The Bacterial cell:

Structure & Functions

NSC 207
 Reminder about Cells
• smallest possible functional unit representing life
• Basic, building block of multi-cellular organisms
• Type of cells
– Prokaryotic

– Eukaryotic

• Both have the same types of

– biological molecules
– metabolism,
– protein synthesis,
– ATP
• Significant difference in structure
 Eukaryotes
• More complex than prokaryotes
• Compartmentalized into organelles
– Nucleus
– Protein synthesis (ribosomes, RER, Golgi)
– Mitochondria; chloroplasts
– Lysosomes
– Plasma membranes have different modifications
– Cytoskeleton
• Cells may be variable in size and functions
within the organism
– Tissues
– Organs
 Prokaryotes
• Have no nucleus; genome is circular

• No histones

• No membrane-bound organelles

• Divide by binary fission

• Cell wall usually present

 Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotes include
• Eubacteria:
• contains peptidoglycan in the cell wall
• Of major interest in medical microbiology
• Archaeabacteria:
• Has other structures making it thrive at
extreme of temperature
Bacteria as a Prokaryote
Bacterial cell structure © Kenneth Todar, 2011
 Structural architectural regions of
Bacterial cell
• Structurally, there are three architectural regions:
1. appendages
• Flagella
• pili (or fimbriae);

2. cell envelope
• Polysaccharide layer
• cell wall
• plasma membrane

3. cytoplasmic region
• chromosome (DNA)
• ribosomes
• Inclusion bodies
 Flagella
• A surface appendage
• filamentous protein structures attached to the cell
surface
• provide the swimming movement for most motile
bacteria
• Much thinner than eucaryotic flagella
• diameter approximately 20 nanometers
• rotated by a motor apparatus in the plasma membrane
• powered by proton motive force (chemiosmotic
potential) rather than ATP
• Very few cocci, about half of the bacilli, all of the spiral
and curved bacteria are motile by means of flagella
 Distribution of Flaggella
• Varies with bacterium
• Distribution is useful for identification
• Distribution is a genetically-distinct trait
• Aids chemotaxis, phototaxis, aerotaxis and
magnetotaxis
• Peritrichous lophotrichous Unipolar Bipolar
 Fimbriae or pili
• Fimbriae and pili are interchangeable terms
• short, hair-like structures on bacterial surfaces
• Protein in nature
• shorter and stiffer than flagella, and slightly
smaller in diameter
• Generally, have nothing to do with movement
with few exceptions (twiching movement on Pseudomonas)
• Functions in adherence to surfaces, substrates
and other cells or tissues in nature
• very common in Gram-negative bacteria, but
occur in some archaea and Gram-positive
bacteria
 Types of pili
• Common pili
– almost always called fimbriae
– usually involved in specific adherence/ attachment
– major determinants of bacterial virulence
• Responsible for attachment to host cell (colonization)
• Resist attack by phagocytic white blood cells

• sex pilus,
– stabilizes bacteria during the process of conjugation
 Bacterial cell envelope
• Descriptive term for the
several layers of
material that enclose
the protoplasm
(cytoplasm)

• Constituted by
– plasma membrane,
– cell wall
– Polysaccharide layer
 Polysaccharide Layer
• Capsule-discrete detectable layer of
polysaccharides deposited outside the cell wall

• Slime layer/ Biofilm-less discrete structure or

matrix which embeds the bacterial cells

• Glycocalyx-thin layer of tangled polysaccharide

fibres occuring on surface of cells growing in nature
(as opposed to the laboratory)
 Composition of Capsules
– Capsules are generally composed of polysaccharide

– rarely they contain amino sugars or peptides as found in

some Bacillus sp.

