Sessional 1

JAVA

Q1 Write short note on

(a) 7 points about java history.

(b) Application of java.

Ans- (a)

1. Development and Creator: Java was developed in the early 1990s by James Gosling and his team
at Sun Microsystems. It was originally named "Oak" after an oak tree outside Gosling's office.
2. Renaming to Java: The name "Java" was chosen in 1995. It was inspired by Java coffee, which
was said to fuel the developers.
3. Platform Independence: One of Java's key features is its platform independence, encapsulated in
the slogan "Write Once, Run Anywhere" (WORA). This means that Java programs can run on any
device with a Java Virtual Machine (JVM).
4. Java 1.0 Release: The first official version, Java 1.0, was released in 1996. It was celebrated for its
simplicity, robustness, and security features.
5. Expansion to Enterprises: By the late 1990s, Java began to be widely adopted in enterprise
environments. The release of Java 2 in 1999 included different editions like J2SE (Standard
Edition), J2EE (Enterprise Edition), and J2ME (Micro Edition).
6. Oracle Acquisition: In 2010, Oracle Corporation acquired Sun Microsystems, thus taking over the
development and maintenance of Java. Oracle has continued to evolve the language with new
features and updates.
7. Modern Java Developments: Java has evolved with regular updates, with Java 8, released in
2014, introducing significant changes like lambda expressions and the Stream API. Newer
versions continue to add features to keep the language modern and efficient.

Ans(b)

1. Web Applications: Java is widely used for building web applications. The Java Enterprise
Edition (Java EE) provides a robust set of APIs for developing and deploying scalable, secure,
and high-performance web applications.
2. Mobile Applications: Java is the primary language for Android app development. The Android
SDK provides Java APIs that allow developers to create feature-rich applications for Android
devices.
3. Enterprise Applications: Java is extensively used in the enterprise sector for building large-
scale, distributed, and high-performance enterprise applications. Java's platform
independence and robust security features make it a preferred choice for enterprise
solutions.
4. Scientific Applications: Due to its stability, speed, and portability, Java is often used in
scientific applications. It provides the computational power required for various scientific
calculations and data processing tasks.
5. Desktop GUI Applications: Java can be used to develop desktop GUI applications. The Java
Foundation Classes (JFC) include the Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) and Swing, which
provide a rich set of GUI components for building desktop applications.
6. Embedded Systems: Java is used in embedded systems, which are dedicated computer
systems designed for specific functions. Java's ability to run on various hardware makes it
suitable for embedded system development.
 7. Big Data Technologies: Java plays a significant role in big data technologies. Many big data
platforms, like Apache Hadoop, are written in Java, making it a valuable language for
processing and analyzing large data sets.

Q2 Explain String Buffer class with reverse, Delete charat, insert charat, capacity, length methods.

Ans2-

Certainly! The StringBuffer class in Java is used to create mutable (modifiable) string objects. It
provides various methods to manipulate strings.

Key Methods of StringBuffer Class

1. reverse():

o Reverses the sequence of characters in the string buffer.

o Example:

2. deleteCharAt(int index):

 Removes the character at the specified index.

 Example:

3. insert(int offset, char c):

 Inserts the specified character at the given position.

 Example:
 4. capacity():

 Returns the current capacity of the string buffer.

 Example:

5. length():

 Returns the length (number of characters) of the string buffer.

 Example:

Q3 Explain For, Do-While and If-else statement with the help of program.

Ans-3

For Loop

The for loop is used when the number of iterations is known beforehand. It consists of three parts:
initialization, condition, and increment/decrement.

Example: Print numbers from 1 to 5

Do-While Loop

The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, but it ensures that the code inside the loop is
executed at least once, even if the condition is false.

Example: Print numbers from 1 to 5

If-Else Statement

The if-else statement is used to execute a block of code based on a condition. If the condition is
true, the if block is executed; otherwise, the else block is executed.

Example: Check if a number is even or odd

Q4- Explain the given fllowing terms.

(a) JVM and JDK

Ans- Java Virtual Machine (JVM)

The Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is an abstract computing machine that enables a computer to run a
Java program. It provides a runtime environment in which Java bytecode can be executed, and it is
platform-independent, meaning the same Java program can run on any device or operating system
that has a compatible JVM.

Key Functions and Components

1. Class Loader:

o The class loader is a subsystem of the JVM responsible for loading class files. It loads,
links, and initializes the classes required for execution.

2. Bytecode Verifier:

o The bytecode verifier checks the code fragments for illegal code that can violate
access rights to objects. It ensures that the loaded classes follow the JVM
specifications and do not compromise security.

3. Interpreter:

o The interpreter reads the bytecode file line by line and executes it. It converts the
bytecode into machine-readable code.

4. JIT Compiler:
 o The Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler improves performance by converting the bytecode
into native machine code at runtime. This allows frequently executed code paths to
be optimized for better performance.

5. Garbage Collector:

o The garbage collector is responsible for automatic memory management. It

identifies and disposes of objects that are no longer needed by the application to
free up memory resources.

Execution Process

1. Loading: JVM loads the bytecode of the class into memory using the class loader.

2. Linking: The JVM then links the class files together, performing verification, preparation, and
resolution.

3. Initialization: The JVM initializes the class, which includes static initializations and the
execution of the main method.

4. Execution: The bytecode is either interpreted or compiled to machine code using the JIT
compiler for execution.

(b) JDK

Java Development Kit (JDK)

The Java Development Kit (JDK) is a crucial software development environment used for
developing Java applications and applets. It includes a set of tools necessary for Java programming,
providing a comprehensive solution for Java development.

Key Components of the JDK

1. Java Compiler (javac):

o The javac compiler is one of the most vital components of the JDK. It converts Java
source code (.java files) into bytecode (.class files) that can be executed by the JVM.
The compiler checks for syntax errors and ensures that the code adheres to Java
specifications.

2. Java Runtime Environment (JRE):

o The JRE is a part of the JDK that provides the libraries, Java Virtual Machine (JVM),
and other components needed to run Java applications. While the JRE is enough for
end-users to run Java programs, developers need the complete JDK for development
purposes.

3. Java Debugger (jdb):

o The jdb tool helps in debugging Java programs. It allows developers to inspect the
state of the application at different execution points, set breakpoints, and track
down errors more effectively.

