Social Work Journal Vol 6 Issue 1 1

ISSN 0976-5484
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

(Bi-Annual)
Volume 6 Number 1 January-June 2015
Published by
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK
ASSAM UNIVERSITY, SILCHAR – 788011
Assam, INDIA. Phone: +91 3842 270821
www.aus.ac.in
Volume 6 • Number 1 • June 2015 • ISSN 0976-5484
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

(Bi-annual)
Department of Social Work
Assam University, Silchar – 788011, Assam, India
EDITORS
Dr. M. TINESHOWRI DEVI Dr. KAIVALYA T. DESAI
Associate Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Assam University, Silchar Assam University, Silchar
EDITORIAL BOARD ADVISORY BOARD
Prof. Gopalji Mishra Prof. Subhabrata Dutta Prof. K.V. Ramana

Professor Professor and Head Former Vice Chancellor
Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Andhra University
Assam University, Silchar Assam University, Silchar Vishakhapattanam, AP
Dr. Gangabhushan M. Dr. Tarun Bikash Sukai Prof. C.S. Ramanathan

Associate Professor Assistant Professor Human Service Enterprise
MI, USA
Prof. K.V. Nagaraj
Department of Mass Communications
Dr. Mrityunjay Kr. Singh Dr. Ratna Huirem Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Dr. B.T. Lawani
Assam University, Silchar Assam University, Silchar Director, Social Sciences Centre
Bharati Vidhyapeeth University, Pune, MH
Dr. Kathiresan L. Dr. G. Albin Joseph
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Dr. B.S. Gunjal
Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Assam University, Silchar Assam University, Silchar Kuvempu University, Shimoga, Karnataka
Ms. Ritwika Rajendra Dr. Lalzo S. Thangjom Prof. R. Parthasarathy

Department of Psychiatric Social Work
NIMHANS, Bangalore, Karnataka
Dr. Aditi Nath Mr. Ajit Jena

Ms. Joyashri Dey

Assistant Professor
Department of Social Work
Assam University, Silchar
This issue was published in September 2016.

SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL (BI-ANNUAL)
Volume 6, Issue 1 January-June 2015
ARTICLES
Editorial
- M. Tineshowri Devi and Kaivalya T. Desai
Social Work Research and its Methodological Vicissitudes in
Tata Institute of Social Sciences
- Surinder Jaswal and Melody Kshetrimayum
Transacting the Community Organisation Curriculum in
the Classroom as a Social Work Educator
- Mouleshri Vyas
From Teaching to Practice: Reflecting on the Role of Social Work Educators
- Shweta Verma
From Functional to Social Justice Stance: A Review of Social Work Approaches
- Ronald Yesudhas
Reflections of Practitioners on Social Work Education :
The Case of Street Children
- Kaivalya T. Desai
Women in Displacement Camps: Towards a Comprehensive
Framework for Social Work Education
- Shafeef Ahmed and Yasir Hamid Bhat
Fieldwork as Signature Pedagogy of Social Work Education: As I see it!
- Pamela Singla
Social Work Education for Undergraduate Students:
Issues and Challenges in Fieldwork
- Swati Bist
Social Work Practice and Conflict Situation in India: A Preliminary Observation
-Shukhdeba Sharma Hanjabam and Ningthoujam Rameshchandra
Social Work Education: An Experience from Barak Valley, Assam
- Bijoy Das
Guidelines for Authors

SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 1–5
EDITORIAL
From the time when social work education and training emerged in Victorian
England to the current postmodernist times, it has come a long way. With the
move from ‘charity organisation’ and ‘service-delivery’ to organized social work
practice, different methods of social work practice emerged. Currently, six
methods of social work practice are recognized by the institutions of social work
education; Social Casework, Social Group Work, Community Organisation, Social
Action, Social Research, and Social Welfare Administration. These methods
evolved in Social Work with changes in the context of practice. The reference to
the context is also important as certain methods came to be practised more in the
developing and under-developed countries than in the developed countries of the
West.
However, as the origins of social work education are located in the West, the
western line of thought has had a strong impact on the development of social work
education in India during its early period. The two countries that have pioneered
the development of social work education in the world are United Kingdom (UK)
and United States of America (USA). Of these two, India majorly adapted the
USA model of Social Work in the beginning. In India social work education
started its journey with the inception of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social
Work in 1936 (now known as Tata Institute of Social Sciences), under the
leadership of Clifford Manshardt, an American missionary in Bombay.
Beginning 1936, social work education in the Indian context has completed
almost 80 years today. From being concentrated in metropolitan cities and big
towns initially, institutions imparting social work education have been established
all across the country including the geographically isolated areas of the North-
East. This expansion of social work education in diverse Indian contexts has
witnessed both continuities and shifts at different levels of social work education
as well as practice. One must confess that, the field of practice has been the more
dynamic partner which has, many a time, led to changes in different aspects of
social work education. Whether, it is – the curriculum, pedagogy, research, or
fieldwork training – each of these aspects have had to respond to the dynamic
contexts of social work practice in India. Thus, social work education has
expanded to include Marxist, post-structural, feminist, dalit and tribe centered
2
perspectives besides the continuation of charity, clinical and ecological

