Unit IV

COGNITION

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension. Some of the many different cognitive processes include thinking, knowing,
remembering, judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and
encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning. Cognitive psychology is the field
of psychology that investigates how people think and the processes involved in cognition.

Cognition is defined as ‘the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and

understanding through thought, experience, and the senses’. Cognition is looked at it as the
mental processes relating to the input and storage of information and how that information
is then used to guide the behavior. It is in essence, the ability to perceive and react, process
and understand, store and retrieve information, make decisions and produce appropriate
responses. With that in mind, cognitive functioning is therefore critical for day-to-day life,
governing our thoughts and actions. We need cognition to help us understand information
about the world around us and interact safely with our environment, as the sensory
information we receive is vast and complicated: cognition is needed to distil all this
information down to its essentials.

Cognition fundamentally controls our thoughts and behaviors and these are regulated by
discrete brain circuits which are underpinned by a number of neurotransmitter systems.
There are a number of brain chemicals which play major roles in regulating cognitive
processes; including dopamine, noradrenaline (norepinephrine), serotonin, acetylcholine,
glutamate and GABA.

THINKJNG PROCESS
The APA Dictionary of Psychology defines thinking as “cognitive behavior in which ideas,
images, mental representations and other such hypothetical elements of thought are
experienced or manipulated.” Thinking is both a covert and a symbolic process that allows us
to form psychological associations and create models to understand the world. It is
considered a covert process seeing as our thoughts, and the processes behind their formation
are not directly observable. It is understood as symbolic because thinking operates using
mental symbols and representation.

Thinking Process or the processes of thought are as follows:

1. Understanding the formation. Understanding, formed through the three stages as
follows:
a. Analysis of the characteristics of similar objects – These objects we look at the
elements - elements one by one. For example, or set up a human sense.

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 b. Comparison – Compare these features to be found traits - traits which are the
same, which is not the same, which is always there and which ones do not
always exist where the essential and which are not essential.
c. Abstraction – That is set aside, dispose, traits that are not essential, capturing
the essential characteristics.
2. Opinion Formation – Formation of opinion is to put the relationship between two
terms or more. The opinions expressed in the language called the sentence, which
consists of basic sentence or the title or subject and predicate. Furthermore, the
opinion can be divided into three kinds:
a. Affirmative or positive opinion, the opinion which declares a state of
something, for example Franzel was clever, and as well as Yyah….and so on.
b. Negative opinion, to repeal that opinion, which clearly explains the absence of
anything else on the nature of things: For example Mikkha is ugly and so skinny.
c. Modalities that opinion stating opinion – The possibility of something on the
nature of things: for example it might rain today, Miles might not come. And
so on.
3. Conclusion withdrawal or Establishment Decision – The decision is the result of the act
makes sense to form a new opinion based on the opinions that already exist. There
are three kinds of conclusions:
a. Inductive inference the decisions taken from the opinion – Opinion toward a
particular public opinion.
b. Deductive conclusions – Deductive decision drawn from the general to the
specific, so in contrast to inductive decision.
c. Conclusion analogical – Is a decision that analogically obtained by comparing
or customise with specific opinions that already exist.

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analysing, and solving

problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution
that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some
cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using
factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are
the best options.

Skinner defined “problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to

interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment in spite of
interferences”.

The question arises, what is that scientific procedure which is followed in a problem solving
behavior. Are described below in systematic steps:

