GLASS, GLASS FRACTURES AND FRAGMENTS

GLASS

• “An inorganic product of fusion which has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing.”

• It is a hard, brittle, amorphous substance that is composed of silicon oxides (sand) mixed with
various metal oxides.

• Glass is made from natural and abundant raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) that
are melted at high temperature to form a new material

• Glass is a state of matter. It is a solid produced by cooling molten material so that the internal
arrangement of atoms, or molecules, remains in a random or disordered state, similar to the
arrangement in a liquid.

HOW IS GLASS MADE?

• In a commercial glass plant, sand is mixed with waste glass soda ash (sodium carbonate), and
limestone (calcium carbonate) and heated in a furnace. The soda reduces the sand's melting
point, which helps to save energy during manufacture, but it has a drawback: it produces a
kind of glass that would dissolve in water. The limestone is added to stop that happening. The
end-product is called soda-lime-silica glass.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS

1. GLASS FORMERS

• Glass formers make up the largest proportion of the mixture and provide the transparency.

• The glass former is the key component in the structure of a glassy material. The former used
in most glasses is Silica (SiO2 ). Pure silica is difficult to melt because of its extremely high
melting point (1,723 o C, or 3,133 o F)

• Other glass formers with much lower melting points (400 o C–600 o C, or 752–1,112 o F) are
boric oxide (B 2 O 3 ) and phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 O 5 ).

2. FLUXES

• Fluxes are substances used in glasses to lower the temperature at which the formers will melt.

• Soda (Sodium carbonate) and Potash (Potassium carbonate) are common fluxes.

• Other examples of fluxes are: Li2O (Lithia), CaO (Lime), B2O3, ZnO

3. STABILIZERS

• To make glasses stronger and more durable, stabilizers are added.

• Stabilizers provide the strength and make the glass water resistant.

• Without the inclusion of a stabilizer, water and humidity will attack and dissolve the glass.

• Calcium carbonate (limestone) is often used as the stabilizer in glass.

 TYPES OF GLASS

1. SODA-LIME GLASS

• Soda lime glass is the most common and inexpensive type of glass, containing 70% silica, 15%
soda, and 9% lime.

• Soda-lime glass is produced on a large scale and used for bottles, drinking glasses, and
windows.

2. SODA-LEAD GLASS

• Lead glass, commonly called crystal, is a variety of glass in which lead replaces the calcium
content of a typical potash glass.

• Common uses of lead glass include drinking glasses, ornaments, decanters, jewelry, optical
lenses, enamel and lacquers, glass sealants, and radiation shielding from gamma and x-rays

3. BOROSILICATE GLASS

• Borosilicate glass is a type of glass with the main glass-forming constituents' silica and boron
oxide.

• These are heat- resistant glass used for ovenware and laboratory glassware.

4. FUSED SILICA GLASS

• Fused Silica is an entirely synthetic material, and is technically the purest glass. It has the
highest temperature characteristics of any glass, and it often begins as pure silicon gas.

• It is used for the manufacture of optical parts such as lenses, mirrors, other optical
instruments, windows for manned spacecraft, etc

5. COLORED GLASS

• The glass which has some colors in it is called colored glass or stained glass.

• Colored glass is made by adding a small quantity of metallic oxides to the mixture of limestone
or Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), soda ash or Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and sand (SiO2)

6. ANNEALED GLASS

• also known as standard glass, non-tempered and/or float glass, is the most ordinary form of
glass.

• It is a softer glass that has been thermally treated and then slowly cooled to relieve any
internal stresses. and breaks into sharp shards when shattered.

• It is used for office partitions, doors, walls, mirrors, retail display cases, shower doors, and
railings. It can also be used to produce heat strengthened glass, tempered glass, insulated
glass and coated glass.
7. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS

• Heat-strengthened glass is typically specified when additional strength is needed to resist

wind pressure, thermal stress or both, and the additional strength or safety break pattern of
fully tempered glass is not required.

