What is technical writing?

It is a category of technical communication that includes documenting, sharing, interpreting and

publishing specialized medical, scientific, biological, technological, organizational, and professional
information. It means that any information that is related to a particular field, as mentioned above, along
its technicalities in written form is called technical writing. A technical writing shares information of any
particular field, like: science, medical, technology, profession etc. it is called technical writing because
technical terms related to these fields are used in this form of writing. For example, people related to
medical field will definitely use medical related terms in their communication with people from the same
field, similarly, people from computer field will use terms related to computer when they communicate
with their colleagues etc.

Wikipedia defines it as: any written form of technical communication used in a variety of technical and
occupational fields, such as computer
hardware and software, engineering, chemistry, aeronautics, robotics, finance, consumer electronics, and
biotechnology.
The Society for Technical Communication defines technical communication as any form of
communication that exhibits one or more of the following characteristics: “(1) communicating about
technical or specialized topics, such as computer applications, medical procedures, or environmental
regulations; (2) communicating through technology, such as web pages, help files, or social media sites;
or (3) providing instructions about how to do something, regardless of the task's technical
nature”.[1] Therefore, technical writing is any writing that exhibits any of these characteristics.
Technical writing is performed by a technical writer and is the process of writing and sharing
information in a professional setting.[2] A technical writer’s main task is to convey information to another
person or party in the most clear and effective manner possible.[2] The information that technical writers
convey is often complex, and it is one of their main tasks to analyze the information and present it in a
format that is easy to read and understand.[3] A good technical writer needs strong writing and
communication skills and must be proficient with computers, as technical writers do not just convey
information through text.

Features/characteristics of technical writing:

There are some features which distinguish technical writing from other forms of writing. Some them are
the following.

 Simple language is used. A type of language that would be easily understood by the readers.
 Specialized vocabulary is used. In such writing special vocabulary and terns are used related to
the field. Like medical terms, names of diseases, medicine, and formulas are used by medical
related people.
 Direct language is used. It means that idiomatic or proverbial expressions are not used in this type
of writing because using idioms may make the meaning ambiguous or difficult.
 Headings are also used in technical writing.
 Proper punctuation are use, because misuse of punctuation may change or disturb the meaning.

Business writing:
Business writing is a genre of writing designed to present the most salient points of a given topic in the
most concise and possible easy method.

It is also defined as the form of communication that takes place in written form for business purposes. It
includes memorandum writing, letter writing, letter writing, proposal writing, report writing, etc.it means
that this is the type of communication that is carried in written form for business purposes within an
organization or between organization. An organization may write to its employees, or customers, or an
organization may write to another organization.

Features of business writing:

 It should be concise and to the point. Extra and irrelevant detail should not be given because
business people do not have spare time to read unnecessary detail. Only the required message
should be conveyed.
 Parallelism should be there. It means that the message should be written in a proper sequence so
that reader’s expectation or predictions are not broken.
 Formal language is used. In business writing formal and sophisticated language is used.
 Idiomatic expressions are not used in business writing.
 Abbreviations are not used in business writing.

Paragraph writing:

A short part of a text, consisting of at least one sentence and beginning on a new line. It usually
deals with a single event, description, idea, etc.

A paragraph is a group of sentences that deals with a single topic or point.

Parts of paragraph:

There are three basic parts of a paragraph.

 Topic sentence: A sentence that introduces the topic of the paragraph. It is a sentence that
predicts the point that is going to be discussed in that paragraph. It is usually placed in the
start/beginning of paragraph, though, it may be placed in the middle but that is usually placed by
professional writers. Usually the first sentence introduces the topic.
 Supporting sentences: these are sentences or a sentence which explain the topic sentence. These
are some sentences which give further information and explanation about the topic sentence. In a
sense, it elaborates the topic of a paragraph through facts, evidences, examples and explanations.
 Concluding sentence: it is usually the final or ending sentence that concludes or summarizes a
paragraph. More often, it is the topic sentence that is repeated in a modified way or in different
words.

Check list of paragraph’s features:

 Indent the first sentence five spaces.

 Begin with a topic sentence, for your introduction, to capture audience’s attention, state your
topic and show your attitude towards it.
  Develop and support your topic through several details, facts, examples, etc.
 End your paragraph with a concluding statement to summarize the detail, restate the main idea
and encourage your audience to think about what you have written.
 Present only one main idea per paragraph.
 Appropriate to be covered in one paragraph.
 The language should be appropriate for the intended audience.
 A paragraph must clarify, back up, explain or demonstrate your main idea by providing specific
facts, details, or examples.

PRINCIPALS OF PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE:

 Unity:
 Coherence/order
 Length
 Variety

Unity: each sentence within a paragraph should relate to the topic and develop the controlling idea or
main idea. If any sentence does not relate to or support the main idea it is irrelevant and should be omitted
from the paragraph. Every sentence in a paragraph must be closely connected with main topic of the
paragraph.

Coherence/order: coherence means a logical order or sequence and connection between ideas or
thoughts. Coherent paragraph contains sentences which are logically arranged and follow smoothly. It
refers to the order of your sentences and ideas. Events must be related in the order of their occurrence and
all ideas should be connected with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance or order.

Length: a paragraph neither be too long nor too short. A balance must be maintained according to the
nature of the topic. A short paragraph may not fully explain the idea and a lengthy one may either distract
from the main idea or may give a feeling of lengthy and heavy reading. Normally a paragraph consists of
seven to ten lines, but it may be lengthier or shorter depends upon the topic. A paragraph can even be a
single sentence.

Variety: a forth principle of paragraph construction is variety: which means avoid monotony. A
paragraph in a composition should be of different length, different structured sentences should be use, like
complex, simple, or compound. It may not include only simple sentences or only complex rather it would
be a combination of different types of sentences.

TYPES OF PARAGRAPH:

There are some types of paragraph that depend upon the function and pupose of writing. Basic types
of a paragraph are the following:

 Narrative Paragraph: A paragraph that tells a story. This type of paragraph tells a story or
relays an event in the sequence it occurred. This type of paragraph involves a single
experience or presenting a series of events that tell a story. Many short stories, novels, films,
 etc. are written in the form of narration. A new narrative paragraph begins where there is a
change in time, place, activity or speaker.

Sample Narrative Paragraph: last time I saw a rainbow occurred when I was on vacation. It
had been very hot all day and in the late afternoon a severe storm hit our area. After a steady
stream of rain poured out the sky, the sun came out. The next thing I saw in the sky was a
beautiful rainbow. It reminded me how marvelous nature’s beauty really is and made me think of
fairytales I remember as a child. I wonder if anyone has ever found a pot of gold at the end of a
rainbow. Rainbows are truly astounding, but finding gold would be glorious!

Comments on narration:
 Normally chronological (though sometimes uses flashbacks)
 A sequential presentation of events that add up to a story.
 A narrative differs from a mere listing of events. Narration usually contains characters, a setting,
a conflict, and a resolution. Time and place and person are normally established. In this
paragraph, the "story" components are: a protagonist (Hanson), a setting (the park), a goal (to
camp), an obstacle (nature), a climax (his panic), and a resolution (leaving).
 Specific details always help a story, but so does interpretive language. You don't just lay the
words on the page; you point them in the direction of a story.

 Persuasive paragraphs: persuasive paragraphs are used to share an opinion about a

particular subject. Writers of persuasive paragraphs try to convince readers to agree with the
opinions in the paragraphs and, sometimes, to take action. A persuasive paragraph often uses
order of importance.

Sample of Persuasive paragraph:

Teenagers should earn their own spending money. If teens work for their own money, rather than
have it given to them by parents, they may be more responsible in spending it. They will learn
the value of time, they value of each dollar, and the value of the items they purchase. Teens will
be less likely to make rash decisions because ultimately, they will have to deal with the financial
consequences of their choices. Each teenager should earn his/her own money because in the end,
it teaches the teen purchasing skills and responsibility.

 The Expository Paragraph: This type of paragraph explains something or provides

instruction. It could also describe a process and move the reader step by step through a
method. This type of paragraph often requires research, but it's possible that the writer is able
to rely on his or her own knowledge and expertise.

Sample of Expository Paragraph:

Rainbow comes out only in the rain or right after it rains because raindrops are responsible
for producing the colours. As you know, sunlight is composed of all the colours of the
rainbow and a drop of water acts as a prism and breaks up sunlight streaming through it into a
spectrum of many colours. Rainbow’s development begins when sunlight enters the front of a
raindrop, gets bent, and is separated into many colours. The colours bounce off the back of
the drop and are bent again, existing through the front. So out of white light comes colour.
The colour created depends on what angle the light exits the drop.
 Definition Paragraph: this is a paragraph that defines an object, introduces a person or,
place or an event etc.
Sample of Definition paragraph
"Park" is difficult to define in Florida, because there are so many kinds of parks. Basically, a
park is a place to go for outdoor recreation-to swim, picnic, hike, camp, walk the dog, play
tennis, paddle your canoe, and, in some places take rides in miniature trains or swish down a
waterslide. Florida has a rich variety of parks, ranging from acres of RVs ringed around
recreation halls, to impenetrable mangrove wilderness. To make things more complicated, not
all of them are called "parks," and even the ones called "parks" come in several varieties.

 The descriptive paragraph: This type of paragraph describes something and shows the
reader what a thing or a person look like. The words chosen in the description often appeal to
the five senses of touch, smell, sight, sound, and taste. It usually describes the appearance of
an object, place or a person.

Sample of Descriptive Paragraph:

O'Leno is a good example of a state park in Florida. Surrounded by the tall, shaded woods of
a beautiful hardwood forest, the Santa Fe River disappears in a large, slowly swirling, tree-
lined pool. After appearing intermittently in scattered sinkholes, the river rises three miles
downstream in a big boil, then continues on to meet the Suwannee and the sea. Nearby,
stands of cypress mirror themselves in the still waters, walls of dense river swamp rise before
you; sudden sinkholes open in the woodlands-rich with cool ferns and mosses. Farther from
the river, expanses of longleaf pinelands stretch across rolling hills. In the midst of this lovely
setting, you find 65 campsites, 18 rustic cabins, and a pavilion for group meetings. A diving
platform marks a good place to swim in the soft, cool waters of the Santa Fe, and canoeing up
this dark river is like traveling backwards in time in the direction of original Florida.

 Process Paragraph: A paragraph that tells about a step by step process of a machine, a
factory, a task, a procedure, etc. this type of paragraph talks about a sequential process. We
may take example of different plants, or machines; that how those plants work step by step in
a proper process.

Sample Process Paragraph:

All toilet flush tanks work about the same. When the toilet is flushed, the trip handle lifts the
tank ball, opening the outlet and letting water flow into the bowl. When the tank is nearly
empty, the ball falls back in place over the outlet. The float falls with the water level, opening
the water-supply inlet valve just as the outlet is being closed, and the tank is refilled through
the filler tube. Water also flows through the bowl refill tube into the overflow pipe to
replenish trap-sealing water. As the water level in the tank nears the top of the overflow pipe,
the float closes the inlet valve, completing the cycle.
What is Letter?