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1. Problem awareness: The first step in the problem solving behavior of an individual
concerns his awareness of the difficulty or problem that needs a solution. He must be
confronted with some obstacle or interference in the path of the realisation of his
needs or motives and consequently he must be conscious of the felt difficulty or
problem.
2. Analyse the problem: The difficulty or problem felt by the individual should be
properly identified by a careful analysis. He should be clear about what exactly is his
problem. The problem then should be pinpointed in terms of the specific goals and
objectives. Thus all the difficulties and obstacles in the path of the solution must be
properly named and identified and what is to be got through the problem solving
efforts should then be properly analysed.
3. Collection of the relevant information: In this step, the individual is required to collect
all the relevant information about the problem through all possible sources. He may
consult experienced persons, read the available literature, revive his old experiences,
think of possible solutions, and put in all relevant efforts for widening the scope of his
knowledge concerning the problem in hand.
4. Formulation of hypothesis or hunch for possible solutions: In the light of the collected
relevant information and nature of his problem, one may then engage in some serious
cognitive activities to think of the various possibilities for the solution of one’s
problem. As a result, he may start with a few possible solutions of his problem.
5. Selection of the proper solution: In this important step, all the possible solutions,
thought of in the previous step, are closely analysed and evaluated. Gates and others
have suggested the following activities in the evaluation of the assumed hypothesis or
solution:
i. One should determine the conclusion that completely satisfies the demands of
the problem;
ii. One should find out whether the solution is consistent with other facts and
principles which have been well established;
iii. One should make a deliberate search for negative instances which might cast
doubts on the conclusion.
The above suggestions can help the individual to think of a proper individual solution
of his problem out of the many possible solutions. But for all purposes he has to use
his own discretion by utilising his higher cognitive abilities for the proper identification
of the appropriate hypothesis or solution by rejecting all other hypothesis.
6. Verification of the concluded solution or hypothesis: The solution arrived at or
conclusion drawn must be further verified by utilising it in the solution of the various
likewise problems. In case, the derived solution helps in solving these likewise
problems, then and then only, one is free to agree with his findings regarding the
solution of his problem. The verified solution, may then become a useful product of
his problem solving behavior that can be utilised in solving other future problems.

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 ELEMENTS OF THINKING
Thinking consists of symbolic mediation. “Mediation” means that thinking fills in the gap
between a stimulus situation and the response a person makes to it. To put it another way,
thinking consists of processing information about the world.
The various elements involved in the thinking process may be summarised as under. In this
process of thinking we usually rely on these elements or tools.
i. Concepts are ideas and notions that arise in the mind when we are presented with objects
or information. Concepts are labels for a class of objects, ideas, or events that share at
least one unifying attribute. Concepts allow the brain to chunk information into larger
sections, allowing humans to label, organise, and communicate ideas or experiences
effectively. For example, if we were to hear the word “dog”, we would not only think of
the animal but also the concepts that the animal represents (loyalty, protection, etc.).
Another example, when we listen to the word ‘elephant’ we are at once reminded not
only about the nature and qualities of the elephants as a class but also our particular
experiences and understanding about them emerge from our consciousness that
stimulate our present thinking.
Much of people’s thinking concerns specific, concrete things or events. They think about
the house they lived in during childhood or the football game on homecoming day. On the
other hand, much thinking, especially the thinking involved in college work, is about
abstractions: Politics, economics, philosophy, learning, motivation, and the like. These
general or abstract things are called concepts. The thinking people do in which concepts
are the mediating processes is called conceptual thinking.

ii. Symbols are basic units of thought that represent something other than the thing itself.
For instance, words are symbols used to help humans communicate and are
representations of objects or ideas. A red traffic signal, a danger sign, flags, school bells,
badges, slogans etc all stand for symbolic expression. It act as signs/symbols that convey
information to our brains. For example, the waving of the green flag by the guard tells us
that the train is about to move and we should get in the train. Similarly, the mathematical
symbol for subtraction (-) tells a child what he has to do.
“Symbolic” means that thinking is done with processes inside us that are symbols –
representations of our previous experience with the world. What are these symbols that
mediate between situations and our responses to them?

iii. Images. In part, thinking consists of imagining things: We form images of situations.
Images, as mind pictures, consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or scenes
once actually seen, heard or felt. These mind pictures symbolise the actual objects,
experiences and activities. In thinking, we usually manipulate the images instead of actual
objects, experiences or activities. “Eidetic imagery” are occasional individuals who have
complete pictorial images of things. Such people are said to have eidetic imagery or a
photographic memory.

