Chapter 9

DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW
9–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
The control volume technique is useful when
we are interested in the overall features of a
flow, such as mass flow rate into and out of the
control volume or net forces applied to bodies.
Differential analysis, on the other hand,
involves application of differential equations of
fluid motion to any and every point in the flow
field over a region called the flow domain.
Boundary conditions for the variables must
be specified at all boundaries of the flow
domain, including inlets, outlets, and walls.
If the flow is unsteady, we must march our
solution along in time as the flow field changes.

(a) In control volume analysis, the interior of

the control volume is treated like a black box,
but (b) in differential analysis, all the details of
the flow are solved at every point
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within the flow domain.
9–2 ■ CONSERVATION OF MASS—THE
CONTINUITY EQUATION

The net rate of change of mass within the

control volume is equal to the rate at
which mass flows into the control volume
minus the rate at which mass flows out of
the control volume.

To derive a differential
conservation equation, we
imagine shrinking a control
3
volume to infinitesimal size.
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
At locations away from the center of the box, we use a Taylor series
expansion.

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Continuity Equation

5
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates

6
Special Cases of the Continuity Equation

Special Case 1: Steady Compressible Flow

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Special Case 2: Incompressible Flow

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The continuity equation can be used to find a missing velocity component.

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9–3 ■ THE STREAM FUNCTION
The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates

Incompressible, two-dimensional stream

function in Cartesian coordinates:
stream
function 

There are several definitions of

the stream function, depending
on the type of flow under
consideration as well as the
coordinate system being used. 12
Curves of constant
stream function
represent streamlines
of the flow.

Curves of constant
 are streamlines
of the flow.

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Streamlines for the velocity
field of Example 9–8; the
value of constant  is
indicated for each streamline,
and velocity vectors are
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shown at four locations.
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Streamlines for the
velocity field of Example
9–9; the value of
constant  is indicated
for each streamline.

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The difference in the value of  from one
streamline to another is equal to the
volume flow rate per unit width between
the two streamlines.

(a) Control volume

bounded by
streamlines 1 and
2 and slices A and
B in the xy-plane;
(b) magnified view
of the region
around infinitesimal
length ds.
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The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates

Flow over an axisymmetric

body in cylindrical
coordinates with rotational
symmetry about the z-axis;
neither the geometry nor
the velocity field depend on
, and u = 0. 20
The Compressible Stream Function

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9–4 ■ THE DIFFERENTIAL LINEAR MOMENTUM
EQUATION—CAUCHY’S EQUATION

Positive components of the stress

tensor in Cartesian coordinates on the
positive (right, top, and front) faces of
an infinitesimal rectangular control
volume. The blue dots indicate the
center of each face. Positive
components on the negative (left,
bottom, and back) faces are in the
opposite direction of those shown here.
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Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume

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Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume

• x-component of equation is:

Where:

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Elemental cartesian fixed control volume showing the surface
forces in the x direction only.

we obtain an approximation for the net surface force acting on the differential fluid
element in the x-direction:

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After some rearrangement we obtain the differential form of
the x-momentum equation,

After combining all above equations we obtain general equation:

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So we can write as:

In Cartesian coordinates, the three components of Cauchy’s

equation are:

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9–5 ■ THE NAVIER–STOKES EQUATION
Introduction

ij, called the

viscous stress
tensor or the
deviatoric stress
tensor

For fluids at rest, the only

stress on a fluid element is
the hydrostatic pressure,
which always acts inward
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and normal to any surface.
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids
Rheology: The study of the
deformation of flowing fluids.
Newtonian fluids: Fluids for which the
shear stress is linearly proportional to
the shear strain rate.
Non Newtonian fluids: Fluids for which
the shear stress is not linearly related to
the shear strain rate.
Viscoelastic: A fluid that returns (either
fully or partially) to its original shape
after the applied stress is released.
Rheological behavior of fluids—shear Some non-Newtonian fluids are called
stress as a function of shear strain rate. shear thinning fluids or
pseudoplastic fluids, because the
In some fluids a finite stress called the more the fluid is sheared, the less
yield stress is required before the viscous it becomes.
fluid begins to flow at all; such fluids Plastic fluids are those in which the
are called Bingham plastic fluids. shear thinning effect is extreme.
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Shear thickening fluids or dilatant fluids: The more the
fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes.

