CONTENTS

S. No. LESSON PAGE

NO.
1. Sociology and rural sociology, extension education, agricultural 6
extension - Meaning and definitions
2. Importance of rural sociology in agricultural extension and their 8
interrelationship
3. Characteristics of Indian rural society, differences and relationships 9
between rural and urban societies
4. Social group/s - Classification, formation and organization of groups, 13
role of social groups in agricultural extension
5. Social stratification - Meaning, forms, class system and caste system 16
6. Culture, different cultural concepts and their role in agricultural 18
extension
7. Social values, social control and attitudes - Types and their role in 22
agricultural extension
8. Leadership - Meaning, classification of leaders, roles of a leader and 26
different methods in selection of a leader
9. Training of leaders – Lay and professional leaders, advantages and 32
limitations in using local leaders in agricultural extension
10. Psychology and educational psychology - Meaning, scope and 35
importance
11. Intelligence - Meaning, types, factors and importance in agricultural 37
extension
12. Personality - Meaning, types, factors and importance in agricultural 40
extension
13. Perception, emotions, frustration - Meaning, types, factors and 42
importance in agricultural extension
14. Motivation - Meaning, types of motives, theories of motivation, 47
importance of motivation in agricultural extension
15. Teaching, learning, learning experience, learning situation - Meaning 49
and definition, elements of learning situation and its characteristics
16. Principles of learning and their implications in teaching. Steps in 51
extension teaching

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 COURSE NO: AEXT 291 TITLE: FUNDAMENTALS OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

THEORY NOTES

LECTURE NO.: 1. SOCIOLOGY AND RURAL SOCIOLOGY, EXTENSION EDUCATION,

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION - MEANING AND DEFINITIONS

Sociology – Introduction:
The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875) who is often referred as
the father of sociology who named it from two words, of which one is Latin word ‘socius’
meaning companion and the other is Greek word ‘logos’ meaning speech or reasoning.

SOCIOLOGY

SOCIUS LOGOS
(Latin) (Greek)
(Companion) (Speech or reasoning)

The etymological (based on the origin of the word) meaning of sociology is thus ‘the
science of society’. Sociology has been referred to as systematized knowledge in the
study of human social relationships. The content or subject matter of sociology is not
literary writing as is assured (thought) by many people. It is a detailed and systematic study
of society. There are animal societies also but sociology studies only human societies.
Human beings have progressed to a large extent and therefore, sociology is used for the
systematic study of the human being in group relations. Sociology is concerned with
people and without people or human beings there cannot be sociology, it cannot be in
isolation as its main emphasis is on their relationship with other persons. They stay in
groups and therefore the sociologists study people organized in families, friendship groups,
temples, schools, industrial plants and in other organizations. The fundamental process in
any society is interaction or social interaction. In short sociology studies the social
behavior of people, their different social groups and the intra and interrelationship of these
social groups. Sociology is the web or tissue of human interaction and interrelationship
– Ginsburg

Definitions and scope of Rural Sociology or what is rural sociology:

Rural sociology is a branch of sociology. It is made up of two terms rural and
sociology that is science of rural society. It is the study of the sociology of life in the rural
environment, which systematically studies the rural communities to discover their
conditions and tendencies and formulate the principles of progress as the term implies. It is
limited to the study of various aspects of rural society.

6
Definition: According to Smith rural sociology is the body of facts and principles of the
systematized knowledge, which has developed the application of scientific method in the
study of human relationships in rural environment and people, engaged directly or indirectly
in agriculture occupation. An extension worker is a change agent. Transfer or
communication of innovations is the main job of these changes agents. But for introducing
improved farm practices, an understanding of the farmer, his social and cultural
environment within which he operates, his home, his village and the local region is
necessary.

Rural sociology provides such knowledge and makes possible the planning of a
strategic approach for the desired changes. It allows constant analysis of the rural situation
and within reasonable limits prediction of possible results. From this point of view the main
emphasis in the community development programs is on changing human behavior and
working with rural people by using educational methods. For doing this, as stated earlier
the change agent, must have adequate knowledge and skill in methods of
communication. In addition to this the change agent must know what is going on, in the
minds of rural people, their relationships and interactions, their groups, their institutions,
their organizations and the culture they share. All these factors influence the farmers’
behavior. The knowledge regarding these factors is provided by rural sociology. In the
absence of this knowledge of rural society the change agent will not be able to plan a
proper strategy of change. The change agent at the first instance has to understand their
programmes and their objectives. Secondly he must know the currents of thoughts in the
minds of the people with whom he works. He needs to understand their motives, their
reactions and their receptivity to new ideas. He should also understand why some people
are more receptive than others, why some people take the initiative and lead and why
others hesitate

Scope of Rural Sociology: Rural sociology works in three areas

a. Accumulation and use of sociological knowledge and use it for solving the present
problems of rural society (subject matter of rural sociology)
b. Direct its efforts in obtaining sociological knowledge by empirical research procedures
(research in rural sociology)
c. Channel its efforts by keeping faith in the methods used in this discipline in solving the
problems of rural society (solving the problems of rural society)

Rural Sociology – its importance to extension work:

1. In the context of community development and rural development programs deliberate
efforts are made to bring about social change in rural areas. This change is brought
about not in a vacuum but in a structure of human relations, which necessitates the
study of rural sociology

7
2. An extension worker is a change agent. He has to bring about changes in the rural
culture. Therefore, he has to understand the culture in which he has to bring about
changes
3. In the cross-cultural situation, it is likely that the change agent may develop the
ethnocentric attitude, which makes him difficult to work successfully. Study of rural
sociology helps to overcome this difficulty.
4. Some times. The change agent, while working in rural communities, does not keep the
established pattern of hierarchy, this creates problems in his working. Rural sociology
helps him to understand the same and its importance
5. The value system of individuals, families, groups and communities is an important
factor to be kept in mind while trying to bring about changes in the farming communities

Therefore, it is necessary for a student of rural development to study the subject of rural
sociology to bring about planned change in the rural communities effectively and without
resistance
LECTURE NO.: 2. IMPORTANCE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION AND THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIP
Extension education (Agricultural Extension) in the field of agriculture is
concerned with agricultural education aimed at assisting people to bring about continuous
improvement in their physical and social well being through individual and cooperative
efforts. It makes available to the villagers, scientific information and also guidance in the
application of such information in solving their problems. Villagers are educated to change
their attitudes so as to raise their standard of living

Meaning of Extension Education:

The word Extension is derived from the Latin roots ‘Ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’
meaning ‘stretching’. Thus the term extension education means the type of education,
which is stretched out into the villages and fields beyond the limits of schools and colleges
to which formal type of education is normally confined. In other words the word ‘extension’
used in this context signifies an OUT OF SCHOOL system of education. The three links in
the chain of rural development are research, teaching and extension

EXTENSION
(Latin word)
‘EX’ ‘TENSIO’
(Out) (Stretching)

Definition:
Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by
learning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions

8
 INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND EXTENSION
S.No.
Rural Sociology Extension
1. It is a scientific study of the laws of It is informal (actually non-formal)
the structure and development of education for the rural people with a view to
rural society develop rural society on desirable lines
2. It studies the attitudes and behavior It seeks to modify or change for the better,
of rural people the attitudes and behavior of village people
3. It studies the needs and interests of It helps rural people to discover their
rural society needs and problems and builds
educational programs based on these
needs and wants
4. It analyses rural social It fosters (develops) and utilizes village
relationships, or group organizations and leadership and
organizations and leadership in rural favorable social processes, to achieve its
areas, the social processes like objectives of rural development
cooperation, association, competition
etc, among village people
5. It studies social situations and It makes use of such social data as a
assembles social facts or rural basis for building up its extension
society programs for rural areas
6. It investigates the social, cultural, It also studies these problems with
political, and religious problems of reference to their impact on extension
rural society work in villages

LECTURE NO.: 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN RURAL SOCIETY, DIFFERENCES

AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETIES

Need for the Study of the Rural Society:

1. The study of rural society is essential for carrying out a programme of rural extension
2. It is important to know some of the characteristics of rural society as people have
distinguishing features
3. A knowledge of fundamental characteristics of rural situation should contribute much to
the understanding of the structure of rural society, the way it functions
4. Rural people are studied in terms of their personal and group relations and as members
of groups, organizations and institutions
5. Rural society comprises of all persons residing in administrative unit of village as
defined by the authorities

9
Definition of Society:
Society is defined as a group of people in more or less permanent association who are
organized for their collective activities and who feel that they belong together

Characteristics of Indian Rural Society:

1. Agriculture is main economic activity of rural people. It is based predominantly on
Agriculture. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood. The land is distributed
between certain families. The distribution of land is between a big land owner and rest
of the community, possession of which (land) has prestige value
2. Caste is dominant institution of village. It is peculiar type of grouping found in rural
India. The village is governed to a very great extent by traditional caste occupations,
carpenters, cobblers, smiths, washer men, agricultural laborers etc all belonging to
separate castes, caste relations are important characteristics of rural life
3. The religious and caste composition of village largely determines its character.
Different castes exist in village due to social distance. The habitation of each caste is
separated from others. The habitation area has usually a distinct name e.g.
Harijanawada
4. Each village is independent. All villages have their own organizations, authority and
sanctions. Every village has Panchayat which is village self government
5. Village settlements are governed by certain traditions. The layout of the village,
construction of houses, the dress etc is allowed according to the prescribed patterns of
the culture of the area. In different areas a certain degree of diversity (differences
between villages in the above aspects of the village life) in village organizations is
peculiar
6. The rural society is self-sufficient. The unit of production in rural society is the family,
which tries to produce much of its required goods. Economic production is the basic
activity of rural aggregates (rural groups)
7. As a territorial, social, economic and religious unit, the village is a separate and distinct
entity
8. It is common to find out a sense of attachment towards own settlement site. In rural
society people do not have widely diversified tasks in different parts of the community
9. Village is characterized by isolation
10. The chief characteristic of rural life is homogeneity, there are not many differences
among people pertaining to income, status etc.
11. The other characteristics are less density of population, less social mobility, less
education, simplicity, traditionalism, fatalism, believing superstitions etc

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES

Rural people are different from those living in urban areas. These differences are mainly
due to the environment and its consequent impact on the lives of the people

10
S.No.
Item of comparison Rural community Urban community
1. General environment Closely associated with Remote from nature.
and orientation to nature. Direct effect of natural Predominance of man-
nature elements like rains, drought, made environment
heat, etc, on their lives