8. TEMPERED/ SAFETY GLASS

• Tempered or toughened glass is a type of safety glass processed by controlled thermal or

chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass.

• It is often used in car windows, shower doors, glass tables, and other installations where
increased safety standards are necessary.

9. LAMINATED GLASS

• It is manufactured by permanently bonding two or more glass panes with layers of polyvinyl
butyral (PVB) interlayer, under heat and pressure to produce a single product.

• The most common use of laminated glass is automobile windshields and skylight glazing.

10. BULLET-PROOF GLASS

• Bulletproof glass refers to glass that has the ability to protect the bullets while having the
transparency and transparency of glass.

• The bulletproof principle of bulletproof glass is that it can convert the impact kinetic energy
into the elastic potential energy and debris of the glass. Surface energy.

• Bulletproof glass is actually made of transparent glue to bond multiple pieces of glass or high-
strength organic board together.

3 Layer of Bullet-proof glass:

1. Bearing layer: This layer is first subjected to impact and rupture. Generally, glass with large
thicknesses and high strength can damage the warhead or change the shape of the warhead,
so that it loses its ability to move forward.

2. Transition layer: Adopts organic glue material, which has strong adhesive force and good light
resistance. It can absorb part of the impact energy and change the direction of advancement.
A very strong and transparent chemical film is sandwiched in the laminated glass. This not
only effectively prevents shooting, but also has anti-surge impact, anti-explosion, anti-seismic
and impact without impact, and other characteristics.

3. Safety protection layer: This layer is made of high-strength glass or high-strength transparent
organic material. It has good elasticity and toughness. It can absorb most of the impact energy
and ensure that it cannot pass through this layer.

HOW DOES ONE-WAY BULLET-PROOF GLASS WORK?

• One-way bulletproof glass is usually made in two layers: a fragile layer on the outside and a
pliable layer on the inside. When a bullet is shot from the outside, the bullet will hit the fragile
layer and break an area. This will absorb the kinetic energy of some bullets and spread kinetic
energy in a larger area. When the slowed bullet hits the flexible layer, it is blocked. However,
when the bullet is shot from the inside, it will hit the flexible layer first. Bullets can puncture
 a pliable layer because its energy is concentrated in a small range, and the brittle layer shatters
outward when the flexible layer bounces outward and does not hinder the progress of the
bullet.

TYPES OF GLASS FRACTURE

1. RADIAL FRACTURES

• Radial fractures are linear, extending from the center of the impact outward.

• A crack in a glass that extends outward like the spoke of a wheel from the point at which the
glass was struck.

2. CONCENTRIC FRACTURES

• Concentric fractures form rough circular shapes around the point of origin.

• A crack in a glass that forms a rough circle

3. CONCHOIDAL FRACTURES

• a fracture with smooth, curved surfaces, typically slightly concave, showing concentric
undulations resembling the lines of growth of a shell.

4. THERMAL FRACTURES

• A thermally induced fracture always originates from the edge at a right angle, because it is
there that the tensile strength is lowest. Wavy fracture lines develop.

• When a glass panel breaks due to a temperature difference across its surface. This can happen
when one part of the glass becomes hotter or colder than the surrounding glass, causing the
glass to expand or contract in that area. If the stress becomes too great, the glass will crack.

SIGNIFICANCE OF DETERMINING THE TYPES OF GLASS FRACTURES

• The patterns on the glass fractures can actually reveal the direction of the projectile. The
pattern can actually reveal whether the object that caused the fracture was moving at a low
pace like a rock or a fast moving bullet, whether it is a thermal stress or impact. This can really
be critically important in reconstructing the crime scene.

• For example, if a bullet strikes a window and penetrates it, while not completely shattering it,
it may leave a hole with surrounding fractures or may not. On the side of impact the bullet
will create a clean hole while on the opposite, a cone shaped corner of glass is forced out.
Thus, visual inspection can reveal the direction of impact.