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 However, symbols may have several meanings that can differ depending on experiences
or context. Numbers, letters, and icons are also symbols that have no concrete existence
other than to represent something else. Symbols allow human beings to imagine others'
experiences, to imagine past, present, or future, and enable people to communicate their
thoughts, ideas, and experiences.

iv. Languages. Language is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the
process of thinking. When one listens or reads or writes words, phrases or sentences or
observes gestures in any language, that person is stimulated to think. Reading and writing
of the written documents and literature also help in stimulating and promoting our
thinking process.

v. Lastly, and most importantly, the brain is the organ that performs the act of thinking.
Objects, language, signs and symbols in our environment, once registered by our sensory
organs, are interpreted in the brain to create thoughts. All four of these basic elements of
thought assist human beings in organising and manipulating the information from their
surroundings.
Our mind or brain is said to be the chief instrument or reservoir for carrying out the
process of thinking. Whatever is experienced through our sense organs carries no
meaning and thus cannot serve a stimulating agent, an instrument or object for our
thinking unless the same is received by our brain cells and properly interpreted for driving
some meaning. The mental pictures or images can be stored, formed, reconstructed or
put to some use only through the functioning of the brain. Therefore, what happens in
our thought process can simply be called a function or product of the activities of our
brain.
The ability to think and the reason is what separates the human race from other species,
including higher animals. As a species, human beings have an innate need to utilise the
information in their environment in order to combat the complex challenges that we face.
The way that an individual approaches these problems and seeks solutions depends
largely upon the manner in which their brain processes the information that it has been
presented with. The various ways in which our brain converts this information into
thoughts can be understood as Types of Thinking.

TYPES OF THINKING
Perceptual or Concrete Thinking
Perceptual thinking is the simplest form of thinking that primarily utilises our perception –
interpretation of the information absorbed by our senses – to create thoughts. It is also
alternatively known as concrete thinking because our thoughts reflect our perception of
concrete objects, exact interpretations or the literal meaning of language rather than applying
other concepts or ideas to decipher the same information.

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Young children first begin to view the world as concrete thinkers. They form thoughts about
objects only when the objects are present and not after they have been removed from the
toddler’s environment. For example, if a child were playing with a toy, they form thoughts
about the size of the toy, perhaps even the sound that it makes. When the toy is taken away
from the child, they may cry at first, but immediately stop thinking about the toy once they
find another object that grabs their attention.
Conceptual or Abstract Thinking
Conceptual or abstract thinking refers to an individual’s ability to form thoughts about the
information presented to them using complex concepts and ideas. Like perceptual thinking it
does not require the perception of actual objects or events. It is an abstract thinking where
one makes use of concepts, the generalised ideas and languages. It is regarded as superior
type of thinking to perceptual thinking as it economises efforts in understanding and problem
solving.
Abstract thinking is a critical aspect of social interactions and communication as it allows
individuals to study non-verbal cues, comprehend humour, analogies and other symbolic
representations. The ability to think in this manner usually develops in late childhood and
adolescence. Abstract thinkers also perform well on standardised intelligence tests.
Abstract thinkers are able to form complex thoughts about theories, emotions and language.
Storytelling is a comprehensive example of abstract thinking. It makes use of emotion,
rhetoric, suspense, and humour in order to relay information.

Reflective Thinking
Reflective thinking is utilised when we are trying to solve complex problems. In order to do
so, our brain reorganises all of our experiences pertinent to a specific situation in an attempt
to relate experiences and ideas to find viable solutions to the challenges we face. Reflective
thinking may therefore be understood as an introspective cognitive process.
In reflective thinking, we reflect upon past experiences and learn from them. For example, if
an individual left their house at 9 am to go catch a bus but missed their bus, they would
perhaps consider leaving home five or ten minutes earlier the next time.
i. It requires reorganisation of all the relevant experiences and finding new ways of
reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle instead of simple association of
experiences or ideas.
ii. Mental activity in reflective thinking does not undergo any mechanical trial and
error type of effort. There is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.
iii. It takes logic into account in which all the relevant facts are arranged in a logical
order, in order to get to the solution of the problem in hand.

Linear and Non-Linear Thinking

Linear thinking is a type of thinking in which information is processed sequentially; in order.
It is necessary when solving problems that require a step-by-step approach wherein there is
a clear starting and ending point. Such type of thinking is most utilised in analytical

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professions. Mathematicians and physicists use linear thinking when deriving or developing
new theories or equations about the universe.
On the other hand, non-linear thinking is a type of abstract thinking that does not follow a
single line progression and instead connects ideas and concepts from multiple sources to
approach a problem.