2. Occupation Major occupation is farming. Most of the jobs are non-

Non-agricultural occupations agricultural and specialized
are secondary in importance
3. Working conditions Being agriculture work in Work in closed
open air environment. Greater
isolation from nature. Poor
fresh air
4. Family Works as a unit. More unity or Work in different
integrity and more contacts occupations and contact is
between members less between members
5. Size of the community ‘Agriculturalism’ and size of Large. Less land per person
community are negatively
correlated. Community is small
in size. Land to man ratio is
higher
6. Density of population Low density of population High density of population
7. Material possession Less Different types and more
8. Homogeneity and More homogeneous. Similarity More heterogeneous. Wide
heterogeneity in social and psychological variety of interests,
characteristics in the occupations, languages etc.
population. Such as beliefs,
language etc,
9. Social institutions Most of the institutions are a Numerous enacted
natural outgrowth of rural institutions
social life. Less of enacted
(approved or created)
institutions
10. Social stratification Less among groups and low Different types of groups
and differentiation degree of differentiation. Gap like professional,
between higher and lower occupational etc, and high
classes is less degree of differentiation.
Gap between the higher
and lower classes is more

11
11. Hierarchy Less in number e.g. lower, More in number e.g. upper-
middle and upper classes upper, upper-middle, upper-
lower, middle upper and so
on
12. Social contacts and Less number, social Large number, social
type interaction is narrow. Primary interaction is wider.
contacts are more Secondary contacts are
predominant. Personal and predominant. Impersonal,
relatively durable relations. casual and short-lived
Man is interacted as a human relations. Man is interacted
as number and address
13. Social mobility Occupational and territorial Occupational and territorial
mobility is less intensive. mobility is found more
Normally the migration current intensive. Urbanity and
carries more individuals from social mobility are positively
countryside to the cities correlated. Only in the
period of social crises
migration is from cities to
countryside
14. Social control Informal control i.e. more Formal control i.e. legally
related to the values and
traditions of the society
15. Social change Rural life is relatively static and Urban social life is under
stable constant social change
16. Social solidarity Strong sense of belonging and Comparatively less sense
(unity) unity due to common of belonging and unity due
objectives, similarities and to dissimilarities and
personal relationships impersonal kinds of
relationships
17. Standard of living Low standard of living, High standard of living
18. Educational facilities Less More
19. Economy Subsistence Cash
20. Communication Less transport facilities, bad Many transport facilities,
roads etc better roads,
communication etc
21. Society A simple, uni-group society A complex, multi-group
society
22. Culture Sacred Secular (all religions are
equal)

12
LECTURE NO.: 4. SOCIAL GROUP/S - CLASSIFICATION, FORMATION AND
ORGANIZATION OF GROUPS, ROLE OF SOCIAL GROUPS IN AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION
Social structure is composed of groups. Organizations, institutions, community etc,
are the forms of human associations. Society functions through different forms of human
beings to fulfill needs and purposes. Man functions in society through different forms of
groups. Man is born is a social group and his first association is with his mother. He
associates with groups in some way or other. Individual nowhere lives in isolation. This
tendency to unite in groups is one of the important characteristics of human beings. Social
groups are the units out of which society is constructed. Study of group is of primary
important in the study of society and also important as a part of the total structure of
society. Group is a medium through which we learn culture. The process of socialization
takes place in groups
Definitions of Group:
According to Chitambar a social group is a unit of two or more people in reciprocal (to
and fro) interaction and in communication with each other

Maclever defined social group as a collection of human beings who enter into distinctive
social relationships with one another
According to Sharif and Sharif, a social group is a collection of two or more individuals in
which there are psychological interactions and reciprocal roles based upon durable
contacts, shared norms, interests, distinctive pattern of collective behavior and structural
organization of leadership and followership
Elements of Social Group:
1. Social unit
2. Psychological interactions and reciprocal roles
3. Durable contacts
4. Distinctive pattern of collective behavior
5. Sharing of norms and interests
6. Pattern of leadership and follower ship

Types or classification of Social Groups:

Type of group/s Based on
Primary and Secondary groups The type of relationship
Formal and Informal groups Mode of organization and functioning
Voluntary and involuntary groups Structure and type of membership
Horizontal and vertical groups Social class
In and out groups Personal feelings
Locality groups Territory or locality
Small and large groups Size
Reference group

13
 Based on the type of relationship groups are dived in to primary and secondary
groups: the details are as follows as given by Rogers 1960: Primary groups are
relationship directed whereas secondary groups are goal oriented
Primary Group Secondary Group
Small in size, often less than 20 to 30 Large in size
persons
Personal and intimate relationships among Impersonal and aloof(distant) relationships
members are there among members
Face to face association is there between Less face to face contact
the members

Permanency is there and members are Temporary in nature. Members spend

together over a long period of time relatively little time together
Members are well acquainted and have a Members are not well acquainted and
strong sense of loyalty or ‘we’ feeling and anonymity prevails
a strong amount of group pressure is
present
Informality is most common i.e. group does Formality prevails i.e. group often has a
not have any name, officers etc name, officers and a regular meeting place
Group decisions are more traditional and Group decisions are more rational and the
non rational emphasis is on efficiency
E.g. family, friendship group, play group E.g. political groups, labour unions, trade
etc unions, employees associations etc

Based on mode of organization and functioning groups are divided in to formal

and informal groups:
Formal Group Informal Group
These are formally organized and have These are not formally organized and lack
prescribed structure i.e. constitution by-laws prescribed structure
etc
E.g. Labour union, village council, students E.g. family, friendship group, play group
union etc etc

Based on structure and type of membership groups are divided in to voluntary,

involuntary and delegate groups:
Voluntary Group Involuntary Group
A person becomes member of the group Persons become members of the group
based on his choice not according to their choice i.e. by birth,
by residence, by location etc
E.g. friendship group, play group etc E.g. family, neighbourhood, community
etc.

14
Delegate group: The members of this group are representative and chosen by groups.
E.g. Gram Panchayat, U.N.O., etc.
Based on social class groups are divided in the horizontal and vertical groups:
Horizontal Group Vertical Group
The members of this group are alike or similar The groups that are composed of
in status or position in the class system of the members from different social strata (social
society status) and whose membership cuts
vertically across the horizontal groupings in
the society
E.g. caste E.g. race, nation etc

Based on personal feelings the groups have been divided in and out groups:
In Group Out Group
Persons in this group feel that they belong to Persons in this group do not feel that they
that group based on their attitudes of the belong to that group based on their
members towards their own social groups attitudes
E.g. my family, my class, my church etc. E.g. their family, their class, their church
etc.

Based on the size of the groups the groups are divided in to small and large groups:
Small Group Large Group
The number of members is less than 30 The number of members is more
E.g. family, play group etc. E.g. political group, labour union etc.

Locality Group:
This classification considers locality as one bond for holding groups together or it is
based on the territory or locality occupied by the members. E.g. neighbourhoods,
communities or villages towns etc

Reference Group:
In this group the individual feels identified with the group but he may or may not be
the member of the group, the group influences individual. He shares the objectives of this
group, which he accepts. The reference group provides the standards that guide behavior
even when the standards are contrary to earlier membership groups. To understand the
behavior of human beings we must know their reference groups. A reference group may be
any group for E.g. Primary group, horizontal group etc. Reference group like friendship
group may influence a farmer to accept or reject the adoption of an improved farming
practice. Reference group is the group which the individual refers for advises on different
aspects. An individual may have different reference groups for different purposes. In rural
society the individual belongs to a comparatively small number of groups (largely primary)
and his behavior is largely determined by them

15
LECTURE NO.: 5. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION - MEANING, FORMS, CLASS SYSTEM
AND CASTE SYSTEM

Definitions:
Social stratification is the division of population into two or more layers, each of
which is relatively homogeneous and between which there are differences in privileges
(opportunities), restrictions, rewards and obligations – Lundberg 1968.

A pattern of superimposed categories of differential privilege is termed as social

stratification – Cuber 1954. The moment of individuals or groups from one stratum of
society to another is known as social mobility.

Caste system and class system are two of the major types or forms of social
stratification. Communities are socially stratified in various ways. Sex division is a major
sociological difference, age groups and so on. Society is divided into layers, some of which
occupy a higher position than others. These layers are generally accepted as social
classes. So the principal type of social stratification is seen in the phenomenon of ‘class’.
The term CLASS means a number of individuals in the same society whose status is
similar. Social status refers to positions of individual or group in relation to other. As a
sociological concept, social status is the difference between higher and lower. According to
Maciver a social class is any portion of a community marked off from the rest of social
status. A social class has been defined as an abstract category of persons arranged on
levels according to social status they posses. There are no firm lines dividing one
category from another - Rogers 1960

The social class involves three features:

a. Hierarchy of status (always graded order)
b. Recognition of superiority and inferiority and
c. Change and mobility is present

Determinants of social class: In some societies occupation and income in other

education and ownership of material possessions in some other family background
may be important criteria. The basis of criteria among the farmers is the land ownership

Caste: The term ‘Caste’ was derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning lineage
or race.

Definitions: A caste is a social category whose members are assigned a permanent

status within a given social hierarchy and whose contacts are restricted accordingly –
Lundberg. Caste is a closed class. As compared to class, the caste is the most rigid,
clearly graded type of social stratification. This has been often referred to as one of the
extreme forms of closed class systems

16
Characteristics of rigid caste system:
1. The caste system is determined slowly by birth and there is no vertical social mobility
2. In other words, caste is a closed class system with clearly demarcated status and role
of its members. One is borne into a caste, lives and dies in it
3. When a class is somewhat strictly heredity we may called it as caste – Cooley
4. An individual is borne into a caste of his parents and can rise no further. Status is
determined by birth. Type of caste consciousness acts as a barrier to social progress
5. India is cited as the most perfect instance of closed but not open system which is
extremely differentiated

Determinants of caste:
a. The family in to which the individual takes birth and its name
b. The way of dressing
c. The privileges, rewards and restrictions
d. The way of performing religious rights etc

Character Class pattern Caste pattern

Value definition of Applied to any characteristic Usually applied to biological
inferiority and superiority
Relevancy in norm role Less than in caste systems More than in class systems
definitions
Self definitions Labels and awareness may Rigid labels and awareness
be vague
Change and expectation Provided for and expected Neither provided nor expected
Material objects Possession of valued objects Possession of valued objects
increases as class position increases as caste position
increases increases
Justification of system Pragmatic ‘ this worldly’ Strong religious endorsement
(value definition) justification
Status Achieved Ascribed

Social interaction: It is dynamic interplay of forces in which contacts between persons

and groups results in a modification of the attitudes and behavior of the participants –
Sutherland 1961

