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Green Energy and Technology

Malti Goel
Gautam Sen Editors

Climate
Action and
Hydrogen
Economy
Technologies Shaping the Energy
Transition
Green Energy and Technology
Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge scien-
tific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green Energy
and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and technological
approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustainable—technolo-
gies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers “green” solu-
tions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy and Tech-
nology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as well as
decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation spans
from instructional to highly technical.
**Indexed in Scopus**.
**Indexed in Ei Compendex**.
Malti Goel · Gautam Sen
Editors

Climate Action
and Hydrogen Economy
Technologies Shaping the Energy Transition
Editors
Malti Goel Gautam Sen
Climate Change Research Institute Former Sr VP
Delhi, India Reliance Industries and Former ED, ONGC
New Delhi, India
Former Adviser
Ministry of Science & Technology
New Delhi, India

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-981-99-6236-5 ISBN 978-981-99-6237-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6237-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore

Paper in this product is recyclable.

Foreword

Hydrogen is being considered a versatile fuel of future as it does not emit any green-
house gas and could be transported and stored in either gaseous or liquid form.
Wider spectrum of usage supporting technologies of low-carbon transition, i.e. ‘green
hydrogen’, is indeed a practical solution replacing fossil fuels and reducing depen-
dencies on other conventional and non-conventional resources. The recent launch of
the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) and Niti Aayog’s report ‘Harnessing
Green Hydrogen’ released in July 2022 suggests that the demand for hydrogen could
grow more than fourfold in the country by 2050.
As a part of ongoing celebrations of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav and announce-
ment of Green Hydrogen Policy in early 2022, a three-day awareness workshop on
‘Hydrogen Production and Energy Use: Towards a Net zero Strategy (ACBHPE-
2022)’ was hosted by the organizers. The workshop was aimed to discuss critical
technical issues of hydrogen production, its use, and assessments for the current state
of R&D technology considering the nation’s long-term energy future.
In the light of above-mentioned background, the book titled ‘Climate Action and
Hydrogen Economy: Technologies Shaping the Energy Transition’, Eds: Dr. Malti
Goel and Mr. Gautam Sen, contains sixteen chapters based on contributions from

v
vi Foreword

leading scientists and technocrats working in the subject domain and also based on
the lectures delivered in the workshop held by the Climate Change Research Institute.
The content of the book chapters attracts readers on hydrogen energy as a net zero
strategy in response to climate change. The book describes advancements in the
science and technology of hydrogen production technologies, research perspectives,
storage challenges, and energy use in different sectors of the economy. For the ease
of readers, the book has three sections with the first one dedicated for the climate
action and transition to hydrogen economy. The second section of the book talks
about hydrogen production technologies and energy uses, whereas the third section
is dedicated to sustainable hydrogen storage.
I believe that the present content of the book would be a good edition to on-going
global efforts towards this emerging branch of green energy.

Dr. Akhilesh Gupta

Secretary, Science & Engineering
Research Board (SERB)
Senior Adviser
Department of Science & Technology
Government of India
New Delhi, India
Preface

The book Climate Action and Hydrogen Economy: Technologies Shaping the Energy
Transition, Eds. Malti Goel and Gautam Sen, an initiative of Climate Change
Research Institute for Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsva in the 75th year of India’s Inde-
pendence, is showcasing the advancements made in the use of hydrogen energy as a
move towards Net zero.
Energy undoubtedly is at the core of economic progress and human development.
There is a direct correlation between a country’s GDP growth and its peoples’ well-
being with the per capita energy consumed. After the first Industrial Revolution
in the mid-eighteenth century, animal and mechanical power gave way to fossil
fuel technology. Increased coal mining and, subsequently, oil and gas exploration
and exploitation became the order of the day. However, soon it became apparent
that burning of fossil fuel resources at this scale can only lead to environmental
degradation, making the planet inhabitable.
When burnt, fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide, a long-lived greenhouse gas
that has a cumulative effect causing global warming and climate change. Fluctuating
seasons, extreme weather events, swinging day-to-day temperatures, and heat waves
are household manifestations of anthropogenic climate change catastrophes. There
are predictions that nature’s fury will affect tropical countries much more. Today,
mean global temperature is already crossing 1.1 o C of the pre-industrial level. The
Paris Agreement on Climate Change 2015 targets limiting the global temperature
increase well below 2 o C suggesting efforts to curb the rise to 1.5 o C. At the current
growth rate, climate emergencies threaten the planet’s survival, and the mean global
temperature is anticipated to increase up to 2.9 o C or more by the end of the twenty-
first century. The United Nations COP27 meeting held in Sharm-El-Shiekh, Egypt,
in 2022 included the ‘Lifestyles for Environment’ mission in its implementation plan
and resolves to pursue further efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C to
achieve the Paris climate goals.
Today, the most significant challenge before humanity is managing the energy
transition and decarbonizing the energy systems by replacing fossil fuel with low
or zero-carbon emitting power. Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is
the option for tackling fossil fuel energy emissions, but it is in the demonstration

vii
viii Preface

phase. Significant investments worldwide are taking place in developing renewable

resources as 24x7 supplies, and a move towards a hydrogen economy is receiving
attention. Hydrogen is emerging as an essential energy source with zero-carbon
content and an emission-free source in contrast to fossil fuels, which are majorly
responsible for global warming.
India held Presidency of the G20 Forum comprising the world’s major economies,
including 19 countries and the European Union from Dec. 2022 to Nov. 2023. The
G20 New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration stressed on transparent international markets
for hydrogen generated from zero or low carbon technologies. The Hydrogen Tran-
sition Summit in the United Nations COP28 meeting held from November 30 to
December 12, 2023 in Dubai has expressed the need for simplicity, pragmatism and
trust in the collaborations, for building the hydrogen economy.
The book therefore could not have been published at a more appropriate time.
The first announcement of the National Hydrogen Mission (NHM) of India by
Prime Minister Mr. Narendra Modi on 15 August 2021 and the Green Hydrogen
Policy in February 2022 have substantially increased the interest in realizing the
potential for hydrogen energy in the country to play a significant role in the nation’s
long-term energy future. The Niti Aayog’s study further pointed out that the demand
for hydrogen could grow more than fourfold by 2050. As a result, a growing need
for a trained workforce and human resource development will be there.

ACBHPE-2022

In this context, the Climate Change Research Institute (CCRI), founded with a vision
to promote climate change education among youth, held a workshop on ‘Awareness
and Capacity Building in Hydrogen Production and Energy Use: Towards a Net zero
Strategy (ACBHPE-2022)’ on the World Environment Day 2022. The three-day
workshop aimed to examine the critical technical issues of hydrogen production, its
use, and assessments for the current state of R&D technology with the following
objectives:
(i) To provide an understanding of the issues and challenges in hydrogen energy
towards a Net zero strategy.
(ii) To learn about the advancements in science and technology of hydrogen produc-
tion technologies and energy uses with particular reference to India’s Climate
Action and National Hydrogen Mission Initiative.
(iii) To put forth perspectives on the transition to hydrogen energy in the knowledge
domain and share recommendations with all concerned.
The ACBHPE-2022 workshop organized from 8–10 June 2022 in association
with the India International Centre and supported by the SERB, Government of
India was conducted in ‘hybrid mode’ gave a unique platform for students, teachers,
and researchers to share the excitement about on-going developments in hydrogen
as an energy carrier in its different facets. Out of twenty-two delegates registered, 15
Preface ix

participated physically in the three days of deliberations, listening to the dignitaries

with a keen interest in learning about the latest developments regarding hydrogen
as fuel. Out of these, seven were girl participants. A special session on Start-ups
was also held, and 13 companies presented their perspectives. In addition, delegates
shared their experience during the workshop.

Structure of the Book

The genesis of the book on Climate Action and Hydrogen Economy: Technologies
Shaping the Energy Transition is ACBHPE-2022 workshop. It features contributions
of leading science luminaries from different academic institutions, research labora-
tories, and industry stalwarts across the country in its sixteen chapters of particular
interest to the readers on hydrogen energy as a Net zero strategy in response to climate
change. It covers a wide range of topics related to climate action and hydrogen energy,
providing insights into hydrogen production and storage. Gender mainstreaming as
a strategy by inviting women to participate as delegates and as contributing authors
in the book has been our mainstay.
The volume addresses the fundamental issues in its three sections, namely:
Part 1 on Climate Action and Transition to Hydrogen Economy deals with climate
action, technological pathways in the hydrogen value chain, and the challenges asso-
ciated with the energy transformation in the different chapters. In addition, policy
support needed in developing a roadmap and incentives essential for implementing
strategies during the transition period to green hydrogen are deliberated. The need
for creative policy instruments, identifying choices in R&D priorities, and holistic
system-thinking approach are highlighted.
Part 2 on Hydrogen Production Technologies and Uses is about scientific and
technological advancements that are taking place globally to produce hydrogen from
its various sources and the potential of research and development (R&D) to minimize
the costs. Innovations in hydrogen production from water, biomass, liquid hydrogen
carriers and advancements made in hybrid approaches, photocatalysis, and molecular
catalysis are discussed. An exclusive chapter describes electrolyser development
using solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC). The technology potential and market
competitiveness aspects are touched upon.
Part 3 is on Sustainable Hydrogen Storage. Hydrogen in the atomic state is highly
reactive, and hydrogen in molecular form could be explosive. Therefore, it must be
stored safely and regenerated as and when required. This part covers in detail signifi-
cant developments in hydrogen storage materials, role of metal hydrides, and perspec-
tives in use of nano-frameworks. A chapter on prospects of green ammonia in the
fertilizer industry in India and associated issues is incorporated.
A list of participating institutions the is in section Contributing Institutions.
x Preface

