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Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Chapter 1: Introduction

▪ What Operating Systems Do


▪ Computer-System Organization (review)
▪ Computer-System Architecture (review)
▪ Operating-System Operations
▪ Resource Management
▪ Security and Protection
▪ Virtualization
▪ Kernel Data Structures
▪ Computing Environments

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Objectives

▪ Describe the general organization of a computer system and the role


of interrupts
▪ Describe the components in a modern, multiprocessor computer
system
▪ Illustrate the transition from user mode to kernel mode
▪ Discuss how operating systems are used in various computing
environments
▪ Provide examples of free and open-source operating systems

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
What is an Operating System?

▪ A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a


computer and the computer hardware
▪ Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Computer System Structure

▪ Computer system can be divided into four components:


• Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
• Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
• Users
 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Abstract View of Components of Computer

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
What Operating Systems Do
▪ Depends on the point of view

1. User view
• Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization (how various hardware
and software resources are shared )
• Mobile devices like smartphones and tables are resource poor,
optimized for usability and battery life
 Mobile user interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition
• Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
 Run primarily without user intervention

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
What Operating Systems Do
▪ Depends on the point of view

2. System view
• But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
 Operating system is a resource allocator and control program
making efficient use of HW and managing execution of user
programs
• Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Defining Operating Systems

▪ Term OS covers many roles


• Because of myriad designs and uses of OSes
• Present in toasters through ships, spacecraft, game machines,
TVs and industrial control systems
• Born when fixed use computers for military became more
general purpose and needed resource management and
program control

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Definition

▪ No universally accepted definition


▪ “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is a
good approximation
• But varies wildly
▪ “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel,
part of the operating system
▪ Everything else is either
• A system program (ships with the operating system, but not part of
the kernel) , or
• An application program, all programs not associated with the
operating system
▪ Today’s OSes for general purpose and mobile computing also include
middleware – a set of software frameworks that provide additional
services to application developers such as databases, multimedia,
graphics

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating-System Operations

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating-System Operations
▪ For a computer to start running—for instance, when it is powered up or
rebooted—it needs to have an initial program to run.

▪ Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the system, load the


kernel
• it is stored within the computer hardware in firmware. It initializes all
aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device controllers to
memory contents.
• The bootstrap program must know how to load the operating system
and how to start executing that system. To accomplish this goal, the
bootstrap program must locate the operating-system kernel and load
it into memory.

▪ Kernel loads→ it can start providing services to the system and its users.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating-System Operations
▪ Starts system daemons (services provided outside of the kernel that
are loaded into memory at boot time )

▪ Kernel interrupt driven (hardware and software)


• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service – system call
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Multiprogramming (Batch system)

▪ One of the most important aspects of operating


systems is the ability to run multiple programs
▪ Single program cannot always keep CPU and I/O
devices busy
▪ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data)
so CPU always has one to execute
▪ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
▪ One job selected and run via job scheduling
▪ When job has to wait (for I/O for example), OS
switches to another job

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Multitasking (Timesharing)

▪ A logical extension of Batch systems– the CPU switches jobs


so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory
 process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU
scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them
in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Dual-mode Operation

▪ Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other


system components
• User mode and kernel mode
▪ Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code.
• When a user is running  mode bit is 1 “user”
• When kernel code is executing  mode bit is 0 “kernel”
▪ How do we guarantee that user does not explicitly set the mode
bit to “kernel”?
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it
to user
▪ Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Transition from User to Kernel Mode

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Timer
▪ Timer to prevent infinite loop (or process hogging
resources)
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some
time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the
physical clock
• Operating system set the counter (privileged
instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control
or terminate program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Resource Management

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Process Management
▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity; process is an active entity.
▪ Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
▪ Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
▪ Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in


connection with process management:
▪ Creating and deleting both user and system processes
▪ Suspending and resuming processes
▪ Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
▪ Providing mechanisms for process communication
▪ Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Memory Management

▪ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in


memory
▪ All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory
▪ Memory management determines what is in memory and when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
▪ Memory management activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
File-system Management
▪ OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

▪ File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
• OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Mass-Storage Management
▪ Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
▪ Proper management is of central importance
▪ Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
▪ OS activities
• Mounting and unmounting
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
• Partitioning
• Protection