4. Java Documentation Generator (javadoc):

 o The javadoc tool generates HTML documentation from Java source code with
comments. This is extremely useful for creating API documentation, helping
developers understand and use the codebase more efficiently.

5. Additional Tools and Utilities:

o The JDK includes several other tools and utilities such as jar (for packaging Java
programs into JAR files), javap (for class file disassembler), jconsole (for monitoring
JVM and Java applications), and many more.

Workflow with JDK

1. Writing Code:

o Developers write Java programs using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

or a text editor.

2. Compiling Code:

o The source code is compiled using the javac compiler to produce bytecode files.

3. Running Code:

o The bytecode files are executed by the JVM, which is part of the JRE included in the
JDK.

4. Debugging and Documentation:

o Developers use jdb for debugging and javadoc for generating documentation.

Q5- Define the following terms:

(a) Constructor
(b) Types of Variables in java
(c) Byte Code
(d) Any 3 uses of “this” Keyword.

Ans-

(a)A constructor in Java is a special method used to initialize objects. It is invoked

automatically when an instance of a class is created. Constructors have the following
characteristics:

(a) Same Name as Class: The constructor must have the same name as the class.
(b) No Return Type: Constructors do not have a return type.
(c) Initialization: They are used to set initial values for object attributes.

Types of Constructors

1. Default Constructor:

o No parameters and initializes default values.

 2. Parameterized Constructor:

 Takes arguments to initialize the object with specific values.

(b) In Java, variables are categorized based on their scope and lifetime. Here are the main types of
variables in Java:

1. Local Variables

 Definition: These are declared inside a method, constructor, or block.

 Scope: Only within the block or method where they are declared.

 Lifetime: Exist only during the execution of the block or method.

2. Instance Variables

 Definition: These are declared inside a class but outside any method, constructor, or block.

 Scope: Throughout the class and are accessible using objects of the class.

 Lifetime: Exist as long as the instance of the class exists.

3. Static Variables (Class Variables)

 Definition: These are declared with the static keyword inside a class but outside any method,
constructor, or block.

 Scope: Throughout the class and are shared among all instances of the class.

 Lifetime: Exist from the start to the end of the program's execution.
(c) Bytecode is an intermediate code generated by the Java compiler after a Java source file (.java)
is compiled. It is a low-level set of instructions that is platform-independent and designed to be
executed by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM).

Characteristics of Bytecode:

1. Platform-Independent:

o Bytecode can be executed on any platform that has a compatible JVM, making Java
a "write once, run anywhere" language.

2. Intermediary Code:

o Bytecode is not machine code but an intermediary between the Java source code
and machine code. The JVM interprets or compiles it into native machine code at
runtime.

3. Portability:

o Bytecode enhances portability, allowing Java programs to be executed across

different systems without modification.

4. Security:

o Bytecode is verified by the JVM's bytecode verifier for correctness and security
before execution, preventing malicious code from being executed.
(e) The this keyword in Java is a reference variable that refers to the current object. It is
used for various purposes within a class. Here are three common uses of the this keyword:

1. Refer to Instance Variables

 The this keyword is used to refer to instance variables when they are shadowed
by local variables or parameters.

2. Invoke Current Class Constructor

 The this keyword can be used to call another constructor in the same class. This is
known as constructor chaining.

3. Pass Current Object as an Argument

 The this keyword can be used to pass the current object as an argument to another
method.

Sessional 2nd

Q1 Write a short note on

(a) Final Keyword

(b) Interface

Ans

(a) the final keyword is used to apply restrictions on classes, methods, and variables. It
ensures that the entity it is applied to cannot be modified or changed.

A final variable's value cannot be changed once it has been assigned. It essentially makes the
variable a constant.

(b) In Java an interface is a blueprint for a class that define the behavior of a class by
specifying abtract method and static constants,

Interface are used to implement multiple interitance and achive abstraction.

Q2 Explain the different between class and interface in java with example.

Ans-

Class Interface

The keyword used to create a class is The keyword used to create an interface is
“class” “interface”
Class Interface

A class can be instantiated i.e., objects of An Interface cannot be instantiated i.e. objects
a class can be created. cannot be created.

Classes do not support multiple

The interface supports multiple inheritance.
inheritance.

It can be inherited from another class. It cannot inherit a class.

It can be inherited by a class by using the keyword

It can be inherited by another class using
‘implements’ and it can be inherited by an
the keyword ‘extends’.
interface using the keyword ‘extends’.

It can contain constructors. It cannot contain constructors.

It cannot contain abstract methods. It contains abstract methods only.

Variables and methods in a class can be

declared using any access All variables and methods in an interface are
specifier(public, private, default, declared as public.
protected).

Variables in a class can be static, final, or

All variables are static and final.
neither.

Q3 Explain Polymorphism and its types with program in java.

Polymorphism is one of the core concepts of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Java. It allows
objects to be treated as instances of their parent class rather than their actual class. The term
"polymorphism" literally means "many forms," and it enables a single interface to represent different
underlying forms (data types).
Types of Polymorphism

1. Compile-Time Polymorphism (Static Polymorphism):

o Achieved by method overloading.

o The method to be called is determined at compile time.

2. Run-Time Polymorphism (Dynamic Polymorphism):

o Achieved by method overriding.

o The method to be called is determined at runtime.

1. Compile-Time Polymorphism (Method Overloading)

Method overloading allows multiple methods with the same name but different parameters
(different number or types of parameters) to exist in the same class.

2. Run-Time Polymorphism (Method Overriding)

Method overriding occurs when a subclass provides a specific implementation for a method that is
already defined in its superclass. The JVM determines which method to call at runtime based on the
object type.

Q4- Explain the given following terms

(a) Package and Access Specifiers with Program.

Packages

A package in Java is a namespace that organizes classes and interfaces by functionality. Using
packages, you can avoid class name conflicts and control access to classes and interfaces.

Example

Let's create a simple package called mypackage and include a class within it.

Access Specifiers

Access specifiers in Java determine the scope of accessibility of classes, methods, and variables.
The main access specifiers are:

1. public: Accessible from any other class.

2. private: Accessible only within the declared class.

3. protected: Accessible within the same package and subclasses.

 4. default (no modifier): Accessible only within the same package.

(b) Exception handler with java program.

Exception handling is a powerful feature in Java that allows you to handle runtime errors, ensuring
the normal flow of the application is maintained. Let's dive into it with an example.