Acknowledgements

The editors acknowledge the renowned leading authors and contributors to the
book for their intense engagement, commitment, and hard work. Our sincere
thanks are to Prof. D. P. Agrawal Chairman of the Governing Council, for
the motivation and leadership. We are deeply indebted to Shri. R. V. Shahi,
Former Secretary Ministry of Power, for his inspirational Inaugural address to
set the tone of the workshop. He highlighted the policy challenges for intro-
ducing hydrogen as a step towards a clean energy transition. Our sincere
acknowledgements are due to Padma Shree Prof. G. D. Yadav, National
Science Chair, SERB, for his enlightening Keynote address. We profusely thank
Dr. V. A. Mendhe, Principal Scientist, CMFRI, Dhanbad, for his enormous support.
We acknowledge Dr. P. D. Chavan, Principal Scientist, CMFRI; Prof. S. K. Singh,
IIT Indore; Prof. P. C. Ghosh, IIT Mumbai; Dr. Rakesh Kumar, Ex-Director, NEERI;
Dr. S. Nand, ADG, Fertiliser Association of India; Prof. G. D. Sharma, Ex-Secretary,
UGC; Dr. Bipin Kumar Gupta, Chief Scientist, NPL; Prof. S. Ahmad, Ex-VC, Jamia
Hamdard; Ms. Gauri Jauhar, IHS Markit; Shri. R. Varshney, DGM NTPC; Shri. V.
S. Verma, Ex-Member, CERC; and Shri. A. K. Jain Ex-Commissioner, Delhi Devel-
opment Authority for taking part and sharing their wisdom and experience in the
workshop about the potential and R&D of hydrogen, which was an eye opener to
many delegates. Our special thanks are to Shri Ajay Shankar, Distinguished Fellow,
TERI; Dr. Sadhana Rayalu, NEERI Nagpur; Prof. S. Basu, IIT Delhi; Prof. Arnab
Datta, IIT Mumbai; Dr. Vandana Maurya, Delhi University; and Prof. S. Dasappa,
IISC Bangalore, for their valuable and timely involvement by making a vital contri-
bution to the book. We are thankful to members of GC and EC for their unstinted
support and to the staff of CCRI for putting in immense hard work in compiling the
data.
We express our sincere thanks and appreciation to Ms. Swati Meherishi,
Editorial Director, Applied Science and Engineering, Springer Nature. She and
her team deserve to be praised for their dynamism and constant help. Especially
Ms. Priya Vyas, Senior Editor, and Mr. Ramesh Kumaran, Project Coordinator—
Book Production, need mentions for their support and help.
We expect this book to be useful for policymakers, students, and professionals and
to serve researchers working on national hydrogen missions as a ready reference. It
is hoped that this volume would help to reshape the future research in addressing the
challenges of the hydrogen economy and making progress towards climate action.

New Delhi, India Dr. (Mrs.) Malti Goel

10 December, 2023 Shri. Gautam Sen
About This Book

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change 2015 is a global framework to avoid

dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 °C and
pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5 °C. The Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG13:
Climate Action) suggests taking urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts. Attainment of the climate goals would require replacing the use of fossil
fuels with the renewable energy sources to minimize greenhouse emissions or no
emissions in the atmosphere so as to reach Net zero. Hydrogen molecule as a
carbon-free energy carrier is seen to have potential to change the energy dynamics.
The book Climate Action and Hydrogen Economy: Technologies Shaping the
Energy Transition, Eds: Dr. Malti Goel and Mr. Gautam Sen in its 16 chapters,
portrays the promise of Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) in the use of
hydrogen as a move towards Net zero strategy. It presents select proceedings of
the workshop on Awareness and Capacity Building on Hydrogen Production and
Energy Use: Towards a Net zero Strategy (ACBHPE-2022) held in June 2022 and
has contributions from the invited top scholars.
The book comprises scholarly articles on breakthroughs in science, technology,
and policy actions needed across the hydrogen value chain for it to emerge as a tool
for climate action.

xi
Contents

Climate Action and Transition to Hydrogen Economy

Green Hydrogen Towards Net Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ajay Shankar
3 ‘Ps’ of Hydrogen Economy in India: Production Pathways,
Policies, and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Malti Goel
Green Hydrogen: Potential Master Key for Combating Climate
Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Shweta Gupta, Ankit Gupta, Hemant Bherwani, and Rakesh Kumar
The Net Zero Goal and Sustainability: Significance of Green
Hydrogen Economy in Valorization of CO2 , Biomass and Plastic
Waste into Chemicals and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ganapati D. Yadav
Managing Energy Transition and Challenges of New Energy . . . . . . . . . . 91
Gautam Sen
STI Policy Push Towards Hydrogen Economy in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Vandana Maurya, Paramita Ghosh, and Anshuman Gunawat
Sustainability: An Imperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Gauri Jauhar

Hydrogen Production Technologies

Solar Light-Triggered Hybrid Approaches for Green Hydrogen . . . . . . . . 127
Girivyankatesh Hippargi and Sadhana Rayalu
Potential for H2 Generation Using 2D-g-C3 N4 Nano-Photocatalysts . . . . 139
A. Nazeer, F. Ahmad, and S. Ahmad

xiii
xiv Contents

Hydrogen Production from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Rajan Varshney
Green Hydrogen from Biomass Through Gasification—A Carbon
Negative Route for Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
S. Dasappa, Anand M. Shivapuji, and Mishma S. Stanislaus
Sustainable Pathways for Hydrogen Production via Molecular
Catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Mahendra Kumar Awasthi, Surabhi Rai, and Arnab Dutta
Hydrogen Production from Liquid Hydrogen Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Sanjay Kumar Singh
Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell for Hydrogen Generation: General
Perspective and Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Subhrajyoti Ghosh and Suddhasatwa Basu

Sustainable Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen Storage Materials—Background and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Ashish Bhatnagar and Bipin K. Gupta
Prospects of Green Ammonia in Fertilizer Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Sachchida Nand and Manish Goswami
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Dr. (Mrs.) Malti Goel is former Adviser and Scien-

tist ‘G’ and CSIR Emeritus Scientist in the Ministry
of Science and Technology, Government of India.
She received her Ph.D. (Physics) and D.I.I.T. (Solid
State Physics) degree in First Position with Distinc-
tion from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),
Delhi; M.Sc. (Physics) from Birla Institute of Tech-
nology and Science (BITS), Pilani, with the first rank
receiving a Gold Medal in 1967. She has professionally
distiguished in scientific research, policy planning, and
in creating an impact on the national scene by capacity
building in climate change mitigation through applica-
tion of science and technology. As a prolific science
writer, she has 14 books and over 300 publications to her
credit in the form of research articles in peer-reviewed
journals, and papers in conference proceedings. She has
won many awards and honours. For her outstanding
contribution to climate change education and research
in India, she received ‘Life Time Achievement Award’
in the year 2016 by the Pearl Foundation Madurai. She
is Recipient of IITDAA ‘Outstanding Contribution to
National Development (OCND)’ award in the year 2023.

xv
xvi Editors and Contributors

Shri. Gautam Sen joined the Oil and Natural Gas

Commission in 1976, which later became Corporation,
after completing his Master’s degree in Physics from
Delhi University. He worked as Geophysicist and then
as Oil and Gas Explorationist in both onshore shallow
waters and deep water offshore and in their institutes
for over three decades. He rose to the level of Executive
Director and served at this level for six years. He later
joined RIL as Senior Vice President in the Exploration of
Oil and Gas. He was Technical Head for all exploration-
related matters, and RIL’s blocks were mainly in deep
waters in the east coast of India. After superannuation,
he has been Consultant in oil and gas in both private and
public sectors. He has a large number of publications
and is also a recipient of the National Mineral award
from the Government of India.

Contributors

F. Ahmad Faridabad, Haryana, India

S. Ahmad Faridabad, Haryana, India
Mahendra Kumar Awasthi Chemistry Department, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
Suddhasatwa Basu Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi, India
Ashish Bhatnagar Department of Physics and Materials Science and Engineering,
Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India
Hemant Bherwani CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India
S. Dasappa Interdisciplinary Centre for Energy Research, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Arnab Dutta Chemistry Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Powai, Mumbai, India;
National Centre of Excellence in CCU, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Powai, Mumbai, India;
Interdisciplinary Program in Climate Studies, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
Paramita Ghosh Motilal Nehru College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Editors and Contributors xvii

Subhrajyoti Ghosh Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology, Delhi, India
Malti Goel Climate Change Research Institute, Delhi, India;
Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, New
Delhi, India
Manish Goswami The Fertiliser Association of India, New Delhi, India
Anshuman Gunawat Motilal Nehru College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Ankit Gupta CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, CSIR-
NEERI, Nagpur, India
Bipin K. Gupta CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India
Shweta Gupta CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India
Girivyankatesh Hippargi Environmental Materials Division, CSIR-National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India
Gauri Jauhar Energy Transitions and Clean Tech Consulting, S&P Global, Guru-
gram, India
Rakesh Kumar Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi,
India
Vandana Maurya Motilal Nehru College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Sachchida Nand The Fertiliser Association of India, New Delhi, India
A. Nazeer Faridabad, Haryana, India
Surabhi Rai Chemistry Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Powai, Mumbai, India;
National Centre of Excellence in CCU, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Powai, Mumbai, India
Sadhana Rayalu Environmental Materials Division, CSIR-National Environ-
mental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India
Gautam Sen Former Executive Director, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Senior
Vice President RIL (E and P), New Delhi, India
Ajay Shankar The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India
Anand M. Shivapuji Interdisciplinary Centre for Energy Research, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Sanjay Kumar Singh Catalysis Group, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute
of Technology Indore, Indore, M.P., India
xviii Editors and Contributors

Mishma S. Stanislaus Interdisciplinary Centre for Energy Research, Indian Insti-

tute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Rajan Varshney Delhi, India
Ganapati D. Yadav Emeritus Professor of Eminence and National Science Chair
(SERB/DST/GOI), Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
Climate Action and Transition
to Hydrogen Economy
Green Hydrogen Towards Net Zero

Ajay Shankar

Abstract Achieving net zero at the earliest is essential for the survival of mankind.
The latest IPCC reports make it clear that time is running out. With present trends
global warming is set to not only cross 1.5° considered essential by science, but to
go well over 4° by 2100. This would make the planet uninhabitable. The sanguine
confidence in some quarters that either the science is wrong, or, that technology
would achieve some miraculous breakthrough in carbon capture that would enable
us to continue using fossil fuels without adding to carbon emissions and global
warming is delusional. Immediate course correction for rapid decarbonization on a
massive scale is required if there is to be any hope. :
Learning objectives
• Decarbonization strategies—global and India
• Green hydrogen challenges in India
• Suggested policy actions for achieving the goal