perspectives.
The twin objectives of bringing out this issue are: (i) to capture some of these
continuities and changes in social work education in India, and (ii) to track
different aspects of social work education in some departments and schools of
social work in India as they stand today.
This special issue of Social Work Journal presents articles and research
papers which fit under the broad theme, “Perspectives on Different Aspects of
Social Work Education in India”. A set of ten articles and papers are included in
this issue. These articles and papers have been contributed by social work
educators and researchers across seven institutions of social work education in
India. These include: (i) Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, (ii) College of
Social Work, Nirmala Niketan, Mumbai, (iii) Department of Social Work, Assam
University, Silchar, (iv) Department of Social Work, Indira Gandhi National Tribal
University, Imphal, (v) Department of Social Work, University of Delhi, (vi) Tata
Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati, and (vii) Tata Institute of Social Sciences,
Mumbai.
In the first paper titled, “Social Work Research and its Methodological
Vicissitudes in Tata Institute of Social Sciences”, Prof. Jaswal and Dr.
Kshetrimayum examine the changes in social work research methodology vis-à-
vis the doctoral of philosophy programme at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences.
Their review of seventy-eight PhD theses awarded by the institute in the last fifty
years suggests three major changes in social work research which can be seen
through three distinct phases: (a) Inception/Initial Phase (1967–1979); (b)
Expansion Phase (1980–2005); and (c) Post Restructuring Phase (2006–2014).
The review suggests that from 1971–2000 the predominant methodology in
social work research was quantitative based on positivistic ontology and
epistemology. In the 21st century there was a tremendous growth in qualitative
methodology in social work research based on the interpretive approach to the
study of social phenomenon, that is, social construction of reality. Lastly, the
mixed methods approach based predominantly on the idea of methodological
triangulation (initially overshadowed by the strictly positivist and interpretive
approaches) started to get popularized and has seen steady growth in the 21st
century. Finally, in the concluding discussion the authors observe that influenced
by factors such as – theoretical foundation, external environment, internal
environment of TISS, and social sciences methodology – the adoption of
qualitative research followed by mixed methods research in recent years also
helped in both contextualizing social work knowledge and interrupting the
American model of social work education in India.
Prof. Mouleshri Vyas in the paper titled, “Transacting the Community
Organisation Curriculum in the Classroom as a Social Work Educator” traces her
experiences of teaching community organisation to master’s level social work
students, placing the pedagogy instead of curriculum as the locus of discussion.
She narrates how more than twenty years of teaching community organisation
has made her reflect on new questions to interrogate certain phenomena and
practice elements with a community lens. In the initial discussion she points out
3
that three factors, namely, – (a) value base of social work, (b) method focus of
community organisation, and (c) nature of literature available to teachers and
practitioners – have significantly determined the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of community
organisation as a subject in social work. The paper includes three major sections
under the following subheads: (i) the course on community organisation, (ii) the
classroom, and (iii) discussion of changes over time and how the field has become
more challenging. Basically, the paper is built as a narrative which finally
highlights the role and significance of young practitioners in community
organisation having the perspective to work with the most marginalized sections
of people. Moreover, community practice requires social workers who have the
ability to take people along in their work and are acquainted with the tools and
techniques used in community organisation.
Dr. Shweta Verma in the paper titled, “From Teaching to Practice: Reflecting
on the Role of Social Work Educators” explains that ‘professional development’ is
a process that continues throughout one’s journey as a student and later as a
professional. She focuses on the role of educators in teaching and grooming the
student by learning into becoming a social work professional. She further
highlights that classroom learning, supervision and fieldwork placement is
evidently interrelated in helping the students to understand the values and
principles of social work. Hence, the three should be integrated in student’s
growth as a social work professional. The article further mentions that social
work educators and field practitioners themselves have to be committed towards
core values of this profession by portraying themselves as role models in
everyday interactions with students. This will help them in transferring
commitment towards social justice.
Dr. Ronald Yesudhas in the article titled, “From Functional to Social Justice
Stance: A Review of Social Work Approaches” presents different approaches
which have been formulated in the quest for a common conceptual framework for
social work practice. He initially discusses the models and theories which were
developed based on systems perspective underpinned by theoretical assumptions
of structural-functionalism such as ‘ecological theory’, ‘person-in-environment
model’ and ‘integrated social work practice model’. He then provides a critique of
the systems perspective and discusses the approaches under social justice
umbrella countering the earlier models of social work practice. These include –
radical social work, critical social work, feminist social work, anti-racist social
work, anti-oppressive social work and anti-caste social work. Finally in the
concluding discussion he argues against the system maintenance models that
perform the function of social control, and argues for the urgent need to develop
indigenous social work practice models committed to rights and justice.
In the fifth paper titled, “Reflections of Practitioners on Social Work
Education: The Case of Street Children” Dr. Kaivalya T. Desai attempts to
capture the views of paraprofessionals and trained social work practitioners
working with street children on social work education. After drawing the
aetiology of the issues and problems of street children, he discusses the
implications that social work education and training have for practice with street
children. The discussion focuses on the methods, fieldwork training and the
4
supportive domain content in social work education and its implications for
practice with street children. Finally, based on in-depth interactions with
practitioners across five cities – Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai
– he discusses the reflections of practitioners on social work education. This
primary data was collected by the author as a part of his doctoral research work.
Thus, the paper is based on one of the aspects of his doctoral research.
In the paper titled, “Women in Displacement Camps: Towards a
Comprehensive Framework for Social Work Education”, Shafeef Ahmed and Dr.
Yasir Hamid Bhat use exploratory research design to get an in-depth
understanding of the effects of displacement on the mental health of internally
displaced women living in Hapachara camp, Assam. The findings indicate that
displacement and life within the confined space of the camp affects the mental
health of women, thus a base for the social work intervention is required. The
paper reflects that the exploitative structure of gender roles is further entrenched
in the context of displacement. The paper concludes that social work practice as
well as the discipline must endeavor to analyze and contain the gender dimensions
of internal displacement and various factors which engender the women IDPs
(Internally Displaced Persons). They further critically highlight the structural
factors that underlie to make an informed comprehensive intervention and link
social work values with practice.
In the article titled, “Fieldwork as Signature Pedagogy of Social Work
Education: As I see it!” Prof. Pamela Singla reflects upon fieldwork components
at post-graduate level in social work education at the Department of Social Work
(DSW), University of Delhi, during the period between 2010 and 2013, when she
held the important position of Director, Fieldwork there. After introduction, Prof.
Singla highlights the significance of fieldwork in social work education. In the
subsequent section she introduces the various components of fieldwork as they
have existed from 1984 till 2010 specifically at DSW. Following this she spells out
the various changes that took place in different components of fieldwork training
at DSW post 2010 till 2013. In addition, she narrates the deliberations that took
place before these changes were made. Finally she reflects on the job placements
that have taken place for social work students during her tenure as Director,
Fieldwork at DSW.
Dr. Swati Bist in “Social Work Education for Undergraduate Students: Issues
and Challenges in Field Work” reviews modalities and structure of field work
practicum in social work education for undergraduate students. She sheds light on
the components of fieldwork and the role of field work supervisors. The article
further discusses on certain dilemmas and challenges that educators faced during
supervision of students at the undergraduate level. It is due to limited exposure of
students to various social groups and social issues; they face difficulties in
adjusting with the change from predictable school environment to an
unpredictable and ambiguous field work situation. Finally, the author recommends
the role of supervisor in becoming the critical link between the student and the
field.
Dr. Shukhdeba Sharma Hanjabam and Dr. Ningthoujam Rameshchandra in
the article titled, “Social Work Practice and Conflict Situation in India: A
5
Preliminary Observation” states that the militarized culture has been witnessed in
the North East Region of India for long. The article argues that the present social
work practice particularly on conflict situation has not been able to contribute
significantly in resolving the conflict peacefully. There is a need to incorporate the
experiences of research and practice that focused on the conflict areas into the
curriculum of social work in India. They further emphasize that there is an urgent
call for incorporating the issues of conflict resolution into the curriculum of social
work particularly in the conflict ridden states of North Eastern region as students
are engaging with these situations both in their practice and education.
Mr. Bijoy Das who recently completed his master’s in social work in Assam
University, Silchar, recounts his experiences in the article “Social Work Education:
An Experience from Barak Valley, Assam”. The article discusses the challenges
encountered by the trainees in applying theoretical knowledge to the field and vice
versa due to generic nature of course contents in the curriculum. He further
reveals that due to limited agencies for placement, and lack of qualified agency
supervisors, students encounter challenges in practicing relevant social work
methods in the field. He also mentions that after completion of Master’s in Social
Work, students prefer jobs outside the valley due to lack of employment
opportunities and lesser salaries in the region. He emphasizes that even the
recruiting agencies are reluctant to come for campus recruitments due to
connectivity issues leading to migration of future practitioners to places outside
the valley. This probably highlights the lack of awareness vis-à-vis the scope of
social work practice in Barak Valley.
M. Tineshowri Devi and Kaivalya T. Desai

SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 6–21
Social Work Research and its Methodological Vicissitudes

in Tata Institute of Social Sciences
Surinder Jaswal and Melody Kshetrimayum
Social work research began in India with the introduction of PhD programme at the Tata
Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai in 1967. Since then, it has witnessed shifts in
epistemologies and methodologies. This paper traces the course of social work research
in the Institute by reviewing doctoral theses submitted since the inception of PhD
programme. Influenced by the philosophical assumptions and the ‘research culture’ of a
given time, social work research had relied on quantitative methodology and then, on
qualitative methodology. Simultaneously, a steady growth of mixed methods research is
also observed. The paper finds out that, with the change in epistemology, nature of social
work research in the Institute is changing and shaping in connection with ground realities
of people. This process is contributing to theoretical knowledge, factual knowledge and
practical knowledge.
Surinder Jaswal is Deputy Director (Research) and Professor, Centre for Health and
Mental, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. She is also the
Associate Editor, The Indian Journal of Social Work; Melody Kshetrimayum is Assistant
Professor with Research and Development, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.
Introduction
Social work research has taken different forms and shapes globally and many
countries are trying to establish their own form, separate from the influence of
American social work. Social work has been restructured and reorganised vis-à-
vis privatisation, managerialism and neo-liberal politics, which eventually
influenced the context of social work research (Gibbs, 2001). It has witnessed
paradigm shifts, debates about methodology, epistemology, the role and purpose of
research, and the use of evidence in practice (Maynard, Vaughn, & Sarteschi,
2014). Bodies of knowledge or epistemologies have been instrumental in shaping
social work research. Similar to social science research that celebrates
positivistic and non-positivistic dichotomy, social work research mainly rests on
these two important epistemologies globally (Gibbs, 2001).
7 Surinder Jaswal and Melody Kshetrimayum
A review of social work theses of different universities (Brun, 1997; Dellgran