Exception Handling in Java

In Java, exceptions are handled using try, catch, finally, and throw blocks.

 try: The block of code to monitor for exceptions.

 catch: The block of code that handles the exception.

 finally: The block of code that will execute whether or not an exception is thrown.

 throw: Used to throw an exception explicitly.

Q5- Explain the following terms.

(a) Error and exception
(b) How to create a thread in java program.

Ans-

(a)Errors

Errors represent serious problems that a reasonable application should not try to catch.
Errors are usually related to the environment in which the application is running (e.g., the
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) has run out of memory). They are unchecked, which means the
compiler doesn't enforce error handling for them.

Common types of errors include:

(a) OutOfMemoryError: Thrown when the JVM can't allocate an object because it is
out of memory.
(b) StackOverflowError: Thrown when a stack overflow occurs because an application
recurses too deeply.

(b) Exceptions, on the other hand, are used to handle errors that can be recovered from within the
program. Exceptions are represented by the Exception class and its subclasses. Some common
examples of exceptions in Java include:

 Null Pointer Exception: Thrown when a null reference is accessed.

 Illegal Argument Exception: Thrown when an illegal argument is passed to a

method.

 IO Exception: Thrown when an I/O operation fails.

 DAC

Sessional 1

Q1 (a) Define message signal and carrier signal in brief.

(b)Briefly explain the term ”Modulation”.

(c) What do you mean by communication?

Ans-

(a) Message Signal

Message Signal: This is the original information signal that needs to be transmitted. In DAC, the
message signal is typically a digital signal that needs to be converted into an analog signal for
transmission or further processing.

Carrier Signal

Carrier Signal: This is a high-frequency signal that carries the message signal. The carrier signal is
modulated (altered) based on the message signal to create the final analog output. The
modulation can be in terms of amplitude, frequency, or phase.

(b)

(c)

Q2

(a)Why we need to modulate the message signal

(b)The maximum amplitude of carrier wave is 12 v. what should be the amplitude of modulating
signal in order to have a modulation index of 60%.

Q3

(a)find the expression for the amplitude modulated signal transmitter power, efficiency and
redundancy.

(b)If an audio of frequency is translated to a radio frequency carrier of frequency 3 MHz .Find the
required height of antenna to transmit the signal easily.

Q4

(a)A carrier wave of 3 MHz is amplitude modulated by a modulating wave of 2 kHz. Find the value
of frequencies present in the amplitude modulated wave.

(b)Find the expression for the amplitude modulated wave using square law device.

Q5 what do you mean by amplitude modulation? Describe the amplitude modulation using square
law modulator in detail.
 Sessional 2

Q1

(a) Briefly define the term SSB-SC and DSB-SC

  SSB-SC (Single-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier): It's a type of modulation used in
communication systems where only one of the sidebands (either the upper or lower) is
transmitted, and the carrier is suppressed. This method is efficient in terms of power
and bandwidth usage, often employed in long-distance and amateur radio
communications.
  DSB-SC (Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier): This is another modulation
scheme where both the upper and lower sidebands are transmitted, but the carrier is
suppressed. It helps save power and bandwidth compared to traditional AM
(Amplitude Modulation) while maintaining the integrity of the transmitted
information.

(b)Determine the % modulation for an FM wave with the frequency deviation allowed is 25khz.

 To determine the percentage modulation for an FM (Frequency Modulation) wave,

you need to know both the frequency deviation (Δf) and the modulating frequency
(fm).
 The formula to calculate the modulation index (β) for FM is:


 Then, to express this as a percentage, you would multiply the modulation index by
100.
 However, since you've only provided the frequency deviation (25 kHz) and not the
modulating frequency, I can't give you an exact percentage. If you can provide the
modulating frequency, I can calculate the percentage modulation for you!


(c)Briefly explain the frequency modulation using block diagram.

Frequency Modulation (FM) is a method of modulating a carrier signal in which the frequency of the
carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

Here's a basic block diagram and a brief explanation of the key components involved in FM:

1. Modulating Signal: This is the input signal that contains the information you want to
transmit. It is usually an audio signal.

2. Carrier Signal: A high-frequency sine wave that will be modulated by the input signal.
3. Frequency Modulator: This block modulates the frequency of the carrier signal based on the
amplitude of the modulating signal. The output is an FM signal where the carrier frequency
varies according to the modulating signal's amplitude.

4. Frequency Deviation Controller: This component ensures the frequency deviation (change in
frequency from the carrier frequency) is within the desired range.
 5. Bandpass Filter: The modulated signal is filtered to remove unwanted frequencies and noise,
allowing only the desired FM signal to pass through.

6. Transmitter: Finally, the filtered FM signal is amplified and transmitted through an antenna.

Q2 what do you mean by frequency shift keying (FSK)? How to modulate it? Describe how the
frequency of the carrier signal changing with respect to amplitude of message signal in detail.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a digital modulation technique where the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied between a set of discrete values in response to the amplitude of the digital message
signal. It's widely used in digital communication systems, particularly in modems, telemetry, and
RFID.

How FSK Works:

1. Digital Message Signal: This is the input data that needs to be transmitted. It consists of
binary values (0s and 1s).

2. Carrier Signal: A high-frequency sine wave that will be modulated according to the digital
message signal.

FSK Modulation Process:

 When the digital message signal is at one binary value (e.g., 0), the carrier frequency is set to
one frequency (let’s call it f1f_1).

 When the digital message signal is at the other binary value (e.g., 1), the carrier frequency is
shifted to another frequency (let’s call it f2f_2).

This results in the carrier signal having two discrete frequencies, depending on the binary state of
the message signal.

Detailed Description of Frequency Changes:

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is directly modulated by the digital message signal.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:

 Binary 0: When the message signal is at binary 0, the carrier signal's frequency is set to
f1f_1.

 Binary 1: When the message signal is at binary 1, the carrier signal's frequency shifts to
f2f_2.

The carrier signal's frequency shifts back and forth between f1f_1 and f2f_2 based on the binary
data of the message signal.

Visual Representation:

Imagine a simple digital message like "0101." The carrier frequency will alternate between f1f_1
and f2f_2 as follows:
 This shifting pattern continues throughout the transmission of the entire message signal.