Keywords Decarbonization · Green hydrogen · Strategies & challenges · Policy

instruments

1 Decarbonization—Global Targets

Decarbonization needs to be brought forward rather than being back ended as has
been the approach till now. The advanced economies and many other nations have set
the goal of becoming net zero by 2050. This goal needs to be brought forward to, say,
2040 with the bulk of decarbonization being undertaken over the next 10–15 years.
This is imperative. The full decarbonization of electricity is now technically feasible.
The share of renewables in electricity has crossed 46% in a large economy like
Germany. The share of variable renewable energy in Germany electricity rose from

A. Shankar (B)
The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India
e-mail: ajay.shankar@teri.res.in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 3
M. Goel and G. Sen (eds.), Climate Action and Hydrogen Economy,
Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6237-2_1
4 A. Shankar

...in 2000 to over 45% in 2020 [1]. Using renewables with storage for decarbonizing
electricity is the way forward. The cost of renewable electricity, solar and wind is
far lower than that of electricity from any other source. The cost of storage has also
come down rapidly. The transition to carbon-free electricity is doable and affordable.
The way gas prices went up due to the conflict in Ukraine made electricity from
renewables with storage relatively cheaper and made the case for phasing out all fossil
fuel-based electricity generation that much stronger. Only the will in governments
is needed. California has set 2045 as the year for having carbon-free electricity.
President Biden in his election campaign had promised a carbon free electricity
system in America by 2035. All the advanced industrial economies could create
carbon free electricity systems by 2035 if they acted on a war footing. Civil society
and public opinion need to put pressure on their governments and give them the
political will not to yield to the power and influence of the fossil fuel industry whose
interests lie in delaying effective action as long as possible.
In parallel and to the extent it is technically feasible, economic activity needs to be
electrified. As electricity gets decarbonized, these segments of our economies would
also get decarbonized. We are already seeing substantial progress. Electric vehicles
are rapidly gaining market share. UK had decided that automobiles using fossil
fuels would not be sold after 2030 [2]. EU and California intend to have a similar
prohibition coming into effect in 2035. The Indian Railways are completing the
transition to using electricity for carrying goods and passengers. They are aiming to
become net zero by 2030 [3]. Many countries use only electricity for cooking. India
needs to encourage and incentivize the use of electricity and biogas, a renewable
source of energy, for cooking and develop a road map for doing away with the use
of LPG and natural gas for cooking. Those who use oil and gas for heating in cold
climates need to switch to using electricity instead. Governments in these countries
have been too slow and need to give this higher priority. There are parallel transitions
which should take place. First, electrification of vehicular transport, two and three
wheelers, cars, buses, trucks on the one hand and the Railways on the other. Switching
over to electricity for residential heating in cold countries and substitution of fossil
fuels by electricity in industrial processes to the extent it is technically feasible need to
happen in tandem. All these combined by rapid decarbonization of electricity should
result in the elimination of a major part of total carbon emissions in the world.
But there are large parts of the economy which cannot be electrified. There are
many industrial processes where electricity cannot replace fossil fuels. Long distance
shipping and civil aviation cannot be electrified. In all such sectors, called ‘hard to
abate sectors’, green hydrogen has emerged as a potential substitute for fossil fuels.
Green hydrogen means hydrogen produced without the use of fossil fuels. Hydrogen
cars, heavy duty trucks and trains have already been developed. Substitution in many
industrial processes seems possible. This transition is, however, at a very early stage,
and it is recognized that this needs to be accelerated for the achievement of net
zero. All the advanced industrial economies are aiming to become leaders in the new
Hydrogen Economy. Their governments are supporting their firms along with their
technical institutions to gain the lead and resultant competitive advantage. India is
Green Hydrogen Towards Net Zero 5

joining the advanced industrial economies in aiming to reach the global frontier in
this critical sunrise sector.

2 India—Decarbonization Strategies

Hydrogen made from natural gas, called grey hydrogen, has been in use in some
industrial processes. In India it has been in use in the production of ammonia for
fertilizer production. But for hydrogen to be a substitute for fossil fuels it must be
green hydrogen which must be produced without using fossil fuels. The production
of green hydrogen on industrial scale is done through electrolysis of water using
carbon-free electricity. India can use seawater along its vast coastline for producing
green hydrogen without using scarce freshwater. The carbon-free electricity can come
from renewables, renewables with storage and nuclear power. The main costs in the
production of green hydrogen are the cost of electricity and of the electrolysers. The
cost of electricity from renewables has fallen dramatically. The cost of electrolysers
is also falling with innovation triggered by competition and the expectation of huge
demand. While it is not possible to predict how much cost reduction can be achieved,
the expectation of cost reduction is not unrealistic. Hydrogen can also be made from
bio waste. As bio waste is a renewable resource, hydrogen made from it should
legitimately be considered as green hydrogen. We should do so and also try for
global acceptance of this.
India by launching its Green Hydrogen Mission is joining the advanced countries
in pursuing the production of green hydrogen and its downstream uses especially in
the hard to abate sectors [4]. This would place India on the global frontier. It would
make the transition to becoming energy independent by 2047 and becoming net zero
feasible. The National Green Hydrogen Mission reflects our confidence that we can
aim to be on the global frontier along with the advanced industrial economies in
this critical area [5]. The Mission aims at achieving India’s potential to becoming a
leading producer, user and exporter of green hydrogen. The recently released Mission
document is bold and comprehensive. It covers the whole value chain from produc-
tion to storage and transportation to all feasible downstream uses. Production of 5
MMT of green hydrogen by 2030 for domestic use along with an additional 5 MMT
for exports is envisaged. The intention is to create demand for downstream use in
manufacturing of fertilizer, steel and chemicals, and in transport in heavy duty trucks
and shipping. Financing of over Rs. 19,000 crores has been committed. It also sets
out the responsibilities of the other ministries as well as the coordination process
and the mechanism for taking decisions through the Empowered Group chaired by
the Cabinet Secretary. It accepts the need of leadership from government as well as
financial support.
6 A. Shankar

3 Challenge of Green Hydrogen Production

Implementation of such an ambitious vision in a sunrise frontier technology area

would be a formidable task. The challenge would be to create in partnership with
industry and technical institutions pathways for success in each segment to reach
the global frontier. This is not going to be easy. It would require continuing success
in technology absorption, innovation and movement down the cost curve with the
requisite scale and competition. We live in a globalized world and should get the best
technologies at the going market rates. There is usually no point in trying to reinvent
the wheel. We should be able to produce at globally comparable costs and then try and
innovate to improve on technology and lower the cost of production further. We may
succeed and to the extent we do we would become a globally competitive production
centre in the new Hydrogen Economy. These difficult policy goals have to be pursued
at the least cost to the public exchequer. India will continue to face fiscal constraints
in the coming years. Nevertheless, sustained leadership from government would
be necessary to improve the likelihood of success. The right policies and programs
backed by fiscal and other measures would be the key. Creating a competitive industry
structure in the new hydrogen economy would help in moving down the cost curve.
This has been seen in the success of the Solar Mission.
A good beginning has been made with the production of green hydrogen. There
are ambitious plans announced by our leading firms to become globally competitive
producers of green hydrogen within this decade. We are well placed to do so as we
have the cheapest costs of electricity from renewables. We can also try and become
the cheapest producers of electrolysers needed for producing green hydrogen. A
start-up has already started producing and exporting green hydrogen from India.

4 Recommended Policy Instruments

The major task would be to initiate projects for each potential downstream use. This
can be done by using any, or, a mix of the policy instruments available to government.
These instruments are as follows.
(a) Government buying green steel on a continuing basis for its building projects
though it would be more expensive. The government can absorb the higher cost
of steel whose impact on the final cost of the building would be marginal. This
would not need any upfront subsidy from the budget [6].
(b) lower GST rates-being used to promote electric vehicles.
(c) subsidy per unit of production as is being done for fertilizers, where the sale
price is fixed and the difference between this and the cost of production is given
as a subsidy to the fertilizer producing units.
(d) interest subsidy on debt,
(e) capital subsidy as has been done as Viability Gap Funding, for infrastructure
projects and
Green Hydrogen Towards Net Zero 7

(f) Production Linked Incentive (PLI) to offset the higher cost of production for
the initial few years.
Transportation and storage of hydrogen need specialized materials. The Mission
envisages blending of green hydrogen with gas in city gas distribution. But in the
long-run use of gas has to end if we are to reach net zero. Existing pipelines for gas
may be amenable with additional investment and retrofitting to become carriers for
green hydrogen. This could be a cheaper option than laying fresh pipelines. Tankers
for carrying hydrogen also need to be developed.
If with cost reduction, heavy duty trucks using green hydrogen become cost
competitive, then hydrogen filling stations would be needed on our highways. Pilot
projects undertaken now on filling stations and running hydrogen trucks would create
the capacities for the rapid installation of hydrogen filling stations on the highways.
Initial learning would create capacities for cost reduction with scale and volumes.
As the production of green hydrogen begins, ensuring that demand for downstream
uses is created to match production would be essential. In comparison with designing
a Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for a mature product in an existing
market, such as mobile phones, the task here is more complicated as domestic demand
for green hydrogen must be created. How to do so while minimizing the need for
budgetary support? Can other instruments be devised for the same outcomes? One
way would be to go in for competitive procurement, create a competitive industry
structure so that movement down the cost curve is accelerated through successive
bids enabling India to also get the full benefit of the global decline in prices that are
likely. This approach was successful in the National Solar Mission when the price
of solar power was initially about four times the price of thermal power and has now
become clearly much cheaper.
For the Hydrogen Mission, the minimum size of plants for least cost production
would need to be determined for the production of green hydrogen and its downstream
uses at the outset. The minimum economic size of a new fertilizer plant, a green
ammonia manufacturing unit and a green hydrogen producing plant would need
to be ascertained along with the cost. Then working backwards from the fertilizer
plant, supply and demand of green ammonia and green hydrogen would have to be
matched for the supply chain. Competitive bids may be invited to get the least cost
of production of green hydrogen. With this green hydrogen cost, the price of green
ammonia may be competitively determined. This input price would then become the
basis for inviting bids for production of green fertilizer. Subsidy from the budget for
each ton of green fertilizer produced may then be given to bridge the gap between the
market determined price of green fertilizer and the price fixed by government for sale
to farmers. This subsidy would naturally be far higher than the subsidy being given
per ton for normal fertilizer production. No subsidy would, however, be needed for
the intermediate stages.
Similarly, government could enter a long-term procurement contract for the entire
production of a green steel plant. As this would be one of the first green steel plants in
the world, our major steel producers should be persuaded to form a consortium and
set up the plant so that they all learn the new technology. The purchase price would
8 A. Shankar