– Bacillus anthracis- polypeptide (polyglutamic acid)

– Bacillus megaterium- polypeptide and polysaccharide

 Capsular Composition of Some Gram-positive Bacteria

Bacterium Capsule composition Structural subunits

Bacillus anthracis polypeptide (polyglutamic acid) D-glutamic acid

Bacillus megaterium polypeptide and polysaccharide D-glutamic acid, amino sugars, sugars

Streptococcus mutans polysaccharide (dextran) glucose

Streptococcus pneumoniae polysaccharides sugars, amino sugars, uronic acids

Streptococcus pyogenes polysaccharide (hyaluronic acid) N-acetyl-glucosamine and glucuronic acid

 Capsular Composition of Some
Gram-negative Bacteria
Bacterium Capsule composition Structural subunits

Acetobacter xylinum polysaccharide (cellulose) glucose

glucose, galactose, fucose

Escherichia coli polysaccharide (colonic acid)
glucuronic acid

Pseudomonas aeruginosa polysaccharide mannuronic acid

Azotobacter vinelandii polysaccharide glucuronic acid

Agrobacterium tumefaciens polysaccharide (glucan) glucose

 Functions of Polysaccharide Layer

1. Adherence to surfaces
2. Protective functions:
a. Engulfment by predatory protozoa
b. Phagocytises
c. Attack by antimicrobial agents of plant or animal origin
d. drying or desiccation
3. Carbohydrate reservoir-
Capsular materials (e.g. dextrans) may be overproduced when
bacteria are fed sugars to become reserves of carbohydrate for
subsequent metabolism
4. Float in aquatic environments
5. Microcolonies formation
6. Construction of biofilm (enriched & protected environment)
 Bacterial Cell wall Important Attributes
• essential structure for viability.
• Unique to bacteria in nature.
• Sites for antibiotics action.
• Ligands for adherence and receptor sites for drugs/
viruses/ host cells.
• cause of symptoms of disease in animals.
• provide for immunological distinction and
immunological variation among strains of bacteria.
Gram positive Bacterial Cell wall
• Gram-positive Bacteria
cell wall is thick (15-80
nanometers),
• Consist of several layers
of peptidoglycan sheets
• Running perpendicular to
the peptidoglycan sheets
is a group of molecules
called teichoic acids
• teichoic acids is unique to
the Gram-positive cell
wall
Gram negative Bacterial Cell wall
• Gram-negative Bacteria
cell wall is thin (10
nanometers)
• composed of a single
layer of peptidoglycan
• peptidoglycan layer is
surrounded by an outer
membrane
• outer membrane contains
a unique component,
lipopolysaccharide (LPS
or endotoxin),
• LPS is toxic to animals
 Peptidoglycan
• aka
– Murein

• Many types of peptidoglycan exist

• A polymer of disaccharides (glycan) : backbone,
• The glycan backbone is made up of alternating
molecules of
– N-acetylmuramic acid (M): Definitive component of
murein
– N-acetylglucosamine (G)
» M & G connected by a beta 1,4-glycoside bond
 PEP
• There is a tetrapeptide side chain on M

• Tetrapeptide side chain consist of

– L-alanine, (L-ala), D-glutamate (D-glu),
Diaminopimelic acid (DAP), D-alanine (D-ala)

• DAP or L-lys in position 3 of the tetrapeptide

varies in Gram positive bacteria
N-acetylmuramic acid (M), N-acetylglucosamine
(G) & tetrapeptide side chain
N-acetylmuramic acid (M), N-acetylglucosamine (G)
& tetrapeptide side chain
 PEP

• Each layer of the polymer is cross-linked

through Pentaglycine bridge
Pentaglycine bridge of Peptidoglycan
• Assembly of peptidoglycan is mediated by a
group of periplasmic enzymes

• Transglycosylases

• transpeptidases

• carboxypeptidases
 PEP
• N-acetylmuramic acid is unique to bacterial
cell wall

• The cell walls of Archaea may be composed of

protein, polysaccharides, or peptidoglycan-like
molecules, but never do they contain murein
Outer Membrane of Gram-negative
Bacteria
• Unique & External to murein
• Bilayered structure
intercalated with protein
• inner face of the outer
membrane is composed of
phospholipids similar to the
phosphoglycerides that
compose the plasma
membrane.
• outer face of the outer
membrane may contain
some phospholipid, but
mainly formed by an
amphiphilic molecule called
LPS
LPS Structure
• The LPS is composed of
1. hydrophobic Lipid A
2. Hydrophilic Polysaccharide
consisting of the
– core polysaccharide
– O-specific polysaccharide
• Head- The Lipid A is inserted
into the interior of the
membrane
• Tail- Polysaccharide faces the
aqueous environment
 Comparison of Gram Positive &
Negative Cell Walls
Property Gram-positive Gram-negative