FSK can be visualized as follows in a simplified block diagram:

Q3 Briefly define the term “Amplitude shift keying”. Describe the modulation and demodulation of
ASK in detail. Also write some advantages and disadvantages of ASK?

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a digital modulation technique in which the amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the digital message signal. In its simplest form, it can be
considered as an "on-off" keying where the presence or absence of the carrier represents binary 1s
and 0s, respectively.

Modulation of ASK:

1. Digital Input Signal: This is the binary data to be transmitted, consisting of 0s and 1s.

2. Carrier Signal: A high-frequency sine wave.

3. ASK Modulator: The modulator alters the amplitude of the carrier wave based on the digital
input. When the input is a binary 1, the carrier is transmitted at its full amplitude. When the
input is a binary 0, the carrier is either not transmitted or transmitted with reduced
amplitude.

Block Diagram of ASK Modulation:

Demodulation of ASK:

1. Received Signal: The modulated ASK signal received at the demodulator.

2. ASK Demodulator: This block extracts the original digital data from the modulated signal. The
demodulator detects changes in amplitude to determine the binary values.

3. Low-Pass Filter: Used to remove high-frequency noise, ensuring a cleaner signal for accurate
detection.

4. Comparator: This component compares the filtered signal to a threshold level to decide
whether the received signal represents a binary 1 or 0.

Block Diagram of ASK Demodulation:

Receving Signal ASK Demodulator Low pass filter Comparator

Recoverd Digital

Message signal
Advantages of ASK:

1. Simplicity: ASK is relatively simple to implement and understand, making it suitable for basic
communication systems.

2. Efficiency: Effective for transmitting data at moderate speeds over short distances.

Disadvantages of ASK:

1. Susceptibility to Noise: ASK is highly susceptible to noise and interference, which can
significantly affect the signal's amplitude and lead to errors in data interpretation.

2. Power Efficiency: ASK is not power-efficient as the carrier signal needs to be transmitted
even for binary 0s in some forms of ASK.
3. Limited Bandwidth Efficiency: ASK requires a larger bandwidth compared to more advanced
modulation schemes.

Q4 Write the amplitude modulated signal and power for DSB-SC signal using block diagram. Also
write down advantages DSB-SC signal in detail.

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude Modulated Signal:

The amplitude modulated signal for DSB-SC can be represented as:

where:

 s(t)s(t) is the transmitted signal.

 m(t)m(t) is the message signal.

 fcf_c is the carrier frequency.

Power Calculation:

For a DSB-SC signal, the total transmitted power is:

where PmP_m is the power of the message signal. This equation assumes that the message signal is
a sinusoidal signal.

Block Diagram:

Here’s a simple block diagram for generating a DSB-SC signal:

 Advantages of DSB-SC Signal:

1. Bandwidth Efficiency: DSB-SC uses the same bandwidth as conventional AM but without the
carrier, making it more bandwidth-efficient.

2. Carrier Suppression: By suppressing the carrier, DSB-SC eliminates the power wastage
associated with transmitting the carrier signal. This increases the power efficiency.

3. Reduced Interference: Since there is no carrier signal, the DSB-SC signal is less susceptible to
certain types of interference and noise that primarily affect the carrier.

4. Improved Signal Quality: The suppression of the carrier can lead to better signal quality
because more power is devoted to the sidebands, which contain the actual information.

5. Compatibility with Single-Sideband (SSB): DSB-SC is a precursor to Single-Sideband

Modulation (SSB), which further improves bandwidth efficiency by transmitting only one
sideband.

6. Q5

(a)Briefly explain the generation and detection of QPSK?

Generation of QPSK:

Binary Data Stream: The input data is split into pairs of bits.

Mapping to Symbols: Each pair of bits is mapped to one of four phase shifts (0°, 90°, 180°, 270°).

Creating I and Q Components: The bits are split into two streams: In-phase (I) and Quadrature
(Q).

Modulation: The I stream modulates a cosine wave, and the Q stream modulates a sine wave.

Summation: These modulated signals are then summed to form the QPSK signal.

Block Diagram for QPSK Generation:

Binary Data Stream Serial to Parallel I&Q

converter mapping

Cosine Carrier Sine carrier Summation QPSK Signal

Detection of QPSK:

Carrier Recovery: The received QPSK signal is mixed with a locally generated carrier to extract
the I and Q components.
 Filtering: The mixed signals pass through low-pass filters to isolate the original data.

Analog to Digital Conversion: The filtered signals are sampled and converted back to digital
form.

Symbol Demapping: The digital I and Q signals are mapped back to the original bit pairs.

Parallel to Serial Conversion: The pairs are combined to reconstruct the original data stream.

Block Diagram for QPSK Detection:

Received Mixer with cosine &Sine Carriers Low Pass Filter

Qpsk Signal

I Component Q Component

Analog to digital Converters Symbol demapping Parallel to serial converter

(b)Explain the pulse time modulation (PTM) and pulse code modulation (PCM)

In detail.

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) involves varying the timing characteristics of pulses to encode
information. PTM can be divided into two main types: Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Pulse
Position Modulation (PPM).

1. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

o Generation: The width of each pulse is varied in accordance with the amplitude of
the analog signal. This can be achieved using a modulator that generates pulses with
varying durations based on the input signal.

o Detection: The receiver measures the width of each pulse and converts it back into
the corresponding amplitude of the analog signal.

o Uses: Commonly used in motor control, power regulation, and audio signal
processing.

2. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):

o Generation: The position of each pulse within a fixed time frame is varied according
to the amplitude of the analog signal. The amplitude of the input signal determines
the time delay from the start of each pulse interval.

o Detection: The receiver measures the time position of each pulse relative to a
reference clock and reconstructs the analog signal.

o Uses: Widely used in optical communication systems and remote controls.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent analog signals. In PCM, the
analog signal is sampled, quantized, and encoded into a digital bit stream.

Steps in PCM Generation:

1. Sampling:

o The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals, typically at a rate that is at least
twice the highest frequency present in the signal (according to the Nyquist theorem).

o Each sample represents the amplitude of the signal at that specific moment in time.

2. Quantization:

o Each sample is then quantized, which involves mapping the analog value to the
nearest value within a finite set of levels.

o The quantization process introduces a small amount of error known as quantization

noise.

3. Encoding:

o The quantized samples are converted into binary form. Each level of quantization is
represented by a unique binary code.

o This binary data stream is the PCM signal.