then have to be on a cost plus basis. It would also be necessary to accept at the outset
that cost and time overruns could occur and price escalation may become necessary.
This more expensive steel may be used by government in all its own construction
projects as well as of its agencies. The impact on the final cost per square meter
would be marginal and could be easily absorbed by the budgets of the construction
projects. No direct subsidy would be needed.
After the success of the first plant in proving the technology, setting up other
plants by all the steel producers may be promoted competitively. This would hasten
movement down the cost curve [7]. At some time in the future government could
consider prohibiting the setting up of any new steel plant that uses fossil fuels.
For shipping, the supply chain up to green ammonia would be the same as for
fertilizer production. Competitive procurement of green shipping services from a
reasonable future date could be done through a long-term contract indicating the
price at which green ammonia would be supplied. This would completely de risk the
investment in building a cargo ship that would use green ammonia. The higher cost
of the shipping service can easily be absorbed by the Indian user as freight costs are
a small portion of his total cost. In this case again, subsidy would not be needed.
For the market-based competitive chemical, pharma and other industries, use of
green hydrogen could be promoted by making its cost comparable to the fuel it would
replace, and this could be done by a combination of a lower GST rate as has been
done for electric vehicles (EVs), and a direct subsidy per kg of green hydrogen used
[8]. This would also need to be done for the use of green ammonia for electricity
generation for meeting seasonal spikes in electricity demand. However, storage and
transport of hydrogen have high costs. Pilots projects with competitive procurement
would create capacities which could later be scaled up with cost reduction.
Each of these would need separate sub-missions in the concerned sectors. Difficult
decisions on the policy instruments to be used, selection of industry partners and
extent and manner of financial support to be provided would need to be taken speedily.
Policy consistency and predictability is what private partners expect. If changes are
considered necessary as they may be at times, transparent stakeholder consultations
should be undertaken beforehand.
Separate funding for sharply defined and focussed technology and product devel-
opment where improvement in performance parameters or cost reduction seems
feasible may be attempted in challenge mode with competitive consortia being
invited. The successful DARPA model for defence technology innovation of the
USA may be adapted for this Mission. This would need nimble technical leadership
and a speedy decision-making process. This is not easy.
There is a strong case for special empowerment for implementation of the
Hydrogen Mission by way of being able to choose partners on selection rather than
only through tendering were considered necessary. In these cases, funding would
also need to be decided on a case-to-case basis. It would also be essential to accept
at the outset that there is real risk of failure as well as time and cost overrun in this
frontier technology area.
Green Hydrogen Towards Net Zero 9

5 Conclusions

Our large fossil fuel companies in the public as well as the private sector need to
accept the inevitability of the energy transition. They can choose to move swiftly
and competitively into the new green energy economy, succeed and grow. They have
deep pockets and enormous technical and managerial talent. They, however, need to
get out of their comfort zone and embrace transformation with zeal and confidence.
Or they should be prepared to disappear. The choice is stark. Recent examples of
disappearance of Kodak and Blackberry are illustrative.
In the government various ministries and the empowered groups under the Chair-
manship of the Cabinet Secretary need to now look in depth at where we would like
to be at the end of the decade in downstream uses of green hydrogen, and then back-
wards on what needs to be done and how and with what fiscal support. Setting out the
complete goal of production and sector wise usage with projected supply matching
demand would be the right way to move forward. The concerned ministries need to
collectively create demand which matches the production of green hydrogen.
With creative policy instruments used with speed, flexibility and agility, we could
be at the global frontier in this decade and that too at affordable costs. The potential
for this is high due to the abundance of young talent with ambition in India.

References

1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544222002067
2. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-
end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030
3. Press Information Bureau (pib.gov.in), Indian Railways to become net zero by 2030.
4. Press Information Bureau (pib.gov.in), Cabinet approves Green Hydrogen Mission.
5. National Hydrogen Mission: Decarbonising India, Achieving Net-Zero Vision, Ministry of
New & Renewable Energy, Government of India, March 21, 2022 https://static.pib.gov.in/Wri
teReadData/specificdocs/documents/2023/jan/doc2023110150801.pdf.
6. Harnessing Green Hydrogen: Opportunities for Deep Decarbonization in India, Niti Aayog,
June 2022.
7. Can Industry Decarbonize Steelmaking? Chemical & Engineering News, 2021.
8. Press Information Bureau (pib.gov.in).
3 ‘Ps’ of Hydrogen Economy in India:
Production Pathways, Policies,
and Perspectives

Malti Goel

Abstract Hydrogen production technologies are getting a new thrust with plane-
tary emergencies like climate change. It is anticipated that hydrogen electricity in the
long run may become more economical than fossil fuel-based electricity with carbon
capture and storage, leading to a move towards the hydrogen economy. A hydrogen
economy would provide long-term industrial sustainability compared to the intermit-
tent energy harnessed from renewable resources. Hydrogen, being the first element
of the Periodic Table, is the lightest and smallest, abundant in the universe, yet it is
not found as a free molecule in the atmosphere. Highly chemically reactive, it is
present in many chemicals around us, from water and hydrocarbons to polymers and
plastics and many others, including living systems like plants and animals. Which is
the best source for producing hydrogen? has been a dilemma for a long time. India, in
the 26th meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP26) of the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change held in Glasgow, has committed to reducing
its GHG emissions by 45% by 2030 and to becoming carbon neutral by 2070 with
a Panchamrit action plan to achieve green transformation with accelerated climate
action. In a move towards a net zero strategy, significant steps have been taken to
promote green hydrogen development. In the 75th year of India’s independence, an
ambitious goal of making India a global hub and achieving green hydrogen produc-
tion of 5 MTPA by 2030 has been stated. This chapter gives an overview of different
sources of hydrogen, methods, and technologies of the hydrogen value chain. It
describes the policy landscape in India and the opportunity it presents for a hydrogen
economy in India.

Learning objectives:
• Natural and anthropogenic sources of hydrogen
• Technologies in the hydrogen value chain
• Policy landscape in India
• Perspectives for the hydrogen economy in India

M. Goel (B)
Climate Change Research Institute, Delhi, India
e-mail: maltigoel2008@gmail.com
Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 11
M. Goel and G. Sen (eds.), Climate Action and Hydrogen Economy,
Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6237-2_2
12 M. Goel

Keywords Climate action · Hydrogen sources · Production pathways · Policies in

India · Perspectives

Abbreviations

AEM Anion Exchange Membrane

BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BPCL Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
CCUS Carbon capture, utilization and storage
COP Conference of Parties
GHG Greenhouse gas
GIFT Green Initiative for Future Transport
GIP Green Initiative for Power
GAIL Gas Authority India Ltd.
HESC Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain
HCF Hydrogen Corpus Fund
HPCL Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
IEA International Energy Agency
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
ITER International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
ITSE Intermediate Temperature Steam Electrolyser
IOCL Indian Oil Corporation Limited
ISRO Indian Space Research Organization
MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
NGHM National Green Hydrogen Mission
NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation
ONGC Oil & Natural Gas Corporation
PEM Proton Exchange Membrane
PCEC Proton Ceramic Electrolyser Cell
PLI Production-linked incentive
RIL Reliance Industries Ltd
SOEC Solid Oxide Electrolyser Cell
SIGHT Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
VPSA Vacuum pressure swing adsorption
3 ‘Ps’ of Hydrogen Economy in India: Production Pathways, Policies … 13

1 Introduction

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has 17 sustainable development

goals (SDGs), adopted by the United Nations in 2015. It calls for making neces-
sary changes in the current pattern of growth to end poverty, protect the planet from
climate change, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The
climate change menaces are becoming real threats to the survival of the planet earth.
Fluctuating seasons, extreme weather events, swinging day-to-day temperatures,
and heat waves are household manifestations of anthropogenic climate change,
causing devastation and havoc to human health. There are predictions that nature’s
fury will affect tropical countries much more. The Climate Action: SDG13, demands
multiple actions for achieving sustainability by rapid decarbonization of
economies. The Paris Agreement on Climate Change targets limiting the global
temperature increase to well below 2 °C and suggests further restricting the rise to
1.5 °C. But both of these seem not feasible at the current rate of growth. Global
temperature has already increased 1.1 °C from the pre-industrial era. At the current
growth rate, the global temperature may increase by 2.9 °C near the end of the century.
In this context, the Conference of Parties (COPs) of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meet to discuss and urge
the member countries to take control of global climate change. The UNFCCC is
the international treaty evoked in 1992, at the Earth Summit held at Rio-de-Janeiro,
Brazil. It was agreed that although current assessments for temperature rise were
uncertain in the 1990s, the reduction in harmful greenhouse gas emissions from
fossil fuel use must be curtailed in the long run.
The science of global warming, however implies that the long-lived greenhouse
gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere would not respond immediately to the emission
cuts. After the first 50 countries ratified the Convention by 1994, negotiations began
among the developed and developing country Parties. Since then, the COP’s meetings
have been held annually (except for the COVID-19 pandemic year 2020), registering
national progress and negotiating future climate actions by the parties. In 2021, the
26th meeting of COPs has driven a move towards net zero emissions and taken
accelerated steps towards decarbonization. In the meeting, big economies pledged to
achieve net zero targets by 2050, while India proposed 2070 and China gave a target
of 2060. The COP27 meeting in 2022 held at Sharm-El-Shiekh, Egypt, affirmed and
it was agreed to set the limit on global temperature rise to 1.5 °C.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th Assessment report
projections for global surface temperature changes in degrees Celsius relative to
1850–1900 under the five core emissions scenarios, are shown in Fig. 1 [1]. It suggests
warming is ‘very likely’ to be 1.0–1.8 °C by 2081–2100 in the lowest emissions
SSP1–1.9 scenario, 2.1–3.5 °C in the intermediate SSP2–4.5 scenario, and 3.3–
5.7 °C under the SSP5–8.5 high emission scenario. In the lowest emissions scenario
SSP1–1.9 (light blue line), temperature reach 1.4 °C above 1850–1900 levels in
2081–2100, whereas it climbs 4.4 °C under SSP5–8.5 (dark red line).
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 Fig. 223.—Centrifugal Inflorescence.
1, cyme; 2, scirpioid raceme (or half cyme).