Social processes: Social interaction, which assumes a repetitive pattern in a specific

direction, becomes a social process. Social processes refer to repetitive forms of behavior
which are commonly found in social life. E.g. Cooperation, competition, accommodation
and assimilation

17
LECTURE NO.: 6. CULTURE, DIFFERENT CULTURAL CONCEPTS AND THEIR ROLE
IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Culture: meaning, definitions and different orders of culture:

The extension education brings about the changes in the behavior complex of the
rural people. The behavior is in turn influenced by the cultural factors, extension workers,
therefore should have knowledge of the culture of the rural people. Learned behavior,
which has been organized into patterns and is shared and transmitted among the members
of society, is known as culture. Sociologists have developed the concept of culture in
order to explain the regularity in human actions. The sociological meaning of the term
culture differs sharply from the literary (bookish) use. In conventional (usual) usage, the
word culture is employed to designate only the behavior systems that are regarded as
refinements such as paintings, music, art etc. But culture also includes all the activities that
are characteristics of a given group of people

In social science, culture refers to totality of what is learned by individuals as

members of the society. Culture is a way of life, mode of thinking, acting and feeling.
Culture refers to the distinct way of life of a group of people, a complete design of living.
According to Tylor culture is the complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art,
moral, law, customs and any other capability and habits acquired by them as members of
society. Culture includes not only the way of making things and doing things, but the
pattern of the relationships and attitudes, beliefs and ideas they have and even the feelings
with which people respond. In other words culture includes everything the man learns or
acquires as member of a particular society. All the members of group share culture. All
human societies have culture but the contents differ, and all cultures have customs,
language, major institutions, and some type of technology, which is shared by the members
of the society

According to Ralph Linton culture may be the thought in terms of three different
orders:
Two overt (which can be seen) orders of culture are:
1. Material products of industry, implements, tools etc
2. Overt behavioral patterns like customs, folkways etc

One covert (which cannot be seen or hidden) order of culture is:

3. Psychological like attitudes, values etc. held by the individuals or groups

The study of culture helps to understand the behavior of people in different parts of
the world. The desired change cannot be successfully brought about without clear
comprehension of the concept of culture. Extension worker should have knowledge of
elements of culture that are important in relation to his work

18
Role of culture in Extension:
1. Culture is dynamic and continuously changes because of internal as well as external
forces of stimuli. Community development aims at bringing about the changes in the
culture of rural people towards desired goals. Scientific understanding of the culture is
therefore basic E.g. Improved pig raring in Muslim village is not possible
2. It is possible to record greater success when the improved practices introduced are in
familiar terms i.e. something that is already present in the culture E.g. Improved plough
with iron ploughshare
3. Change is more likely to occur in those aspects of culture where there is lack of
adjustment or stress, then in those aspects, which are established and fixed. E.g.
Introduction of improved practices in areas which are rehabilitated on account of floods
or fire
4. Change in technology is usually more readily accounted than change in other aspects
of culture E.g. Introducing of improved seed of a crop

Ethnocentrism:
Ethnocentrism refers to the preferential feeling we have for the way we do things
in our culture. We presume that ours is the best of all cultures and the way we do things is
the right way to do them. This is common characteristic we find among the people of all
cultures. This influences the extension activities some times, which we have to understand
and safeguard

Customs:
The sociologists have used various terms in order to classify various human acts of
behavior. If these various types of human behavior are organized, they are called customs.
Maclever defined customs as socially accorded (agreed) or accredited (given) ways of
acting
Customs are the accepted ways in which people do things together. Customs are socially
prescribed forms of behavior transmitted by tradition and enforced by social disapproval of
its violation (not doing). Customs may also be defined as a habitual form of meeting people.
Training the young, supporting the aged etc are some of the customs of society. Our acting,
our dressing, our worship are controlled to a great extent by customs. We agree most of
the customs of the group to which we belong. Custom is usage (habit) it’s essential feature
is that it is a generally observed code of conduct. Its’ sanction (punishment) is fear of
public opinion. Human behavior is not individualized. It has some definite forms. It occurs in
regular fashion. Customs are thought of as being well-established and difficult to change.
Customs are generally a group action. Unconsciously we conform to the customs of our
own society. Folkway if transmitted by tradition and followed generation after generation
may become custom

19
The classification of customs and their origin are as follows:
Folkways:
• Folkways are expected forms of behavior but are not rigidly enforced
• Folkways are the customary ways of behaving in society, in which society exerts
some force for conformity
• Folkways are recognized ways of behavior in a society
• The Folkways are socially acceptable ways of behavior. The customary norms of
society that do not imply moral sanction (punishment). Folkways are otherwise
called as Usages sometimes
• The folkways are the right ways to do things because they are the expected ways.
They do not have more sanctions associated with them. People who do not conform
may be subject to criticism but would not be penalized

Examples of folkways are:

• Good manners
• Entering home only after removal of shoes
• Lady touching the feet of her mother-in-law
• Rajput wearing a turban
• Greeting others with folded hands

Thus folkways are accepted as appropriate but not insisted upon. Society cannot
exercise pressure upon people to conform to regular pattern of behavior. Folkways help
individuals in a group to order social life in a smooth and harmonious way. People who
have similar needs began to satisfy these needs in a similar way in the same environment
such actions give rise to folkways. Folkways usually arise without prior intention in the
process of living. They are the results of frequent repetition of petty (little) actions often, by
large number of people acting in the same way when faced with some needs. They arise
from experience. Non-observance of folkways is not a vital matter, social sanction is
relatively mild, but the disapproval is shown by lifted eyebrow expression of moderate
surprise or smile

Mores:
Mores are the plural of Latin word ‘More’. The mores are the customs or patterns of
behavior, which are regarded by members of social system as vital and essential to the
welfare of the group. They show what is right for the welfare of group. Mores may be
defined as those customs, which are held to be essential to ethical or moral values of
people. Mores are the socially acceptable ways of behavior that do involve moral
standards (regulations) and violation of more may result in severe social action or
sanction, such as ostracism (exclusion of individual or family from the village or society).
Religion provides foundation for mores of the society

20
Examples of Mores:
• Inter-dining of high-cast Hindus with out-caste Hindus
• Honesty is one of the recognized mores of the society
• Saluting the National Flag
• Standing during the playing of National Anthem
• Monogamy (having one wife or husband)
• Women and children first in the event of crises

The term more is used for those things that are ought to be done. It is used for
positive actions. Mores are insisted upon individuals. Society exerts pressure to conform
the regular pattern and it not followed individual gets penalty from society. Mores are rigidly
enforced

Taboos:
Generally the term ‘more’ is used for the positive action or things that ought to be
done but the term ‘taboo’ is used for the negative action and for the things that one ought
not to do. Taboo means forbid. It refers to the prohibitions of the types of behavior
because of some magical, supernatural (God) or religious sanction

Examples of taboo: Total abstinence (self denial) of eating beef in a Hindu village (eating
beef in Hindu religion) and eating pork in Muslim religion

Rituals:
Ritual is prescribed form of behavior for certain occasions and certain actions are
designated in prescribed manner. Ritual may be defined as a pattern of behavior or
ceremony, which has become the customary way of dealing with certain situations.
Generally it is discussed as an aspect of religion. Religion is found in all established form of
activities. It may include prayers. Military organization and other formally organized groups
have adhered to a prescribed form of behavior known as ritualism

Examples of rituals:
• Playing with crackers on ‘Diwali’
• Celebration of Independence Day
• Celebration of Republic day

Conventions:
These are customs regulating more significant social behavior. Parents generally do
not care to leave such learning to chance. Parents instruct their children the conventions
though often they (parents) cannot explain why the child must confirm

21
Examples of Conventions:
• Being polite to others
• Wearing clothes in public
• Dating or courtship (found in western countries) and engagement practices
• Using knife, spoon or fork for eating etc.

Differences between mores and taboos:

Mores Taboos
Mores refer to positive action Taboos refer to negative action
Mores are the customs regarded by the They are the customs which are forbidden
members of the society as vital or essential
Things ought to be done Things ought not to be done
E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc. E.g. eating of beef in Hindu religion etc.

Differences between mores and folkways:

Mores Folkways
These are socially acceptable ways of These are the customary ways of
behavior that involve moral standards behaving in society
These are rigidly enforced and if not followed Persons who do not conform may be
by a person the individual gets severe penalty subjected to criticism or be considered
form the society ‘strange’ but would not necessarily
penalized
Patterns of behavior which are considered Expected form of behavior but not rigidly
essential by the society enforced
If violated the group or society may be If violated will not have severe effect on
disturbed or divided society
E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc. E.g. Good manners, greeting others etc.

Lecture No.: 7. Social values, Social control and attitudes - types and their role in
agricultural extension
Definitions:
Values are relative importance or preferences we give to any object, idea or content
of experience etc. Value is defined as anything desired or chosen by someone. Social
values are relatively enduring (lasting or permanent) awareness plus emotion regarding an
object, idea or person – Green 1964. Social values are abstract and often unconscious
assumptions of what is right and important Young – 1959.

