
shape. In many instance, light subsidence are not noticeable until after a rain, when water
is collected.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: It can be the result of subgrade settlement
caused by saturation, poor construction methods or possibly caused by materials of poor
quality.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: If h is smaller than 2cm

Severity 2: If h is between 2 and 4cm

h
Severity 3: If h is larger than 4cm

• How to Measure

Place a 1.5 m straightedge over the affected area and measure the depth of settlement h.

• How to maintain

Repair the affected area by replacing the base or subbase material with materials of better
quality and composition and proper compaction. If the depression is sever, start
reconstructing from the subgrade.

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5. Alligator Cracking / Crocodile Cracking / Crazing

DRAFT
• Description: Alligator or fatigue cracking is a series of interconnected cracks. Cracking
begins at the bottom of the asphalt surface propagating to the surface initially as a series of
parallel longitudinal cracks. After repeated traffic loading, sharp-angled pieces with a
pattern resembling the skin of an alligator will develop.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: It is mainly caused by fatigue failure of the
asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic loading.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Single or clearly separated longitudinal cracks

Severity 2: Continues cracks, branched or clearly open

Severity 2: Extensive branched cracks or wide open cracks

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the affected surface area.

• How to maintain

To repair distress of such type, asphalt patching (Crack sealing) method of maintenance
can be employed. It is highly recommended that this type of failures better be maintained
at their early stage with crack sealing.

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6. Patching

DRAFT
• Description: A patch is an area of pavement which has been replaced with new material
to repair existing pavement

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: patching is operated in order to adequately

eliminate a defect. But sometimes, it does not correct the cause of the damage itself. It is
more or less a cosmetic solution to a defect. As a consequence, the damage will reappear
here and nearby. Hence patching reflects a weakness of the pavement.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: the extent of the repair occupies from 0 to 10% of the pavement surface

Severity 2: the extent of the repair occupies from 10 to 50 % of the pavement surface

Severity 3: the extent of the repair occupies more than 50% of the pavement surface

• How to Measure

Measure the area of individual patches and count the number of patches in length of
100mt.

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7. Corrugation

DRAFT
RAFT
• Description: Corrugation is a series of closely spaced ridges and valleys occurring at
regular interval along the pavement. The ridges are perpendicular to the traffic direction
and usually extend across the whole width of the carriageway.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This type of distress is usually caused by
traffic action combined with unstable pavement or base ( inadequate stability of asphalt
surface or base, compaction in wave form)

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: If d is smaller than 2cm

Severity 2: If d is between 2 and 4cm

Severity 3: If d is larger than 4cm

• How to Measure

Place a 1.5m straight edge perpendicular to the ripples and measure the maximum depth d
(depth of the wavelength)

• How to maintain

To repair corrugations in a thin surface treatment, scarify the pavement, add aggregate as
needed, mix well, re-compact, prime and then resurface.

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DRAFT

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8. Raveling

DRAFT
• Description: Raveling is the wearing away of the pavement surface by progressive loss of
aggregate from the road surface.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This distress can be caused by hardened
asphalt binder or a presence of poor-quality mixture. In addition, raveling may be caused
by certain types of traffic, e.g. tracked vehicles.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Localized or Discontinuous raveling

Severity 2: Continuous raveling

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the surface area affected.

• How to maintain

When a small percentage of the pavement is raveling, repair with a skin patch. When a
large percentage of the pavement shows raveling, the pavement should be resurfaced.

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9. Transverse Cracking

DRAFT
• Description: Cracks extending across the pavement at approximately perpendicular to
the pavement center line.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: These may be caused by thermal stresses
of Ac surface due to daily temperature cycling or some form of construction fault.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Single straight, sharp and thin transverse crack

Severity 2: Crack branching or double or multiple cracks without loss of material

Severity 3: Crack open and branching or multiple open cracks with loss of material

• How to Measure

Visually assessing the affected surface area.

• How to maintain

This type of damage can be maintained by sealing the cracked area

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10. Longitudinal Cracking

DRAFT
• Description: Cracks extending parallel to the pavement's centerline.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: These types of damage can be caused by:

o Poorly constructed lane Joint

o Thermal stresses in Ac surface due to daily temperature cycling

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Single straight, sharp and thin longitudinal crack

Severity 2: Crack branching or double or multiple cracks without loss of material

Severity 3: Crack open and branching or multiple open cracks with loss of material

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the affected surface area.

• How to maintain

Crack Sealing can be used to maintain this type of damage

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11. Low Shoulder

DRAFT
RAFT
• Description: Low shoulder is a difference in elevation between the pavement edge and
the shoulder.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This is caused by shoulder erosion,

shoulder settlement or by building up the roadway without adjusting the shoulder level.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Shoulder from 1cm to 5cm lower than the pavement (h between 1 and 5cm)

Severity 2: Shoulder from 5cm to 10cm lower than the pavement (h between 5 and 10cm)

Severity 3: Shoulder 10 cm and more lower than the pavement (h greater than 10cm)

• How to Measure

Place a straightedge along the transverse direction at the edge of the pavement, and
measure the difference in elevation (h) between the shoulder and the pavement.