Steps in PCM Detection:

1. Reconstruction:

o The binary PCM signal is received and decoded back into quantized levels.

o Each binary code is mapped back to its corresponding quantized amplitude.

2. Filtering:

o The quantized samples are passed through a reconstruction filter, typically a low-
pass filter, to smooth the signal and approximate the original analog waveform.

Advantages of PCM:

 High Noise Immunity: PCM signals are less susceptible to noise and interference compared
to analog signals.

 Efficient Digital Transmission: PCM allows efficient transmission and storage of audio and
other signals in digital form.

 Ease of Multiplexing: Multiple PCM signals can be easily multiplexed for transmission over a
common channel.

 Compatibility with Digital Systems: PCM integrates seamlessly with modern digital
communication systems and computer networks.

Applications:

 Widely used in digital telephony, audio recording, and broadcasting.

 PCM is the standard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony,
and other digital audio applications.

Ecommerce
Sessional 1
Q1 Explain all drivers for Ecommerce?

Global Reach

 Description: E-commerce allows businesses to reach customers worldwide, breaking

geographical barriers.

 Advantages: Expands market potential, increases sales opportunities, and diversifies

customer base.

2. Convenience

 Description: Online shopping offers convenience to customers, allowing them to shop from
anywhere at any time.

 Advantages: Enhances customer satisfaction, increases repeat purchases, and reduces the
need for physical stores.

3. Cost Reduction

 Description: E-commerce reduces the costs associated with maintaining physical stores, such
as rent, utilities, and staffing.

 Advantages: Lower operational costs, higher profit margins, and the ability to offer
competitive pricing.

4. Personalization

 Description: E-commerce platforms can use data analytics to personalize the shopping
experience for each customer.

 Advantages: Increases customer engagement, improves conversion rates, and fosters

customer loyalty.

5. Technological Advancements

 Description: Innovations in technology, such as mobile commerce, augmented reality, and

artificial intelligence, enhance the e-commerce experience.

 Advantages: Improves user experience, streamlines operations, and provides new ways to
engage customers.

6. Consumer Behavior

 Description: Changing consumer preferences and behaviors, such as the preference for
online shopping over traditional retail.

 Advantages: Aligns with market trends, meets customer demands, and drives business
growth.
 7. Economic Factors

 Description: Economic conditions, such as disposable income and consumer spending,

influence e-commerce growth.

 Advantages: Capitalizes on economic trends, adapts to market conditions, and supports

business sustainability.

8. Regulatory Environment

 Description: Government policies and regulations that support e-commerce development.

 Advantages: Ensures a stable business environment, promotes fair competition, and protects
consumer rights.

9. Logistics and Supply Chain

 Description: Efficient logistics and supply chain management are crucial for timely delivery
and customer satisfaction.

 Advantages: Enhances delivery speed, reduces costs, and improves overall service quality.

10. Social Media and Marketing

 Description: The use of social media and digital marketing to promote e-commerce
businesses.

 Advantages: Increases brand visibility, attracts new customers, and drives traffic to online
stores.

Q2 What is Ecommerce and its Advantages and disadvantage ?

What is E-Commerce?

E-commerce (electronic commerce) refers to the buying and selling of goods and services over the
internet. It encompasses a wide range of online business activities for products and services and is a
subset of electronic business (e-business). E-commerce transactions occur in various forms, such as
business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C), consumer-to-consumer (C2C), and
consumer-to-business (C2B).

Advantages of E-Commerce

1. Global Reach:

o E-commerce enables businesses to reach customers across the globe, breaking

geographical barriers and expanding their market.

2. 24/7 Availability:

o Online stores can operate around the clock, providing customers the convenience of
shopping at any time.

3. Cost Efficiency:

o Reduces the need for physical storefronts, lowering costs related to rent, utilities,
and staffing.

4. Convenience and Accessibility:

 o Customers can browse, compare, and purchase products from the comfort of their
own homes.

5. Personalization:

o E-commerce platforms can use data analytics to offer personalized shopping

experiences, enhancing customer satisfaction.

6. Wide Selection:

o Online stores often have a broader selection of products compared to physical

stores.

7. Scalability:
o E-commerce allows businesses to scale more easily, adding new products and
reaching more customers without significant additional costs.

8. Customer Reviews:

o Customers can read reviews from other buyers, helping them make informed
purchasing decisions.

Disadvantages of E-Commerce

1. Security Concerns:

o Online transactions can be vulnerable to security breaches and fraud, requiring

robust security measures.

2. Lack of Physical Interaction:

o Customers cannot physically inspect or try products before purchasing, which can
lead to dissatisfaction.

3. Dependence on Technology:
o E-commerce relies heavily on technology, and any technical issues (e.g., website
downtime) can disrupt business operations.

4. Delivery Delays:

o Shipping times can vary, and delays can occur, affecting customer satisfaction.

5. Initial Setup Costs:

o Setting up an e-commerce platform requires investment in website development,

secure payment systems, and digital marketing.

6. Logistics Challenges:

o Managing inventory, shipping, and returns can be complex and costly.

7. Competition:

o The online market is highly competitive, making it challenging for new businesses to
stand out.
 8. Privacy Issues:

o Collecting and handling customer data raises privacy concerns and requires
compliance with regulations.

Q3 What are four major categories of Ecommerce?

E-commerce can be broadly categorized into four major types based on the nature of transactions.
Here's a breakdown of these categories:

1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)

Description: Transactions between businesses and individual consumers.

 Examples: Online retail stores like Amazon, clothing stores like Zara, and electronics stores
like Best Buy.

 Features:

o Large Customer Base: Targets a wide audience.

o Convenience: Provides a user-friendly shopping experience.

o Marketing: Focuses on consumer marketing strategies like promotions and
discounts.

2. Business-to-Business (B2B)

Description: Transactions between businesses.

 Examples: Wholesale suppliers like Alibaba, industrial supply companies, and service
providers like Salesforce.

 Features:

o Bulk Transactions: Typically involves large order quantities.

o Long-Term Relationships: Emphasizes building and maintaining long-term business

relationships.

o Efficiency: Focuses on streamlining supply chain and procurement processes.

3. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

Description: Transactions between individual consumers.

 Examples: Online marketplaces like eBay, Craigslist, and peer-to-peer selling platforms like
Depop.