Collins English dictionary defines letter as, “It is a written or printed communication addressed to a
person or company, etc. usually sent by post in an envelope.”

Advance learner English dictionary defines it as, “a written message from one person to another, usually
put in an envelope and sent by post.

Types of Letter:

There are two main types of letter: Formal and informal.

 Informal or Personal Letter

Informal or personal letter: it is a type of letter that is written to a person whom we know on personal
bases, like: brother. Sister, parents, friends, and cousins, etc. it is called informal because of its structure,
like no formal format is followed in this type of letter, and because of its language, as informal language
is used in this type of letter. It is called personal letter because it is usually addressed to a person whom
we would have got personal relationship. It expresses our personal issues and problems that is also a
reason of calling it personal letter.

Features of Informal Letter:

There are some characteristics which distinguish informal letter from that of formal letter. Like:

 No strict rules, regarding the format and structure, are followed in informal letter.
 It usually talks about personal issues or matters.
 It is a correspondence b/w people who feel free and safe with each other.
 It is written in informal tone and style.
 Colloquial or conversational language is used in informal letter.
 Short phrases and simple sentences are used, like: cheers, hi, regards, lots of love, hi buddy, etc.
 Idiomatic expressions or idioms are used.
 Contraction and abbreviations are used, like I’ve, I’m, ain’t, etc.
 Personal pronouns are often omitted/skipped out.

Parts of informal letter: there are five basic parts of an informal letter.

 Heading: Heading is sender’s address followed by date that is written usually to the upper
right corner of the page. Sender does not mention his/her name in heading. It starts from
small component of address to the bigger, like home, then town or village, city, district, etc.
followed by the date in a separate line. Date is not written like, 02/08/2014, rather it is written
Aug o2, 2014 by American and 02 Aug 2014 by British.
 Salutation: salutation is an informal phrase followed by a comma by British and a colon by
American. It is written a line below the heading to the left margin of the page. Phrases like:
Dear brother, Dear mother, Dear friend, Dear Ali, hi, hello, Hi buddy, Hi lovely, etc. are used
in formal letters.
 Dear brother, =British
Dear brother: = American
 Body of Letter: It is the message that is conveyed through the letter. It may be written in one or
more paragraphs, depends upon the contents of message. The first line of each paragraph is
indented five spaces in informal letters.
 Complementary Close: it is a phrase that expresses a good bye to the receiver. This is usually a
short phrase (informal usually) followed by a comma that can either be put either to the left
margin of the page of to the right of the center of page one line below the body of letter. Phrases
like: Best wishes, you loving son, your loving bro, your love, your buddy, etc.
 The Signature: Signature is the part of the letter where you sign your name. You may sign with
your first name only, if the person receiving the letter would recognize you from just your first
name. Otherwise, use your full name. Sign your name beneath he closing; the first letter of your
name should line up with the first letter of the complementary close.

Heading/sender’s address
Date
Salutation,
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------Body of Letter---------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------.
Complementary Close,

Signature/Name of sender
Types of Personal Letter:

There are certain types of personal or informal letter which depends upon the function or aim of writing
them. Some basic types are as follows:

 Letter of Condolence: a letter that is written to sympathize with someone. It expresses one’s
sympathies.
Sample of Letter of Condolence:

RR 4, Site 23, Box 19

Chipman, NB E7N 3T6
July 25, 2014
Dear Jack,
I heard only yesterday about Patty’s accident. I want to
express my deep sympathy to you and your family on her
death. There is no way that I can say in words how I feel, but
I hope you know how shocked and sad I was when I heard the
news. Patty was a very good friend, and I will never forget
her. She was a generous woman who was always there for me.
I will miss her very much, as will all of us here who knew her.

Sincerely,
Lucy

 Letter of Congratulation: A letter that is written to congratulate someone for an achievement or

any other event etc.
 Letter of Thanks: A letter that is written to thank someone for helping you, or giving any favour
etc. it can either be formal or informal, depends upon the person addressed.
 Letter of Regret/Apology: A letter that expresses one’s regret or repentance for a mistake, guilt,
or any other inconvenience one would have caused to someone else.

LETTERS OF APOLOGY
- A letter of apology can be either formal or informal. It can be written when someone has made a
mistake, has failed to perform a duty or is not able to fulfill a promise.
- The main body contains reasons for the inconvenience caused.
- In the final paragraph you can express your hope to improve the situation or promise to make up for any
problems that have been caused.
Introduction
Paragraph 1 - reason for writing Sample of Letter of Apology:
Main Body
Paragraphs 2-3 - reasons to explain the inconvenience caused
Conclusion 25 Albion Road
Final Paragraph - express understanding/regret or promise Moncton, NB E2C 3Y9
to make up for the situation 26th April 2003
Closing remarks
Full name Dear Sylvia,
Useful Language for Letters of Apology Thank you so much for thinking of us and
Opening Remarks: inviting us to be part of Mark and Emma’s special day.
Unfortunately, we will not be able to come because our
Informal daughter, Moira, is graduating from Mount Allison
- I hope you will understand when I say that... University in Sackville that weekend. You can’t believe
- What can I say, except I'm sorry that... how disappointed we are that we will miss the fun with
- I'm sorry for... all our old friends. We do, however, want to be part of
- I owe you an apology... the donation you mentioned,
so I have enclosed a cheque for you to add to the pot.
- I'm so sorry if I upset you in any way... Thanks again for including us. Please tell Mark and
- I can't describe how sorry I am and how guilty I feel... Emma that we will definitely make time to visit
Closing Remarks: them later in the summer.
Informal Love,
- I hope you believe me when I say how sorry I am... Anna and Frank
- I can't tell you how sorry I am...
- I beg you to forgive me for...
- There is no excuse for ... and I hope you'll forgive me...

 Letter of Invitation: it can be in formal or informal form. It is informal when one invites friends,
cousins, or any other family member. It can be formal when a teacher, an officer, or an authority
is invited.
 LETTERS OF INVITATION
- Letters of invitation can be formal or informal depending on the situation and who we are writing to.
They usually contain some additional information, for example: latest news, description of the event
(party, wedding, etc.) place (hotel, house, etc.) and/or directions to the place.
Introduction
Paragraph 1- reason(s) for writing (to invite) 25 Albion Road
Main Body Moncton, NB E2C 3Y9
Paragraphs2-3- details, directions, 26th April 2003
information of event, etc.
Conclusion Dear Anna and Frank,
Final Paragraph - closing remarks Next month on May 26, Mom and Dad are
Full name celebrating their 50th wedding anniversary. We’ve
planned a homecoming weekend and invited family and
Useful Language for Letters of Invitation friends. We’d like you to be part of the celebration
Opening Remarks: because we know how close you were to them during
the time that you lived in Thamesville.
Informal We’re really hoping you can make it possible to join
- I'm writing to invite you to... us.
- I'd love it if you could come to...
- We're organizing a ... and would love it if you Affectionately,
could come
Ali
Closing Remarks:
Informal
- I hope you'll be able to make it...
- Hope you can come
- Looking forward to seeing you then
- Please let me know as soon as possible
Direction may be given in the following ways:
- In case you don't know the way...
- I'll give you some directions...
- I have included some directions...
 Friendly Letter: A letter that is written between friends where they share there matters with one
another.
Sample of Friendly Letter:

21 Price Street
Perth, Alberta
T1J 3X8
June 10, 2014

Dear Jill,
I was very happy to hear from you so soon. The
pictures that you included from Florida made me jealous!
Here, it has been like winter all the month of May. As you
may have noticed from my address, I have big news for
you! On May 28th, I joined the Welder's Union and within
three days they assigned me to a project in Perth, Alberta.
The address above is where I now live. Things certainly
change fast! So far, I like the job. I have heard rumours
that we may be sent to the Yukon to work on contract.
While I am not thrilled about the climate there, I would
make much more money.

The only other item of news lately is that my sister, Linda,

is getting married thissummer. You will be receiving a
wedding invitation. She hasn't even made her mind up.

Your friend,

John
  Letter of Advice: ASKING FOR/GIVING ADVICE
Letters asking for or giving advice can be formal, informal or semi-formal depending on the situation.
A letter asking for advice can be sent to a friend, a consultant or an advice column in a magazine. Details
of the problem should be mentioned. A letter giving advice should contain suggestions introduced with
appropriate language.
Asking for Advice
Introduction Sample Letter of Advice:
Paragraph 1 - reason(s) for writing
Main Body House # 03
Paragraphs 2-3 - description of problem(s) Street # 20
Conclusion Phase 07
Final Paragraph - closing remarks Hayatabad
Full name Peshawar.
Dear bro,
Useful Language for Letters Asking for Advice I‘m quite happy that you have got
Opening Remarks:
admission at Agricultural University Peshawar. It’s
been a well reputed institution in our province.
Informal
- I'm writing to ask for your advice You’d have great time there.
- Can you give me your advice As you know I’ve been graduated from
- I've got a problem and I need your advice there I’ve seen some students having been away
from their homes forget their real purpose of
Closing Remarks: coming into university and get distracted. Usually,
Informal they take part in political foundation, or other
- What do you think I should do? gangs etc. they waste their time in useless
- Please let me know what you think I should do activities instead of studying. Therefore, my bro
- Please tell me what to do you’ve to be very careful in this regard. Try to stick
to your purpose. Think of your future and stay
away from such activities. I hope you’ll understand
me.

Your bhaijan,
Ali
  Formal or Business Letter:

It is a formal way of communication through written form between two or more parties. It is used when
writing to companies, institutions and people you do not know. Make a good impression and stick to the
rules. There are many different uses and business letters. Business letters can be informational,
persuasive, motivational, or professional.

 It called formal letter because of its format and language. It is written in proper acceptable format
(block or semi block format) and the language used in such letter is highly sophisticated and
formal.
 It is called business letter because of its function. It is usually used for business purposes within
an organization, between organizations, or between organization and its customers.

 Importance of Business letter:

 It is a formal and sophisticated way of communication.

 Letters provide a permanent, written record.
 Letters are like written promises and clearly indicate who is responsible.
 Letters allow busy people to send and receive information when it is convenient for them.
 Letters allow time to think about and research a topic or situation before writing or responding.
 Letters allow the reader the chance to reread and review complicated material as often as
necessary.
 Letters constitute official record of an organization.

 Features of Formal or Business Letter:

 It should be short, concise, and to the point.

 It should be perfect in spelling, grammar, structure, format, and in the use of words.
 Substance straight to the point, no waffling.
 It should be clear and courteous.
 Formal style as a sign of respect.
 Neutral and formal language is used.
 Careful choice of vocabulary.
 Use of abbreviation and contraction should be avoided. Full forms are used (‘cannot’ or ‘does
not’).
 Passive voice structures are frequently used.
 It is usually written in three paragraphs, first paragraph mentions the reason of writing, second
paragraph explains the subject matter of the letter, and the third paragraph sums up or concludes
the subject matter or demand or the action you want in a polite manner.
Formats of Formal or Business Letter:
There are three common formats used for writing formal letters.
 Full Block Format: it is the type of format where the heading, date, inside address,
complementary close, the signature and name of the sender are written to the left margin of the
page. It is very common these days.