FACTORS TO BE DETERMINED IN GLASS FRACTURES

A. POINT OF IMPACT

ENTRANCE SIDE EXIT SIDE

1. Concentric Fractures 1. Radial Fracture
 2. Clear cut edges 2. Rugged Edges
3. Absence of Depression 3. Presence of Depression
4. Without Flaking 4. With Flaking

B. POSITION OF THE SHOOTER

ANGLE FROM THE RIGHT ANGLE FROM THE LEFT

1. Heavy flaking or chipping on the left side of the 1. Heavy flaking or chipping on the right
glass side of the glass
2. Glass fragments will be sprayed to the left and 2. Glass fragments will be sprayed to
exit hole will be an irregular oval. the right and exit hole will be an
irregular oval.

C. SEQUENCE OF IMPACT

• The sequence of impacts can be determined since crack propagation is stopped by earlier
cracks. The first shot will cause fractures that simply “run out” (terminate) wherever the
original strains have been sufficiently relieved in the material. The radial fractures associated
with a second shot will run out when they meet a fracture from the first shot, and so on for
all subsequent shots.

EVIDENCE COLLECTION

RECOVERY OF EVIDENCE SAMPLES

• Shoes and clothing of suspects or other objects contaminated with glass should be wrapped
in paper and submitted to the Laboratory for examination.

• All glass found at hit-and-run scenes should be recovered. The search should not be limited to
the point of impact, since headlight glass may be dropped off at some distance away as the
car leaves the crime scene.

• Glass from different locations should be kept in different containers.

• All glass should be collected because more than one type may be present.

• Place small glass fragments in paper bindles, then in coin envelopes, pill boxes, or film cans
which can be marked and completely sealed.

• Place large glass fragments in boxes. Separate individual pieces with cotton or tissue to
prevent breakage and damaged edges during shipment. Seal and mark the box containing
them.

STANDARD FOR COMPARISON

WINDOW

• If the broken window is small, send the whole window or all glass remaining to the Laboratory.

• If the window is large, recover several samples from different areas of the window. If the
evidence glass is large enough for physically matching the broken edges or comparing the
 fracture lines, hackle marks, surface abrasions or contamination, the whole broken window is
necessary.

AUTO GLASS - AUTO HEADLIGHTS:

• All glass remaining in the shell should be recovered.

• If it is suspected that a new glass has been installed, this should be removed and a careful
examination made for small chips remaining in the shell from the previous lens which is
broken.

• In such cases, also submit the new lens to the Laboratory.

OTHER GLASS:

 When bottles or other glass objects are broken, recover all remaining glass.

ANALYSIS AND TESTS FOR GLASS

FORENSIC GLASS ANALYSIS

• Forensic glass analysis is the application and analysis of glass to determine details about a
crime.

• It is the process of examining glass found at a crime scene to determine its origin, and to gain
information about the crime.

1. NON-OPTICAL PHYSICALPROPERTIES

a. SURFACE STRIATIONS AND MARKINGS

• When sheet glass is rolled, the rollers leave parallel striation marks, called ream marks, on the
surface. These ream marks may hint at how various pieces should be oriented in the case of
an indirect physical match where an intervening piece may be missing. The relative spacing
might also be useful as a means of individualization.

b. SURFACE CONTAMINANTS

• The presence of such impurities as paint and putty is useful in two ways. First, the patterns of
the adhering materials might suggest how the pieces fit together. Second, chemical analysis
of the adhering materials might further individualize the pieces and prove their association.

c. THICKNESS

• Thickness can be measured to a high degree of accuracy with a micrometer.

• Determination of curvature can distinguish flat glass from container, decorative, or

ophthalmic glass.

• Thickness is a very useful way of proving that two pieces of glass, which are otherwise
extremely similar, are not actually from the same source.
2. OPTICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

a. COLOR

• Given that sample size may affect the apparent color, side-by-side comparisons should be
made with fragments of approximately the same size. These fragments should be visually
compared by placing them on edge over a white surface using natural light. Viewing the glass
in this way allows for the optimal observation of color. It also allows the examiner to
distinguish between the true color of the glass and any coatings or films that might be present
on the glass’s surface.