& Hojer, 2003; Fook, 2003) examined the methodologies employed in social work
research. Maynard et al., (2014) looked at the trend of methodologies selected
for doctoral studies and the methods used by different scholars. It was seen that
the findings were focused mainly on recognising the dominant methodology by
examining frequencies of methodologies used rather than explaining the use of a
particular methodology to explore new issues. Explanation of the methodology
would have helped to understand the controlled and responsible development of
social work research based on valid knowledge (LeCroy, 1985). Gibbs (2001)
examined and discussed the main epistemologies that shaped social work
research globally. However, since the context of social work research is not
universal or linear, the developments may be different in different contexts.
Keeping this in mind, this paper attempts to investigate how social work doctoral
scholars at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, arrived at a particular
methodology to be used for their doctoral study to understand/ identify the
scientific contribution of the studies to the social work knowledge base.
The Indian social work profession started with the establishment of Sir
Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work (now known as the Tata Institute of
Social Sciences) in 1936. In this span of 80 years, the profession has spread and
gained popularity across the country. From a profession that was initially shaped
and influenced by American social work to one that encompasses growth of
several thematic areas of practice and knowledge and indigenous knowledge
development, Indian social work has come a long way despite facing many
structural and diversity challenges. Social work education in India is today
recognised as a moral and practical activity (Jaswal & Pandya, 2015) and it
creates a knowledge base of realities of vulnerabilities, oppression and injustice
vis-à-vis poverty, gender, caste, religion, ethnicity, development, conflict and
environment.
In 1967, social work research was introduced in India with the introduction of
the doctoral programme at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS). Since its
inception, the Doctor of Philosophy programme has undergone three major
changes, which can be seen through three distinct phases in the fifty-year time
span of the PhD programme at the institute. These are the a) Inception/ Initial
phase (1967–1979) that prioritized the state and non-state institutions and welfare
activities; b) the Expansion phase (1980–2005) that continued the trend of the
inception phase as well as showed advent of non-institutional and public issues; c)
the Post Restructuring phase (2006–2014) that focused on creating and
promoting development or improvement of various sections of population rather
than focusing only on peripheral groups. Social work research in TISS is a
complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon where knowledge, perspectives and
practices are often interlinked and compared. It encompasses broad spectrum
and types of research. The broad spectrum in social work research can be linked
to India’s ancient and modern aspects of socio-cultural ethos and political history
such as caste-based social hierarchy, experience of colonisation, independence
movement, the birth of a new nation, its cultural and linguistic diversity and
presence of voluntary social work since ancient times (Kuruvilla, 2005). With its
Social Work Research and its Methodological Vicissitudes in TISS 8
first doctoral study awarded in 1975, TISS has been a prolific contributor in
creating social work knowledge base for implementing interventions, policies and
programmes. Examining the vicissitudes in research methodology adopted in
social work research would establish valid knowledge that is essential for
strengthening and expansion of social work education and practice.
All the seventy-eight social work theses submitted at the Tata Institute of
Social Sciences, Mumbai from 1967 to 2015 were reviewed. A review matrix of
the theses was prepared to delineate the social work research domain,
methodology adopted, the methods used for data collection and types of analysis
employed in the research study. The matrix was analysed to examine the
preferred methodology for each domain of study as well as to examine the
rationale for choice of the research design and analysis plan for the study.
The next three sections detail the key methodological approaches identified in
the theses followed by a discussion and conclusion of the emerging trends.
The Quantitative Base
Traditionally, the methodological approach in social work research is based on