Pavement Surface
Straightedge

Low shoulder

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• How to maintain

DRAFT
Level the shoulder with the edge of the pavement with appropriate material and better
compaction.

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12. Lacy Edge

DRAFT
RAFT
• Description: Cracking and disintegration of the outer edge of pavement.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This distress is accelerated by traffic

loading and can be caused by erosion of the edge of the paved surface, lack of shoulder
support, shoulder unstable or too low. This damage occurs in pavements in which the
roadbase and shoulders are of the same type of material.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Pavement damage is not clearly marked.

Severity 2: Continuously marked lacy edge with substantial damage of the pavement (edge
cutting more than 0.5m into the pavement)

Severity 3: Sever damage of the edge of the pavement that can lead to its disappearance
on almost the entire width.

• How to Measure

Measure the deepest edge cut from what is supposed to be the original shape into the
inside of the pavement

CL
e

• How to maintain

Repair the affected area by applying Asphalt patching with bitumen and aggregate (surface
treatment) or with cold mix

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DRAFT

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13. Swell

DRAFT
• Description: Swell is characterized by an upward bulge in the pavement's surface.
Swelling can be accompanied by surface cracking.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This type of distress is usually caused by
swelling soil (Expansive Subgrade soil).

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Swell causes Good ride quality

Severity 2: Swell causes Fair ride quality

Severity 3: Swell causes Critical or above critical ride quality

• How to Measure

Refer the attached appendix (APP.II) for ride quality measurement.

• How to maintain

- Maintain any drainage structure which can result in water ponding

- Maintain the road by scarifying the swelled section of the road

- If a special type of design for the expansive subgrade soil is not used, reconstruct
the road starting from the subgrade.

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14. Shoving

DRAFT
RAFT
• Description: Localized plastic movement (Bulging) of the road surface generally parallel
to the direction of traffic. This type of distress occurs in areas where there is frequent
braking or acceleration. Transverse shoving may arise with turning movements.
• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: The cause of shoving is usually:
o Instability in the asphalt layers caused by a mixture that is too rich in asphalt, has
too high of a proportion of fine aggregate, has coarse or fine aggregate that is too
rounded or too smooth-textured, or has asphalt cement that is too soft

o Inadequate pavement thickness

o Inadequate strength in surfacing or base

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: If h is smaller than 2cm

Severity 2: If h is between 2 and 4cm

Severity 3: If h is larger than 4cm h

• How to Measure

Place a 1.5m straightedge over the affected area and measure height of bulge.

• How to maintain

To repair shoved areas, remove surface and base as necessary and replace with a more
stable material to prevent a recurrence.

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15. Surface Loss or Delamination

DRAFT
• Description: Separation of (Peeling off) the wearing course layer from pavement. There
is a clear delineation of the wearing course and the layer below.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This type of distress can be caused by:

o Lack of bond with lower layer as a result of inadequate cleaning or inadequate

tack coat before placement of upper layer

o Infiltrating water through cracks that will accumulate between the pavement
layers resulting the breaking of bond between the surface and the lower layer.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Localized or Discontinuous surface Loss

Severity 2: Continuous Surface Loss

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the affected surface area i.e. the number defects, area coverage of
individual defects and the thickness of layer removed.

• How to maintain

- Localized repairs ; sealing or surface treatment

- Cut away wearing course and reconstruct

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16. Slippage Cracking / Shear Cracking / Crescent

Shaped Cracks / Parabolic Cracking

DRAFT
• Description: Slippage cracks are crescent-shaped cracks that usually point in the direction
of traffic movement. They often occur in closely spaced parallel group.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This type of distress can be caused by
insufficient bond between the surface and underlying courses, which is the result of dust,
oil, dirt, water or absence of tack coat between the two courses.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Localized with hair line cracking

Severity 2: Continuous and closely spaced covering large area

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the affected surface area.

• How to maintain

To repair slippage crack, neatly remove the unbounded section of the surface, apply a
suitable tack coat and replace the surface with a good quality AC.

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17. Longitudinal Shoulder Cracking

DRAFT
• Description: Cracking of shoulder parallel to the centerline or the pavement edge.

• Probable Cause and Contributing Factors: This type of distress can be caused by poor
compaction of the shoulder (Settlement) or heave and shrinkage effect of expansive
subgrade soil. This type of damage usually occurs during widening of the existing road.

• Severity Rate

Severity 1: Single straight, sharp and thin longitudinal crack

Severity 2: Crack branching or double or multiple cracks without loss of material

Severity 3: Crack open and branching or multiple open cracks with loss of material

• How to Measure

Visual assessment of the affected surface area.

• How to maintain

To repair this type of crack, use crack sealing method of maintenance if the severity is
minor and the shoulder is sealed. Otherwise reconstruct the shoulder by removing and
replacing the expansive subgrade soil by suitable non-expansive, low permeable and good
bearing capacity material.

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