The flower-stem.—The stem of a solitary flower is known as a

peduncle; also the general stem of a flower-cluster. The stem of
the individual flower in a cluster is a pedicel. In the so-called
stemless plants the peduncle may arise directly from the ground, or
crown of the plant, as in dandelion, hyacinth, garden daisy; this kind
of peduncle is called a scape. A scape may bear one or many
flowers. It has no foliage leaves, but it may have bracts.
Suggestions.—166. Name six columns in your notebook as follows: spike,
raceme, corymb, umbel, cyme, solitary. Write each of the following in its
appropriate column: larkspur, grape, rose, wistaria, onion, bridal wreath, banana,
hydrangea, phlox, China berry, lily-of-the-valley, Spanish dagger (or yucca),
sorghum, tuberose, hyacinth, mustard, goldenrod, peach, hollyhock, mullein,
crêpe myrtle, locust, narcissus, snapdragon, peppergrass, shepherd’s purse,
coxcomb, wheat, hawthorn, geranium, carrot, elder, millet, dogwood, castor bean;
substitute others for plants that do not grow in your region. 167. In the study of
flower-clusters, it is well to choose first those that are fairly typical of the various
classes discussed in the preceding paragraphs. As soon as the main types are well
fixed in the mind, random clusters should be examined, for the pupil must never
receive the impression that all flower-clusters follow the definitions in books.
Clusters of some of the commonest plants are very puzzling, but the pupil should
at least be able to discover whether the inflorescence is determinate or
indeterminate. Figures 221 to 223 illustrate the theoretical modes of inflorescence.
The numerals indicate the order of opening.
 CHAPTER XXI
FRUITS

The ripened ovary, with its attachments, is known as the fruit. It

contains the seeds. If the pistil is simple, or of one carpel, the fruit
also will have one compartment. If the pistil is compound, or of
more than one carpel, the fruit usually has an equal number of
compartments. The compartments in pistil and fruit are known as
locules (from Latin locus, meaning “a place”).
The simplest kind of fruit
is a ripened 1-loculed
ovary. The first stage in
complexity is a ripened 2-
or many-loculed ovary.
Very complex forms may
arise by the attachment of
other parts to the ovary.
Sometimes the style
persists and becomes a
beak (mustard pods,
dentaria, Fig. 224), or a tail
as in clematis; or the calyx
may be attached to the
ovary; or the ovary may be
embedded in the
receptacle, and ovary and
receptacle together
constitute the fruit: or an
involucre may become a
part of the fruit, as possibly
in the walnut and the Fig. 224.—Dentaria, or Tooth-wort, in fruit.
hickory (Fig. 225), and the
cup of the acorn (Fig. 226). The chestnut and the beech bear a
prickly involucre, but the nuts, or true fruits, are not grown fast to it,
and the involucre can scarcely be called a part of the fruit. A ripened
ovary is a pericarp. A pericarp to which other parts adhere has
been called an accessory or reënforced fruit. (Page 169.)
Som
e
fruits
are
dehis
cent,
or split
open
at
maturi
ty and
liberat
e the
seeds;
others
Fig. 225.—Hickory-nut. The nut is the
are
fruit, contained in a husk. Fig. 226.—Live-oak Acorn. The fruit is
indeh
the “seed” part; the involucre is
iscent the “cup.”
, or do not open. A dehiscent pericarp
is called a pod. The parts into which
such a pod breaks or splits are known as valves. In indehiscent
fruits the seed is liberated by the decay of the envelope, or by the
rupturing of the envelope by the germinating seed. Indehiscent
winged pericarps are known as samaras or key fruits. Maple (Fig.
227), elm (Fig. 228), and ash (Fig. 93) are examples.
Pericarps.—The simplest pericarp is a dry, one-seeded,
indehiscent body. It is known as an akene. A head of akenes is
shown in Fig. 229, and the structure is explained in Fig. 230. Akenes
may be seen in buttercup, hepatica, anemone, smartweed,
buckwheat.
 A 1-loculed pericarp which
dehisces along the front edge
(that is, the inner edge, next
the centre of the flower) is a
follicle. The fruit of the
larkspur (Fig. 231) is a follicle.
There are usually five of these
fruits (sometimes three or
four) in each larkspur flower,
each pistil ripening into a
follicle. If these pistils were
Fig. 227.—Key of Sugar united, a single compound
Maple.
pistil would be formed. Fig. 228.—Key of
Columbine, peony, ninebark, Common American
milkweed, also have follicles. Elm.

A 1-loculed pericarp that dehisces

on both edges is a legume. Peas and
beans are typical examples (Fig. 232); in
fact, this character gives name to the
pea family,—Leguminosæ. Often the
valves of the legume twist forcibly andFig. 230.—
Akenes of
expel the seeds, throwing them some
Fig. 229.— Buttercup, one
Akenes of distance. The word “pod” is sometimes in longitudinal
Buttercup. restricted to legumes, but it is better to section.
use it generically for all dehiscent
pericarps.
A compound pod—dehiscing pericarp of two or more carpels—is a
capsule (Figs. 233, 234, 236, 237). Some capsules are of one
locule, but they may have been compound when young (in the ovary
stage) and the partitions may have vanished. Sometimes one or
more of the carpels are uniformly crowded out by the exclusive
growth of other carpels (Fig. 235). The seeds or parts which are
crowded out are said to be aborted.
 There are several ways in which
capsules dehisce or open. When they
break along the partitions (or septa), the
mode is known as septicidal
dehiscence (Fig. 236); In septicidal
dehiscence the fruit separates into parts
representing the original carpels. These
carpels may still be entire, and they then
dehisce individually, usually along the
inner edge as if they were follicles. When
the compartments split in the middle,
Fig. 231.—
between the partitions, the mode is
Follicle of loculicidal dehiscence (Fig. 237). In
Larkspur. some cases the dehiscence is at the top,
when it is said to be apical
(although several modes of
dehiscence are here included).
When the whole top comes
off, as in purslane and garden
portulaca (Fig. 238), the pod is Fig. 232.—A Bean
Pod.
known as a pyxis. In some
cases apical dehiscence is by
means of a hole or clefts.
Fig. 233.—Capsule of
Castor-oil Bean after
Dehiscence.

Fig. 237.—
Loculicidal
Pod of Day-
lily.