22
Attitude: Definitions
Attitude is a positive or negative feeling one has towards any psychological object.
Attitudes are based up on values and attitudes influence our action positively or
negatively. Hence they are covert and not overt

Value system: The values in terms of attitudes taken together as a set form a system,
which is called value system of society. E.g. prestige based on caste of individual, status
based up on individual’s possession of land etc

Role of value system in Extension:

Society places different values on various items which form a part of village life e.g.
villagers spend money on daughter’s marriage, building a house etc. Extension worker
should understand the value system in a village and implement his programs in such a
way that the programs are not going to interfere with the value system. Extension worker
should think of changing the same (values) before introducing his programs

Values and Norms

Norms are closely associated with values but are clearly differentiated from them
(values). Values are the attitudes, held by the individuals, groups or society as a whole, as
to whether material or non-material objects are good, bad, desirable or undesirable. The
rules that govern action directed towards achieving values are called norms. Norms are
the accepted and approved forms of behavior that are based on and consistent with
dominant social values in society. The values and norms go together

Opinion Æ Attitude Æ Norm/Social value

A set of social values will always have an accompanying set of social norms or rules
that uphold and support values
E.g. of value: Religious worship and respect to god usually is considered value
E.g. of value system: Religion

Examples of norms: Observance of religious festivals and performance of rituals and

worship and other relevant activities are important norms of society towards the value
system of religion

Major values prevailing in rural society or Social values in Indian rural society:
1. Importance of ascribed (given by somebody) status: Status of individual is decided
by the group to which he belongs. There is an established order of hierarchy of castes
in the Indian society
2. Recognition of inequality: Caste is still a guiding factor. There are inequalities based
on the concept of higher and lower castes which are manifested (brought out) in many
ways

23
3. Patriarchal tendency: Father is the head of family. Eldest male member of family has
supreme power and tends to act autocratically
4. Status of women: There is a tendency towards giving greater respect and recognition
to women, but they are supposed to be inferior to men. As far as their sphere of work is
concerned it is mostly restricted to home management
5. Greater male dominance: Boys receive greater attention than girls. E.g. it is general
attitude of parents that daughter(s) need not be highly educated
6. Adherence to well regulated sex relations
7. Charity: There is religious significance and approval for the giving of alms (something
or money or food item given freely to poor). A person with a charitable disposition is
respected
8. Tendency of non-violence: Killing of animals expect for the purpose of food is
considered to be immoral
9. Respect for old aged and elders: There are fixed norms which guide the behavior of
individuals towards elders, superiors and old persons
10. Religious attitude: People in rural areas are religious. Performance of rituals and
ceremonies are common in the traditional way

Types of Values:
1. Ultimate values: Ultimate values are often referred as dominant values. These values
express the general views of society towards matters such as the nature of the
universe and man relation to it and to his fellowmen. These values are found most
easily in social institutions such as religion, government or the family. E.g. The
democratic proceedings expressed in the system of government (democracy). Ultimate
values are abstract (not specific) and often not attainable
2. Intermediate values: These values are derived from ultimate values and are actually
ultimate values that have been rephrased into more reasonable attainable categories.
E.g. Freedom of speech, adult franchise (choice, religious freedom, free public
education, non-discrimination, adequate housing etc.)
3. Specific values: The subdivisions of intermediate values are called specific values
and are almost unlimited in number. Specific values must be in conformity with the total
value system of which they form the smallest unit. E.g. To a farmer with intermediate
value of adequate housing the related specific values can be a brick construction with a
flat slab roof, wide verandah and large court and with provision to livestock housing. If
public education is the intermediate value specific values can be the type of school,
room and other facilities and content of courses or instructions etc.

Social control:
Definitions:
Social control is the way in which social order coheres (joins together) and maintains
itself, how it operates as a whole as a changing equilibrium (balance) – Maclever

24
Social control is the sum of those methods by which a society tries to influence human
behaviour to maintain a given order – Mannheim

Meaning of social control: Social control is an influence exerted by the public or society
for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole

Means or types of social control

Social control is classified in to two categories formal and informal
Informal means of social control
1. Belief: Belief in religion controls the behaviour to a great extent
2. Social suggestions: we suggest the younger generations many ideas like giving
the examples of great men, celebration of anniversaries of great people etc
3. Ideologies: The communication of ideologies like Ghandhiism, capitalism,
communism etc by which the social behaviour of the individuals is controlled
4. Customs
5. Folkways
6. Mores
7. Religion
8. Art and literature: A purposeful classical dance as art and religious epics like bible,
Ramayana etc
9. Humour and Satire: Cartoons, comics etc as a part of humour and satires as
indirect criticism of actions harmful to help in maintaining the social values
10. Public opinion: In villages people know each other even otherwise the fear of public
criticism and the need of recognition by individuals makes to control his behaviour

Formal means of social control

1. Law: Law is a body of rules given by legally authorized bodies and enforced by
authorized agencies like police, judiciary etc
2. Education: Education prepares the child for social living by removing his wrong
attitudes and learning discipline, honesty and what is right or wrong
3. Coercion (force): Physical coercion like imprisonment or death penalty (through
law) and non violent coercion like strike boycott or non cooperation (between
individuals and groups) are means of social control

Role of social control in society or Need of social control:

1. To maintain the old order: The old members of the family enforce their ideas on
the children Marriages are settled by the elder members of the family and they
influence the behaviour of other members of the family
2. To establish the social unity: Without social control the social unity is a dream.
The families and society are united because social control regulates behaviour
through established norms

25
3. To regulate or control individual behaviour: No two persons are alike and even
the children of same parents are not having same attitudes. If an individual is left
free to behave in the society it would be reduced to a jungle. Social control protects
the social interests by regulating the individuals’ behaviour
4. To provide social sanction: Social control provides social sanction through
customs, folkways, mores etc
5. To check cultural mal adjustment: Society is subject to change and individual tries
to adjust to the changing society during this process he or she is likely to develop
some habits which may not be right or he may become slave of passions e.g. visiting
bars, night clubs etc. Social control helps to stop this mal adjustment

LECTURE NO.: 8. LEADERSHIP - MEANING, CLASSIFICATION OF LEADERS, ROLES

OF A LEADER AND DIFFERENT METHODS IN SELECTION OF A LEADER

Definitions of leader:
Leader is a person who exerts an influence over a number of people

Leader is one who leads by initiation of social behavior, by directing, organizing or

controlling the efforts of others, by prestige or power or position

Leader is a person who is spontaneously considered or chosen as influential in a given

situation. In every society certain individuals operate within groups to guide and influence
members to action. These individuals are referred as leaders

Leadership is defined as an activity in which effort is made to influence people to

cooperate in achieving a goal viewed by the group as desirable – Rogers and Olmsted

Leadership is defined as the role and status of one or more individuals in the structure
and functioning of group organizations, which enable these groups to meet a need or
purpose that can be achieved only through the co-operation of the members of the group -
Hepple

Classification of leadership or Types of leaders:

There are several classifications of leaders. For example the leaders may be classified in
terms of the types of groups they work with such as political, military, business,
religious, recreational leaders etc. Whyte has classified leaders in to 4 categories as
follows,

1. Operational leaders: those persons who actually initiate action within the group,
regardless of whether or not they hold an elected office
2. Popularity leaders: means in a group a popular person will be elected to a position of
leadership because the members like him. Sometimes such an individual may or may

26
 not be the actual leader of the group. Such persons holding elective positions do very
little about initiating action for the group and are mere figureheads or ornamental
leaders. They are also called nominal leaders
3. Assumed representative type: refers to a person selected to work with a committee or
other leaders because the latter (Group B) have assumed that he represents another
group (Group A) they desire to work with; he may or may not be a leader of the group
(Group A)

Group Group
A B

ARL

4. Prominent talent: e.g. artists and musicians who have exhibited an outstanding ability
and accomplishment in their respective fields. It may include the experts and intellectual
leaders

Another classification divides leaders in to 2 categories:

1. Professional leaders: the professional leader is one who has received specific
specialized training in the field. He works full time as an occupation and is paid for
his work. E. G. Extension Officer, Gram Sevak, Agricultural Officer etc.

2. Lay leaders: the lay leader may or may not have received special training, is not paid
for his work and usually works part time e.g. youth club president, Gram Sahayak etc.
Lay leaders also called as Volunteer leaders, or local leaders or natural leaders.
These local leaders may be either formal leaders or informal leaders, depending on
whether they are regular office bearers of organized groups or not

Perhaps the most significant classification form the viewpoint of modern research
as well as practical application of the results of research is the one designating them into
the following three types

1. Autocratic leader: Autocratic leader is also known as authoritarian leader. He

operates as if he cannot trust people. He thinks his subordinates are never doing
what they should do; that the employee is paid to work and therefore must work. If he is
a benevolent (kind) autocrat he may tend to view employees as children and
encourage them to come to him with all their problems, no matter what is the nature or
magnitude of the problem. The results of his leadership are
a. Most employees develop a sense of frustration, and finally feel insecure in their job
b. Work slows down or stops completely when the supervisor is away

27
 c. The employee’s needs for a feeling of importance and satisfaction are not met
d. Employees are kept dependent on the supervisor; thus they have no opportunity to
show initiative
e. Employees frequently either become aggressive or alternatively identify closely with
supervisor (submissive yes-men)

2. Democratic leader: He shares with the group members the decision making and
planning of activities. The participation of all members is encouraged. He works to
develop a feeling of responsibility on the part of every member of the group. He
attempts to understand the position and feelings of the employee. If he criticizes, he
does so in terms of results expected, rather than on the basis of personalities. The
results of his leadership are
a. Employees produce a larger quantity and higher quality of work
b. Individual and group morale are high
c. Employee’s basic needs to participate and feel important are met
d. Employees feel secure
e. Employees seldom become aggressive
f. The supervisor finds that less supervision is necessary

3. Laissez-faire leader: He believes that if you leave workers alone, the work will be
done. He seems to have no confidence in himself. If at all possible he puts off
decision-making. He tends to withdraw from the work group. He is often a
rationalizer. The results of his leadership are

a. Low morale and low productivity within the work group

b. Employees are restless and lack incentive of ‘team work’
c. Another leader often an informal leader arises
d. Problems of administration supervision, and coordination are multiplied and
symptoms of disorder ‘anarchy’ are seen

Roles of leader in a Group:

Groups are dependent on leaders. A leader is not only a member of group and also
is the focal point of activity of his group. He plays an important role in group's activity. The
important roles of the leader are as follows:
1. Group initiator: the most important role of leader is that he should take initiative to get
the group in to action
2. Group spokesman: if the group is to have outside relations it must be able to speak as
a unit and leader is its voice. Leader has the responsibility of speaking for the group and
representing the interests of the group
3. Group harmonizer: in all groups uniformities and differences are formed. A leader
should be able to resolve differences peacefully. The role of the group harmonizer is to
promote harmony in the group in line with basic purpose of the group

28
4. Group planner: generally it is assumed that the person chosen for leadership know a
little bit more about the problems which the group is facing and the possible solutions.
So the leader has to plan the way by which the group can satisfy its needs. The leader
has to plan for the group and with the group
5. Group executive: the leader is one who takes important role in conducting business of
the group and he is responsible for seeing that the business of the organization is
carried on according to democratic principles. It is the job of the leader that individuals
of group accept responsibility of their part of activities in any plan of action adopted by
the group
6. Group educator or teacher: in most of the groups the leader will have more training
and experience. So the leader can teach according to the level of understanding of the
members of the group so that they can understand his views. In this capacity his chief
function is to develop and train other leaders so that group is not dependent completely
on him
7. Group symbol or symbol of group ideas: all social groups have implicit (internal) or
explicit (external) norms or ideals. As a rule persons accepted as leaders are those who
have adopted these norms or ideals and live by them. The leader must make the
members feel that they need ideals and depend upon them for accomplishing what they
desire to do, the leader should be not be self interested
8. Group supervisor: the leader also acts as supervisor. A good leader supervises the
work of his peers and subordinates. Professional leaders such as Extension Officers, in
addition to serving as leaders of social groups also devote a portion of their time to
working with lay leaders and group organizations like youth clubs, cooperatives etc.