When an engineer falls into quicksand (a

dilatant fluid), the faster he tries to move,
the more viscous the fluid becomes.
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Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for
Incompressible, Isothermal Flow

The incompressible flow

approximation implies constant
density, and the isothermal
approximation implies constant
viscosity.

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The Laplacian operator, shown
here in both Cartesian and
cylindrical coordinates, appears
in the viscous term of the
incompressible Navier–Stokes
equation. 35
 The Navier–Stokes equation is an
unsteady, nonlinear, secondorder, partial
differential equation.
Equation 9–60 has four unknowns (three
velocity components and pressure), yet it
represents only three equations (three
components since it is a vector equation).
Obviously we need another equation to
make the problem solvable. The fourth
The Navier–Stokes equation is the equation is the incompressible continuity
cornerstone of fluid mechanics. equation (Eq. 9–16). 36
Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations
in Cartesian Coordinates

37
Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations
in Cylindrical Coordinates

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An alternative
form for the first
two viscous
terms in the r-
and -
components of
the Navier–
Stokes equation.

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9–6 ■ DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS
There are two types of problems for which the differential equations (continuity
and Navier–Stokes) are useful:
• Calculating the pressure field for a known velocity field
• Calculating both the velocity and pressure fields for a flow of known geometry
and known boundary conditions

A general three-dimensional
but incompressible flow field
with constant properties
requires four equations to
solve for four unknowns. 40
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For a two-dimensional flow
field in the xy-plane, cross-
differentiation reveals
whether pressure P is a
smooth function. 43
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Streamlines and
velocity profiles for
a line vortex.
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For a two-dimensional
flow field in the r-plane,
cross-differentiation
reveals whether pressure
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P is a smooth function.
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Exact Solutions of the Continuity Boundary Conditions
and Navier–Stokes Equations

A piston moving at speed VP in a cylinder.

A thin film of oil is sheared between the
piston and the cylinder; a magnified view of
the oil film is shown. The no-slip boundary
condition requires that the velocity of fluid
Procedure for solving the
adjacent to a wall equal that of the wall.
incompressible continuity and
Navier–Stokes equations. 49
At an interface between two
fluids, the velocity of the two
fluids must be equal. In addition,
the shear stress parallel to the
interface must be the same in
both fluids.

Along a horizontal free surface of

water and air, the water and air
velocities must be equal and the
shear stresses must match.
However, since air << water, a
good approximation is that the
shear stress at the water surface is
negligibly small.
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 Other boundary conditions arise
depending on the problem setup.
For example, we often need to define
inlet boundary conditions at a
boundary of a flow domain where fluid
enters the domain.
Likewise, we define outlet boundary
conditions at an outflow.
Boundary conditions along a plane of Symmetry boundary conditions are
symmetry are defined so as to ensure useful along an axis or plane of
that the flow field on one side of the symmetry.
symmetry plane is a mirror image of
For unsteady flow problems we also
that on the other side, as shown here
need to define initial conditions (at
for a horizontal symmetry plane.
the starting time, usually t = 0).
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Geometry of Example 9–
15: viscous flow between
two infinite plates; upper
plate moving and lower
plate stationary.

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A fully developed region of a flow field is
a region where the velocity profile does
not change with downstream distance.
Fully developed flows are encountered
in long, straight channels and pipes.
Fully developed Couette flow is shown
here—the velocity profile at x2 is
identical to that at x1.
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For incompressible flow fields
without free surfaces, hydrostatic
pressure does not contribute to the
dynamics of the flow field.

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The linear velocity
profile of Example 9–15:
Couette flow between
parallel plates.

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Stresses acting on a
differential two-
dimensional rectangular
fluid element whose
bottom face is in contact
with the bottom plate of
Example 9–15.

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 Summary
• Introduction
• Conservation of mass-The continuity equation
 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
 Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
 Alternative Form of the Continuity Equation
 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
 Special Cases of the Continuity Equation
• The stream function
 The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates
 The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates
 The Compressible Stream Function
• The differential linear momentum equation-Cauchy’s
equation
 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
 Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
 Alternative Form of Cauchy’s Equation
 Derivation Using Newton’s Second Law
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• The Navier-Stokes equation
 Introduction
 Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids
 Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for
Incompressible, Isothermal Flow
 Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in
Cartesian Coordinates
 Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Differential analysis of fluid flow problems
 Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known
Velocity Field
 Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier–
Stokes Equations
 Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows
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