The peculiar capsule of the mustard family, or Cruciferæ, is known

as a silique when it is distinctly longer than broad (Fig. 224), and a
 silicle when
its breadth
nearly equals
or exceeds its
length. A
cruciferous
capsule is 2-
carpeled, Fig. 235.—Three-carpeled Fruit of Horse-
with a thin chestnut. Two locules are closing by
partition, abortion of the ovules.
each locule
containing seeds in two rows. The two valves
detach from below upwards. Cabbage, turnip,
Fig. 234.—Capsule of mustard, water-cress, radish, rape, shepherd’s
Morning Glory. purse, sweet alyssum, wall-flower, honesty, are
examples.
The pericarp may be fleshy and indehiscent. A pulpy
pericarp with several or many seeds is a berry (Figs. 239,
240, 241). To the horticulturist a berry is a small, soft,
edible fruit, without particular reference to its structure.
The botanical and horticultural conceptions of a berry are,
therefore, unlike. In the botanical sense, gooseberries,
Fig. 236.— currants, grapes, tomatoes, potato-balls, and even
St. John’s eggplant fruits and oranges (Fig. 241) are berries;
Wort. strawberries, raspberries, blackberries are not.
Septicidal.
A fleshy pericarp containing one relatively large seed or
stone is a drupe. Examples are plum (Fig. 242), peach,
cherry, apricot, olive. The walls of the pit in the plum, peach, and
cherry are formed from the inner coats of the ovary, and the flesh
from the outer coats. Drupes are also known as stone-fruits.
Fruits that are formed by the subsequent union of separate pistils
are aggregate fruits. The carpels in aggregate fruits are usually
more or less fleshy. In the raspberry and the blackberry flower, the
 pistils
are
essent
ially
distinc
t, but
as the
pistils
ripen
they
cohere
Fig. 239.—Berries of Gooseberry.
Fig. 238.—Pyxis of Portulaca or Rose- and
Remains of calyx at c.
moss.
form
on
e body
(Figs.
243,
244).
Eac
h of
the
carpel
s or
Fig. 240.—Berry of the Ground Cherry or pistils
Husk Tomato, contained in the inflated in the
calyx. raspbe
rry
and the blackberry is a little drupe or
drupelet. In the raspberry the entire Fig. 241.—Orange; example of a
fruit separates from the torus, leaving berry.
the torus on the plant. In the blackberry
and the dewberry the fruit adheres to the torus, and the two are
removed together when the fruit is picked.
Accessory Fruits.—When the pericarp and some other part grow
together, the fruit is said to be accessory or reënforced. An
 example is
the
strawberry
(Fig. 245).
The edible
part is a
greatly
enlarged
Fig. 242.—Plum; exampletorus, and
Fig. 243.—Fruit of Raspberry.
of a drupe. the pericarps
are akenes
embedded in it. These akenes are commonly
called seeds.
Various kinds of reënforced fruits have
received special names. One of these is the hip,
characteristic of roses. In this case, the torus is
deep and hollow, like an urn, and the separate
akenes are borne inside it. The mouth of the
receptacle may close, and the walls sometimes
Fig. 244.—Aggregate become fleshy; the fruit may then be mistaken
Fruit of Mulberry; and a for a berry. The fruit of the pear, apple, and
separate fruit. quince is known as a pome. In this case the
five united carpels are completely buried in the
hollow torus, and the torus makes most of the edible part of the ripe
fruit, while the pistils are represented by the core (Fig. 246).
Observe the sepals on the top of the torus (apex of the fruit) in Fig.
246. Note the outlines of the embedded pericarp in Fig. 247.
Gymnospermous Fruits.—In pine, spruces, and their kin, there
is no fruit in the sense in which the word is used in the preceding
pages, because there is no ovary. The ovules are naked or
uncovered, in the axils of the scales of the young cone, and they
have neither style nor stigma. The pollen falls directly on the mouth
of the ovule. The ovule ripens into a seed, which is usually winged.
Because the ovule is not borne in a sac or ovary, these plants are
called gymnosperms (Greek for “naked seeds”). All the true cone-
 bearing plants are of this class; also certain other
plants, as red cedar, juniper, yew. The plants are
monœcious or sometimes diœcious. The staminate
flowers are mere naked stamens borne beneath
scales, in small yellow catkins which soon fall. The
pistillate flowers are naked ovules beneath scales
on cones that persist (Fig. 29). Gymnospermous
seeds may have several cotyledons.
Suggestions.—168. Study the following fruits, or any five
Fig. 245.— fruits chosen by the teacher, and answer the questions for
Strawberry; fleshy each: Apple, peach, bean, tomato, pumpkin. What is its form?
torus in which Locate the scar left by the stem. By what kind of stem was it
akenes are attached? Are there any remains of the blossom at the
embedded. blossom end? Describe texture and colour of surface. Divide
the fruit into the seed vessel and the surrounding part. Has
the fruit
any
pulp or
flesh?
Is it
within
or
without
the
seed
vessel?
Is the
seed
vessel
Fig. 246.—Section of an Apple.
simple
or sub- Fig. 247.—Cross-section of an Apple.
divided? What is the number of seeds? Are
the seeds free, attached to the wall of the vessel, or to a support in the centre?
Are they arranged in any order? What kind of wall has the seed vessel? What is
the difference between a peach stone and a peach seed? 169. The nut fruits are
always available for study. Note the points suggested above. Determine what the
meat or edible part represents, whether cotyledons or not. Figure 248 is
suggestive. 170. Mention all the fleshy fruits you know, tell where they come
from, and refer them to their proper groups. 171. What kinds of fruit can you buy
in the market, and to what groups or classes do they belong? Of which fruits are
the seeds only, and not the pericarps, eaten? 172. An ear of corn is always
available for study. What is it—a fruit or a collection of fruits? How are the grains
arranged on the cob? How many rows do you count on each of several ears? Are
all the rows on an ear equally close together? Do you find an ear with an odd
number of rows? How do the parts of the husk overlap? Does the husk serve as
protection from rain? Can birds pick out the grains? How do insect enemies enter
the ear? How and when do weevils lay eggs on corn? 173. Study a grain of corn.
Is it a seed? Describe the shape of a grain. Colour. Size. Does its surface show any
projections or depressions? Is the seed-coat thin or thick? Transparent or opaque?
Locate the hilum. Where is the silk scar? What is the silk? Sketch the grain from
the two points of view that show it best. Where is the embryo? Does the grain
have endosperm? What is dent corn? Flint corn? How many kinds of corn do you
know? For what are they used?

Fig. 248.—Pecan Fruit.

Note to Teacher.—There are few more interesting subjects to beginning pupils
than fruits,—the pods of many kinds, forms, and colours, the berries, and nuts.
This interest may well be utilized to make the teaching alive. All common edible
fruits of orchard and vegetable garden should be brought into this discussion. Of
dry fruits, as pods, burs, nuts, collections may be made for the school museum.
Fully mature fruits are best for study, particularly if it is desired to see dehiscence.
For comparison, pistils and partially grown fruits should be had at the same time.
If the fruits are not ripe enough to dehisce, they may be placed in the sun to dry.
In the school it is well to have a collection of fruits for study. The specimens may
be kept in glass jars. Always note exterior of fruit and its parts; interior of fruit
with arrangement and attachment of contents.
 CHAPTER XXII
DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

It is to the plant’s advantage to have its seeds distributed as

widely as possible. It has a better chance of surviving in the struggle
for existence. It gets away from competition. Many seeds and fruits
are of such character as to increase their chances of wide dispersal.
The commonest means of dissemination may be classed under four
heads: explosive fruits; transportation by wind; transportation by
birds; burs.
Exp
losive
Fruits
.—
Some
pods
open
with
explosi
ve
force
and
discha
rge
the
seeds.
Fig. 250.—Explosive Fruits of Oxalis.
Fig. 249.—Explosion of the Balsam Even An exploding pod is shown at c. The dehiscence
Pod. beans is shown at b. The structure of the pod is seen
at a.
and
everlasting peas do this. More
marked examples are the locust, witch hazel, garden balsam (Fig.
249), wild jewel-weed or impatiens (touch-me-not), violet, crane’s-
bill or wild geranium, bull nettle, morning-glory, and the oxalis (Fig.
250). The oxalis is common in several species in the wild and in
cultivation. One of them is known as wood sorrel. Figure 250 shows
the common yellow oxalis. The pod opens loculicidally. The elastic
tissue suddenly contracts when dehiscence takes place, and the
seeds are thrown violently. The squirting cucumber is easily grown in
a garden (procure seeds of seedsmen), and the fruits discharge the
seeds with great force, throwing them many feet.
Wind Travelers.—Wind-transported seeds are of two general
kinds: those that are provided with wings, as the flat seeds of
catalpa (Fig. 251) and cone-bearing trees and the samaras of ash,
elm, tulip tree, ailanthus, and maple; and those which have feathery
buoys or parachutes to enable them to float in the air. Of the latter
kind are the fruits of many composites, in which the pappus is
copious and soft. Dandelion and thistle are examples. The silk of the
milkweed and probably the hairs on the cotton seed have a similar
office, and also the wool of the cat-tail. Recall the cottony seeds of
the willow and the poplar.
Dispersal by Birds.—Seeds of berries and of other small fleshy
fruits are carried far and wide by birds. The pulp is digested, but the
seeds are not injured. Note how the cherries, raspberries,
blackberries, June-berries, and others spring up in the fence rows,
where the birds rest. Some berries and drupes persist far into winter,
when they supply food to cedar birds, robins, and the winter birds.
Red cedar is distributed by birds. Many of these pulpy fruits are
agreeable as human food, and some of them have been greatly
enlarged or “improved” by the arts of the cultivator. The seeds are
usually indigestible.
Burs.—Many seeds and fruits bear spines, hooks, and hairs,
which adhere to the coats of animals and to clothing. The burdock
has an involucre with hooked scales, containing the fruits inside. The
clotbur is also an involucre. Both are composite plants, allied to
thistles, but the whole head, rather than the separate fruits, is
transported. In some composite fruits the pappus takes the form of
hooks and spines, as in the “Spanish bayonets” and
“pitch-forks.” Fruits of various kinds are known as
“stick tights,” as of the agrimony and hound’s-
tongue. Those who walk in the woods in late
summer and fall are aware that plants have means
of disseminating themselves (Fig. 252). If it is
impossible to identify the burs which one finds on
clothing, the seeds may be planted and specimens
of the plant may then be grown.
Suggestions.—
174. What
advantage is it to
the plant to have its
seeds widely
dispersed? 175.
What are the
leading ways in
which fruits and
seeds are
dispersed? 176.
Name some
explosive fruits.
177. Describe wind
travelers. 178.
What seeds are Fig. 251.—Winged
carried by birds? Seeds of Catalpa.
179. Describe some
Fig. 252.—Stealing a Ride. bur with which you are familiar. 180. Are
adhesive fruits usually dehiscent or
indehiscent? 181. Do samaras grow on low or tall plants, as a rule? 182. Are the
cotton fibres on the seed or on the fruit? 183. Name the ways in which the
common weeds of your region are disseminated. 184. This lesson will suggest
other ways in which seeds are transported. Nuts are buried by squirrels for food;
but if they are not eaten, they may grow. The seeds of many plants are blown on
the snow. The old stalks of weeds, standing through the winter, may serve to
disseminate the plant. Seeds are carried by water down the streams and along
shores. About woollen mills strange plants often spring up from seed brought in
the fleeces. Sometimes the entire plant is rolled for miles before the winds. Such
plants are “tumbleweeds.” Examples are Russian thistle, hair grass or tumblegrass
(Panicum capillare), cyclone plant (Cycloloma platyphyllum), and white amaranth
(Amarantus albus). About seaports strange plants are often found, having been
introduced in the earth that is used in ships for ballast. These plants are usually
known as “ballast plants.” Most of them do not persist long. 185. Plants are able
to spread themselves by means of the great numbers of seeds that they produce.
How many seeds may a given elm tree or apple tree or raspberry bush produce?