CREATIVE THINKING

American psychologist B.F. Skinner defined creative thinking as the ability of an individual to
draw new, original, ingenious and unusual inferences from and predictions about their
environment. It allows individuals to interpret their surroundings in novel ways and arrive at
innovative solutions for the challenges posed by their environment. It is considered to be one
of the most important components of one’s cognitive behavior because it is an entirely
internal mental process. Creative Thinking is an integral element in the professional world,
especially in the fields of art and science. The ability to think creatively is displayed in all
aspects of life, specifically in situations where one needs to think unconventionally in order
to solve a problem. Inventors, for example, are the ideal representation of creative thinkers.
Inventing something new requires imagination and originality. Conceiving the idea of a
washing machine that allowed people to reduce the labor and time consumed in washing
clothes manually, is an example of creative thinking.

TYPES OF CREATIVE THINKING

Divergent thinking
Divergent thinking is also called as lateral thinking it is the process of thought where a person
uses flexibility, fluency and originality to explore as many solutions or options to a problem
or issue as possible.

Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking can be used for generation of new ideas and problem solving as it by
definition leaves the already-used behind and looks for completely new options. This type of
thinking is based on avoiding the intrinsic limitations in the brain, which rapidly sees patterns
and handles information in a distinctive way, where long thought sequences are not broken
up once formed. Instead, lateral thinking tools and techniques can be used to restructure and
escape such “clichéd” patterns and think “outside the box”.

Convergent Thinking
Convergent thinking is a more focused process that analyses a set of solutions and selects
from them a solution to the proposed problem. For example, while solving a multiple-choice
questionnaire, we study the options available to us and choose the one that we think best
answers the question posed. Convergent thinking is a more analytical process that
concentrates on finding the best answer, as opposed to divergent thinking that encourages
individuals to take creative risks that may or may not have the desired outcome.

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Aesthetic thinking
The philosophy of aesthetics concerns the creation and appreciation of art and beauty. Taste
is also a key concept here and the study of for instance form, color and shape can augment a
person’s aesthetic thinking.

Some of the types of aesthetic thinking are visual and spatial, where knowledge of structure,
composition, color schemes and shapes can be used to make things aesthetically pleasing.
Many architects, designers, painters and other aesthetic thinkers through the ages have been
fascinated with mathematical characteristics of aesthetics, and how patterns, ratios and
proportions found in nature can be represented by numbers and also in creative pursuits.
Music, drama and other forms of culture can also be considered aesthetic thinking, where
tempo, dramaturgy, rhythm, melody and other structural elements are applied to make
output beautiful and harmonious.

Scientific formulas themselves can also be considered beautiful, and many chemists,
physicists and mathematicians consider their work elegant and aesthetic. Many aspects of
storytelling can also be included in this category, as this “art” is based on dramaturgic
elements, pace, a well-crafted dialogue, etc.

It is however important to emphasise that this type of creative thinking might be enough to
build a story, but in order to create a great work of art, other types of creative thinking are
needed too. The same goes for all work, which is built on aesthetic thinking. A person will not
become a great artist only by going to art school.

Systems thinking
“In systems thinking, increases in understanding are believed to be obtainable by expanding
the systems to be understood, not by reducing them to their elements.” Systemic thinking, or
systems thinking, is a comprehensive analytical approach to understanding how different
elements interact within a system or structure. Commonly used for research and
development purposes in business, scientific, human resources, medical, economic and
environmental studies, systemic thinking is a holistic approach that helps contextualise
information. In contrast to regular analysis methods that usually isolate different components
of a system to find solutions, systemic thinking involves studying all components and their
influence on each other together.

Inspirational thinking
This type of creative thinking concerns the perception of receiving insights from somewhere
or someone else. It often happens in dreams or other states, but sometimes in extremely
powerful, rapid bursts of clarity and focus, known as light-bulb moments or peak experiences.