Heading

Date

Inside
address

Salutation
_______________________________________________________
,
_______________________________________________________
__________body of letter ___ ________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
__________________________________.

Complementary close,

Signature of sender

Name of Sender
  Semi Block format/ Block Format: It is the format where the heading , date, complementary
close, signature and name of the sender are put to the right of the center. It was a common format
few years back.

Heading

Date

Inside
address

Salutation
,
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_________body of letter ___ ________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
__________________________________.

Complementary close,

Signature of sender

Name of Sender

Modified Block Format: It is the same as semi block format except the first line of paragraph. The first
line of each paragraph is indented five spaces in modified block format and the rest of structures follows
the semi block forma
Parts of Formal or Business Letter:
 Address of Sender/ Heading
 Date line
 Inside address/ Receiver’s address
 Subject Line (optional)
 Salutation
 Text of the letter (body)
 Complementary close
 Signature
 Enclosure(s) line

 Heading/ Sender’s address: A business letter must have a heading. On the first line, write your
apartment number, postal box, rural route number, and your street address1 (whatever applies to
your address). The second line gives your city, town, or village, and the province name, and
postal code2. On the third line, write the month, the day and the year you are writing the letter.
Never write your name as part of the heading of a letter.
Note: Heading is only written when the letter is written on a blank page, if it is written on official
pad of an organization having a letter head then heading/sender’s address is not written because
the letter head already contains contact information of that organization.

 Date: date is written leaving a line below the heading.

April 25, 2014= American Style
25th April 2014+ British Style

 Inside Address/ Receiver’s address:

The address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient, their title and
company name, if you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to either leave it blank, but
try to put in a title, i.e."Director of Human Resources" .Skip a line between the date and the inside
address.

 Subject Line (optional): it can be a sentence or a phrase that expresses the subject matter of the
letter. Subject line makes it easier for the recipient to find out what the letter is about. Skip a line
between the subject line and salutation.

 Body of Letter: The body of the letter is, of course, what the letter is all about. It begins two
spaces below the salutation. You should single space within paragraphs and double space
between them. The body of many business letters contains three paragraphs (although they don’t
all have to have five sentences). The first paragraph should state the problem or situation clearly.
The second paragraph should explain in specific detail the reason for writing. The third and final
paragraph should make a specific request for action and close with courtesy.

 Complementary Close:
Let's ther eader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely,
Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing and
only the first word in the closing is capitalized.

 Printed Name/Name of Seneder:

The printed version of your name, and if desired you can put your title or position on the line
underneath it. Skip3-4 lines between the closing and the printed name, so that there is room for
the signature.
 Signature of Sender: the sender’s signature is put between the complementary close and the
printed name. it is usually signed in blue or black ink with a pen after the letter is printed.

 Enclosure:
If letter contains other document other than the letter itself your letter will include the word
"Enclosure." If there is more than one you would type, "Enclosures(#)" with the # being the
number of other documents enclosed that doesn't include the letter itself.

Types of Business or Formal Letter:

There are different types of formal or business letter which depend on their purpose of writing.
They differ from each other only in the use of language, because the language of each type differs
from others with respect to their purpose of writing. Some usual types are given here:

 Order Letter:
Many business letters are written to order goods from a supplier. The purpose is clear. The writer
wants to buy specific items. The audience requires clear information about the specific product,
the method of payment, and how and where they should be sent, and any deadlines that apply. In
any business letters, it is effective and acceptable to present some of the information in a
numbered list. This allows the recipient to use the letter as a checklist to make sure that he/she
has filled your order correctly planning your order letter is important so that you have all the
information you need at hand before you begin to write.

51 Pembroke Drive
Sussex, NB E4G 1A9
March 3, 1999

Charlotte Holt
Purchasing Department
Things and Stuff Inc.
1629 North Bernard Street
Mount Forest, Ontario
E0G 2A0

Dear Ms. Holt,

I recently received a copy of your New Millennium catalogue. I am interested in

purchasing the following items:
1 set of 4 coffee mugs ("Lefties Only"), item B013 $10.00
1 t-shirt, XL, blue, ("Left is Right"), item A123 $15.00
Tax $ 3.75
Postage and handling $ 4.00
TOTAL $32.75
I am enclosing a money order for $32.75. I need these items within six weeks. If you
are unable to deliver them before April 15, 1999, please contact me at (506) 548-9988.

Yours truly,
James Sanderson
James Sanderson
  LETTER OF APPLICATION
It is possible to avoid writing friendly letters. Telephoning a friend is always an attractive option.
However, some types of business letters cannot be avoided. One such business letter is the letter of
application. A letter o application may be written when we apply for a permanent/temporary job or
educational course. If you respond to an advertisement in the classified section of a newspaper, there
often is no telephone number given or application form to fill out. You are expected to respond in writing.
Even with an application form and a resumé, enclosing a cover letter is recommended. Many employers
base part of their hiring decision on the quality of the letters they receive.

In a letter of application, you are really promoting yourself and selling your skills. You want to
interest the audience (the reader) in your qualifications so that he/she will think you are right for the job.
The real purpose of a letter of application is to get a job interview. Only if you have an interview, will you
have the chance to meet face to face with the person who does the hiring and convince him/her that you
are the best candidate. Writing a good letter of application is, therefore, one of the most important letters
you will ever write. Use a modified block form if handwriting the letter and full block or block format if
typing or keyboarding the letter.

 In the first paragraph, say clearly which job you are applying for and how you found out that the
job was available. If you are including a resume, say so. Mention name of the post, source of
advertisement, day and date of advertisement.

 In the second paragraph, tell the reader about specific skills and work experience that relate
directly to the position the company is trying to fill. Mention your personal qualities which make
you suitable for the job or course. You might mention that you are a self-starter who works well
as a team member or that you have success dealing with the public. Focus on the skills and
abilities you can offer the company. Never say you want the job because you need the money.
The employer wants someone who will give something important to his business, not someone
who just takes a cheque.

 In the third and last paragraph, state the purpose of your letter and ask for an interview. Be sure to
thank the reader for looking at your letter and resume. Sometimes, a resume may not be
necessary. In this case, mention your education, work experience, school/community involvement
appropriate to the job and the names of two or three references. Do not go into great detail in the
letter. A list, or brief paragraph, outlining your background is sufficient. Remember, end the letter
by asking for an interview at the employer's convenience and be sure to provide a telephone
number where you can be reached.
The sample letter of application on the next page reads, Dear Sir or Madame, you should use this only as
a last resort. Find out the name and title of the recipient, even if it means a long distance call. Would you
hire someone who didn’t have the energy or initiative to find out who would read his/her letter of
application?
Useful Language:
 Opening Remarks:
- I am writing to apply for the post/job/position of/which I saw advertised in...
- I am writing with regard to your advertisement...
I am writing in response to your advertisement...
 Reference to experience:
- For the last/past year I have been working as... since/for
- I have had experience of...
- Two years ago I was employed as...
- I worked as... before...
 -I am holding a masters degree and two years experience in the field which best suit all the
essentials of the post and makes me an appropriate candidate for the post.
 Closing Remarks:
- I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience...
- Please contact me regarding any queries you may have...
- I enclose my CV and I would be glad to attend an interview at any time convenient to you...
- If you wish me to attend an interview, I am available
- It is requested to consider my application and recommend me for interview….

Sample Letter of Application:

45 Lawson Street
Saint John, NB E2K 5E5
September 2, 1999

Box 314
The Saint John Crier
1512 King Blvd.
Saint John, NB E2L 1J5

Dear Sir or Madam,

This letter is in reply to your advertisement in yesterday's Saint John Crier for a
secretary and office manager. Please consider my resume in your search.

As a graduate of the Office Technology course from New Brunswick

Community College in Saint John, I can offer you the best managerial skills as
well as familiarity with all the latest office technologies. I have energy,
enthusiasm, and a willingness to learn. In addition, my experience as a
volunteer at the Teen Help Centre has given me good interpersonal skills and
shown me the importance of being a team player.

I would be glad if my application is considered for interview and if I am given an

opportunity to prove my self at your organization. I look forward to hearing from
you in your early convenience.

Sincerely yours,
Mary-Beth White
Mary-Beth White
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
A letter to the editor is the type of letter that is written to the editor of a newspaper to express
one’s opinions or view about an issue, or event, etc and draw people’s attention to the subject matter
through the articles of that newspaper. A letter-to-the-editor usually expresses an opinion about a current
issue, a news event, something you read in the newspaper or magazine, or heard on the radio or television.
Often, it is intended to influence the opinions of the readers, listeners, or viewers. Sometimes, such a
letter is a means of simply saying something you feel needs to be said. It may also be intended to change
the policy of the radio or television station, or the magazine or newspaper company.

Letters –to- the- editor are really

Village ABC, a persuasive expository essay written in
a letter format. Because you are trying
Post & Tehsil ABC,
to change attitudes, this kind of letter
District ABC. requires a lot of thought, planning, and
in some cases research to find
25th August 2014 convincing facts. Start with a statement
that tells what issue the letter is about,
The Editor, followed by a clear statement of your
Daily Dawn, opinion. Then provide a number of body
Peshawar. paragraphs that give background
information and convincing supports for
Respected Editor, your opinion. End the letter with a
summary, a hope that something can be
It is to draw the attention of the concerned department done, or a suggestion for change.
to a serious issue, the misuse of social media, through the
articles of your newspaper. This particular kind of letter
needs to be planned carefully and
In recent era it has been observed that our youth is using written correctly. It will be read by
social media for ill means and purposes which not only hundreds, if not thousands, of people
waste their time but also give birth to certain social who will form an opinion about you and
may judge your opinions accordingly.
problems, like; vulgarity, kidnapping, flirt, cheating, and
Any statistics or quotes you use must be
many more social problems,
accurate, and you must give credit for
them. Although letters to the editor take
Therefore the concerned department is requested time and hard work, if you have
through the channel of your newspaper to give the issue something important to say, they are
keen attention and bring about some check and balance worthwhile because they give you the
to control the issue. I will be thankful for you opportunity to influence the attitudes
consideration and cooperation. and opinions of a large segment of your
community
Your’s sincerely,
Read the sample letter to the
Rashid Khan editor. Once again, instead of Dear Sir
or Madam, you should find the editor’s
name. It is usually listed on the
Rashid khan
newspaper’s masthead4, somewhere
near the front of the paper.
LETTERS OF COMPLAINT
One of the most useful kinds of business letters is the letter of complaint. The best complaint
letters do not sound complaining or angry. Even though you may be upset and frustrated by the time you
decide you need to write a letter, abuse and insults will certainly mean that your problem will go to the
bottom of the pile and may even be ignored altogether. A good complaint letter states your problem
calmly and if possible suggests a reason why it is in the company’s best interest to deal positively with
your situation.