Thickness of wall thick (20-80 nm) thin (10 nm)

Number of layers Many Few

Peptidoglycan (murein) content >50% 10-20%

Teichoic acids in wall present absent

Lipid and lipoprotein content 0-3% 58%

Protein content 0 9%

Lipopolysaccharide content 0 13%

Sensitivity to Penicillin G yes ±

Sensitivity to lysozyme yes ±

 Cell Wall-less Bacteria
• A few bacteria exist without a cell wall
1. Mycoplasmas are typical example
– Mycoplasmas are structurally stable becos
• They have sterol-like molecules incorporated into their
membranes
• They are usually inhabitants of osmotically-protected
environments
2. Spheroplasts & Protoplasts
– Pathogenic bacteria reverting to cell wall-less forms
under the pressure of antibiotic therapy
– Persist/ survive in osmotically-protected tissues
– Re-grows their cell walls when antibiotic is withdrawn
Cell membrane
 Plasma Membrane
• aka cytoplasmic membrane
• Bacteria membranes are structurally similar to
the cell membranes of eucaryotes (fluid mosaic
model)
• Foldings
– Septal mesosome
– Lateral mesosome
• Exceptions
– consist of saturated or monounsaturated fatty acids
(rarely, polyunsaturated fatty acids)
– do not normally contain sterols
 Functions of Bacterial plasma
membrane
1. Osmotic or permeability barrier
2. Site of transport systems for specific solutes (nutrients and ions)
3. Energy generating functions, involving respiratory and
photosynthetic electron transport systems, establishment of
proton motive force, and transmembranous, ATP-synthesizing
ATPase
4. Synthesis of membrane lipids (including lipopolysaccharide in
Gram-negative cells)
5. Synthesis of murein (cell wall peptidoglycan)
6. Assembly and secretion of extracytoplasmic proteins
7. Coordination of DNA replication and segregation with septum
formation and cell division
8. Responsible for sensing functions & subsequent motility in
Chemotaxis
9. Site of specialized enzyme system
 Periplasmic Space
• aka Periplasm
• Between the inner (plasma) and outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria and
spirochetes
• a very active compartment of the cell
• peptidoglycan sheet resides within the periplasm
• contains enzymes for:
– assembly of cell wall and membrane components,
– various degradative or detoxifying enzymes,
• Bears
– secretion systems,
– sensing proteins for chemotaxis and signal transduction,
– binding proteins for solutes taken up by BPDT transport systems.
• Components of the periplasm are needed in this region of the cell and are bounded
or "trapped" by the two membranes of the cell
• For spirochetes, the flagella (called endoflagella or periplasmic flagella) rotate
within the periplasm and impart the flexing and screw-like rotation characteristic of
spirochete motility.
 Bacterial Cytoplasm
• Gel-like in nature
• Made up of two parts:
• The aqueous solution
• consists of three groups of molecules:
– macromolecules such as proteins (enzymes), mRNA and tRNA;
– small molecules that are energy sources, precursors of
macromolecules,
– metabolites or vitamins; and various inorganic ions and cofactors
• The structural components
• nucleoid
• Ribosomes
• inclusions
 Nucleoid
• Site corresponding to nucleus
• Has no nuclear membrane
• More or less free in the cytoplasm
• Contain bacterial chromosome
– typically one large circular molecule of DNA,
– coiled and supercoiled
– anchored by proteins
• Procaryotes sometimes possess smaller
extrachromosomal pieces of DNA called plasmids.
• The total DNA content of a procaryote is referred to as
the cell genome
 Ribosomes
• Responsible for distinct granular appearance of
the cytoplasm