Different methods of selection of both professional and lay leaders:

Selection of Professional Leaders:
A. Interview:
1. The time-honored and most widely used method of selecting persons for position of
professional leadership. It is based primarily upon an interview and an evaluation of
past academic and occupational records of the individual. A large amount of
information concerning a person can be acquired through an interview
2. The chief difficulty with the interview is that one can observe and evaluate the applicant
only as he answers questions during a brief period of time
3. In industry and management there has been an attempt o supplement the interview by
subjecting applicants to a battery of tests
4. These tests measure ability, aptitudes, attitudes and interests and both the academic
training and practical experience
5. The use of a battery of tests along with an interview provides a better basis for selection
than using the interview alone

29
B. Performance Tests:
1. These have been used in certain situations as a part of the basis for selection of
professional leaders
2. One type of these is the ‘Leaderless group tests’ in which seven or eight persons are
given a common task to perform and it is left up to the persons involved to determine
which person have become the leader
3. Another type of test is to appoint an individual as a leader and then observe how well
he directs the activities of the members of the group
4. The big advantage of these performance tests is that one can observe the potential
leader in a real life situation in which he is functioning as the leader of a group

Selection of lay leaders:

A. Sociometry:
1. Sociometry is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in inter-personal relations,
such as with whom one would like to work, play etc. or to whom one would go for advice
on farming or other problems
2. It attempts to describe social phenomena in quantitative terms
3. It may be used in selecting professional leaders also, but of greater use in selection of
lay leaders
4. It is necessary that all the persons involved in a sociometric test know one another.
These tests are not designed to measure vague factor called popularity, but it is
popularity of acceptance in terms of specific activities
5. Sociograms for the same individuals will manifest (bring out) differences when the
choices are in relation to different activities. This method is very useful to the extension
worker in finding out the natural or local or informal leaders in the villages
6. An extension worker goes into a given area and asks the farmers to indicate whom;
they ordinarily consult for advice on farming, which the extension worker wants to
introduce. Usually after a few interviews, it becomes apparent (clear) which farmer is
the influential person on natural leader. The figure below illustrates the Sociometry test

A
H B

G
C
F
E D

SOCIOGRAM

30
7. When farmer H is interviewed he may indicate that generally he goes to B for advice on
farming, farmers G, F, D may also say that they take advice from farmer B on farming.
The farmers A, E and C are depending on farmers H, F and D respectively. Then B is
the operational or potential natural leader for these farmers and therefore if extension
worker induces farmer B for the adoption of new improved practices it is quiet likely that
the other farmers will be influenced by his behavior and adopt the same practices

B. Election:
1. Another method widely used in selecting leaders, consists simply of the members of the
group electing a leader through voting or any other method
2. The extension worker can guide or assist the local people in electing the right person for
the right job by explaining to the group, the functions of leader in relation to particular
problem and outlining the qualifications of a good leader for the given purpose. Election
can also be used for selecting persons to receive leadership training who later become
the actual leaders

C. The Discussion Method:

1. Through discussions (on any subject) the person with sound knowledge and ability is
soon recognized and a mere talker easily spotted
2. Discussion gives encouragement and assurance to the potential leader to express
himself, and over a period of time may make him more confident in accepting some
position of leadership and he emerges as a valuable leader

D. The Workshop Method:

1. In this method a large group is broken in to smaller groups and the responsibility of the
program and decision-making rests upon the smaller units
2. Leadership emerges in each small group. Over a period of time, the extension worker
can spot certain leaders who come to the fore (front) in taking responsibilities
3. The extension worker or professional leader in the workshop has the position of
consultant, observer, discussion group leader etc.

E. The Group Observer:

1. The extension worker should watch (observe) a community or group in action and then
he will be able to spot potential leaders
2. He may observe the community in any type of situation. For obtaining the best results,
the group should not be aware of that the extension worker is observing them

Rogers who designated the local leaders as opinion leaders mentions the following
two methods to locate these leaders in mass public

31
F. Key informants:
1. In a community key informants or persons with important information about their
community like teachers, VLWs etc may be asked by the extension worker to indicate
opinion leaders in that area based on their indications he will select the leader.
2. Key informant method is cost saving and time saving when compared to the
sociometric method and other methods
G. Self-designating technique:
This consists of asking a respondent a series of questions to determine the degree to which
he perceives himself to be an opinion leader based on the analysis of the answers
obtained, the extension workers selects a leader

Lay leaders are otherwise called as local leaders or informal leaders or volunteer
leaders. Professional leaders are otherwise called as formal leaders

LECTURE NO.: 9. TRAINING OF LEADERS – LAY AND PROFESSIONAL LEADERS,

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS IN USING LOCAL LEADERS IN AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION

Training of Leaders:
Meaning of training: The term ‘training’ is used to those activities aimed at improving the
ability of a person to do his job including acquainting (to know) information, developing
abilities, attitudes that will result in greater professional competency. The potential leaders
who are selected by various methods, lack some of the essential traits of leadership, the
qualities can be developed by training objectives as follows:

Objectives of training of leaders:

1. The objective of training is to develop the essentials of good leadership in the selected
leaders
2. To give them a perfect understanding of the people, to enable them to understand
group behavior
3. Develop competence in group processes i.e. teaching them the methods of identifying
problems develop cooperative thinking, exchange and analysis of ideas
4. To acquire technical skills necessary to carry out a job, how to identify problems and
plan appropriate procedures. To obtain attitudes, knowledge and skills of dealing with
people. To develop in them latest capacities of leadership

Methods of training of Professional leaders:

1. Background courses in college or an institution: Giving training on general college
education in a college or an institution in psychology or sociology

32
2. Induction training: apprenticeship experience under the direction of a trained and
experienced leader in the field will enable the new professional leader to develop his
abilities for successful leadership
3. In-service training: This is training is given to the professional leaders for constantly
improving their efficiency by focusing attention upon the problems they have faced in
the field and the ways to solve them. In-service training has become increasingly
important in view of the fast changing technology in agriculture in recent times

Methods of training of Lay leaders: The different methods of training lay leaders are
classified in to two types one is formal and the other is informal as given below

Methods of Training of Lay leaders

Formal Informal
1. Lecture 1. Observations
2. Discussion 2. Reading
3. Symposium 3. Talking
4. Workshop
5. Forum
6. Panel
7. Field trip
8. Apprenticeship
9. Training camps
10. Direct assistance
from experts
11. Buzz groups
12. Giving
responsibility to
local leaders
13. Audio-visuals

Formal methods of training of lay leaders:

1. Lecture: This is probably most common method. Through this method local leaders
under training are given enough material for thought, but little opportunity for self-

33
 expression. The lecture method is effective in certain situations, but usually is
supplemented by other methods, depending on the objectives to be attained
2. Discussion: Discussion usually occurs in a face to face or co-acting situation in which
people involved, exchange the useful information by speaking with each other
3. Workshop: It is essentially a long-term meeting form one day to several weeks,
involving all the delegates (participants) in which problems are discussed by delegates
in small private groups. The workshop as the name indicates must produce something
in the end a report, a publication, a visual or any other material object
4. Forum: it is assemble (group of people) for discussion of matters of interest and usually
follows the other extension teaching methods. In the forum the audience clear their
doubts and raise questions for additional information
5. Panel: it is informal conversation for the benefit of the audience by a small group of
speakers, usually from 2 to 8 in number
6. Symposium: this is short series of lectures in which 3 or 4 speakers explain the
different parts of a particular subject
7. Field trip: in this method a group people go to see and gain firsthand knowledge of
improved practices in their natural setting
8. Apprenticeship: in this the local leaders or the potential leaders see someone
operating with a view to learn some of the activities and ways of handling the problems
in the field of leadership
9. Training camps: Training is imparted by organizing camps in which several local
leaders are involved in the training sessions at the same time
10. Direct assistance from experts: this may come in the form of advice from an expert in
the field of leadership
11. Buzz groups: in this a large group is divided into smaller units for a short period called
buzz session. It is also called as huddle system or Phillips 66 in which group of 6 to 8
persons get together after receiving instructions to discuss about a specific issue
assigned
12. Giving responsibility to local leaders: giving everyone a job by which self confidence
may be attained by achievement in activities useful to the group is essential for
development of leadership
13. Audio-visuals: These include role playing, socio-drama, demonstration, movies etc

Informal methods of training lay leaders:

1. Observation: Noticing how others have performed through observation
2. Reading: Studying printed material often found in the form of leader hand-books,
newsletters, circulars, bulletins etc.
3. Talking: Speaking with other leaders in the same or related fields of interest and also
with members to determine consensus (common opinion)

34
Advantages of using local leaders in extension:
1. Local leaders act as extension teachers and this helps in increasing the adoption of
improved practices
2. Cost of extension is reduced as local leaders are not paid for their work
3. Local leaders themselves become better taught, because of the experience they gain
in teaching and influencing others
4. People accept new idea more readily form a local person who has practically tried it,
while they may resist if the ideas were to come from an extension worker
5. The frequent contacts of extension workers with local leaders raises his prestige
thereby making him more effective in his work

Limitations of using local leaders in extension:

1. Person selected as leader may not have the expected following among neighbours or
may not be willing to devote required time to work, or may be a poor teacher
2. Considerable time is required to locate and train local leaders
3. Local leader may try to use prestige connected with position of personal advantage
4. The most difficult task of arousing interest on the part of those not interested in
extension is too often left to the in experienced local leader
5. Public recognition and publicity given to informal local leaders may sometimes
jeopardize (spoil) their position and adversely affect their influence

LECTURE NO.: 10. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY- MEANING,

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
Father of Psychology is Sigmund Freud. Although human behavior seems to follow
certain general trends, individuals respond differently to elements in specific situations.
An individual’s behavior consists not only of his observable acts but also of his reactions to
inner states and different factors of influence. The factors that influence and individual’s
behavior include his education, personal factors, situational factors and environmental
factors such as persons around him, objects he confronts with situations and conditions in
which he lives. So psychologists who are interested in studying human behavior will not
only study different aspects of behavior but also what are the similarities and differences
among human reactions and what causes such behavior. Psychology has its origin from
two Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (a rational course or a study)

Definitions of Psychology:
Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of an individual – Daniel
Psychology is the science of mental activity of an organism – Guilford
Psychology is a science of human behavior
Psychology is the science that studies the responses which living individuals make to
their environment – Murthy
Psychology is the science of behavior and adjustment