Some researchers call these breakthrough insights higher creativity. Compared to normal
creative outputs, these seem to take a quantum leap beyond what can be achieved with other
types of thinking. These extraordinary experiences, when everything seems to make sense in
one instant moment, have been called poetic imagination, revelation and sometimes

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channelling. The last word indicates the belief that someone else is involved and the person
with the breakthrough insight is simply a medium for the collective unconscious or a higher
spirit.

CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is one of the most complex thinking processes that requires higher cognitive
skills and abilities such as reflection and reconstruction of thoughts and experiences so that
we may interpret, analyse, evaluate and make inferences in a purposefully self-regulatory
manner that is unbiased. Critical thinkers need to separate themselves from their inherent
prejudices and belief systems in order to arrive at the truth of a problem.

In the age of social media, when consuming online information, it is imperative that we think
critically. When presented with information, we must be wary of the source of the
information, its objectivity and its potential impact on readers/viewers, before we form an
opinion on the matter. If we were to place blind faith in all of the information coming our
way, without questioning its authenticity and intention, we would fail to be critical thinkers
and instead become victims of confirmation bias.

TYPES OF CRITICAL THINKING

Observation
A key type of critical thinking skill involves observation -- person uses this to gather
information about a process, for example. There are basically two types of observation, direct
and participant. Direct observers try not to engage with a process, while participant observers
may interact. For example, this could be the difference between a teacher sitting in a
classroom observing or watching behind a two-way mirror. Each method is an attempt to
obtain information in the most objective way possible.

Analysis
Analysis is another component of critical thinking. It is a way to evaluate what it is that a
person observe, for example. Analysing information entails review and organisation. People
often compare and contrast what it is they have discovered, then decide what to do with the
information they obtained -- they may then begin to integrate components together
synthesising information in a new way.

Inference
Inference is the manner in which people make informed conclusions. It is a bit different than
assumption -- the method whereby people make conclusions based on what they assume to
be true rather than on what they learn. This is not to suggest that inferences are objective or
entirely fact-based as what people often interpret as inference sometimes varies cross-
culturally, for example. Both the context and content of inferences may change over the span
of generations, as well.

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Prediction
Critical thinkers may eventually come to a point when they have to apply what they know
either in thought or deed. This type of critical thinking skill is called prediction -- the method
of applying inferences to essentially guess what will happen. Different professional fields
apply critical thinking models that involve prediction virtually all the time: a statistician uses
quantitative information to generate projections for a business, for example.

CONCEPT FORMATION
Concepts are the categorisation of objects, events, or people that share common properties.
By using concepts, we are able to organise complex notions into simpler, and therefore more
easily usable forms.

When we think about the world one of the ways that we organise our thoughts is by putting
them into categories. This process of developing categories is called concept formation. For
example ‘animal’ is a concept that contains other sub-concepts and then further sub-
concepts. We could divide animals into birds, fish, mammals, and so on. We could then divide
birds into robins, sparrows, owls, and so on. When we apply our concepts we tend to use a
set of defining features. For example we would classify the sparrow as a bird because it has a
number of defining features that we associate with birds such as wings, feathers, beaks and
flying. However, although we may have a set of defining features for a concept such as a bird
we do not apply these rigidly. Penguins and ostriches are still classified as birds even though
they do not fly.
Concept formation refers to a higher-order mental process that acts on information that has
been perceived through our sensory organs and encoded and stored in memory. One
observes that two or more objects are alike or similar in some respects and different in other
respects. For example, in acquiring the concept 'dog', a child may hear the word 'dog' over
and over in different situations and learns to apply the word to any object that has the same
general characteristics as a dog.
Activity 1: Defining a simple concept

What makes a table a table? We all have a concept of what a table is and can easily recognise
a table whether it is a dining table, garden table or coffee table. Take a moment to write a list
of the defining features of a table.

Discussion
Most people who carry out this relatively simple task will tell that a table has a flat surface,
four legs to raise it off the ground and that can put things on it. They may add other features
such as it is an item of furniture or it is often but not always made of wood, but the first three
features are the most frequent responses.

This table does not have four legs but most of us would still recognise it as a table, as it has a
flat surface that we can put things on. Similarly the definition of a table as a piece of furniture
with a flat surface with four legs could just as easily be applied to a stool.