Fig. 253.—The Fruits of the Cat-tail are loosened by Wind and

Weather.
 CHAPTER XXIII
PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

The plants thus far studied produce

flowers; and the flowers produce
seeds by means of which the plant is
propagated. There are other plants,
however, that produce no seeds, and
these plants (including bacteria) are
probably more numerous than the
seed-bearing plants. These plants
propagate by means of spores,
which are generative cells, usually
simple, containing no embryo. These
spores are very small, and sometimes
Fig. 254.—Christmas Fern.— are not visible to the naked eye.
Dryopteris acrostichoides; known
also as Aspidium. Prominent among the spore-
propagated plants are ferns. The
common Christmas fern (so called because it remains green during
winter) is shown in Fig. 254. The plant has no trunk. The leaves
spring directly from the ground. The leaves of ferns are called
fronds. They vary in shape, as other leaves do. Some of the fronds
in Fig. 254 are seen to be narrower at the top. If these are
examined more closely (Fig. 255), it will be seen that the leaflets are
contracted and are densely covered beneath with brown bodies.
These bodies are collections of sporangia or spore-cases.
The sporangia are collected into little groups, known as sori
(singular, sorus) or fruit-dots. Each sorus is covered with a thin
scale or shield, known as an indusium. This indusium separates
from the frond at its edges, and the sporangia are exposed. Not all
ferns have indusia. The polypode (Figs. 256, 257) does not; the sori
 are
naked.
In the
brake
(Fig.
258)
and
maide
nhair
(Fig.
259)
the
Fig. 256.—Common Polypode Fern.
edge
Polypodium vulgare.
of the
frond
turns over and forms an indusium. The
Fig. 255.—Fruiting Frond of
nephrolepis or sword fern of Christmas Fern.
greenhouses is allied to the polypode. Sori at a. One sorus with its
The sori are in a single row on either indusium at b.
side the midrib (Fig. 260). The indusium
is circular or kidney-shaped and open at one edge or finally all
around. The Boston fern, Washington fern, Pierson fern, and others,
are horticultural forms of the common sword fern. In some ferns
(Fig. 261) an entire frond becomes contracted to cover the
sporangia.
The sporangium or spore-case of a fern is a more or less globular
body and usually with a stalk (Fig. 257). It contains the spores.
When ripe it bursts and the spores are set free.
In a moist, warm place the spores germinate. They produce a
small, flat, thin, green, more or less heart-shaped membrane (Fig.
262). This is the prothallus. Sometimes the prothallus is an inch or
more across, but oftener it is less than a ten cent piece in size.
Although easily seen, it is commonly unknown except to botanists.
Prothalli may often be found in greenhouses where ferns are grown.
Look on the moist stone or brick walls, or on the firm soil of
undisturbed pots and beds; or spores
may be sown in a damp, warm place.
On the under side of the prothallus
two kinds of organs are borne. These are
the archegonium (containing egg-cells)
and the antheridium (containing
sperm-cells). These organs are minute
specialized parts of the prothallus. Their
positions on a particular prothallus are
shown at a and b in Fig. 262, but in
some ferns they are on separate prothalli
(plant diœcious). The sperm-cells escapeFig. 257.—Sori and Sporangium of
from the antheridium and in the water Polypode. A chain of cells lies
that collects on the prothallus are carried along the top of the
to the archegonium, where fertilization of sporangium, which springs
the egg takes place. From the fertilized back elastically on drying, thus
disseminating the spores.
egg-cell a plant grows, becoming a
“fern.” In
most cases the
prothallus soon dies.
The prothallus is the
gametophyte
(from Greek,
signifying theFig. 258.—The Brake
fertilized plant). Fruits underneath the
Revolute Edges of the
The fern plant, Leaf.
arising from the
Fig. 259.—Fruiting Pinnules of fertilized egg in the archegonium,
Maidenhair Fern.
becomes a perennial plant, each year
producing spores from its fronds (called
the sporophyte); but these spores—which are merely detached
special kinds of cells—produce the prothallic phase of the fern plant,
from which new individuals arise. A fern is fertilized but once in its
lifetime. The “fern” bears the spore, the spore gives rise to the
 prothallus,
and the egg-
cell of the
prothallus
(when
fertilized)
gives rise to
Fig. 260.—Part of Frond of Sword the fern.
Fern. To the pupil: Is this
illustration right side up? A similar
alternation
of
generations
runs all
through the
vegetable Fig. 261.—Fertile and Sterile
Fronds of the Sensitive Fern.
kingdom,
although
there are some groups of plants in which
it is very obscure or apparently wanting.
Fig. 262.—Prothallus of a Fern. It is very marked in ferns and mosses. In
Enlarged: algæ (including the seaweeds) the
Archegonia at a; antheridia at b.
gametophyte is the “plant,” as the non-
botanist knows it, and the sporophyte is
inconspicuous. There is a general tendency, in the evolution of the
vegetable kingdom, for the gametophyte to lose its relative
importance and for the sporophyte to become larger and more
highly developed. In the seed-bearing plants the sporophyte
generation is the only one seen by the non-botanist. The
gametophyte stage is of short duration and the parts are small; it is
confined to the time of fertilization.
The sporophyte of seed-plants, or the “plant” as we know it,
produces two kinds of spores—one kind becoming pollen-grains
and the other kind embryo-sacs. The pollen-spores are borne in
sporangia, which are united into what are called anthers. The
embryo-sac, which contains the egg-cell, is borne in a sporangium
known as an ovule. A gametophytic stage is present in both pollen
and embryo sac: fertilization takes place, and a sporophyte arises.
Soon this sporophyte becomes dormant, and is then known as an
embryo. The embryo is packed away within tight-fitting coats, and
the entire body is the seed. When the conditions are right the seed
grows, and the sporophyte grows into herb, bush, or tree. The utility
of the alternation of generations is not understood.
The spores of ferns are borne on leaves; the spores of seed-
bearing plants are also borne amongst a mass of specially developed
conspicuous leaves known as flowers; therefore these plants have
been known as the flowering plants. Some of the leaves are
developed as envelopes (calyx, corolla), and others as spore-bearing
parts, or sporophylls (stamens, pistils). But the spores of the lower
plants, as of ferns and mosses, may also be borne in specially
developed foliage, so that the line of demarcation between flowering
plants and flowerless plants is not so definite as was once supposed.
The one definite distinction between these two classes of plants is
the fact that one class produces seeds and the other does not. The
seed-plants are now often called spermaphytes, but there is no
single coordinate term to set off those which do not bear seeds. It is
quite as well, for popular purposes, to use the terms phenogams
for the seed-bearing plants and cryptogams for the others. These
terms have been objected to in recent years because their
etymology does not express literal facts (phenogam signifying
“showy flowers,” and cryptogam “hidden flowers”), but the terms
represent distinct ideas in classification. The cryptogams include
three great series of plants—the Thallophytes or algæ, lichens,
and fungi; the Bryophytes or moss-like plants; the Pteridophytes
or fernlike plants.
Suggestions.—186. The parts of a fern leaf. The primary complete divisions of a
frond are called pinnæ, no matter whether the frond is pinnate or not. In ferns the
word “pinna” is used in essentially the same way that leaflet is in the once-
compound leaves of other plants. The secondary leaflets are called pinnules, and
in thrice, or more, compound fronds, the last complete parts or leaflets are
ultimate pinnules. The diagram (Fig. 263) will aid in making the subject clear. If
the frond were not divided to the midrib, it would be simple, but this diagram
represents a compound frond. The
general outline of the frond, as bounded
by the dotted line, is ovate. The stipe is
very short. The midrib of a compound
frond is known as the rachis. In a
decompound frond, this main rachis is
called the primary rachis. Segments (not
divided to the rachis) are seen at the tip,
and down to h on one side and to m on
the other. Pinnæ are shown at i, k, l, o,
n. The pinna o is entire; n is crenate-
dentate; i is sinuate or wavy, with an
auricle at the base; k and l are
compound. The pinna k has twelve entire
pinnules. (Is there ever an even number
of pinnules on any pinna?) Pinna l has
nine compound pinnules, each bearing
several entire ultimate pinnules. The
spores.—187. Lay a mature fruiting
frond of any fern on white paper, top
side up, and allow it to remain in a dry,
warm place. The spores will discharge on
the paper. 188. Lay the full-grown (but
not dry) cap of a mushroom or toadstool
bottom down on a sheet of clean paper,
under a ventilated box in a warm, dryFig. 263.—Diagram to explain the
place. A day later raise the cap. Terminology of the Frond.
 CHAPTER XXIV
STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

The pupil who has acquired skill in the use of the compound
microscope may desire to make more extended excursions into the
cryptogamous orders. The following plants have been chosen as
examples in various groups. Ferns are sufficiently discussed in the
preceding chapter.

Bacteria

If an infusion of ordinary hay is made in water and allowed to

stand, it becomes turbid or cloudy after a few days, and a drop
under the microscope will show the presence of minute oblong cells
swimming in the water, perhaps by means of numerous hair-like
appendages, that project through the cell wall from the protoplasm
within. At the surface of the dish containing the infusion the cells are
non-motile and are united in long chains. Each of these cells or
organisms is a bacterium (plural, bacteria). (Fig. 135.)
Bacteria are very minute organisms,—the smallest known—
consisting either of separate oblong or spherical cells, or of chains,
plates, or groups of such cells, depending on the kind. They possess
a membrane-like wall which, unlike the cell walls of higher plants,
contains nitrogen. The presence of a nucleus has not been definitely
demonstrated. Multiplication is by the fission of the vegetative cells;
but under certain conditions of drought, cold, or exhaustion of the
nutrient medium, the protoplasm of the ordinary cells may become
invested with a thick wall, thus forming an endospore which is very
resistant to extremes of environment. No sexual reproduction is
known.
 Bacteria are very widely distributed as parasites and saprophytes
in almost all conceivable places. Decay is largely caused by bacteria,
accompanied in animal tissue by the liberation of foul-smelling
gases. Certain species grow in the reservoirs and pipes of water
supplies, rendering the water brackish and often undrinkable. Some
kinds of fermentation (the breaking down or decomposing of organic
compounds, usually accompanied by the formation of gas) are due
to these organisms. Other bacteria oxidize alcohol to acetic acid, and
produce lactic acid in milk and butyric acid in butter. Bacteria live in
the mouth, the stomach, the intestines, and on the surface of the
skins of animals. Some secrete gelatinous sheaths around
themselves; others secrete sulphur or iron, giving the substratum a
vivid colour.
Were it not for bacteria, man could not live on the earth, for not
only are they agents in the process of decay, but they are concerned
in certain healthful processes of plants and animals. We have
learned in Chapter VIII how bacteria are related to nitrogen-
gathering.
Bacteria are of economic importance not alone because of their
effect on materials used by man, but also because of the disease-
producing power of certain species. Pus is caused by a spherical
form, tetanus or lock-jaw by a rod-shaped form, diphtheria by short
oblong chains, tuberculosis or “consumption” by more slender
oblong chains, and typhoid fever, cholera, and other diseases by
other forms. Many diseases of animals and plants are caused by
bacteria. Disease-producing bacteria are said to be pathogenic.
The ability to grow in other nutrient substances than the natural
one has greatly facilitated the study of these minute forms of life. By
the use of suitable culture media and proper precautions, pure
cultures of a particular disease-producing bacterium may be
obtained with which further experiments may be conducted.
Milk provides an excellent collecting place for bacteria coming
from the air, from the coat of the cow and from the milker. Disease
germs are sometimes carried in milk. If a drop of milk is spread on a
culture medium (as agar), and provided with proper temperature,
the bacteria will multiply, each one forming a colony visible to the
naked eye. In this way, the number of bacteria originally contained
in the milk may be counted.
Bacteria are disseminated in water, as the germ of typhoid fever
and cholera; in milk and other fluids; in the air; and on the bodies of
flies, feet of birds, and otherwise.
Bacteria are thought by many to have descended from algæ by
the loss of chlorophyll and decrease in size due to the more
specialized acquired saprophytic and parasitic habit.