35
Scope of Psychology: (Scope of Psychology in Agril. Extension)
The application of psychology has a very wider area in the study of human behavior as
follows:
1. To identify the nature and characteristics of learner
2. The nature of learning process
3. The principles of teaching and learning process
4. The human growth and development
5. The techniques employed in teaching
6. Identification of personality traits
7. Development and adjustment of psychological traits
8. Scientific measurement and evaluation of psychological traits

Importance of Psychology: (Importance of Psychology in Agril. Extension)

The study of psychology as the science of human behavior helps in identifying
1. The abilities of individual
2. The needs of individual and techniques to be employed to motivate them
3. The hereditary and environmental factors the affect the behavior
4. The levels of achievement motivation of the individuals
5. The factors that result in individual, intellectual differences and reasons for people
becoming problem men
6. The factors that lead to differential perceptions
7. The causes of retarded learning
8. The causes of emotions and frustration in human beings
9. The causes of forgetting and how to improve memory
10. The levels of knowledge, attitudes possessed by the individuals
11. The different psychological traits possessed by individuals. By the application of
different tests and help in evaluation of the behavior of the individual

Introduction to the science of Educational Psychology:

When we say that education plays a vital role in human behavior it is imperative
(essential) to study the mode of such role the education plays. The desirable changes in
behavior that represent basic features of education are:
Knowledge: it is the intimate acquaintance with fact
Skill: The ability to do a particular thing
Attitude: the positive or negative feeling one has towards any psychological object

Definitions of Educational Psychology:

Educational Psychology is the branch of psychology that describes and explains the
learning experiences of an individual and the progress in his educational development
from birth to old age – Crow and Crow
Educational psychology is the study of the psychological aspects of educational situation -
Trow

36
Definition of Psychological trait: It is a mode of behavior or a collection of certain related
modes of behavior e.g. intelligence

Lecture No.: 11. Intelligence - Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural
Extension
INTELLIGENCE
Introduction:
Among the millions of species that exist on the earth, the human being is said to be
superior and exclusive (separate) because of its reasoning of distinguishing between right
and wrong. The ability to adopt to the environment with and to master situations,
understanding, ability to command and capacity to carry on difficult tasks by learning and
putting the past experience to the most beneficent use. This quality, which we describe as
intelligence is found in different degrees in different human beings

Definitions:
Intelligence is the ability of an individual to make profitable use of past experience –
Thorndike
Intelligence is the ability demanded in the solution of problems, which require the
comprehension, and the use of symbols – Grprett
Intelligence is the ability of an individual to adjust himself to the conditions that arise in his
environment – Brown
Intelligence is the ability to adopt oneself to judge well, understand well, reason (think) well
and act well – Binet
Intelligence is the organization of abilities to learn a group of facts with alertness and
accuracy to exercise mental control and display flexibility in seeking the solution of problem
– Skinner

Three types of intelligence:

According to Thorndike intelligence is of three types
Abstract intelligence or cognitive ability:
1. Abstract means which is not physically existing e.g. alphabets, numbers etc.
2. It is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols
3. Of the three abilities abstract intelligence is one that receives greatest weight and
almost pronounced as a correct test of intelligence
4. It is also the ability of manipulating ideas and relationships and more concerned with
understanding abstract things
5. Philosophers and Professional people are high in abstract intelligence e.g.
vocabulary, language, relational concepts etc

Concrete intelligence or mechanical intelligence or motor ability:

1. Concrete means which is physically existing e.g. implement, object etc

37
2. It is the ability to understand and deal with things or objects etc., and more concerned
with the physical skills of individuals
3. Industrial and building traders are high in mechanical intelligence e.g. problem
solving skill and manual skills

Social intelligence or social ability:

1. It is the ability to understand and deal with persons
2. It is the ability to understand and apply psychological principles of human relationships
3. Salesmen, politicians, leaders possess this intelligence e.g. association with people
and empathy (understanding people by taking their conditions mentally)

An ideal person is one who has all the three types of intelligence

Intelligence is the product of heredity and environment. Opportunities to learn vary

widely, yet the inherited capacity (capacity taken by birth) as modified (changed or
increased) by maturation (development) accounts for a greater part of the individual
variability (differences in the intelligence of the individuals). The totality of biologically
transmitted factors that influence the structure of body is referred as heredity

Factors affecting Intelligence:

G.Brown a psychologist pointed out that, there are numerous factors which directly
or indirectly affect the intelligence or abilities of the individual and which makeup the
behaviour pattern of the individual.

Important factors that affect the Intelligence:

1. Heredity and environment: heredity provides the physical body to be developed with
certain inherent capabilities while environment provides maturation and training of the
organism. Newman concludes that the variations in I.Q. or intelligence were determined
about 68 % by heredity and 32 % by environment. It means that 68 % of intelligence of
the individual comes through heredity and 32 % by environment
2. Age: The intelligence is maximum at 20 years and remains relatively stable if health
and other factors do not interfere, until around 70 years when it rapidly decreases due
to decline in physical efficiency
3. Health and physical development: Health and physical development are directly
related to mental activity. Physical and physiological defects result in sub-normal
intelligence or less intelligence
4. Race: As it is race has no influence over the intelligence but certain races which are
socio-economically and culturally week show marginal effect on intelligence
5. Sex: Not much difference is noticed as per the sex of the individual. According to Crow
and Crow males are slightly superior than females in questions that involve
mathematical material and scientific concepts or in performance of certain scientific

38
 tasks (work related to science) and girls excel that deal more directly with the
humanities (languages, literature, philosophy, fine arts, history etc.)
6. Social and economic conditions: if these conditions are good then physical
development and mental development will also be fairly good and intelligence will be
better
7. Intelligence Quotient: I.Q. rates the levels of intelligence of a person

I.Q. = Mental age of an individual (MA) X 100

Chronological age of an Individual (CA)

I.Q.Level Character
Below 20 Idiot
20 to below 70 Feeble minded
70 to 90 Dull
90 to 110 Average or Normal
110 to 120 Superior
120 to 140 Very superior
140 to 200 Genius
Above 200 Supreme genius

Importance of Intelligence in Extension work:

1. Intelligence does not follow a set of stereo (similar) types of pattern but depends largely
on the complexity of demand of their environment and the kind of training they
receive
2. Intelligence remain constant when the conditions remain constant i.e. health, types of
education and situation
3. In all, the differences in intelligence can be treated to either heredity or environment
since individual is a product of both
4. Gifted persons with higher intelligence can be better utilized by offering broader
opportunities and with programmes for their accelerated growth
5. It is easy to identify the mentally retarded people or people with less intelligence and
problem men (persons with less intelligence due to physiological defects) in rural
society and such people should be given special attention while training them in
agricultural technologies
6. An extension worker can increase his effectiveness by using appropriate techniques for
teaching farmers with different levels of intelligence and thereby smooth introduction of
the programs of change

39
Lecture No.: 12. Personality - Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural
Extension

Meaning: The word Personality originated from the Latin word Personare which used to
mean the voice of an actor speaking through a mask. Later it came to be applied to the
actors themselves

Definitions of Personality:
Several psychologists tried to define the term personality earlier, but failed to
indicate what personality means. It was only during early 20th century, when several
psychologists explained the concept of personality. Some of the definitions are as follows

By personality it is now generally meant that it is the organization and integration of a

large number of human traits

Personality is the result of what we start with and what we have lived through. It is the
reaction mass as a whole – J. B.Watson 1919

A man’s personality is the total picture of his organized behavior, especially as it can be
characterized by his fellow men in a consistent way – Dennell 1937

Personality is the sum total of an individual’s behavior in social situations. Behavior

include not only overt acts but inward feelings produced by social situation – Trainer 1957

Personality is the total configuration of individual characteristics and modes of behaviors

that shape one’s adjustment to his environment, especially traits that influence his getting
along with others and himself – Hilgard 1962

The definition given by Hilgard is most comprehensive and explains different dimensions
of personality in terms of traits and the adjustment of individual to his environment
Types of Personality:
There are three types of personality – C.J.Jung
a. Extrovert b. Introvert and c. Ambivert

Extrovert and Introvert Personalities (Differences):

S.No. Extrovert Personality Introvert Personality

1. Extrovert type are socially adaptable They are socially shy and remain
(adjust to any situation) and interested in interested in their own feelings and
people, they go to the extent of scarifying reactions
themselves for others

40
 2. They make quick decisions and execute Slow in taking decisions and
the plan of action rapidly executing the plan of action
3. They are fluent in speech Not fluent in speech
4. Free from worries Not like that
5. Not easily embarrassed Easily embarrassed
6. Usually conservative (do not change) Not conservative
7. Interested in athletics Not interested
8. Friendly Not friendly
9. Like to work with others Don’t like to work with others
10. Neglectful of aliments and personal Not like that
belongings
11. Better at speaking than writing Better at writing than speaking
12. Enjoy to be with others Enjoy being alone
13. Take decisions with the help of others They have independent judgment
14. Attend public or social functions Different from public or social
functions
15. Usually not like that Strong of ideals
16. Not reserved Reserved
17. Not fond of books Fond of books
18. Flexible Not flexible

Ambivert Personality:
1. These are place between extroverts and introverts. Their behavior is balanced. Their
psychic (internal) energy is partly directed inwards and partly outwards
2. They are interested in their own thoughts, emotions and also in other persons and their
actions
3. Most of the people in the society belong to ambivert personality

This classification of extrovert, introvert and ambivert is based on the Temperament

(natural disposition of mind or natural state of mind) of the individual

Importance or role of Personality in Agricultural Extension:

1. The extension worker should get into deep study of knowing the capacities, types and
traits of the personalities of his clients (farmers) with whom he has to work in order to
plan and educate them. This also helps the extension worker to select a suitable
farmer for a certain purpose
2. The study of personality of the people enables extension worker to judge and follow the
method of guiding, by selecting suitable teaching method. This enables the extension
worker to properly plan the programmes to advise the farmers for desirable changes
in rural communities

41
Lecture No.: 13. Perception, Emotions, Frustration - Meaning, types, factors and
importance in Agricultural Extension Introduction
Meanings:
Perception is usually described as a response to stimulus
Perception is an active process, whereby sensory reactions are related to relevant past
experiences of an individual when confronted with stimulus and more structured and
meaningful picture is printed in the mind, which is finally perceived as the object. Our
reaction to any situation is determined by the way we perceive it. Two different individuals
may perceive the same object in two different ways. Therefore perception is very personal
thing.