Your letter should be firm and well thought out. In addition, it should contain all the information
needed to support your case effectively. You should assume that the company will do the right thing.
Most importantly, you need to state clearly what you expect to be done to remedy the situation. Although
each letter will vary, the following is a good pattern.

 Identify the fault item, including model number, part names, dates, sizes, etc. Often it is good to
enclose a photocopy of the bill.
 Explain logically and clearly what the problem is. Do not express an opinion about why the
problem occurred, if you have no way of knowing.
 State specifically what you expect to be done to correct the problem to your satisfaction. Include
contact phone number and deadlines, if appropriate.
 Use soft and strong language, no abusive language is used.

 First paragraph: first paragraph states the complaint or the issue/problem. You have to
mention time, date, location, name of product, name of person on duty and the fault, all the
relevant information about either the faulty product or service of an organization.

 Second Paragraph: second paragraph states what action you want to be taken by the
company to resolve the problem or issue.

 Third Paragraph: last paragraph thanks the reader for time and consideration. You should
also include your contact information so that they can contact you for further detail etc. keep
a copy of the letter for future justification as well.
 Useful language for Letters of Complaint
Opening Remarks:
 - I am writing to complain about/regarding/on account of /on the subject of...
 - I am writing to draw your attention to...
 - I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction with...
 - I am afraid to say I have numbers of complaints about...
 - I am sorry to say that I was very disappointed with...
 - I feel I must protest/complain about...
 The first problem was... Another problem was... The most visible problem...

Closing Remarks:
 I would like to hear your explanation for the above problems...
 I am not satisfied with...
 I hope/assume you will replace...
 I trust the situation will improve...
 I hope the matter will be resolved...
 I hope we can sort this matter out amicably
  I hope that I will not be forced to take further action
 I look forward to hearing your early reply

Sample Letter of Complaint:

23 Riverside Drive
Fairmont Hotsprings, NB E3B 1Y9
January 4, 1999

The Director
Dawlance Company
Gujranwala.

Respected Director,

I recently bought and paid for a Coldpoint refrigerator from your 1999
Spring and Summer Catalogue. The item number is 209 453 223 RB,
and it is shown on page 273. It was shipped from Regina and delivered
to me on September 13, 1999.

Two things need attention. First, the bottom glass shelf was cracked
when the refrigerator arrived. The delivery driver assured me that
someone from your store would call within a week to arrange for a
replacement. So far, I have not heard from anyone. Second, there is
some problem with the defrost system. Every time, the refrigerator
defrosts itself, a puddle of water forms on the floor in front of it. This is
both a nuisance and a danger as someone may slip and fall.

I have shopped successfully at your store for over ten years, and I am
sure that you will be as concerned as I am about these problems.
Please contact me during the day at 667-0099 to arrange a time when a
service man can fix the defrost system and replace the damaged shelf.
Thank you for your help in straightening out this matter.

Faithfully your’s,

Rashid khan

Rashid khan
 How to use Punctuation Marks in a Letter:
Punctuation marks refers to the use of punctuation marks, such as a comma, full stop, colon, etc.
in the heading, inside address, saltation, and complementary close of letter. there are three ways
of using punctuation marks in a letter. All of these three types are acceptable.

 Open Punctuation: in this type of punctuation no punctuation marks are used in heading, inside
address, salutation, and complementary close of a letter. A sample is given below.

 Mixed Punctuation: in this type of use of punctuation:

 A comma by British and a Colon by American is used after salutation.
 A comma is used after complemetary closed.
This type is common these days.

Open punctuation Sample Mixed Punctuation Sample

Village ABC Village ABC

Post & Tehsil ABC Post & Tehsil ABC
Detrict ABC Detrict ABC
Malakand Malakand

The Director The Director

IBMS Department IBMS Department
Agriculture university Agriculture university
Peshawar Peshawar
30th August 2014 30th August 2014

Respected Director Respected Director,

------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
Your’s sincerely
Your’s sincerely,
 Closed Punctuation: it is the use of punctuation marks that is was quite common a decade
before. In this format:
 A comma is used after each component of heading and inside address.
 A full stop after the last component of heading and inside address.
 A comma/colon after salutation.
 A comma after the complemetary close.
A sample is given here that observes the format.

Sample of Closed Punctuation

Village ABC,
Post & Tehsil ABC,
Detrict ABC,
Malakand.

The Director,
IBMS Department,
Agriculture university,
Peshawar.
30th August 2014

Respected Director,
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------

Your’s sincerely,
 Comprehension Writing:

A comprehension test is based on a short passage or article. A student who has to answer
the comprehension questions has to understand and grasp the meaning of the passage or
article. The understanding power and level of the student is evaluated in a comprehension
test. Hence it is important for students to read the comprehension carefully first and then
only answer the questions. The passage or article has to be understood perfectly well
before questions are answered.

• Instructions To Be Read With Extra Care

While reading instructions, always take extra care. At times, the questions are tricky
leading the student to misunderstand or miss out important points. Consider the context of the
answer first. All questions which you know should be answered first. You can eliminate
questions you are not too sure about.

• Check Marks Allotted To Each Question

There is no point in dedicating too much time on a question that is worth very few marks.
Make sure that questions with more marks are answered first and then quickly finish off the ones
with the least marks.

• Allocate Appropriate Time

You will have to note down the time required for answering every question and
accordingly stick to that time, so that all the questions can be attempted in due time.

First Read the Passage :

First read the passage quickly to get a general idea of the subject matter of the passage. Is you
don’t have enough time then skip this phase.

• Read The Questions Carefully

Make it a habit to go through the questions first. This will help you to look for relevant
answers while reading the passage. Process of fetching answers can be hastened by doing this. If
the passage is read first and then the questions, the chances of losing time are more as you will
be reading everything again.

• Reread the Passage Carefully and Highlight Keywords or Relevant points

Once you have read the questions and have started reading the passage, make sure you
highlight any headings, phrases, keywords etc that can help in answering the questions. This
method will help you save a lot of time, searching through the passage again.
• Avoid Copying Text Directly
While writing down the answers you should not copy chunks of text directly.

• Review What You Have Written

To check for avoidable mistakes you must review the paper again at least twice once you
are done with answering the questions. If sentences have to be reframed or corrected, then this
can be done. In case of answering multiple choice questions, and in case of doubt, importance to
reviewing must be given.

• Use Quotation Marks Wherever Necessary

Quotation marks will have to be used if at all you will be making use of quotations from
the passage. This also carries marks, so make sure you don’t forget them quotation marks.

• Avoid Using Any Knowledge From Outside The Passage

Make sure the comprehension is read at least twice. While answering the questions, the
answers have to be from what is given in the passage itself as out outside knowledge is not
entertained in a comprehension. Avoid any answer that is not supported by relevant information
from the passage or article or they will be rendered as incorrect.
If these few important points and techniques are kept in mind then you will surely be able to
attempt the examination and comprehension well and in the process score good marks.

Providing a Title
Sometimes you are asked to read the passage and provide a suitable answer to it. A title
may be a word or a short phrase that expresses the main theme or subject of the passage. A
reader when reads the title comes to know about the subjetc matter of the passage. Try to choose
your title carefully because it has to cover the main meaage conveyed in the message.

Few Examples are given below.

Passage 1
Martin was born on January 15, 1929. His family lived on the outskirts of Atlanta. The fact that
he could not play with White children, or that he had to offer a seat in the bus to a White, disturbed him.
When he was eight years old, his father a Baptist pastor, told the family a sad story: Bessie Smith, a great
singer, met with an accident. An ambulance rushed her to the nearest hospital, but she was not admitted
because she was a Black. The ambulance took her from one hospital to another, but she could not find a
place for herself because these hospitals were only for the Whites. She died for want of blood. From that
day, Martin Luther King dreamt of becoming a liberator of the Blacks.

King completed his studies at More House College, and then earned a doctor's degree in theology
at Boston University. In 1955, King married Alabama Soprano Coretta Scott. That very year he became a
pastor and preached his first sermon in the Baptist Church of Atlanta. As a young man, he was greatly
impressed by Mahatma Gandhi's success in the political field and the power of ahimsa. King decided to
follow the path of non-violence and get millions of Blacks their due. He felt that the Blacks had
immensely contributed towards the building of America, and there was no reason why they should not be
treated with respect. King drew national attention in 1956. Since the Blacks were not permitted to sit in
the same buses as the Whites, he led a boycott of public buses in Montgomery. A year later, after many
arrests and threats, the US Supreme Court gave a ruling that racial segregation of public transport was
unlawful. This victory taught the Blacks the power of non-violence. After 1957, King began visiting
various places to deliver lectures. Soon he became a powerful orator, drawing the attention of people the
world over.
King continued the fight, a peaceful fight, demanding the rights of the Blacks. In 1964, he was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1967, King led many peaceful demonstrations against the Vietnam
War and in 1968 he declared a Poor People s Campaign on April 4 of that very year, while planning a
demonstration of striking sanitation workers, he was shot dead by an assassin. (421 words)

a) Give the meaning of:

1. segregation
2. campaign
b) Answer the following briefly:
1. Who was Martin Luther King?
2. What inspired King to dream of becoming the liberator of American Blacks?
3. What taught the Blacks the power of non-violence?
4. How did King die?
c) Give a suitable title to the passage.

Passage 2
Read the following passage and answer the question given at the end:
A life of action and danger moderates the dread of death. It not only gives us fortitude to
bear pain, but teaches us at every step the precarious tenure on which we hold our present being.
Sedentary and studious men are the most apprehensive on this score. Dr. Johnson was an
instance in point. A few years seemed to him soon over, compared with those sweeping
contemplations on time and infinity with which he had been used to pose himself. In the still life
of a man of letters there was no obvious reason for a change. He might sit in an arm chair and
pour out cups of tea to all eternity would it had been possible for him to do so. The most rational
cure after all for the inordinate fear of death is to set a just value on life. If we mere wish to
continue on the scene to indulge our head-strong humour and tormenting passions, we had better
be gone at once,; and if we only cherish a fondness for existence according to the good we desire
from it, the pang we feel at parting which it will not be very server.
Questions:
1. Suggest a suitable title for the passage.
 2. What type of people are afraid of death and why?
3. How can we get rid of the fear of death?
4. What idea do you form about Dr. Johnson from this passage?
5. Explain the meanings of the words written in bold types.
6. Make a précis of the passage.
SOLUTION
i) Suitable Title: The fear if death.
ii) People who spend much time sitting and studying are the most afraid of death. Because they
lead a peaceful life and want no change.
iii) The most sensible way of getting rid of the fear if death is to value life properly. We should
know that our hold upon life is very risky and that we may die any moment.
iv) From this passage we learn that Dr. Johnson was afraid of death. He led a peaceful life and
wanted no change. He was fond of tea.
v) Explanation of the meanings of words;
Precarious Tenure — Uncertain period, life
Inordinate fear — Unreasonable fear, fear of death.