 Features:

o User-Generated Content: Listings and sales are managed by individual users.

o Trust and Safety: Relies on user reviews, ratings, and secure payment methods to
build trust.

o Community Engagement: Often includes community features like forums and social
interactions.
4. Consumer-to-Business (C2B)

Description: Transactions where individual consumers sell products or services to businesses.

 Examples: Freelance platforms like Upwork, stock photo sites like Shutterstock, and
influencers offering promotional services to brands.

 Features:

o Consumer Empowerment: Allows individuals to monetize their skills, products, or

influence.

o Dynamic Pricing: Pricing can vary based on demand and negotiation.

o Customization: Often involves tailored services or products based on business

needs.

Q4 Write all steps for designing and developing a ecommerce website?

Designing and developing an e-commerce website involves several detailed steps to ensure a
functional, user-friendly, and secure online store. Here’s a comprehensive guide:

1. Planning and Research

 Identify Objectives: Define the purpose of your e-commerce site and the goals you want to
achieve.

 Market Research: Analyze competitors and understand market trends.

 Target Audience: Identify your target customers and their preferences.

2. Choosing the Right Platform

 E-Commerce Platforms: Choose a platform that suits your needs (e.g., Shopify,
WooCommerce, Magento, BigCommerce).

 Self-Hosted vs. Hosted: Decide whether you want a hosted platform or self-hosted solution.

3. Domain Name and Hosting

 Domain Name: Choose a memorable and relevant domain name for your website.

 Web Hosting: Select a reliable hosting provider that offers good uptime, speed, and support.

4. Design and User Experience (UX)

 Wireframes and Prototypes: Create wireframes and prototypes to outline the site’s
structure and layout.

 Responsive Design: Ensure the website is mobile-friendly and looks good on all devices.

 User Interface (UI): Design an attractive and intuitive UI to enhance user experience.

5. Website Development

 Front-End Development: Develop the client-side part of the website (HTML, CSS, JavaScript).
 Back-End Development: Develop the server-side part, including databases and server logic
(PHP, Python, Ruby).
  Integration: Integrate the front-end with back-end and third-party services (payment
gateways, shipping services).

6. Setting Up Essential Features

 Product Catalog: Add products, descriptions, images, and categorize them.

 Shopping Cart: Implement a shopping cart that allows users to add, view, and edit their
items.

 Checkout Process: Create a seamless and secure checkout process.

 Payment Gateway: Integrate secure payment options (credit/debit cards, PayPal, etc.).

 Shipping and Tax: Set up shipping methods and tax calculations based on customer
locations.

7. Content Management

 CMS: Use a Content Management System to manage and update website content.

 SEO: Optimize the website for search engines with keywords, meta tags, and quality content.

 Blog/Articles: Create informative content to attract and engage visitors.

8. Security Measures

 SSL Certificate: Ensure the website is secure with an SSL certificate.

 Data Protection: Implement data protection measures to safeguard customer information.

 Compliance: Ensure compliance with regulations like GDPR.

9. Testing

 Functionality Testing: Test all features and functionalities to ensure they work correctly.

 Usability Testing: Conduct usability tests to identify and fix any user experience issues.

 Performance Testing: Test the website’s performance under different conditions (load
testing).

10. Launch

 Soft Launch: Launch the website to a small audience to gather initial feedback and fix any
issues.

 Full Launch: Announce the official launch of the website to the public.

11. Post-Launch Activities

 Marketing and Promotion: Use digital marketing strategies like SEO, PPC, email marketing,
and social media to attract visitors.

 Analytics and Monitoring: Use tools like Google Analytics to monitor website performance
and user behavior.
 Continuous Improvement: Regularly update the website with new features, products, and
improvements based on feedback and analytics.
Q5(a) difference between Traditional commerce and ecommerce ?

Q5(b) What are some Essential integration for building an successful ecommerce website?

Building a successful e-commerce website requires integrating several essential components to

enhance functionality, improve user experience, and ensure smooth operations. Here are some key
integrations to consider:
1. Payment Gateway Integration

 Description: Secure platforms for processing online payments.

 Examples: PayPal, Stripe, Square, Apple Pay.

 Benefits: Allows customers to make payments seamlessly and securely.

2. Shopping Cart Integration

 Description: Manages products selected by customers for purchase.

 Examples: WooCommerce, Magento, Shopify Cart.

 Benefits: Facilitates adding, removing, and updating items in the cart, and calculates totals.

3. Inventory Management System

 Description: Tracks product stock levels and manages inventory.

 Examples: TradeGecko, Odoo, Zoho Inventory.

 Benefits: Prevents overselling, ensures stock availability, and helps with restocking.

4. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Integration

 Description: Manages interactions with current and potential customers.

 Examples: Salesforce, HubSpot, Zoho CRM.

 Benefits: Enhances customer service, tracks customer interactions, and improves marketing
strategies.

5. Email Marketing Integration

 Description: Automates email campaigns and manages subscriber lists.

 Examples: Mailchimp, SendinBlue, Klaviyo.

 Benefits: Boosts customer engagement, drives repeat sales, and nurtures leads.

6. Analytics and Reporting Tools

 Description: Tracks website performance, user behavior, and sales data.

 Examples: Google Analytics, Hotjar, Crazy Egg.

 Benefits: Provides insights into customer behavior, helps optimize the website, and measures
ROI.

7. SEO Tools

 Description: Enhances website visibility on search engines.

 Examples: Ahrefs, SEMrush, Yoast SEO.

 Benefits: Improves search engine rankings, drives organic traffic, and increases sales.

8. Social Media Integration

 Description: Connects e-commerce sites with social media platforms.

  Examples: Facebook Shop, Instagram Shopping, Pinterest.

 Benefits: Expands reach, engages customers, and drives traffic from social media.

9. Content Management System (CMS)

 Description: Manages website content and updates.

 Examples: WordPress, Joomla, Drupal.

 Benefits: Simplifies content creation, editing, and publishing.

10. Customer Support Tools

 Description: Provides customer service through chatbots, live chat, and ticketing systems.

 Examples: Zendesk, Intercom, LiveChat.

 Benefits: Enhances customer support, resolves issues quickly, and improves customer
satisfaction.

11. Security Solutions

 Description: Ensures website security and protects customer data.