Definitions of perception:
Perception is the process of organizing and interpretation of sensory data in terms of
one’s previous experience and present needs – Ruch

Perception is the process by which impressions, opinions and feelings about an object is
formed by means of a sensory operation – Kuppu Swamy

Perception is the process of assimilating experiences and relating them to previous

experiences, attaching meaning or value to them and ordering them in to organized
patterns of knowledge and feeling – Mc David

Stages in Perception:
The different stages involved in perception are:
1. Sensation: It is meaningful awareness of object
2. Attention: perceptual readiness (the process of focusing upon certain phases or
elements of experience and neglecting others)
3. Understanding: the meaning of object and what the object is
4. Relating to past experience: Relating the object to past experience and present
needs for comprehensive usefulness of the object to give meaning
5. Cognition: Interpreting and perceiving the object

Perception can be regarded as a meaningful sensation

Factors affecting Perception:
I Characteristics of Stimulus II Characteristics of the Perceiver
A Nearness A Previous experience
B Likeness B Physical conditions
C Inclusiveness C Social factors
D Closure D Levels of knowledge
E Context

42
Characteristics of Stimulus:
1. Nearness: The physical nearness or proximity of objects to each other makes for their
perception as parts of pattern. Objects nearer to each other are grouped together E.g. A
group of persons at a place or in a hall may be perceived together
2. Similarity: Similar objects found to be perceived as belonging together. In the figure
below, it is usually perceived that there are three rows of minus signs and two rows of
plus signs because of their similarity. But perceiving five columns is generally rare.

− − − − −
+ + + + +
− − − − −
+ + + + +
− − − − −

3. Inclusiveness: When all the parts of the objects are included can be perceived better

4. Closure: When parts of object are close and maintained equidistance the perception is
clear. For example in the figure given below there is one dog not twenty black blotches.

5. Context: The way the object as whole is perceived will influence the meaning of the
part. For example the word ‘mass’ give different meanings when used in sociology and
physics

Characteristics of the Perceiver:

1. Previous experience: If the perceiver is already exposed to the object than it is easy to
perceive clearly
2. Physical conditions of the individual: some defects of the body interfere with the
perception
3. Social factors: Cultural opportunities, social taboos, values, beliefs effect the
individuals perception of an object
4. Levels of knowledge: Sometimes lack of full knowledge will also lead to poor
perception

43
Importance of Perception in extension work:
1. Faulty perception: If it occurs with farmers about an object, that will have serious
implication in field. For example if a farmer think that both insecticides and fungicides
are chemicals and can be used vice versa it is a faulty perception
2. Differential perception: If meaning of an object is not conceived properly it may lead to
faulty adoption by the farmers.
3. When messages are distorted (not clear) (perceived either too much or too less than
normal or improperly understood) than the implementation or adoption will also be faulty
4. If the farmers are to perceive the objects or messages properly and accurately the
extension worker has to understand the qualities of stimulus and perceiver and then
communicate the innovation
5. Perception of the individual mostly depends on his need to the message. Hence the
extension worker should communicate only needy messages

FRUSTRATION Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural Extension

Every human being is born with inner drives or needs that are dynamic forces.
Some of such needs are physiological, safety, security, achievement, recognition or
approval etc. When needs or goals are equally important or have both positive and
negative (advantages and limitations) features then individual is in conflict to choose one
out of them and to leave others. Some times when needs are not fulfilled or there is some
obstruction in attainment of need, the resultant factor is frustration

Meaning: Frustration is a psychological and physiological response, which occurs with the
individual due to some obstacle in his goal directed behaviour

Definitions: Frustration is a condition where in the goal directed behaviour of an

individual is blocked or thwarted. It is the endless obstacles that block individual complex
motion, which produce frustration. When individual’s satisfaction of active or progress to a
chosen goal is obstructed, thwarted or interfered it develops certain psychological and
physiological responses, which are termed as frustration

Types of Frustrations:
1. Environmental: The environment around the individual is full of obstacles that
impede his progress. E.g. famine, drought, flood etc.
2. Personal: Due to personal limitations the individual is prevented from realization of
the goal, such limitations may be physical or physiological e.g. a blind man cannot
see the face of his newly born baby
3. Conflict: When an individual is confronted with choose one goal out of two equally
important, exiting goals he develops frustration e.g. a farmers wants to purchase
land and to perform daughter’s marriage but the finances (money) are limited to
achieve only one goal

44
Factors that lead to Frustration:
1. Failure to achieve goals: Some time failure to achieve goals may lead to frustration.
The failure may be because of high aspirations or inferiority feeling or no
opportunities of attainment of need
2. Moral lapses: Moral values of individual clash with society which do not approve as
such the net result is frustration
3. Family: The internal demands, jealousies among the members of the family will
result in conflicting situations and there by frustration develops
4. Love and affection: The love, attachment, affection or association when lacks and
lead to conflicts frustration develops

Importance of frustration in extension work:

1. One of the important reasons for development of frustration is unrealistic aspiration.
Train the people to have realistic aspiration to achieve the needs and avoid
frustration
2. Frustrations are blocks of progress of individual. Try to create a situation where in
frustration do not crop in
3. Negative emotions lead to frustration. Therefore the extension worker should
develop positive emotions in people
4. Once frustration develops farmers become inactive and uninterested in any
progressive activity
5. Have greater interest for creating favourable attitudes, moral values in people, these
are also sources of frustration
6. Do not allow to develop inferiority feeling in farmers, which is a good source of
frustration

EMOTIONS
Meaning: The word Emotion is originated from the Latin word ‘emovere’ in which ‘e’
means out and movere means to move. When we talk about emotion we mean
psychological phenomena like fear, anger, grief, love, affection, pleasure etc.

Emotion is a stirred up state of feeling that is the way it appears to the individual himself.
Emotion is a disturbed muscular and glandular condition. That is the way it appears to the
observer

Definitions:
Emotion is a state of being moved and stirred up in one way or other – Ruch
Emotion is an effective experience that accompanies generalized inner adjustments and
mental and psychologically stirred up states in individual that shows itself in his overt
behaviour – Crow and Crow

45
Emotion is a complex state of an individual in which certain ideas and feelings and usually
motor experiences continues to produce a condition recognizable as stirred up state -
Wood worth

Types of Emotions:
Broadly emotions can be classified in to two types as Positive emotions and negative
emotions

Positive Emotions: These are aroused by situations, which help and promote the
satisfaction of needs and realization of goals. E.g. joy, happiness, affection, love etc.

Negative Emotions: These are aroused by situations, which prevent the achievement of
needs and realization of goals. E.g. anger, jealousness, fear, anxiety etc.

Effects of Emotions on Individual behaviour:

A. Psychological changes:
1. Excessive secretion of hormones from glands
2. Reddening of the skin due to excessive pumping of blood into tissues
3. Either dilation (widening) or contraction (narrowing) of eye pupils
4. Narrowing or widening of nostrils
5. A great variety of responses can be produced by mouth, such as narrowing, widening,
wide-open, tight lipped, twisted lips etc.
6. Changes in pitch, raise or loudness of voice is also noticed

B. Effects on Behavior:
1. Sudden fear causes speech defects
2. Prolonged emotions cause stammering
3. They interfere with effective perception
4. They affect learning
5. Prolonged fear in children results in delinquency (carelessness), timidity (nervousness)
and stubbornness (inflexibility)
6. Negative emotions will interfere with physiological functions of body

Importance of Emotions in Extension work:

1. The extension worker as a teacher can achieve greater success in his work by arousing
positive emotions of the learner. These emotions aid in good learning
2. When individuals are emotionally excited (positively) they can do extraordinary things.
The extension worker should utilize this fact in extension work
3. Pleasant emotions help in accelerating good health
4. Strong emotions may help to break some other crude and undesirable emotions
5. Development of positive emotions aid in increasing creative abilities of learner

46
6. Emotions are strong motivating forces of action. The extension worker should arouse
right type of positive emotions for preparing the farmers for action

Lecture No.: 14. Motivation- meaning, types of motives, theories of motivation,

importance of motivation in agricultural extension
MOTIVATION
Motivation is the process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action
Motive means an urge (drive or force) or combination of urges, to induce conscious or
purposeful action. Motivation is a goal directed and need satisfying behavior. It explains
why people do the things they do. It influences a person to do a thing in a certain way.
Motive is something (a need or desire) that causes a person to act.

Definitions:
Motivation may be defined as goal seeking or goal directed behavior or activity.
Behavior is a function of the person, which is interaction within a situation

Motivation is also defined as a stage of the organism in which bodily energy is mobilized
and selectively directed towards parts of the environment

This definition breaks in to two parts:

1. Mobilization of bodily energy or drive and 2. Direction

Factors for the Motivation or motivated behavior are:

1. Environmental conditions
2. Internal urge
3. Incentive awards

Classification of Motives or Basic Needs:

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
MASLOW’S’ CLASSIFICATION OF NEEDS:
According to the famous psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954), the needs in order of
importance to individuals i.e. the fulfillment of needs starts from the first order and if first
order needs are fulfilled the individual thinks of second order and so on as given below
1. Physiological needs: These are called first order needs. These needs are necessary
for survival of the individual e.g. food, clothing, shelter etc. these are most important, if
these needs are fulfilled then only the individual steps in to second order needs
2. Safety needs: These are second order needs. These needs are for the security of the
individual from physical, physiological, economic and social viewpoints e.g. protection
from danger, threatening etc
3. Social needs: These are third order needs. Man is a social animal and has an inherent
desire to be with others in some form e.g. friendship, company etc. These are also
called response needs.

47
4. Esteem needs: These are fourth order needs. The individual likes to get appreciation
and recognition from others in the society e.g. power, status, prestige etc
5. Self-actualization: These are called last order or fifth order or highest order needs. It
is self-realization and knowing self or the ultimate purpose of human being e.g. what is
human being, how he should live, what is his purpose of living etc.

Maslow’s Classification of Needs According to order of importance or hierarchy

The motivations or needs that are more relevant for the rural people are presented
as follows
Importance of motivation in agricultural extension:
1. Society composes of individuals. Everyone is different from the other and the degree of
difference is based on the relative importance each one of us assigns to the different
motivating forces and to the various interests we have, which impel us to act as we do
2. The job of the extension worker is to understand the basic wants or incentives of the
people with whom he is working
3. He should show the leaner how to satisfy these basic wants by learning new things (i.e.
by adopting new methods or practices)
4. The extension worker should find the personal goals of the learner and tie with his
teaching goals
5. When people are shown how learning a subject will enable them to gratify (satisfy) a
desire or realize a need, they are being motivated to learn
6. A great impetus (momentum or speed) is given to learning when the learner can see
that what he learns will be of immediate value to him in making his own life more
satisfying
7. A desire or a want therefore, is the most definite and dynamic of motives, from the
educational point of view
8. It is possible for extension workers to motivate people to satisfy the four categories of
basic needs of security, new experience, response and recognition through the increase
of income, provision of new knowledge, skills etc, encouraging farmers to work in
groups and awarding prizes, certificates etc to the winners in crop competitions
respectively

48
Lecture No.: 15. Teaching, learning, Learning experience, learning situation -
Meaning and Definition, Elements of Learning Situation and its characteristics

As long as I live, so long do I learn – Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Definition of Teaching and Amplification:

Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning takes place; in other
words, arranging situations in which the things to be learnt are brought the attention of the
learners, their interest is developed, desire aroused, conviction created, action promoted
and satisfaction ensured.