quantitative strategies. Since the 1960s the more structured and pre-determined
research designs dominated within social work at the TISS. Mahtani (2004)
claimed that historically, social work, like other social science disciplines, has
relied on structured, pre-determined research designs, which are today classified
as belonging to the ‘quantitative methodology’ of research. However, over the
past four decades, non-positivist constructivist epistemologies (qualitative
methodology) have taken strong roots in social science research (Nakkeeran,
2006). This trend gradually extended within social work too.
A methodology is adopted based on the ontological and epistemological
assumptions made by the researcher. Having said that, arriving at a methodology
for a research study is also very much influenced by the research culture of a
given time. Quantitative methodology was not only the popular methodology
among researchers in 1960s but also the main approach on which the researchers
were trained.
Our acquaintance with the former (quantitative) approach has been the foundation
on which we have been nurtured as researchers first and social workers next and
we are all too familiar with the process of collecting data using standardised
instruments administered to a population group using scientific and logical
measures of analysis in order to draw inferences and arrive at generalisations to
the extent possible to substantiate, complement or negate an existing theory /
hypothesis or to formulate a new one. Exciting stuff indeed..., the entire process of
deduction, though labourious, gives us the end result to defend our hypotheses
using a logical, systematic and ‘scientific’ procedure (Stanley, 2004, p. 342).
The problem of obtaining knowledge rested mainly on positivistic ontology and

epistemology and pre-determined research designs. It could be said that
qualitative methodology was in ‘dormant state’ during this period although some
researchers did adopt the methodology. Positivism heralded by Auguste Comte
believed human behaviour to be observable, measurable and predictable

(Nakkeeran, 2006), motivated researchers to look for measuring frequencies of
occurrence of human behaviour and its association with occurrence/ existence of
other situations. Quantitative research methodology views social reality as an
object of study and believes that social realities are external to social actors
(Mahtani, 2004). It considers human behaviour to be observable, measurable and
even predictable and also advocates that the social world should be studied only
through directly observable behaviour such as marriage, childbirth, suicide,
employment and so on rather than through values, opinions, beliefs and so on
(Nakkeeran, 2006). The tenets of positivism influenced a large section of
educators and eventually the researchers to pursue social knowledge through its
philosophical assumptions.
Table 1: Methodology of Social Work Research
a) Domains of studies Methods used for data Analysis Plan
Methodology/ collection
b) Rationale
for choosing a
methodology
a) Quantitative Mental Health (7), Health (5), Structured; semi-structured Descriptive
(Positivism) Management (3), Women’s Studies and unstructured interviews; analysis;
(2), Rural Development (2), Social observation and official discriminant
b) Training and Work Education (1), Disability records and documents; analysis; survey
nurturing. Studies (2), Criminology (1), schedule for assessment of analysis; statistical
Medical Social Work (1), Social psychiatric disability; the tests (chi-square,
Legislation (1), Resource family burden scale; gamma, corrected
Mobilization (1), Child Care (1), questionnaire, the social contingency
Social Work Practice (1), Substance support schedule and schedule coefficient).
Use (1) and Aging (1). for coping; survey.
a) Qualitative Mental Health (5), Social Welfare Ethnography, in-depth and Thematic; content;
(Non- (1), Social Work Education (1), semi-structured interviews; Narrative analysis;
positivism) Health (3), Women’s Studies (2), observation, background comparative
Criminology (3), Social Work information sheet; key analysis; cross-
b) Nature of Practice (1), Substance Use (2), informant interviews; FGDs; organisational
subject, Ecology and Environment (1), document reviews; analysis; cross
improved Adoption (1), Power Relation (1), questionnaires. case;
conceptual Social Movement (2), Disaster (1), historiography.
clarity, training Administration (2), Agriculture (1),
and nurturing. Corporate Social Responsibility (1),
Social Entrepreneurship (1), Conflict
(1), Gender (1), Child Care (1).
a) Mixed Social Policy (1), Disaster (1), Social Unstructured interviews, Descriptive
(Pragmatism) Work Education (1), Management questionnaires; structured; analysis; case study
(2), Health (2), Resettlement and observation; FGDs; analysis; thematic
b) Nature of Rehabilitation (1), Rural/Community participant observation; and analysis.
subject, Development (1), Substance Use (1), physical artefact; survey.
improved Criminology (1), Disability Studies
conceptual (1) Voluntary Organisation (1),
clarity, training Parenting (1).
and nurturing.
Notes: (1) The numbers in parenthesis indicate the number of theses.