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So, while we would find it difficult to specify a way of distinguishing between a small
occasional table and a stool we would not walk into someone’s living room and sit on their
occasional table just because it shares some of the same features as a stool. So our concepts
are not clearly defined and seem to depend on what we expect to do with an object rather
than how we define them. We typically group objects within the same category or concept if
we do the same thing with them

IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPT FORMATION

Because they determine what one knows and believes and to a large extent, what one does.
It provides an efficient way of organising experiences. if children where unable to categorise
their experiences would be chaotic, filled with objects, properties, sensations and events, too
numerous to hold in memory. Concepts also serve an important function for a range of
cognitive tasks including identifying objects in the world, forming analogies, making
inferences that extend knowledge beyond what is already known and conveying core
elements of a theory. Many of these tasks are central to school performances, thus concepts
can be thought of as the building blocks to these more complex skills.

PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION

The process of concept formation has three important phases:
Perception: Experiences or learning in any form is the starting point of the process of concept
formation. Our perceptions or imaginary experiences, formal or informal learning, provide
opportunities for getting mental images of the objects, persons or events.
Abstraction: The mind analyses the perceived images and synthesises what is common to all,
neglecting what is particular. This process of observing similarities and commonness is named
as abstraction.
Generalisation: After making such observation in the form of abstraction for a numbers of
times the child is able to generalise or form a general idea about the common properties of
some objects or events. On account of this generalisation, he will develop a concept about
these things or events.
For example, the child perceives a black cow at the first time and is told that it is a cow, he
tries to form an idea about it. In the beginning the idea is very particular in nature. Later on,
when he perceives a white or red cow he does not at once, call it a cow. He again makes an
enquiry and comes to that these are cows. He tries to compare the particular mental image
the idea of the previously perceived cow with the images he is having, at present, by
perceiving white and red cows. In this way he compares and contrasts the similarities or
dissimilarities of his mental images related to all perceived cows. In spite of the differences in
color, appearance etc., they are found to possess so many common properties or
characteristics.

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PROBLEM SOLVING
From organising movie collection to deciding to buy a house, problem-solving makes up a
large part of daily life. Problems can range from small (solving a single math equation on
homework assignment) to very large (planning future career).
In cognitive psychology, the term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people
go through to discover, analyse, and solve problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is
to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue. The best strategy for
solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better
off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come
up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.
A problem is any unpleasant situation which prevents people from achieving what they want
to achieve. Any activity to eliminate a problem is termed problem solving.
Problem solving skills refers to the ability to solve problems in an effective and timely manner
without any impediments. It involves being able to identify and define the problem,
generating alternative solutions, evaluating and selecting the best alternative, and
implementing the selected solution. Obtaining a feedback and responding to it appropriately
is an essential aspect of problem solving skills too.

IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Every individual has problems. For this reason, the ability to solve problems is of great
importance to individuals. Some of the benefits include:
Make the impossible possible. Knowledge alone is not the key to solving problems but rather,
complimenting it with systematic problem solving approaches makes the difference. This
helps individuals overcome perilous challenges.

Makes a stand out. People are trained to do the usual. They have acquired skills and
knowledge in what they do. However, people can hardly solve problems when they are
unexpected or unprecedented ones. If they become a regular problem solver not their
workplace, they are easily noticed, recognised, and appreciated.

Increased confidence. No matter where they work or what their profession is, having the
ability to solve problems will boost their confidence level. Because they are sure of their
ability to solve problems, they don’t spend time worrying about what they will do if a problem
should arise.

STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

The steps in the problem process include:
The discovery of the problem
• The decision to tackle the issue

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 • Understanding the problem
• Researching the available options
• Taking actions to achieve goals
Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the
problem itself. If understanding of the issue is faulty, attempts to resolve it will also be
incorrect or flawed.

OBSTACLES OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Of course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles
that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have
described a number of these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant
information, and assumptions.
Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the
constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.
Functional fixedness: This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their
customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different
options that might be available to find a solution.

Irrelevant or misleading information: When a person is trying to solve a problem, it is

important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data
that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it is to focus on
misleading or irrelevant information.

Mental set: A mental set is the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked
in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic,
making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility,
making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

REASONING
Skinner: “Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect
relationships. It may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference
of a cause from an observed event”.