PRECIS WRITING:

The word précis is derived from French that means summary and précis writing means the art of
summarizing. Précis writing is one of the most useful skills you can acquire for your work both as a
student and as a professional. Précis writing involves summarizing a document to extract the maximum
amount of information, then conveying this information to a reader in minimum words.
Definition: A précis is a clear, compact logical summary of a passage. It preserves only the essential or
important ideas of the original.

ACCORDING TO OXFORD DICTIONARY)

“It is a short version of a speech or a piece of writing that gives the main points of ideas.”

ACCORDING TO CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY

“Prices is a short form of the text which briefly gives only the important parts.”

A precise is like a miniature portrait of the passage, it retains the absolute essential points
accompanied with the mood and tone of the author of the passage. The one aspect one has to be careful
about is that one should not add one’s subjective interpretation or comments to the précis and should try
to retain the original author’s voice and opinions. As far as the writing style is concerned, one must ensure
that one write clear and effective sentences (no rambling) and one’s diction is flawless. Ultimately, it the
coherence of the views that you presented in the précis that matter, and this can be achieved by making
sure that one is precise and to the point in one’s approach. Unnecessarily long sentences or rambling
thoughts are not required in précis writing, and one should make sure that one sifts from one point to
another in a smooth matter. At the end of the day, the précis should make sense and be logical in its
presentation.

 Thus a precis is not:

 simply a summary of a passage.
 simply an abstract of a passage.
 an outline of a passage.
 a mere selection of a few important sentences from a passage.
 a collection of disconnected facts and statements.

 Importance of Precis Writing:

 It enhances our comprehension level, as we read the passage carefully when we write its precis.
 It improves our reading skills as we read thye passage repeatidly before writing its precis.
 It improves our writing skills as we have to write the precis in our own words.
 It also helps us in our everyday life to present things, describe situation, and narrate about events
in a precise way.
 It also prepares us in give us practice for competitive exams, like CSS, PMS etc.

 Features/Qualities of a Good Precis:

 It is marked by clarity, brevity and precision.

 It must cover all the important points of the passage.
 It must give a complete picture of the original passage.
 It must have continuity in its structure.
 It is not just lifting of the sentences from the original. It should be written in the precis writer's
own words.
 It is a miniature version of the original passage
 It must have a logical order and be well-knit and well connected.
 It must have coherence; must use linking devices such as so, therefore, and, because further etc.
and must follow the order of ideas of the original.
 It must have a title.
 It is written in reported speech.
 It must not contain any details not found in the original.

 Do's in a precis :

 Start your précis by highlighting the main idea of the passage and you should create contextual
environment where you can place the necessary points. Once the main idea is established in the
précis, you can present the methods, points, facts etc. used by the author of the passage.
 Compress and clarify a lengthy passage, article, or book, while retaining important concepts, key
words, and important data.
 Remove what is superfluous and retain the core essence of the work.
 Always remember that mentions about history/writing about history should be advisably done in
the past tense.

 Don'ts in a précis:

 Do not express your own opinion, wish, remark or criticism.

 Do not insert any question in your précis. Its significance, if essential, may be expressed by a
statement.
 Do not use abbreviations or contractions.
 Do not be jerky. This suggests that most probably, you have not understood the sense of the
passage properly.

 Some Tips and Guildlines for Precis Writing:

 Closely read the passage, and identify the central idea of the passage. It is vital to identify the
general idea of the passage and incorporate it in one’s précis.
 Look-out for the total number of words. If the number is not provided, quickly calculate the
number using approximations.
 In order to understand the passage clearly, make sure that you read the passage closely, and give
it a couple of reads before you start writing the précis.
 Highlight the most important points in the passage, and make notes. Leave out all non-essential
information from the précis.
 Note making is an essential task for writing précis. You should try to arrange the points in most
logical order, and ensure the order of thought is the same as the original.
 The three grammatical rules you need to follow while writing a précis are: write it in third person,
indirect form and appropriate past tense.
 Write a rough draft of the highlighted points, it it exceeds the desired length of your precis, delete
the less impportant points.
 Make sure you review your rough draft, remove the chinks and ensure that you have made no
language related errors.
 Before writing your précis, make sure you have a glance over the original to make sure you have
not missed anything.
 Now write a final neat version of your precis.
 Finally, a wise policy would be a count the words of your precis and put them down in a bracket
at the end.
 Provide an apt heading to your précis
 There is an enemy beneath our feet - an enemy more deadly for his complete impartiality. He
recognizes no national boundaries, no political parties. Everyone in the world is threatened by him.
The enemy is the earth itself. When an earthquake strikes, the world trembles. The power of a
quake is greater than anything man himself can produce. But today scientists are directing a great
deal of their effort into finding some way of combating earthquakes, and it is possible that at some
time in the near future mankind will have discovered a means of protecting itself from
earthquakes.An earthquake strikes without warning. When it does, its power is immense. If it
strikes a modern city, the damage it causes is as great as if it has struck a primitive village. Gas
mains burst, explosions are caused and fires are started. Underground railways are wrecked.
Buildings collapse, bridges fall, dams burst, gaping crevices appear in busy streets.If the quake
strikes at sea, huge tidal waves sweep inland. If it strikes in mountain regions, avalanches roar
down into the valley. Consider the terrifying statistics from the past 1755: Lisbon, capital of
Portugal - the city destroyed entirely and 450 killed. 1970: Peru: 50,000 killed.In 1968 an
earthquake struck Alaska. As this is a relatively unpopulated part, only a few people were killed.
But it is likely that this was one of the most powerful quakes ever to have hit the world. Geologists
estimate that during the tremors, the whole of the state moved over 80 feet farther west into the
Pacific Ocean. Imagine the power of something that can move an entire subcontinent! This is the
problem that the scientists face. They are dealing with forces so immense that man cannot hope to
resist them. All that can be done is to try to pinpoint just where the earthquake will strike and work
from there. At least some precautionary measures can then be taken to save lives and some of the
property. (330 Words)'

Based on the above paragraph, we-arrive at the following theme sentences for the four
paragraphs:
Earthquake - the deadly enemy of mankind.
Damage caused by an earthquake in general.
Damage caused by an earthquake-in particular,
What can the scientists do?
The above four theme sentences can be developed into the following outline:
Earthquake - the deadly enemy of mankind.
Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of national boundary or political affiliation.
The power of a quake is greater than that of a man-made weapon of destruction.
Scientists are trying to find out means to combat earthquakes; they will find some way to protect
themselves from earthquakes.
Damage caused by an earthquake in general:
Strikes without warning.
Modern city when struck reduced to a primitive village.
Damage caused by an earthquake in particular.
Quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round destruction.
In 1755, Lisbon destroyed, 450 killed.
In 1970, Peru struck, 50,000 killed.
What can the scientists do ?
 In 1968, Alaska hit, subcontinent moved 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean.
Scientists cannot resist the powerful earthquake.
They can predict the place of origin of the quake so that precaution can be taken to save man &
property.

Based on the above outline, we can make the following rough draft:
Earthquake- The Great Destroyer

Earthquake is the deadly enemy of mankind. Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of
nationality or political affiliation. The power of a quake is greater than that of any man made
weapon of destruction. An earthquake strikes mankind without a warning. A modern city when
struck is reduced to a rubble. A quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round
destruction. The quake struck Lisbon in 1755 killing 450; Peru in 1970 killing 50,000; Alaska
in 1968 moving it 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean. Scientists are trying to find out means to
combat earthquakes and they are able to predict at least where the earthquake will hit so that
precaution can be taken to save man and property from destruction.
As the number of words in the rough draft is more than required we shall have to reduce
it further without reducing the ideas. The final draft would look as follows:

Earthquake - The Great Destroyer

Earthquake is the mankind's deadly enemy. Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of
nationality or political affiliation. The power of a quake is greater than that of any man made
weapon of destruction. An earthquake strikes mankind without a warning. A modern city when
struck is reduced -to a nibble. A quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round
destruction. The quake struck Lisbon in 1755 killing 450; Peru in 1970 killing 50,000; Alaska
in 1968 moving it 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean. Scientists are trying to find out means to
combat earthquakes, to predict the origin of the quake so that precaution can be taken to save
man and property from destruction.(115 words)
 ESSAY WRITING
INTRODUCTION:

The word essay means “to attempt”. Essay is an attempt to compose the relevant ideas in a correct,
concise, comprehensive and concrete way.

It is a literary composition of any given topic.

A short literary composition dealing with a subject.

A short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic,
speculative, or interpretative.

PARTS OF ESSAY:

Usually an essay is divided into three parts:

i) Introduction
ii) Body
iii) Conclusion

INTRODUCTION: the introduction is often the first paragraph (usually a paragraph, rarely two or more)
that guides the readers into your paper by grabbing their attention and introducing the topic of the
essay.

It predicts what the readers are going to read in the body.

It introduces the general aim of the essay.

It is concise and brief. It can be one or two paragraphs.

It should be striking to grab readers’ attention.

It should lead your readers to the subject of essay without any unnecessary delay.

HOW TO OPEN/START AN ESSAY:

I) You can give some background information and then move directly to your thesis.
II) You can introduce an essay with a definition of a relevant term or concept. Don’t say “according
to ……..” it is an overused technique.
III) You can begin your essay with a story that leads to your thesis.
IV) You can begin with a question.
V) You can also begin with a quotation, verse, or wise saying.
 BODY OF ESSAY
Body: body of essay is the middle section and a combination of paragraphs that supports, expands and
gives further explanation and detail of the main subject.

 It gives facts, description, illustration and reflection about the subject matter of the essay.
 It elaborates the topic by giving facts, opinions, arguments, examples, narrations, and relevant
information.

QUALITIES OF BODY PARAGRAPHS:

 Divide your ideas into paragraphs. Each paragraph should express single idea.
 Place the strongest idea in the first body paragraph.
 Don’t use headings in your essay.
 Don’t use pronouns like, I, we, you, they.
 Give a single point in each paragraph and then prove it by giving examples, comments,
references, narrations, arguments, illustration, analogies, etc.
ALL THE PARAGRAPHS SHOULD BE UNIFIED, COHERENT AND WELL DEVELOPED:

Unity: every sentence should lead to the main idea of the paragraph. It means that all the sentences of a
paragraph should support the main point that is being discussed in that paragraph..

Coherence: a paragraph is coherent if it is composed of sentences which are smoothly and logically
connected to one another.

Coherence can be achieved by using three devices:

i) By repeating key words to carry concepts from one sentence into another.
ii) By using pronouns to refer back to previously mentioned key pronouns.
iii) By using transitional words and expressions to show chronological sequence, like: then, next,
after that, as a result of, therefore, first, second, further, furthermore, similarly, however,
but, still, nevertheless, etc.

Body paragraphs should be Well developed: a paragraph is well developed if it contains the examples,
facts, arguments, and discussion which readers need to understand the main idea.

Inclusion of information and detail depend on your purpose of writing, audience, and your thesis.

NOTE: NEVER USE HEADINGS IN YOUR ESSAY RATHER DIVIDE IT INTO PARAGRAPHS; EACH
PARAGRAPH DISCUSSES ONE SINGLE POINT OR IDEA.
 CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION: conclusion is often the last paragraph that brings together all the main points of an essay
discussed in the body.