• Observing the glass using both fluorescent and incandescent light is often helpful in
distinguishing colors.

b. REFRACTIVE INDEX

• Commonly referred to as the index of refraction, the refractive index, n, measures a ray of
light as it travels from one medium to another.

• The refractive index is one of the most commonly measured physical properties in the forensic
laboratory, because it gives an indication of the composition and the thermal history of the
glass.

• The oil immersion method is used to measure the refractive index of glass.

OIL IMMERSION METHOD

• The questioned glass fragments are placed in specialized silicone oils. The refractive index of
the oil is temperature dependent: As its temperature increases, its refractive index decreases.

• The suspected glass fragments and immersion oil are placed on a microscope slide, which is
then inserted into a hot-stage microscope. The stage of such microscopes is fitted with a
heater that can warm the sample slowly.

• Increasing the temperature has little effect on the refractive index of the glass but decreases
the refractive index of the oil by about 0.004 per 1°C.

• When the glass fragments are initially observed through the microscope, they will produce a
bright halo around each fragment, known as the Becke line.

• Becke line - A bright halo that is observed near the border of a particle immersed in a liquid
of a different refractive index.

• As the temperature increases, the refractive index of the oil decreases until the Becke line and
the glass fragments disappear from view.

• At this point (called the match point), the refractive indices of the oil and the glass fragment
are the same, so the examiner is no longer able to see the glass fragments that are immersed
in the oil.

• The examiner can compare suspect and known samples in this way to determine whether they
have the same match point.
3. GLASS DENSITY TEST

• Density

– mass per unit volume. (D=m/v)

- It is an intensive property of matter, meaning it remains the same regardless of it sample size.

• Density measurement is one of the most important analyses for comparing the glass samples
under investigation. The comparison of densities can give a proof of a connection, if at all,
between a suspect and crime scene.

• These glass fragments under criminal investigations are very small and so the density of such
fragments can be determined either by Floatation Method or Density Gradient Method.

• Both the methods are based on the fact that the glass fragments will float in a liquid medium
having density greater than that of the fragments, while they will sink in a liquid medium
having density less than the fragments. But, they remain suspended in a liquid whose density
is same as that of the fragments. These methods are so accurate that they can distinguish
glass particles that differ in density by 0.001gm/cc.

• For the heavier liquid:

• -Bromoform

• Methylene Iodide

• For lighter liquid:

• Xylene

• Bromobenzene

• Benzene

• Nitrobenzene

a. FLOATATION METHOD

• An unknown glass fragment is immersed in a liquid of known density

• The density of the liquid is carefully adjusted until the glass chip floats (remains suspended in
the liquid)

• When the glass fragment floats, it has the same density as the liquid.

b. DENSITY GRADIENT METHOD

- In this method, a vertical glass tube about 5mm in internal diameter and 10 to 18 inches long
is sealed at one end and filled with successive layers of liquid in decreasing density.

- The standard gradient tube is made up of layers of two liquids mixed in varying proportions,
so that each layer has a different density

- When completed, a density gradient tube usually has 6 to 10 layers.

- The glass fragments should be carefully and gently placed in the tube and allowed to settle
down. These fragments will suspend in the portion having same density. Thus, the density of
the liquid and hence of the fragments can be determined.

4. ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF GLASS

a. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

- Elementary analysis of glass using SEM determines the ratio of concentrations of Na/Mg,
Ca/K, Mg/Al, Ca/Na, and Na/Al.

b. X-RAY FLOURESCENCE (XRF)

-The XRF instrument focuses a beam of x-rays on the surface of the glass and then measures
the energy of the x-rays that are emitted from the glass. The energy of the emitted x-rays can
be correlated to the presence of specific elements.

c. Flameless atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS)

-It makes use of the absorption of light by these elements to measure their concentrations.

-in FAAS, flame is not used , but high temperature achieved using carbon rod.

d. Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) methods

-is an analytical technique used to measure and identify elements within a sample matrix
based on the ionization of the elements within the sample.