(2) Two theses could not be reviewed due to lack of information.
The following figure shows the course of Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods
Research in social work research.
Figure 1: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research Curves
Between 1971 and 2000, social work research was dominated by quantitative
methodology. The domains that adopted quantitative methodology included
Mental Health (7 theses), Health (5 theses), Management (3 theses), Women’s
Studies (2 theses), Rural Development (2 theses), Social Work Education (1
thesis), Disability Studies (2 theses), Criminology (1 thesis), Medical Social Work
(1 thesis), Social Legislation (1 thesis), Resource Mobilization (1 thesis), Child
Care (1 thesis), Social Work Practice (1 thesis), Substance Use (1 thesis), and
Aging (1 thesis). Mental Health, Health and Management domains that constitute
an important space in social work research contributed a large number of
researches, which adopted the quantitative methodology. Planning, services,
programme, management, perceptions, support systems, politics, development
and experiences were investigated in different settings that range from rural and
urban settings to medical and correctional settings and from voluntary and
government settings to educational and custodial settings. The purpose of the
investigations was mainly to understand the frequency of certain phenomenon.
The researchers were interested in studies pertaining to issues such as trend/
situations, provision of services, triggering factors, family and peer influence,
coping strategies, treatments and many such issues. Other domains that also
adopted the quantitative methodology were Women’s Studies, Rural
Development, Social Work Education, Disability Studies, Criminology, Medical
Social Work, Social Legislation, Resource Mobilization, Child Care, Social Work
Practice, Substance Use and Aging.

A codified approach to each step in research design is seen in earlier
research. Formulating questions, specifying theories, deriving hypothesis,
selecting sampling and data collecting methods, analysing and testing the results in
relation to the hypothesis, reporting the findings was the regular course of
research process. The underlying philosophical assumptions that would influence
a particular use of methodology were rarely discussed. The deductive logic of
inquiry seemed to be the ultimate choice for most of the researchers.
A wide variety of social science theories were employed in addition to social
work models to derive hypothesis. Emphasis on Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim
was placed by a large number of earlier research investigations to engage their
theoretical perspectives. Subsequently, the methodological rigour only increased
with researchers’ engagement with deduction of theories. For instance, Theory of
Psychoanalytic technique, 1958 by Karl Augustus Menninger; Community Power
Structure, 1953 by Floyd Hunter; Central Place Theory, 1933 by Walter
Christaller; Psycho-analytic Theory, 1916–1917 by Sigmund Freud; and
Structural Strain Theory, 1976 by Robert Merton were discussed as theoretical
frameworks. Concepts and variables derived from these theoretical frameworks
were used to test hypothesis or to propose new hypothesis in mental illness,
alcoholism (deviant behaviour), aggressive behaviour (mental health), settlements
and power structure.
Underpinned by positivistic assumptions, methods that are designed to make
clear distinction between the researcher and the participants were employed in
the above domains. Structured mode of data collection such as structured
interviews, schedules, rating scales, questionnaire and surveys were used.
Surveys and structured interviews were most commonly used. While these
methods maintained space between researchers and participants, they also
enabled the relationships between participants and situations/phenomena to be
observable, measurable and predictable. However, positivist researchers did
make use of interviews, observations and case studies to explain a given
phenomenon. Statistical analysis like chi-square test, t-test, one-way ANOVA,
Spearman’s rank correlation and gamma test were frequently used (see Table 1).
Standardised methods of collecting data and analysis were used to draw
inferences and arrive at generalisations.
Very few earlier researches discussed the validity of tools. For example, in a
study on ‘disciplinary actions of industrial organisations’ validity and reliability of
the tools were calculated using item analysis (correlation) and split halve method
respectively. Quantitative analysts claim superiority in terms of ‘scientific’ validity
and greater generalisation of findings (Stanley, 2004) but this advantage was
utilised by only a few researchers.
Considering or following ethical norms for conducting research is critical to
enhance trusted environment of the research and to avoid conflicts of interests
between stakeholders. However, earlier research did not give much importance
to ethical issues nor raise ethical dilemmas. It was possible for the researchers to
anticipate ethical issues while dealing with sensitive issues such as mental health,
health and criminology. But they did not discuss or mention ethical considerations
thoroughly as code of ethics did not form a crucial part in research at that time.
The dearth of appropriate ethical guidelines in social work profession in the Indian
context could also be responsible for this oversight/ gap.
Between 2001 and 2010, use of quantitative methodology showed a sharp
decline (see Figure1). The growth and acceptance of qualitative methodology
among academicians in social work had a significant role to play in this decline.
This was further influenced by the methodological change in the social sciences.
Jones (2010) justifies the decline of teaching and use of quantitative approach in
social sciences, as the result of post structuralism. The likes of Levi-Strauss,
Foucault, Levinas and other authors with similar ideologies, engaged their
research in qualitative logic of inquiry in various social science disciplines. This
methodological change in social sciences impacted social work methodology too.
Figure 1 shows that the decline in Quantitative methodology has remained
consistent.
Growth of Qualitative Methodology
The beginning of the 21st century showed tremendous growth of qualitative