It refers back and restate the main topic.

Readers remember best what they read last, so your conclusion is important. Your conclusion should
leave the readers with a final thought and sense of satisfaction by resolving any idea brought up in the
essay.

 Always end your essay in a way that reinforces your thesis and your purpose.
 Like your introduction your conclusion should be brief.
 In short essay it can be as brief as one sentence.
 It can be no longer than one paragraph in a long essay.
 It should not introduce any new idea, point, or material that you have not discussed earlier.
 A conclusion will end an essay by restating the thesis.
 Don’t say “in conclusion”

SOME WAYS OF CONCLUDING AN ESSAY:

i) By simply reviewing your main points and restating your thesis.

ii) By recommending a cause of action.
iii) You can conclude your essay with a prediction, but your prediction should be supported by the
material provided in the body paragraphs.
iv) You can also ends your essay with a quotation, verse, or saying.

STAGES OF WRITING ESSAY

STAGES OF WRITING ESSAY: there are certain stages of writing an essay. They may be followed if the
writer has enough time, but even if a student is sitting in examination hall attempting the paper even
then he/she can follow these stages to write a proper essay.
 Stage #1: Invention/pre-writing
Stage one is called invention or prewriting stage. Pre- means before: therefore pre-writing means before
one starts writing an essay. This is the initial but an important stage in essay writing. It is an umbrella
stage that includes the following headings:

 Understanding the assignment/topic

 Setting Limits

Length

Purpose

Audience

Occasion

Your own Knowledge

 Understanding the assignment/topic: the very first step of first stage pre-writing where a writer
has to understand what is being asked or demanded in the topic. Most of the times students fail
to understand the topic and they write irrelevantly. Therefore, before starting writing on a topic
the writer must fully understand the main topic or assignment that what is being asked in the
topic.
 Setting Limits: setting limits is the second step of first stage that is a diverse one. This step
includes certain sub-headings. Let’s have a brief look of them. Setting limits means different
limits related to the topic.
 Length: the first thing we have to do is to set the length of our essay because the on the
basis of length we will include material. When the length is determined then we would
be able to select the most relevant material and skip less important ones.
 Purpose: next step in setting limits is to know the purpose. Without knowing the
purpose one may go astray. It is an important step in determining what to write about.
If a writer knows the purpose of writing even then he/she will be able to write include
the most relevant material in the essay.
 Audience: determining the audience means to know who is going to read your essay.
Whether you are writing in examination, you are writing for a newspaper or someone
else, even then you will be able to include data according to their level of mentality. For
example if one is writing an essay for a tenth class student he/she will have to include
data according to the level and interest of that level of student. So knowing the
audience is also an important step in writing essay.
 Occasion: Knowing the occasion of writing an essay is of great importance as well. like,
very often you would have heard from a Molvi that, “moqe ke munasibat se me ye
Hadith/Aayat zikar karta hn” it means that according to the occasion in which one is
writing one has to include material in the essay.
  Your own knowledge: the last but not the least step is to determine your own
knowledge about the topic. Measure you own knowledge before writing about a topic.
How much do you know and what areas can you cover about a topic. So your
competence/knowledge also determine you limit of essay; if know more you write more
if you know lesser you write lesser.
 Narrowing the topic: narrowing the topic means to delimit a vast topic into a
manageable and limited topic. If the topic is too general it would be difficult for the
writer to manage it and include all the required information. For example, Terrorism is a
topic, but it is too general to be managed because terrorism includes many points,
therefore you may narrow it into “terrorism in Pakistan” etc.

STAGE # 2: COLLECTING INFORMATION.

In this stage the write thinks, search and collect relevant information about the topic. The following
are different techniques used to collect more information:

 Free writing: free writing is the stage that let you write what comes to your mind related to the
topic. Free writing let you write whatsoever comes to your mind irrespective of spelling,
grammar or punctuation. The writer feels free to write what comes to his mind. When you start
writing ideas will emerge automatically into your mind and when you stop writing look for ideas
which you can include in you essay.
 Questions for probing: questions for probing means asking question from your own self. The
write ask himself certain question related to the topic, like for narrative essay one may ask:
what happened? How did it happen? Who was involved? What were the damages? How can it
be resolved? For descriptive essay: How does something look like? What is it? Where is it? What
is the shape? What is the colour? Etc.
 Brainstorming: brainstorm means to think. It is the techniques when the writer start thinking
about the topic and collect information. Ideas would come to your mind inspired by class notes,
discussions with friends, books, newspapers, etc. jot them down in what order they come to
your mind allowing your mind to wander freely. Your list may include words, phrases,
statements, questions etc.

STAGE # 3
MAKING AN INFORMAL OUTLINE
The next step in writing an essay is to organize the rough data collected in the previous stage. In
this stage the ideas, collected from brainstorming, probing questions, or free writing, are
grouped into different sections under few broader headings. It becomes a list of your major
points or ideas.

STAGE # 4 ARRANGING YOUR IDEAS

This is the most important stage in essay writing because here comes the quality of coherence
that means to put your ideas into a logical order. It is very important to put the ideas in such an
order that best suit your main topic. Here you have to decide what to put in introduction, body
paragraphs and in conclusion. You go through the data collected in stage # 2 and place each
point or idea in the suitable part of your essay. Usually, in this stage we make a list of main
headings, sub-headings and put the relevant ideas under each in a rough form.

For example:

(UNEMPLOYMENT IN PAKISTAN)
 INTRODUCTION

What is unemployment?

What is the rate of unemployment in Pakistan

 CAUSES:
Lack of education
Lack of technical education
Lack of industries
Population
Terrorism
 EFFECTS:
Social instability
Crimes
Illicit activities
 RECOMMENDATION & CONCLUSION
To increase literacy rate
Install industries
Restore peace
 CONCLUSION
STAGE # 5 MAKING FORMAL OUTLINE
It is the stage where you come to a formal draft. This stage includes certain steps which are the
following:

DRAFTING: after you understood the thesis in stage # 1, collected data in stage # 2, organized
them in a rough or informal form in stage # 3 & 4 and decided on a proper arrangement for
your ideas, your next step is to formally draft them and make a final composition.

REVISING YOUR ESSAY: re-examining and re-thinking: it means to re-examine your essay
for logic order, clarity of ideas, their effect and expression. It includes addition, deletion,
substitution and reordering of sentences and paragraphs. Either you delete less important or
irrelevant ideas, or you add more important information to a paragraph, you may bring a
sentence or paragraph into a more suitable position and so on. This way your essay becomes
more accurate, logical, relevant and effective.

In revision of you essay one may also check the thesis whether it is accurate, specific and
consistent with the body or not.

Body paragraphs are checked whether they need strengthening, are they unified, coherent,
well developed? Do they support your main topic or not.

You also revise your conclusion. Whether it is appropriate for the material you included, for the
audience, does it fulfill your purpose? Does it reinforce your thesis? Your conclusion must agree
with you material, audience, purpose and occasion otherwise it will have no effect on your
reader.

TYPES OF ESSAY:

Essay may be divided into different types on the bases of their function. There are certain
types of essay but the common ones are the following:

 Narrative Essay
 Descriptive Essay
 Argumentative Essay
 Definition Essay
 Cause and Effect essay
 Process Essay

Narrative Essay: A narrative essay tells a story by presenting events in an orderly, logical
sequence. Narrative can be the dominant pattern in many types of writing formal, such as
history, biography, autobiography and journalism, as well as in less formal, such as personal
letters and entries in diaries and journals. Narration is also an essential part of casual
conversation and it underlies tall tales, speeches and news and feature stories presented on
television or radio. A narrative always presents events in time, in some sort of chronological
order. In short, any time you “tell what happened,” you are using narration.
Descriptive Essay: Description tells what something or someone looks like. We describe what
we observe. A narrative essay presents a series of events: it tells a story. A descriptive essay on
the other hand, tells what something looks like or what something feels like, smells like, tastes
like, etc. a description presents things in spatial rather than temporal order. There are two basic
approaches to description: objective and subjective. In an objective description, you focus on
the object rather than on your personal reaction to it. In this case your purpose is to convey a
literal picture of your subject. Your goal is to construct as accurate picture as possible for your
audience. While in contrast to objective description in subjective description discloses your
personal vision or your emotional response to what you see and tries to get your readers to
share them.

Descriptive essay may describe a person, an object, an event/idea, or place. Each may include
the following headings:

Description of Objects Description of Place

Definition where about
Kinds little history
Good points products
Bad points specialty in its surroundings/significance
Conclusion conclusion

Describing a Person Describing an Idea

Family introduction
Childhood/birth/physique kinds/types
Education in your society
Services to the society/country in other societies
Death/conclusion conclusion
Definition Essay: a definition tells what a term means and how it is different from other terms
in its class. Here we define an object. We explain its meaning and differentiate it from other
things in its class. In definition we also talk about its types/kinds, function, qualities etc. there
are two types of definitions:
Dictionary definition; where we give a literal definition of something given in a dictionary.
Extended definition; a definition that includes more details about something. It may also
include our opinion or observation about something. Definition essay is actually an extended
definition of an object. An extended definition includes the three basic parts of a formal
definition- the term, its class and its distinguishing characteristics. Beyond these essentials, an
extended definition does not follow a set pattern. Instead, it adapts whatever techniques best
suit the term being defined and the writing situation.
A definition essay includes the following five patterns of development:
Exemplification: to explain with examples.
Description: to explain something by describing it.
Comparison and contrast: to compare or contrast something with another thing of its kind.
Process: it may explain something by giving the process of it.
Classification: putting in groups with similar features, or to talk of something’s kinds.
Argumentative Essay: an argumentative essay is a reasoned, logical way of convincing an
audience of the soundness of a position, belief, or conclusion. Argumentation takes a stand-
supported by evidence and urges people to share the writer’s perspective and insights.
Argument is the appeal to reason. In an argument a writer connects a series of statements in an
orderly way that they lead to a conclusion. Its primary purpose is to demonstrate to an
audience that certain ideas are valid and that others are not. An argument makes points,
supplies evidence, establishes a logical chain of reasoning, refutes opposing arguments and
accommodates the views of an audience.
TOPICS FOR ESSAY WRITING

 Natural Resources of Pakistan and its Mismanagement.

 The issue of unemployment, its causes and solutions in Pakistan.
 Democracy in Pakistan.
 Energy crisis in Pakistan and how can we over-come the
problem.
 The issue of pollution, its causes and suggestions for solvation in
our country.
 The curse of corruption in our country, and how can it be
controlled?
 Price hiking/inflation in Pakistan, causes and solution.
 Education and its purposes.
 Terrorism in Pakistan.
 Describe your university.
 FOUR SKILLS OF A LANGUAGE
There are four basic skills of a language:
 Listening
 Speaking
 Reading
 Writing
They are divided into two pairs on the basis of their function.