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Caching

▪ Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer


(in hardware, operating system, software)
▪ Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
▪ Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there
▪ Cache smaller than storage being cached
• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Characteristics of Various Types of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

▪ Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,


no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

▪ Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in


hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
▪ Distributed environment situation even more complex
• Several copies of a datum can exist
• Various solutions covered in Chapter 19

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
I/O Subsystem
▪ One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
▪ I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Protection and Security

▪ Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or


users to resources defined by the OS
▪ Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
▪ Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Virtualization
▪ Virtualization is a technology that allows us to abstract the hardware
of a single computer (the CPU, memory, disk drives, network
interface cards, and so forth) into several different execution
environments.
▪ creating the illusion that each separate environment is running on its
own private computer.
▪ Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes
• Vast and growing industry
▪ Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type
(i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
▪ Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes
also natively compiled
• Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
• VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization services
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Virtualization (cont.)

▪ Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes for
exploration or compatibility
• Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
• Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
• Quality assurance testing applications without having multiple
systems
• Executing and managing compute environments within data
centers
▪ VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
• There is no general-purpose host then (VMware ESX and Citrix
XenServer)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Computing Environments - Virtualization
A computer running (a) a single operating system and (b) three virtual machines.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Kernel Data Structure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Kernel Data Structures

▪ Many similar to standard programming data structures


▪ Singly linked list

▪ Doubly linked list

▪ Circular linked list

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Kernel Data Structures

▪ Binary search tree


left <= right
• Search performance is O(n)
• Balanced binary search tree is O(lg n)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Kernel Data Structures
▪ Hash function can create a hash map
• A hash function takes data as its input, performs a numeric
operation on the data, and returns a numeric value.
• This numeric value can then be used as an index into a table
(typically an array) to quickly retrieve the data.
• Whereas searching for a data item through a list of size n can
require up to O(n) comparisons,
• using a hash function for retrieving data from a table can be as
good as O(1), depending on implementation details.
• Because of this performance, hash functions are used extensively in
operating systems.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Kernel Data Structures

▪ Bitmap – A bitmap is a string of n binary digits that can be used to


represent the status of n items.
• For example, suppose we have several resources, and the availability
• of each resource is indicated by the value of a binary digit: 0 means that
the resource is available, while 1 indicates that it is unavailable (or vice
versa).
• The value of the ith position in the bitmap is associated with the ith resource.
• consider the bitmap shown : 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
• Resources 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 are unavailable; resources 0, 1, 3, and 7 are
available.

• Linux data structures defined in include files <linux/list.h>,


<linux/kfifo.h>, <linux/rbtree.h>

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Computer System Environments

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Computing Environments

▪ Traditional Computing
▪ Mobile Computing
▪ Client Server Computing
▪ Peer-to-Peer Computing
▪ Cloud computing
▪ Real-time Embedded Systems

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Traditional Computing

▪ Stand-alone general-purpose machines


▪ But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e., the Internet)
▪ Portals provide web access to internal systems
▪ Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
▪ Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
▪ Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use firewalls to
protect home computers from Internet attacks

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Mobile Computing

▪ Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc.


▪ What is the functional difference between them and a “traditional”
laptop?
▪ Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
▪ Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
▪ Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for connectivity
▪ Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Client Server Computing

▪ Client-Server Computing
• Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to store and
retrieve files

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Peer-to-Peer Computing

▪ Another model of distributed system


▪ P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
• Instead, all nodes are considered peers
• May each act as client, server or both
• Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
 Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
• Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Cloud Computing
▪ Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a
service across a network
▪ Logical extension of virtualization because it uses
virtualization as the base for it functionality.
• Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers,
millions of virtual machines, petabytes of
storage available across the Internet, pay based
on usage

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Cloud Computing (Cont.)
▪ Many types
• Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
• Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
• Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
• Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available
via the Internet (i.e., word processor)
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application
use via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available
over Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Cloud Computing (cont.)
▪ Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes, plus
VMMs, plus cloud management tools
• Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
• Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Real-Time Embedded Systems

▪ Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers


• Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-
time OS
• Use expanding
▪ Many other special computing environments as well
• Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
▪ Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
• Processing must be done within constraint
• Correct operation only if constraints met

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

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