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

1. SOURCE DETERMINATION

• Glass fragments found at a crime scene can be compared to known samples, such as broken
glass from a window or a specific glass object (e.g., a bottle).

• By examining various physical and chemical properties, forensic scientists can determine if the
glass fragments originate from the same source.

• This analysis can help establish connections between a suspect and a crime scene.

2. PHYSICAL MATCHING

• Glass fragments can sometimes fit together, similar to a jigsaw puzzle.

• Forensic experts carefully examine the edges of the glass fragments for matching patterns.

• When fragments are successfully reassembled, it can provide crucial evidence of how the glass
was shattered or broken, potentially shedding light on the sequence of events during the
crime.

3. FRACTURE ANALYSIS

• The examination of glass fractures can yield important information about the force or manner
in which the glass was broken.
• For example, the pattern and characteristics of the fractures can indicate whether the glass
was shattered by impact, thermal stress, or mechanical force.

• This analysis may help reconstruct events, determine the type of weapon used, or identify the
point of entry or exit in cases involving burglary or vandalism.

4. ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION

• Glass can contain trace elements that are unique to a specific manufacturing process or
region.

• Analyzing the elemental composition using techniques such as atomic emission spectroscopy
or X-ray fluorescence can provide valuable information about the type and origin of the glass.

• This data can be compared with known reference samples to establish associations or
exclusions between a suspect, a crime scene, and a particular type of glass.

5. FORENSIC GLASS DATABASE

• Many forensic laboratories maintain extensive databases of glass fragments from various
sources, such as automobile windshields, windows, and bottles.

• These databases allow forensic scientists to compare the physical and chemical properties of
glass evidence against a wide range of reference samples, thereby aiding in the identification
of the source or narrowing down possibilities.

HOW GLASS BREAKS?

5 TYPES OF STRESS THAT CAN LEAD TO GLASS BREAKAGE

• Tensile Stress: this type of stress refers to anything trying to stretch the glass. This type of
stress is applied to the glass by its own weight.

• Thermal Stress: extreme temperatures can cause glass to fail due to thermal expansion and
contraction.

• Impact Stress: Glass can break from being impacted by flying objects, such as balls, bullets,
or stones.

• Mechanical Flexing Stress: High winds cause extreme pressure differences between the
inside of a building and the outside. These pressure differences can cause glass to shatter.

• Twisting Stress: this type of stress can be applied to glass from building settling, or from the
window frame sagging.

When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front of example, the glass first bends
a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks along radial
lines starting from the portion or surface which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The
front surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass
triangle between the radial rays bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By this
bending the glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached,
the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of
stretching.
 STRESS LINES/ HACKLE MARKS/ RIB MARKS

• The edges of broken piece of glass contained curved lines called Stress Lines. These are
always perpendicular to the side of the applied force.

• Heckle Marks are small straight lines which can be observed in the broken edge of the glass.

The Principle of 3R’s Rule for Radial Crack

• - The conchoidal striations along the Radial fractures form Right angles with the Reverse side
of the force.

The Principle of RFC Rules for Concentric Crack

• - states that “stress lines on a Concentric crack will be Right angle to the Front side”, that is
the side from which the blow came rather than the rear side.

• The rule for concentric crack is the reverse of the 3R’s rule provided the concentric cracks
examined is near, preferably adjacent to the point of impact.

Radial crack form first and are propagated in short segments on the opposite side of the force.

Concentric cracks come later from continued pressure on the same side of the applied force.

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOW

• The forensic examiner may be able to analyze fractured window panes and determine the
direction of an impact and the amount of force applied to them, suggesting what actually
happened at the scene.

• For example, it is often important to establish whether a window was broken from the inside
or the outside. At the scene of a homicide, a broken window near the door latch may be an
attempt to disguise the crime as a burglary.

• In the case of a burglary, the window would have been broken from the outside. However, if
the homicide was deliberate, the perpetrator may have broken the window from the inside
in an attempt to mislead investigators into thinking burglary was the intruder’s primary goal.