Amplification:
1. The ultimate purpose of teaching is not merely to inform people but to transform them
to bring about the desired changes in their behavior
2. If the learner has not learnt, the teacher has not taught
3. Teaching is not filling a bucket; it is lighting a lamp
4. Teaching is an intentional purposeful process, not a bit or miss undertaking
5. Effective teaching is done according to design not drift; it is done by plan, not by trial
and error
6. Good teaching, therefore, requires careful planning of content procedures, methods and
techniques
7. Good teaching is essentially a good communication and good communication requires
sympathetic sharing and clear explaining

Definition of Learning and Amplification:

Learning is a process by which a person becomes changed in his behavior through self-
activity. Learning is a process of progressive behavior adaptation

Amplification:
1. Learning is something that take place within the learner
2. It takes place within the individual when he feels a need, strives for fulfilling it and
experiences satisfaction with the fruits of his labour
3. Learning is the goal of teaching

We must avoid any artificial separation, since teaching and learning are really one
process; they are, so to say, the obverse and the reverse of the same coin. We can
symbolize this interaction as
Teaching Learning

Definition of Learning Experience: It is the mental and /or physical reaction one makes
through seeing, hearing or doing the things to be learned, through which one gains
meanings and understandings of the material to be learned.

49
 Learning is an active process on the part of the learner. Hence a learning
experience is not attained by mere physical presence in a learning situation.

The participant must give undivided attention to the instructor and deep thought to getting
the facts understanding their meaning and to seeing their application to his needs and
problems
Definition of Learning Situation: It is a condition or environment in which all the elements
necessary for promoting learning are present namely 1. Instructor 2. Learner 3. Subject
matter 4. Teaching materials and equipments and 5. Physical facilities

The following diagram is a symbolic representation of the reaction the learner makes to the
other four elements and the way these five elements react to each other.

INSTRUCTOR SUBJECT MATTER

LEARNER

TEACHING EQUIPMENT PHYSICAL FACILITIES

THE 5 ELEMENTS OF A LEARNING SITUATION

Criteria for effective learning situation or Characteristics of the elements of Learning

situation: To have an effective learning situation these five major elements should satisfy
the following conditions or characteristics
1. Instructor should:
a. Have clear objective
b. Know the subject matter and have it well organized
c. Be enthusiastic and interested in the subject
d. Be able to communicate with learners
e. Be democratic in his leadership
f. Allow student participation, ask for it
g. Be prepared, be prompt, be friendly, be courteous
h. Use teaching plan
i. Speak so that all can hear
j. Set a good example of a good leader and teacher
k. Be skillful in the use of teaching materials and equipment

50
2. Learner should:
a. Have need for information
b. Be interested
c. Be capable of learning
d. Use the information gained
3. Subject matter or content:
a. Pertinent (related) to learner’s needs
b. Applicable to real life situations
c. Taught at intellectual level of learners
d. Well organized – logically presented
e. Presented clearly
f. Challenging, satisfying and significant to the learners
g. Fits into overall objectives
4. Physical Facilities:
a. Free from outside distractions
b. Temperature as comfortable as possible
c. Well lighted
d. Adequate space for the group
e. Furniture comfortable and well arranged
5. Teaching Equipment and Supplies:
a. Meet the needs effectively
b. Readily available
c. Each item used skillfully
Lecture No.: 16. Principles of learning and their implications in teaching. Steps in
Extension teaching

Principle Particulars Implications for

teaching
Principle of Learning is 1. Learning is the result of 1. Begin at the level
Association growth like and our experiences of the learner
continuous 2. Experiences that occur 2. New must be
together tend to recur related to old
together 3. Adjust the pace to
3. Previous learning always the learner’s
sets the stage of capacity, one idea
subsequent learning at a time
4. Bring the idea to
the attention of the
learner repeatedly
and over a period
of time

51
 Principle of Learning is 1. Learning varies directly 1. Learning must
Clarity purposeful with the meaningfulness of make sense to the
the material presented learner
2. Learning is increased 2. Progress must be
when the learner sees the constantly
end sought by the practice appraised and
redirected
3. Purpose must be
kept in sharp focus

Principle of self Learning 1. It is an active process on 1. Activities

activity results through the part of the learner appropriate to the
self activity 2. Teachers can only set up specific learning
the learning situation and situation must be
stimulate a person to learn used
3. The door to learning is 2. Learning activities
locked on the inside and should engage
unless the learner opens maximum number
the door himself, learning of audio-visual
cannot take place aids.
4. Learning involves
appropriate activities that
engage maximum number
of senses

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 Principle of Learning must 1. Readiness includes social 1. Teacher motivation
Readiness be challenging and intellectual maturity of the student is
(Motivation) and satisfying 2. When not ready to act, essential in making
Principle of learner will be annoyed if learning more
Rewards made to act challenging
(Satisfaction) 3. A favourable attitude 2. Standards
accelerates learning and a demanded of the
bad attitude retards learners should be
learning suitable to their
4. Consequently learning ability or capacity
depends primarily upon 3. Appropriate and
satisfaction of wants or timely recognition
needs, in other words, should be given to
upon success student
5. Rewards maintain and achievement
strengthen the learning
process

Principle of Learning must 1. Memorization is temporary 1. Course content

Practice (or result in unless reviewed or put to should be
Law of functional use in a practical situation organized into
Exercise) understanding 2. Practice leads to meaningful units
perfection 2. Theory should be
related to practice
3. Provide activities
that simulate actual
use situation

Principle of Learning is 1. The intensity of emotional 1. Strive to increase

Disassociation affected by feeling affects learning pleasant emotions
emotions differently in different and decrease
individuals unpleasant
2. The most effective way of emotions of
eliminating an undesirable students in
response is to set up a connection with the
desirable substitute learning process
2. Train the
expression of
emotions in the
right direction

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 Principle of -- 1. Learning takes place more 1. Select the
Timing readily when the facts or appropriate time,
skills are given at the time depending on the
of just before the time they learning activity
are to be used in a (neither too early,
serviceable way nor too late).

Principle of Learning is -- 1. The general

Environment affected by the physical
physical and environment should
social be suitable to the
environment kind of learning
taking place
2. Specific physical
factors of the
meeting place
should be suitable
to the activities
selected for use in
the learning
situation
3. The teacher should
recognize and
utilize the effects of
the social
environment of
learning.

STEPS IN EXTENSION TEACHING

Based on the four psychological foundations of teaching in motivation the six

steps in extension teaching have been derived. The conscious attention to organization of
teaching activities in a sequence greatly increases the efficiency of learning. The
extension worker, therefore, plans and arranges situations and activities whereby the
things to be learned are called to the attention of the prospective learner, his interest is
developed, desire aroused, conviction created, action promoted and satisfaction ensured.

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 SATISFACTION

ACTION
CONVICTION
DESIRE
INTEREST
ATTENTION

Steps in Extension Teaching

(AIDCAS)

Step – 1: Getting the attention of the learner

1. Farmers are not always aware of the improvements of scientific research and
successful experiences of other farmers. So the first task of the extension teacher is to
direct the attention of the farmers to the new or better idea
2. Until the individual’s attention is focused upon the change that is considered desirable,
there is no recognition of a problem to be solved or a want to be satisfied
3. Attention is the starting point to the arousing of interest. The extension worker creates
a desire for information for of those who are indifferent to improvements in agriculture

Step – 2: Stimulating the learner’s interest

1. The fundamental difference between the awareness and interest stages is that in
awareness stage the exposure to an innovation may be accidental or non purposive,
where as the behavior of an individual at latter stage is purposive
2. Once attention has been captured it becomes possible for the teacher to appeal to the
basic needs of the individual and arouse his interest
3. The teacher in easy stages reveals to the learner how the new practice will contribute to
the learner’s welfare
4. The teacher’s message should be presented attractively and in a manner that requires
little mental effort on the part of the learner. The presenting of one idea at a time that is
definite and specific is another important factor in building interest

Step – 3: Arousing the learner’s desire for information

1. The teacher is concerned with continuous stimulation of learner’s interest in the new
idea until that interest becomes a desire or motivating force sufficiently strong to
compel action

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2. The teacher explains to the learner that the information applies directly to the learner’s
situation, that the doing of the thing will satisfy a significant want or need of the learner

Step – 4: Convincing the learner that he should act

1. Action follows when desire, conviction and the prospect of satisfaction make it easier
for the person to act than not to act
2. The extension worker sees that the learner knows what action is necessary and how to
take the action
3. He also makes sure that the learner visualizes the action in terms of his own peculiar
situation and has acquired confidence in his own ability to do the thing

Step – 5: Getting action by the learner

1. Unless the conviction is converted into action, the teaching effort is fruitless.
2. The extension worker should make the action easy to the learner by removing the
blocks and annoyances that prevent the action
3. If a serious pest is controlled by the use of a new chemical it will not be adopted by the
farmers unless that chemical is readily available at a fair price at reasonable distance
4. If action does not follow soon after the desire and conviction have been created the
new desire soon fades away and people continue as before
5. This phase of extension work is often neglected

Step – 6: Making certain that the learner obtains satisfaction from his action
1. The end product of the extension teaching effort is satisfaction that comes to the
farmer as a result of change in behavior i.e. learning a new skill, new knowledge etc.
2. The extension teacher helps the learner in evaluating the progress made and builds the
learner’s confidence in his ability to continue action with increasing satisfaction
3. Satisfaction is the motivating force for further learning and the goals of the learning
should be simple. The extension teacher should break down the difficult job in to smaller
ones that are easier to accomplish
4. ‘A satisfied customer is the best advertisement’ applies to the extension worker as much
as to the retail merchant

It must be understood that the above six steps in extension teaching often blend
(mix) with each other and lose their clear-cut identity. There is similar overlapping in the
extension methods used to advance each of the different steps. All methods are not
equally effective for different stages in this process. Nevertheless, one method may,
under certain condition, contribute to several steps e.g. mass media.

******

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