Thus reasoning is a highly specialised thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally
the cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well-
organised systematic steps based on previous experience combined with present
observation. It is one of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously towards the solution
of a problem. It is realistic in the sense that the solution is sought always in reference to the
reality of the situation. We can solve many problems in our day-dreams, dreams and
imaginations but they are unrealistic solutions.

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As Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is aware
of a problem identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.
Reasoning is used not only when we want to solve an immediate problem but also when we
anticipate future problems. Reasoning plays a significant role in one’s adjustment to the
environment. It not only determines one’s cognitive activities but also influences the behavior
and personality.

DECISION MAKING
Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative resolutions. A decision-making process is a series of
steps taken by an individual to determine the best option or course of action to meet their
needs.
In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection
of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options. It could be either
rational or irrational. The decision-making process is a reasoning process based on
assumptions of values, preferences and beliefs of the decision-maker. Every decision-making
process produces a final choice, which may or may not prompt action.
Decision making means deciding to choose one of several alternatives. One day a person go
to the market with Rs. 1,000 to buy a saree. The salesman shows several sarees of similar rate
and the person has to decide which saree they would like to buy. This is decision making.

While making such a decision one has to consider, the quality, color, texture, print etc. of the
saree and whether it will suit her or not. Besides, whether the design of the saree is the ‘in’
thing, that has also to be considered.
When the budget is fixed or there are few alternatives, the scope of decision making is limited
or narrowed down and conflict is less. When there are several alternatives there is more
conflict. Sometimes one has also to make a compromise in decision making, i.e. one may not
be very much satisfied with his decision, but he has to make it, due to other constraints. This
is only an example of a simple decision making, which a person faces more often in his day to
day life.
But occasionally, circumstances became such that one becomes involved in major decisions
which produce tremendous conflict and tension because of the uncertainty or unawareness
of the relative merits and demerits of the other alternatives. If the various alternatives do not
differ much in quality or durability, the difference between them is narrowed down and hence
very marginal, this makes decision a smooth process.
Further the decision should be such that it would not create subsequent problems.
Sometimes a wrong choice may have negative, far reaching and unpleasant consequences
like decision to accept or change a job, to study arts or science, selection of subjects in the
college career, to leave one political party and join another, to file a divorce, to agree to
undergo surgery, to leave one’s own country and join a job abroad, more often than not are

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complex decisions. Such decisions are usually accompanied by anxiety, tension, fear, doubt
and regret.
While making a decision one usually reviews the different aspects of the decision and its
advantages and disadvantages. It is believed that man is a rational organism and he has to
make a choice only after exploring all the available alternatives in terms of their expected
utility and net gain. Since decision making involves complex and complicated judgments, if
not delivered carefully after proper examination and with due reasoning, the decision may be
hasty and erroneous.
It is seen that when there is a crisis of self confidence or when things are done hastily, the
decisions taken, turn to be bad and unprofitable. Those people who are hasty and over
confident of themselves they take decisions without proper analysis of the situations.
Consequently such decisions also become bad. Lack of confidence also make many people
indecisive and they cannot take a judicious and logical decision in right time. It is also seen
that some people make bad decisions repeatedly and repent afterwards.
They become complete failures in their personal, social and professional life. Analysis of the
cycle of their personal history reveals that they cannot take right decisions and depend upon
others for help and assistance. If they are asked to make their own decisions they commit
mistakes and are criticised. Repeated wrong decisions and failure due to wrong decisions,
devaluates their self confidences and strength of mind. Their self esteem is at danger. A fear
psychosis develops when they think of taking decisions and thus they withdraw from taking a
decision.
These are several such persons in the society who because of lack of self confidence, fear
psychosis and some sort of personality maladjustment fail to take a decision correctly or
cannot take a decision at all. Those persons who are easy goers and do not like to take a risk
also are slow decision makers or are indecisive in nature.
Though man is a rational organism, his thoughts and reasoning are colored by emotion and
sentiments, personal biases, prejudices and subjectivism. The head does not always rule the
heart, rather quite often the heart rules the head in decision making which is not uncommon.

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