 Examples: SSL Certificates, Norton Security, McAfee Secure.

 Benefits: Builds customer trust, prevents data breaches, and complies with regulations.

12. Shipping and Fulfillment Integration

 Description: Manages shipping options, rates, and order fulfillment.

 Examples: ShipStation, Easyship, FedEx.

 Benefits: Streamlines shipping processes, provides real-time tracking, and reduces shipping
costs.

13. Review and Rating System

 Description: Allows customers to leave reviews and ratings for products.

 Examples: Trustpilot, Yotpo, Bazaarvoice.

 Benefits: Builds trust, influences purchasing decisions, and provides social proof.

Sessional 2
Q1 What is M-Commerce and its feature with its advantages and disadvantages

What is M-Commerce?

M-Commerce (Mobile Commerce) refers to the buying and selling of goods and services through
mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. It is a subset of e-commerce that leverages the
convenience and accessibility of mobile technology to facilitate online transactions.

Features of M-Commerce
 1. Mobile-Friendly Websites and Apps:

o Optimized for smaller screens and touch interfaces, providing a seamless user
experience on mobile devices.

2. Mobile Payment Systems:

o Integration of mobile payment solutions such as mobile wallets (Apple Pay, Google
Pay), QR code payments, and carrier billing.

3. Location-Based Services:

o Utilizes GPS and location data to provide personalized offers, navigation, and local
deals.

4. Push Notifications:

o Sends real-time updates and alerts to users about promotions, order status, and
personalized offers.

5. Mobile-Specific Features:

o Includes functionalities like fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, and voice

search to enhance user experience.

6. Augmented Reality (AR):

o Enables users to visualize products in their real environment using their mobile
device's camera.

7. One-Click Purchases:

o Simplifies the checkout process, allowing users to make purchases with a single tap.

Advantages of M-Commerce

1. Convenience:

o Allows users to shop anytime, anywhere, providing unparalleled convenience.

2. Personalization:

o Offers personalized shopping experiences based on user preferences and behaviors.

3. Enhanced User Engagement:

o Mobile apps and push notifications keep users engaged and informed about new
offers and updates.

4. Faster Transactions:

o Simplified payment processes enable quicker transactions compared to traditional e-

commerce.

5. Location-Based Services:

o Provides relevant local offers and services, enhancing the shopping experience.

6. Increased Reach:
 o Expands market reach to a growing number of mobile users, especially in regions
with high mobile penetration.

Disadvantages of M-Commerce

1. Security Concerns:

o Mobile devices are susceptible to security threats such as hacking, malware, and
data breaches.

2. Limited Screen Size:

o Smaller screens can limit the amount of information displayed, potentially impacting
the shopping experience.

3. Dependence on Internet Connectivity:

o Requires a stable internet connection, which may not always be available, especially
in remote areas.

4. Technical Issues:

o Mobile apps and websites may encounter compatibility issues across different
devices and operating systems.

5. User Privacy:

o Collecting and using location and personal data raises privacy concerns and requires
compliance with regulations.

Q2 Explain the different electronic payment briefly?

Credit and Debit Cards

 Description: Plastic cards issued by banks that allow consumers to pay for goods and
services.

 Credit Cards: Allow users to borrow funds up to a certain limit to make purchases.

 Debit Cards: Deduct funds directly from the user's bank account.

 Examples: Visa, MasterCard, American Express.

2. Electronic Wallets (e-Wallets)

 Description: Digital wallets that store payment information and funds, enabling quick online
and in-store transactions.

 Features: Can store multiple cards, bank accounts, and even loyalty cards.

 Examples: PayPal, Apple Pay, Google Pay.

3. Bank Transfers (Electronic Funds Transfer - EFT)

 Description: Direct transfer of funds from one bank account to another.

 Features: Can be done through online banking, mobile apps, or at the bank.

 Examples: ACH (Automated Clearing House) transfers, wire transfers.

4. Mobile Payments

 Description: Payments made using mobile devices, often through apps or mobile wallets.

 Features: Can include NFC (Near Field Communication) payments, QR code payments, and
SMS payments.

 Examples: Venmo, Samsung Pay, WeChat Pay.

5. Cryptocurrency

 Description: Digital or virtual currency that uses cryptography for security.

 Features: Decentralized and operates on blockchain technology.

 Examples: Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin.

6. Online Payment Gateways

 Description: Services that facilitate online transactions between merchants and customers.

 Features: Handle the authorization and processing of credit card and e-wallet payments.

 Examples: Stripe, Square, Authorize.Net.

7. Buy Now, Pay Later (BNPL)

 Description: Services that allow customers to purchase goods and pay for them in
installments over time.

 Features: Often interest-free if paid within the agreed period.

 Examples: Afterpay, Klarna, Affirm.

8. Direct Carrier Billing

 Description: Allows users to make purchases and charge them directly to their mobile phone
bill.

 Features: No need for credit cards or bank accounts.

 Examples: Used for digital content like apps, games, and music.

9. Contactless Payments

 Description: Payments made by tapping a card or mobile device near a point-of-sale terminal
equipped with NFC technology.

 Features: Fast and convenient for small transactions.

 Examples: Contactless credit/debit cards, Apple Pay, Google Pay.

Q3 What are different E-business risk management issues?

E-business risk management involves identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks associated with
conducting business online. Here are some common risk management issues in e-business:

1. Security Breaches
  Description: Unauthorized access to sensitive data, such as customer information, payment
details, and business secrets.

 Mitigation: Implement robust security measures like SSL certificates, firewalls, and regular
security audits.

2. Fraudulent Transactions

 Description: Unauthorized or fake transactions that can lead to financial losses.

 Mitigation: Use fraud detection tools, verify transactions, and monitor for suspicious
activities.

3. Data Privacy Issues

 Description: Risks related to the collection, storage, and use of personal data.

 Mitigation: Comply with data protection regulations (e.g., GDPR), encrypt sensitive data, and
obtain user consent.

4. Website Downtime

 Description: Unplanned outages that can disrupt business operations and lead to loss of
sales.

 Mitigation: Use reliable hosting services, implement backup systems, and conduct regular
maintenance.

5. Intellectual Property Violation

 Description: Unauthorized use or theft of intellectual property, such as trademarks,

copyrights, and patents.

 Mitigation: Register intellectual property rights, monitor for infringements, and take legal
action when necessary.