Receptive/input skills: Listening Reading

Productive/output skills: Speaking Writing

This relation may also be understood from the following table:
Oral Written

Receptive/input Listening Reading

Productive/output Speaking writing

Listening and reading are receptive skill in which we receive something. Either we listen to
other people or we read certain things but in both cases we do not produce something rather
we collect information, listen to sounds of a language, etc. listening provides input for speaking
while reading provides input for writing. The more you listen the better you speak and the
more you read the better you write.

LISTENING:
You probably spend more time using your listening skills than any other kind of skill. Like other
skills, listening takes practice.
What does it mean to really listen?
Real listening is an active process that has three basic steps.
 Hearing. Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For example,
say you were listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker mentioned that no two are alike. If you can
repeat the fact, then you have heard what has been said.
 Understanding. The next part of listening happens when you take what you have heard and
understand it in your own way. Let's go back to that report on zebras. When you hear that no two are
alike, think about what that might mean. You might think, "Maybe this means that the pattern of stripes is
different for each zebra."
 Judging. After you are sure you understand what the speaker has said, think about whether it
makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think, "How could the stripes to be
different for every zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are different for every person. I think this seems
believable."
 Listening is the first basic skill of any language. A child in the early childhood cannot produce
even a single sound of his language but he listens to the surroundings, parents, siblings and all
the peoples surrounding him and after many months a child start producing single sounds of
the language he has been listening for the whole time. That is why a child having been in a joint
family learns language more quickly than the one having less people to interact to him. Another
justification for this claim is that a girl name Isabell was lost in her childhood in a jungle and she
was restored after many years but she did not have interaction with any human that is why she
was unable to produce any human language because she had no input to produce a language.
That is why listening provides input for speaking and thus it is the most important skill of any
language.
There are two kinds of listening situation in which we find ourselves:
 Interactive
 Non-interactive
Interactive: interactive listening situation includes face to face or telephonic conversation in
which we directly listen and speak to the person and where we have a chance to interrupt, ask
for clarification, repetition, ask for slowing etc. it means we are directly involve in the
conversation.

Non-interactive: A non-interactive situation includes listening to radio, TV, film, lectures, etc.
where we can only listen but cannot respond to the speaker, nor we have an opportunity for
clarification, questioning, repetition etc.

Micro-skills: these are certain techniques or skills which enable a listener in understanding
what someone says. Richards (1983) proposes the following micro-skills involved in the
understanding what someone says to us, (cited in Omaggio, 1986, p 126).
 Retain chunks of language in the short term memory.
 Discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the new language.
 Recognize stress and rhythm pattern, tone pattern, intonation.
 Recognize reduced form of word in the language.
 Distinguish word boundaries.
 Recognize typical word order pattern.
 Recognize vocabulary items.
 Detect key words, such as those identifying topic, and main ideas.
 Guess meaning from context or situation.
 Recognize grammatical words classes.
 Recognize basic syntactic structure.
  Recognize and detect sentence constitutions, such as subject, verb, object, preposition
etc.

Tips for being a good listener

 Give your full attention on the person who is speaking. Don't look out the window or at what else
is going on in the room.
 Make sure your mind is focused, too. It can be easy to let your mind wander if you think you know
what the person is going to say next, but you might be wrong! If you feel your mind wandering, change
the position of your body and try to concentrate on the speaker's words.
 Let the speaker finish before you begin to talk. Speakers appreciate having the chance to say
everything they would like to say without being interrupted. When you interrupt, it looks like you aren't
listening, even if you really are.
 Let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't really listen if you are busy
thinking about what you want say next.
 Listen for main ideas. The main ideas are the most important points the speaker wants to get
across. They may be mentioned at the start or end of a talk, and repeated a number of times. Pay special
attention to statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is..." or "The thing to remember is..."
 Ask questions. If you are not sure you understand what the speaker has said, just ask. It is a
good idea to repeat in your own words what the speaker said so that you can be sure your understanding
is correct. For example, you might say, "When you said that no two zebras are alike, did you mean that
the stripes are different on each one?"
 Give feedback. Sit up straight and look directly at the speaker. Now and then, nod to show that
you understand. At appropriate points you may also smile, frown, laugh, or be silent. These are all ways
to let the speaker know that you are really listening. Remember, you listen with your face as well as your
ears!
Thinking fast
 Remember: time is on your side! Thoughts move about four times as fast as speech. With
practice, while you are listening you will also be able to think about what you are hearing, really
understand it, and give feedback to the speaker.

Reading Skills:
Reading is the receptive skill in written mode. It can be developed independently of listening and
speaking skills, but often developed along with them. In reading skills we receive information,
vocabulary, and different expressions of writing. And all these components of language later help us
develop better comprehension, listening and writing skills.

Micro-skills:
 Recognize vocabulary items.
 Pick up key words, such as those identifying topics, and main ideas.
 Figure out the meaning of the words, including unfamiliar vocabulary, from the written
context.
 Recognize grammatical word classes, such as: verbs, noun, adjective, and adverb.
 Detect sentence constituents, such as: subject, object, verb, preposition, etc.
 Recognize basic syntactic pattern of the language.
  Reconstruct and infer situation, goals and participants.
 Use both knowledge of the world and lexical and grammatical cohesive devices to make
the foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and infer links and connections among the
parts of the text.
 Get the main part or main idea or important information.
 Distinguish the main idea from supporting details.
 Look at words in the context they have been used in.

Different types of Reading:

There are four main types of reading skill. They are the following:

Intensive Reading:

What it is

 Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading "calls attention to grammatical forms,
discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding
literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like." He draws an analogy
to intensive reading as a "zoom lens" strategy .
 Long and Richards (1987) say it is a "detailed in-class" analysis, led by the teacher, of
vocabulary and grammar points, in a short passage."
 Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading
selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs,
content and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many
opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. The success of "Narrow Reading"
on improving reading comprehension is based on the premise that the more familiar the
reader is with the text, either due to the subject matter or having read other works by
the same author, the more comprehension is promoted.

How it looks

Characteristics:

 usually classroom based

 reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text
 students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading
 students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers
 students identify key vocabulary
 students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving)
 texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again
 aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of reading
 seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms
Materials:

 usually very short texts - not more than 500 words in length
 chosen for level of difficulty and usually, by the teacher
 chosen to provide the types of reading and skills that the teacher wants to cover in the
course

Activities:

Intensive reading exercises may include:

 looking at main ideas versus details

 understanding what is implied versus stated
 making inferences
 looking at the order of information and how it effects the message
 identifying words that connect one idea to another
 identifying words that indicate change from one section to another

When it is used

 when the objective of reading is to achieve full understanding of:

- logical argument
- rhetorical pattern of text
- emotional, symbolic or social attitudes and purposes of the author
- linguistic means to an end

 for study of content material that are difficult

Role of the teacher

 The teacher chooses suitable text.

 The teacher chooses tasks and activities to develop skills.
 The teacher gives direction before, during and after reading.
 The teacher prepares students to work on their own. Often the most difficult part is for
the teacher to "get out of the way" .
 The teacher encourages students through prompts, without giving answers.

Advantages

 It provides a base to study structure, vocabulary and idioms.

 It provides a base for students to develop a greater control of language
 It provides for a check on the degree of comprehension for individual students.
SPEAKING SKILLS:
Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated
than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.
There are three kinds of speaking situation in which we find ourselves:
 Interactive
 Partially interactive
 Non-interactive
Interactive: interactive speaking situation includes face to face conversation and telephone
calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask
for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from conversation partner.
Partially interactive: some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a
speech to a live audience where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the
speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their
faces and their body language whether they understand or not.
Non-interactive: some speaking situation may be totally non-interactive, such as when
recording a speech for a radio, or when talking to oneself.
Micro skills:
Here are some of the micro skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to:
 Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that people can
distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.
 Use stress and rhythmic pattern and intonation patterns of a language clearly enough so
that people can understand what is said.
 Use the correct forms of words. This may mean for example, changes in the tense, case,
or gender.
 Put the words together in correct word order.
 Use appropriate vocabulary.
 Use the register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation and the
relationship to the conversation partner.
 Make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object
by whatever means the language uses them.
 Make the discourse hang together so that people can follow what you are saying.

ORAL MESSAGE:
There are four options for speaking.
Extemporaneous: to use notes or an outline and give oral explanation.
Reading: to read from a book, notes, or page.
Memorization: to memorize what you are going to say in front of people.
Impromptu: to speak without any proper preparation.

Aspects of Effective Speaking

Effective speaking has nothing to do with the outdated concept of 'elocution' where everyone
was encouraged to speak in the same 'correct' manner. Rather, effective speaking concerns
being able to speak in a public context with confidence and clarity, whilst at the same time
reflecting on your own personality.
Accents.

 Finding your voice.

 The effect of breath on voice and speech.

 Vocal

Accents
Regional and ethnic accents are positive; they are part of individual personality.
Gradually, over the years, through the migration of people and exposure to the media, accents are being
broken down and neutralized. In some ways this is a shame because accents can add a dimension and
distinctiveness to voice and emphasize individuality.

It is important to get used to the sound of your own voice. Most people are more relaxed in a private
situation, particularly at home, where there are no pressures to conform to any other social rules and
expectations. This is not the case in public situations when there are all sorts of influences exerted upon the
way people speak.

The Effect of Breath on Voice and Speech

The voice is responsive to emotions and sometimes gets 'blocked', which can prevent or hinder
the expression of a range of feelings. However, it is possible to use physical exercise to help
produce a more flexible voice, in the same way that people who use vocal sounds professionally
take lessons, to ensure that their voices are kept in a versatile condition and ready to vocalize a
range of sounds.

When under stress an individual's breathing pattern will change. When your muscles are tense
you cannot use your lungs to their full capacity, when a person is frightened or nervous, a
common symptom is tension in the neck and shoulders. This occurs because, when under
pressure, over-breathing tends to occur. Plenty of air is inhaled, but with fast breathing there is
not enough time to exhale and relax.
 Good breathing is essential for two reasons:

1. By using full lung capacity the breath will support the voice and the voice will become richer,
fuller and stronger. This will benefit individuals who have a small voice and who worry that they
cannot be heard when speaking to a group of people. Volume is controlled in the abdomen not in
the throat, so breathing to full strength will allow for greater control of the voice.
2. Breathing deeply and rhythmically has a calming and therapeutic effect as it releases tension
and promotes relaxation. Individuals who are relaxed are more balanced, receptive and confident.
It is no coincidence that several religions use rhythmic breathing techniques such as meditation,
yoga and silent contemplation, and vocal release in the form of chants, mantras or hymn singing as
aids to their devotions. By easing physical tension, mental stress decreases and the mind is
effectively freed to follow creative pursuits.

Vocal Production
The following three core elements of vocal production need to be understood for anyone
wishing to become an effective speaker:

 Volume - to be heard.
 Clarity - to be understood.
 Variety - to add interest.

Volume
This is not a question of treating the voice like the volume control on the TV remote. Some people have
naturally soft voices and physically cannot bellow. Additionally, if the voice is raised too much, tonal quality
is lost. Instead of raising the voice it should be 'projected out'. Support the voice with lots of breath - the
further you want to project the voice out, the more breath you need.