• 70S in size, being composed of 30S and 50S

subunits

• composed of proteins and mRNA

• Site of protein synthesis

 Inclusions
Cytoplasmic inclusions Where found Composition Function
many bacteria e.g. E. reserve carbon and
glycogen polyglucose
coli energy source
polybetahydroxybutyric many bacteria e.g. polymerized hydroxy reserve carbon and
acid (PHB) Pseudomonas butyrate energy source
reserve phosphate;
polyphosphate (volutin many bacteria e.g. linear or cyclical
possibly a reserve of
granules) Corynebacterium polymers of PO4
high energy phosphate
reserve of electrons
phototrophic purple and
(reducing source) in
green sulfur bacteria and
sulfur globules elemental sulfur phototrophs; reserve
lithotrophic colorless
energy source in
sulfur bacteria
lithotrophs
buoyancy (floatation) in
aquatic bacteria protein hulls or shells
gas vesicles the vertical water
especially cyanobacteria inflated with gases
column
 Inclusions
Cytoplasmic inclusions Where found Composition Function

endospore-forming unknown but toxic to

parasporal crystals protein
bacilli (genus Bacillus) certain insects

orienting and migrating

magnetite (iron oxide)
magnetosomes certain aquatic bacteria along geo- magnetic
Fe3O4
field lines

many autotrophic enzymes for autotrophic

carboxysomes site of CO2 fixation
bacteria CO2 fixation

light-harvesting
phycobilisomes cyanobacteria phycobiliproteins
pigments

lipid and protein and light-harvesting

chlorosomes Green bacteria
bacteriochlorophyll pigments and antennae
 Endospores
• Dormant stage/ form of bacterial cell
• Formed by a few groups of Bacteria
• Intracellular structures, ultimately released as free endospores
• exhibit no signs of life (cryptobiotic)
• highly resistant to environmental stresses
– high temperature (some endospores can be boiled for hours and retain
their viability),
– irradiation,
– strong acids,
– disinfectants, etc
• formed by vegetative cells in response to environmental signals
that indicate a limiting factor for vegetative growth, such as
exhaustion of an essential nutrient
• germinate and become vegetative cells when the environmental
stress is relieved
Structure of Endospore
 Functions & Chemical Composition of
Bacterial Structurally Elements
Structure Function(s) Predominant
chemical
composition

Flagella Swimming movement Protein

Stabilizes mating bacteria during DNA transfer by

Sex pili or fimbriae Protein
conjugation
Attachment to surfaces;
Common pili or fimbriae Protein
Protection against phagotrophic engulfment

Attachment to surfaces;
Usually
Capsules Protection against phagocytic engulfment, killing &
polysaccharide;
Slime layers digestion;
occasionally
Glycocalyx Reservoir of nutrients
polypeptide
Protection against desiccation
 Functions & Chemical Composition of
Bacterial Structurally Elements
Structure Function(s) Predominant chemical
composition

CELL WALL

Prevents osmotic lysis of cell protoplast

Peptidoglycan (murein) complexed
1. Gram-positive bacteria
with teichoic acids
Confers rigidity and shape on cells

Peptidoglycan prevents osmotic lysis

Confers rigidity and shape on cell; Peptidoglycan (murein) surrounded

by phospholipid protein-
2. Gram-negative bacteria
Outer membrane is permeability barrier; lipopolysaccharide "outer
membrane"
Associated LPS and proteins have
various functions
 Functions & Chemical Composition of
Bacterial Structurally Elements
Structure Function(s) Predominant chemical
composition

Permeability barrier;
Transport of solutes;
Plasma membrane Energy generation; Phospholipid and protein
Location of numerous enzyme
systems

Sites of translation (protein

Ribosomes RNA and protein
synthesis)
 Functions & Chemical Composition of
Bacterial Structurally Elements
Structure Function(s) Predominant chemical
composition

Often reserves of nutrients; Highly variable; carbohydrate, lipid,

Inclusions
additional specialized functions protein or inorganic

Chromosome Genetic material of cell DNA

Plasmid Extrachromosomal genetic material DNA

(Left)
Dental plaque revealed by a harmless red dye. http://www.medicdirect.co.uk/DentalHealth

(Right)
Human dental plaque. Transmission electron micrograph by Marilee Sellers, Northern Arizona
University. http://www4.nau.edu/electron/TEM_img.htm