6. Refunds and Chargebacks

 Description: Customer requests for refunds or chargebacks due to issues like defective
products or incorrect orders.

 Mitigation: Implement clear refund policies, provide excellent customer service, and use
dispute resolution services.

7. Low SEO Ranking

 Description: Poor visibility in search engine results, leading to reduced traffic and sales.

 Mitigation: Optimize website content for SEO, use relevant keywords, and create quality
backlinks.

8. DDoS Attacks

 Description: Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks that overwhelm the website with
traffic, causing it to crash.

 Mitigation: Use DDoS protection services, monitor traffic patterns, and have a response plan
in place.
9. Poor Customer Service

 Description: Inadequate support can lead to customer dissatisfaction and loss of business.

 Mitigation: Train customer service staff, provide multiple support channels, and implement a
robust CRM system.

10. Currency Exchange Risks

 Description: Fluctuations in currency exchange rates can affect pricing and profitability.

 Mitigation: Use hedging strategies, monitor exchange rates, and adjust pricing accordingly.

11. Inadequate Authentication Methods

 Description: Weak authentication processes can lead to unauthorized access.

 Mitigation: Implement multi-factor authentication, strong password policies, and regular

security updates.

12. Customer Expectations

 Description: Meeting high customer expectations for fast delivery, product quality, and
service.

 Mitigation: Set realistic expectations, communicate clearly, and strive for continuous
improvement.

Q4(a) Difference between M-commerce and E-commerce ?

Q4(b) Explain network security and website security?

Network Security

Network security involves measures and protocols put in place to protect the integrity,
confidentiality, and accessibility of computer networks and data. It encompasses various
technologies, devices, and processes designed to safeguard network infrastructure from
unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification, destruction, or improper disclosure. Here
are some key aspects:

1. Firewalls:
o Description: Network security devices that monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.

o Function: Acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted

external networks, such as the internet.

2. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) and Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS):

 o Description: Devices or software applications that monitor network traffic for
malicious activity or policy violations.

o Function: IDS detects and alerts administrators, while IPS takes action to block or
prevent the malicious activity.

3. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs):

o Description: Secure connections over the internet that encrypt data between the
user and the network.

o Function: Provides remote users with secure access to the organization's network.

4. Encryption:

o Description: Process of converting data into a code to prevent unauthorized access.

o Function: Ensures that data transmitted over the network is protected from
eavesdropping and tampering.

5. Access Control:

o Description: Mechanisms that restrict access to network resources based on

policies.

o Function: Ensures only authorized users can access specific data and applications.

6. Antivirus and Anti-malware Software:

o Description: Programs designed to detect, prevent, and remove malicious software.

o Function: Protects the network from viruses, malware, and other malicious threats.

Website Security

Website security focuses on protecting websites from various cyber threats, ensuring that the
website and its data are safe from unauthorized access and attacks. This includes measures to
protect the website’s integrity, availability, and confidentiality. Key aspects include:

1. SSL/TLS Certificates:

o Description: Digital certificates that encrypt data transmitted between the user's
browser and the web server.

o Function: Ensures secure communication and protects sensitive information like

login credentials and payment details.

2. Web Application Firewalls (WAFs):

o Description: Security devices that filter and monitor HTTP traffic between a web
application and the internet.

o Function: Protects web applications from common attacks such as SQL injection and
cross-site scripting (XSS).

3. Secure Coding Practices:

 o Description: Development practices that follow security guidelines to prevent
vulnerabilities in the code.

o Function: Reduces the risk of security flaws and exploits in web applications.

4. Content Management System (CMS) Security:

o Description: Security measures specific to CMS platforms like WordPress, Joomla,

and Drupal.

o Function: Includes regular updates, secure plugins, and strong authentication to

protect the website.

5. Regular Updates and Patching:

o Description: Applying security patches and updates to software and plugins.

o Function: Fixes known vulnerabilities and protects against new threats.

6. Authentication and Authorization:

o Description: Mechanisms to verify user identities and control access to resources.

o Function: Ensures that only authorized users can access specific parts of the website.

7. Backup and Disaster Recovery:

o Description: Regularly backing up website data and having a recovery plan in place.

o Function: Ensures data can be restored in case of a breach or data loss.

8. DDoS Protection:

o Description: Measures to protect against Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)

attacks.

o Function: Prevents attackers from overwhelming the website with traffic, ensuring
availability.

Q5 Explain at least 10 different attacks on e commerce site?

1. Phishing Attacks

 Description: Fraudsters send emails or messages pretending to be from a legitimate source

to steal sensitive information like login credentials or credit card details.
 Example: Fake emails from a well-known retailer asking users to update their account
information.

2. SQL Injection (SQLi)

 Description: Attackers insert malicious SQL code into web forms to manipulate the database
and access sensitive data.

 Example: Injecting code into a login form to bypass authentication and gain unauthorized
access.

3. Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)

  Description: Malicious scripts are injected into web pages viewed by other users, allowing
attackers to steal information or hijack sessions.

 Example: Injecting a script into a product review section to steal user cookies.

4. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks

 Description: Overwhelming the website with traffic to make it unavailable to users.

 Example: Flooding the server with requests, causing it to crash or slow down significantly.

5. E-skimming (Magecart Attacks)

 Description: Attackers inject malicious code into e-commerce websites to steal credit card
information during transactions.

 Example: Inserting code into the payment page to capture card details as they are entered.

6. Brute Force Attacks

 Description: Automated attempts to guess passwords by trying many combinations until the
correct one is found.

 Example: Using software to repeatedly try different passwords for a user account.

7. Account Takeover (ATO) Attacks

 Description: Attackers gain unauthorized access to user accounts to make fraudulent

purchases or steal personal information.

 Example: Using stolen login credentials to access a customer's account and make
unauthorized transactions.

8. Malware and Ransomware Attacks

 Description: Malicious software is installed to disrupt operations, steal data, or demand

ransom for data release.

 Example: Encrypting a website's data and demanding payment for the decryption key.

9. Bad Bots

 Description: Automated programs that perform malicious tasks such as scraping content,
spamming forms, or launching DDoS attacks.

 Example: Bots that automatically fill out forms with spam links or scrape product
information.

10. Backdoor Attacks

 Description: Attackers install malware to create a hidden entry point into the system,
allowing them to access it later.

 Example