When talking to a group or meeting, it is important to never aim your talk to the front row or just to the
people nearest you, but to consciously project what you have to say to those furthest away. By developing
a strong voice, as opposed to a loud voice, you will be seen as someone positive.

Clarity
Some people tend to speak through clenched teeth and with little movement of their lips. It is this inability
to open mouths and failure to make speech sounds with precision that is the root cause of inaudibility. The
sound is locked into the mouth and not let out. To have good articulation it is important to unclench the jaw,
open the mouth and give full benefit to each sound you make, paying particular attention to the ends of
words. This will also help your audience as a certain amount of lip-reading will be possible.
 Variety
To make speech effective and interesting, certain techniques can be applied. However, it is important
not to sound false or as if you are giving a performance. Whilst words convey meaning, how they are
said reflects feelings and emotions. Vocal variety can be achieved by variations in:

 Pace: This is the speed at which you talk. If speech is too fast then the listeners will not have
time to assimilate what is being said. Nevertheless, it is a good idea to vary the pace - quickening up at
times and then slowing down – this will help to maintain interest.
 Volume: By raising or lowering volume occasionally, you can create emphasis. If you drop your
voice to almost a whisper (as long as it is projected) for a sentence or two, it will make your audience
suddenly alert, be careful not to overuse this technique.
 Pitch - Inflection - Emphasis: When speaking in public, try to convey the information with as
much vocal energy and enthusiasm as possible. This does not mean your voice has to swoop and dive all
over the place in an uncontrolled manner. Try to make the talk interesting and remember that when
you are nervous or even excited, vocal chords tense and shorten causing the voice to get higher.
Emphasize certain words and phrases within the talk to convey their importance and help to add variety.
 Pause: Pauses are powerful. They can be used for effect to highlight the preceding statement
or to gain attention before an important message. Pauses mean silence for a few seconds. Listeners
interpret meaning during pauses so have the courage to stay silent for up to five seconds – dramatic
pauses like this convey authority and confidence.

Writing Skill:
Writing is the productive skills in written mode. It is more complicated than it seems at first
and often seems to be the hardest of the skills, for native speakers of a language, since it
involves not just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and presentation of
thoughts in a structured way. It is the final basic skill of language that is got after long been
practiced.

Micro-skills:

Here are some of the micro-skills involved in writing. The writer needs to:

 Use the orthography correctly, including the script and spelling and punctuation
conventions.
 Use the correct forms of words. This may mean using forms that express the right tense
or case or gender.
 Put words in correct word order.
 Use vocabulary correctly.
 Use the style appropriate to the genre and to the audience.
  Make the main sentence constituents, such as, subject, verb, and object, clear to the
reader.
 Make the main idea distinct from the supporting details or ideas.
 Make the text coherent and cohesive, so that people can follow the development of the
ideas.
 Judge audience background knowledge.

Strategies for improving writing skill:

Strong writing skills in English come from practice and determination. No one is born an
excellent writer. Learning to be an excellent writer in English takes a lot of time and practice.
Anyone can be a good writer if they are determined enough.

Everyone has a different reason why they need to improve their writing. Maybe you need to
improve your writing for work or for your English class at university. Or maybe you want to start
a blog about learning English or you need to respond to emails in English for your business.

Below are 8 Tips to Improve Your English Writing Skills:

1. Keep All of your Writing in One Place

Buy a notebook or journal or start an electronic journal. By keeping your writing all in the same
place, you will be able to see how much you are improving and keep it organized.

2. Practice Writing in English Daily

The importance of writing daily is that you start to create a new habit. Writing every day in
English will soon become natural and something you look forward to. You will not see a
significant improvement if you are not dedicated to becoming a better writer in English. You
cannot create awesome stories and papers if you never try.

3. Pick a Topic and Write!

Don’t get stuck on figuring out what to write about. You can write about anything. You can
write about what you do, things you hear or see, news, or make up a story. If you do get stuck,
use some of English Tonight’s writing prompts to help you get started.

4. Write More than One Draft

Draft means a preliminary version of piece of writing. Sometimes, your best writing becomes
better after you take a break and work on a second or third draft. When you revise (or rewrite)
your work you are often able to get your message across more clearly. You make think of things
that you did not think to write in the first draft and you can add it in a later draft.
5. Use Online Resources to Correct your Grammar

Yes, grammar is a pain. You don’t need to know everything about English grammar. Use online
resources, such as Grammarly, Grammar Check or GrammarBook.com to help you answer a
grammar question when it comes up. You could also switch the spell and grammar check on MS
Word, your iPad or Google Doc to check your spelling and grammar in English.

6. Think Out-side the Box (or Lines)

Don’t write about the same thing every day or you will get bored. Try writing the same story
from different perspectives or different tenses. If you are writing a story about a baby that
won’t stop crying; first, it could be the mother telling the story; then from the perspective of
the baby. Or you could write it in present moment…. ‘My baby hasn’t stopped crying in five
days…’ and then write in the perspective of a pregnant woman that is thinking about having a
baby that won’t stop crying. Don’t write about topics in the obvious way. Be creative!

7. Have a Friend Edit Your Writing

Have a friend that knows English correct or edit your work. Having another person read your
work helps generate more ideas to better your writing. You could have them edit everything or
just a part that you are stuck on. Often having another set of eyes look at your writing helps
find mistakes that you have overlooked.

8. Find the Best Place for You to Write

You should try writing in different places or at different times of the day. Maybe you have
writer’s block at night; try getting up 15 minutes earlier and writing in the morning. Maybe you
have trouble writing where there is a lot of noise; try writing in a quiet and comfortable place.
Experiment in finding the right (or write?) environment for you to write.

Writing is a process; the more you work on your writing the better it (and you) will get.

Preparing for Test and Exams:

Preparing for exams? Give yourself the best chance with these top ten study tips.

1. Give yourself enough time to study

Don't leave it until the last minute. While some students do seem to thrive on last-minute
'cramming', it's widely accepted that for most of us, this is not the best way to approach an
exam. Set out a timetable for your study. Write down how many exams you have and the days
on which you have to sit them. Then organize your study accordingly. You may want to give
some exams more study time than others, so find a balance that you feel comfortable with.

2. Organize your study space

Make sure you have enough space to spread your textbooks and notes out. Have you got
enough light? Is your chair comfortable? Are your computer games out of sight?

Try and get rid of all distractions, and make sure you feel as comfortable and able to focus as
possible. For some people, this may mean almost complete silence; for others, background
music helps. Some of us need everything completely tidy and organized in order to concentrate,
while others thrive in a more cluttered environment. Think about what works for you, and take
the time to get it right.

3. Use flow charts and diagrams

Visual aids can be really helpful when revising. At the start of a topic, challenge yourself to write
down everything you already know about a topic - and then highlight where the gaps lie. Closer
to the exam, condense your revision notes into one-page diagrams. Getting your ideas down in
this brief format can then help you to quickly recall everything you need to know during the
exam.

4. Practice on old exam

One of the most effective ways to prepare for exams is to practice taking past versions. This
helps you get used to the format of the questions, and - if you time yourself - can also be good
practice for making sure you spend the right amount of time on each section.

5. Explain your answers to others

Parents and little brothers and sisters don't have to be annoying around exam time! Use them
to your advantage. Explain an answer to a question to them. That will help you to get it clear in
your head, and also to highlight any areas where you need more work.

6. Organize study groups with friends

Get together with friends for a study session. You may have questions that they have the
answers to and vice versa. As long as you make sure you stay focused on the topic for an agreed
amount of time, this can be one of the most effective ways to challenge yourself.
7. Take regular breaks

While you may think it's best to study for as many hours as possible, this can actually be
counterproductive. If you were training for a marathon, you wouldn't try and run 24 hours a
day! Likewise studies have shown that for long-term retention of knowledge, taking regular
breaks really helps.

Everyone's different, so develop a study routine that works for you. If you study better in the
morning, start early before taking a break at lunchtime. Or if you're more productive at
nighttime, take a larger break earlier on so you're ready to settle down come evening.

Try not to feel guilty about being out enjoying the sunshine instead of hunched over your
textbooks. Remember Vitamin D is important for a healthy brain!

8. Snack on 'brain food'

Keep away from junk food! You may feel like you deserve a treat, or that you don't have time to
cook, but what you eat can really have an impact on energy levels and focus. Keep your body
and brain well-fuelled by choosing nutritious foods that have been proven to aid concentration
and memory, such as fish, nuts, seeds, yogurt and blueberries. The same applies on exam day -
eat a good meal before the test, based on foods that will provide a slow release of energy
throughout. Sugar may seem appealing, but it won't help when your energy levels crash an
hour or so later.

9. Plan your exam day

Make sure you get everything ready well in advance of the exam - don't leave it to the day
before to suddenly realize you don't know the way, or what you're supposed to bring. Check all
the rules and requirements, and plan your route and journey time. If possible, do a test run of
the trip; if not, write down clear directions.

Work out how long it will take to get there - then add on some extra time. You really don't want
to arrive having had to run halfway or feeling frazzled from losing your way. You could also
make plans to travel to the exam with friends or classmates, as long as you know they're likely
to be punctual!

10. Drink plenty of water

As a final tip, remember that being well hydrated is essential for your brain to work at its best.
Make sure you keep drinking plenty of water throughout your revision, and also on the exam
day.
 Proof Reading

Proofreading means examining your text carefully to find and correct typographical errors and mistakes
in grammar, style, and spelling. Here are some tips.

 Look at your sentences, are they effective? Interesting?

 Are there any sentences that might be added or deleted or relocated?
 Consider the words you use; is there any need of addition, deletion, or substitution?
 Polish sentence structure.
 Check spellings.
 Check for proper use of punctuation marks.
 Check for grammatical structure or words order.

When You Proofread

 Work from a printout, not the computer screen. (But see below for computer functions that can help you find some
kinds of mistakes.)
 Read out loud. This is especially helpful for spotting run-on sentences, but you'll also hear other problems that you
may not see when reading silently.
 Use a blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one you're reading. This technique keeps you from
skipping ahead of possible mistakes.
 Use the search function of the computer to find mistakes you're likely to make. Search for "it," for instance, if you
confuse "its" and "it's;" for "-ing" if dangling modifiers are a problem; for opening parentheses or quote marks if you tend to
leave out the closing ones.
 If you tend to make many mistakes, check separately for each kind of error, moving from the most to the least
important, and following whatever technique works best for you to identify that kind of mistake.
For instance, read through once (backwards, sentence by sentence) to check for fragments; read through again (forward) to be
sure subjects and verbs agree, and again (perhaps using a computer search for "this," "it," and "they") to trace pronouns to
antecedents.
 End with a spelling check, using a computer spelling checker or reading backwards word by word.
But remember that a spelling checker won't catch mistakes with homonyms (e.g., "they're," "their," "there") or certain typos
(like "he" for "the").

The notes are LIABLE TO ERRORS AND MISTAKES.

Thanks
Regards: Rashid khan