Algæ

The algæ comprise most of the green floating “scum” which

covers the surfaces of ponds and other quiet waters. The masses of
plants are often called “frog spittle.” Others are attached to stones,
pieces of wood, and other objects submerged in streams and lakes,
and many are found on moist ground and on dripping rocks. Aside
from these, all the plants commonly known as seaweeds belong to
this category; these latter are inhabitants of salt water.
The simplest forms of algæ consist of a single spherical cell, which
multiplies by repeated division or fission. Many of the forms found in
fresh water are filamentous, i.e. the plant body consists of long
threads, either simple or branched. Such a plant body is termed a
thallus. This term applies to the vegetative body of all plants that are
not differentiated into stem and leaves. Such plants are known as
thallophytes (p. 181). All algæ contain chlorophyll, and are able to
assimilate carbon dioxide from the air. This distinguishes them from
the fungi.
 Nostoc.—On wet rocks and damp soil dark, semitransparent
irregular or spherical gelatinous masses about the size of a pea are
often found. These consist of a colony of contorted filamentous algæ
embedded in the jelly-like mass. The chain of cells in the filament is
necklace-like. Each cell is homogeneous, without apparent nucleus,
and blue-green in colour, except one cell which is larger and clearer
than the rest. The plant therefore belongs to the group of blue-
green algæ. The jelly probably serves to maintain a more even
moisture and to provide mechanical protection. Multiplication is
wholly by the breaking up of the threads. Occasionally certain cells
of the filament thicken to become resting-spores, but no other spore
formation occurs.

Oscillatoria.—The blue-
green coatings found on
damp soil and in water
frequently show under the
Fig. 264.—Filament of Oscillatoria, showing one microscope the presence of
dead cell where the strand will break. filamentous algæ
composed of many short
homogeneous cells (Fig. 264). If watched closely, some filaments will
be seen to wave back and forth slowly, showing a peculiar power of
movement characteristic of this plant. Multiplication is by the
breaking up of the threads. There is no true spore formation.

Spirogyra.—One of the most common forms of the green algæ is

spirogyra (Fig. 265). This plant often forms the greater part of the
floating green mass (or “frog spittle”) on ponds. The thread-like
character of the thallus can be seen with the naked eye or with a
hand lens, but to study it carefully a microscope magnifying two
hundred diameters or more must be used. The thread is divided into
long cells by cross walls which, according to the
species, are either straight or curiously folded
(Fig. 266). The chlorophyll is arranged in
beautiful spiral bands near the wall of each cell.
From the character of these bands the plant
takes its name. Each cell is provided with a
nucleus and other protoplasm. The nucleus is
suspended near the centre of the cell (a, Fig.
265) by delicate strands of protoplasm radiating
toward the wall and terminating at certain
points in the chlorophyll band. The remainder of
the protoplasm forms a thin layer lining the
wall. The interior of the cell is filled with cell-
sap. The protoplasm and nucleus cannot be
easily seen, but if the plant is stained with a
dilute alcoholic solution of eosine they become
clear.
Spirogyra is propagated vegetatively by the
breaking off of parts of the threads, which
continue to grow as new plants. Resting-spores,
which may remain dormant for a time, are
formed by a process known as conjugation. Two
threads lying side by side send out short
projections, usually from all the cells of a long
series (Fig. 266). The projections or processes
from opposite cells grow toward each other,
meet, and fuse, forming a connecting tubeFig. 265.—Strand of
between the cells. The protoplasm, nucleus, Spirogyra, showing the
chlorophyll bands.
and chlorophyll band of one cell now pass There is a nucleus at
through this tube, and unite with the contents a. How many cells, or
of the other cell. The entire mass then becomes parts of cells, are
surrounded by a thick cellulose wall, thus shown in this figure?
completing the resting-spore, or zygospore (z,
Fig. 266).
 Fig. 266.—Conjugation of
Spirogyra. Ripe
zygospores on the
left; a, connecting
tubes.

Zygnema is an alga closely related to spirogyra and found in

similar places. Its life history is practically the same, but it differs
from spirogyra in having two star-shaped chlorophyll bodies (Fig.
267) in each cell, instead of a chlorophyll-bearing spiral band.
 Vaucheria is another alga common in shallow water
and on damp soil. The thallus is much branched, but
the threads are not divided by cross walls as in
spirogyra. The plants are attached by means of
colourless root-like organs which are much like the
root-hairs of the higher plants: these are rhizoids. The
chlorophyll is in the form of grains scattered through
the thread.
Vaucheria has a special mode of asexual
reproduction by means of swimming spores or swarm-
spores. These are formed singly in a short enlarged
lateral branch known as the sporangium. When the
sporangium bursts, the entire contents escape,
forming a single large swarm-spore, which swims
about by means of numerous lashes or cilia on its
surface. The swarm-spores are so large that they can
be seen with the naked eye. After swimming about for
some time they come to rest and germinate, producing
a new plant.
The formation of resting-spores of vaucheria is
accomplished by means of special organs, oögonia (o,
Fig. 268) and antheridia (a, Fig. 268). These are both
specially developed branches from the thallus. The
antheridia are nearly cylindrical, and curved toward the
oögonia. The upper part of an antheridium is cut off by
a cross wall, and within it numerous ciliated sperm-
cells are formed. These escape by the ruptured apex
of the antheridium. The oögonia are more enlarged
than the antheridia, and have a beak-like projection
turned a little to one side of the apex. They are
separated from the thallus thread by a cross wall, and
contain a single large green cell, the egg-cell. The
Fig. 267.— apex of the oögonium is dissolved, and through the
Strand, or opening the sperm-cells enter. Fertilization is thus
Filament of
accomplished. After fertilization the egg-cell becomes
 Zygnema, freed invested with a thick wall and is thus converted into a
from its resting-spore, the oöspore.
gelatinous
covering.

Fig. 268.—Thread ofVaucheria with Oögonia and

Antheridia.

Fucus.—These are rather large

specialized algæ belonging to the
group known as brown seaweeds and
found attached by a disk to the rocks
of the seashore just below high tide
(Fig. 269). They are firm and strong
to resist wave action and are so
attached as to avoid being washed
ashore. They are very abundant
algæ. In shape the plants are long,
branched, and multicellular, with
either flat or terete branches. They
are olive-brown. Propagation is by
the breaking off of the branches. No
zoöspores are produced, as in many
other seaweeds; and reproduction is
Fig. 269.—Fucus. Fruiting branches at wholly sexual. The antheridia,
s, s. On the stem are two air- bearing sperm-cells, and the oögonia,
bladders. each bearing eight egg-cells, are
sunken in pits or conceptacles. These
pits are aggregated in the swollen lighter coloured tips of some of
the branches (s, s, Fig. 269). The egg-cells and sperm-cells escape
from the pits and fertilization takes place in the water. The matured
eggs, or spores, reproduce the fucus plant directly.

Nitella.—This is a large branched and

specialized fresh-water alga found in
tufts attached to the bottom in shallow
ponds (Fig. 270). Between the whorls of
branches are long internodes consisting
of a single cylindrical cell, which is one of
the largest cells known in vegetable
tissue. Under the microscope the walls of
this cell are found to be lined with a layer
of small stationary chloroplastids, within
which layer the protoplasm, in favourable
circumstances, will be found in motion,
moving up one side and down the other
(in rotation). Note the clear streak up the
side of the cell and its relation to the
moving current.

Fig. 270.—Nitella.

Fungi

Some forms of fungi are familiar to every one. Mushrooms and

toadstools, with their varied forms and colours, are common in
fields, woods, and pastures. In every household the common moulds
are familiar intruders, appearing on old bread, vegetables, and even
within tightly sealed fruit jars, where they form a felt-like layer
dusted over with blue, yellow, or black powder. The strange
occurrence of these plants long mystified people, who thought they
were productions of the dead matter upon which they grew, but now
we know that a mould, as any other plant, cannot originate
spontaneously; it must start from something which is analogous to a
seed. The “seed” in this case is a spore. A spore may be produced
by a vegetative process (growing out from the ordinary plant
tissues), or it may be the result of a fertilization process.

Favourable conditions for the growth of fungi.—Place a piece of

bread under a moist bell jar and another in an uncovered place near
by. Sow mould on each. Note the result from day to day. Moisten a
third piece of bread with weak copper sulphate (blue vitriol) or
mercuric chloride solution, sow mould, cover with bell jar, note
results, and explain. Expose pieces of different kinds of food in a
damp atmosphere and observe the variety of organisms appearing.
Fungi are saprophytes or parasites, and must be provided with
organic matter on which to grow. They are usually most abundant in
moist places and wet seasons.

Mould.—One of these moulds (Mucor mucedo), which is very

common on all decaying fruits and vegetables, is shown in Fig. 271,
somewhat magnified. When fruiting, this mould appears as a dense
mass of long white hairs, often over an inch high, standing erect
from the fruit or the vegetable on which it is growing.
The life of this mucor begins with a minute rounded spore (a, Fig.
272), which lodges on the decaying material. When the spore
germinates, it sends out a delicate thread that grows rapidly in
length and forms very many branches that soon permeate every part
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