methodology in TISS. Teachings of non-positivism generated good results during
this time when a large amount of research was produced using qualitative
methodology. The growing interest was due to the naturalistic nature of qualitative
research that is, it studies populations in question in their natural setting; it uses
naturalistic methods, such as field work, field study, and generally methods that
are familiar to the people living in these settings. At the same time, social work is
a discipline that involves the study of people, their activities, events and
behaviours (Mathbor, 2001).
Qualitative research methodology encompasses a family of research
methods based on interpretive, non-positivist approach to the study of social
phenomenon that examines the processes by which the social world is
constructed by its social actors (Mahtani, 2004). It gives importance to human
subjectivity. It believes that realities are socially constructed by individuals from
their own contextual interpretations. Reality includes beliefs, values, meanings,
motive, feeling, perception, consciousness and sense and so on. It emphasise on
processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured in
terms of quantity, amount, intensity or frequency.
The compatible relationship between social work and qualitative methodology
could also be explained in relation to the importance given to ‘context’. For
instance, ‘community’ as a concept and context occupies an important place in
social work research and it is used by numerous researchers. To understand its
ethics, values and culture or to construct ‘it’ from participants’ perception,
researchers need a thorough understanding of its people and their social, political
and cultural values. Moreover, reducing people (and their relationships) to
numerical symbols and statistical figures result in a loss of perception on the
subjective nature of human behaviour. And, it is known that qualitative research
methods are highly appropriate in studying the process, because it provides a
complete account and chronology of the events, situations, belief system and
values of the people (Mathbor, 2001).

Qualitative methodology emphasise the socially constructed nature of reality,
the intimate relationship of the researcher and what is studied, and the situational
constraints that shape inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). It stresses that people’s
account of their social world or people’s knowledge is not determined in any
principled way by what is there (Gergen, 2004) and therefore, objects and events
do not have an essential universal meaning and people’s perceptions are not a
matter of internalising a truthful representation of the world (Burr, 2003). As a
matter of fact, it emphasises that people construct their own subjective world
through shared understanding, practices, language and so forth (ibid).
Mental Health (5 theses), Health (3 theses), Criminology (3 theses),
Women’s Studies (2 theses), Administration (2 theses) and Substance Use (2
theses), constituted the main domains of qualitative research in social work.
Mental Health and Health received commendable interest from both quantitative
and qualitative researchers. A broad range of mental health areas such as
psychological, clinical, disorder, discrimination and treatment were studied using
qualitative paradigm. Other qualitative research domains included Social Welfare
(1 thesis), Social Work Education (1 thesis), Social Work Practice (1 thesis),
Ecology and Environment (1 thesis), Adoption (1 thesis), Power Relation (1
thesis), Social Movements (2 theses), Disaster (1 thesis), Agriculture (1 thesis),
Corporate Social Responsibility (1 thesis), Social Entrepreneurship (1 thesis),
Conflict (1 thesis), Gender (1 thesis), Child Care (1 thesis). New domains that had
qualitative methodology were Disaster, Social Movement, Agriculture, Social
Entrepreneurship, Gender and Conflict. Qualitative methodology is growing and
becoming popular amongst young researchers studying diverse domains in social
work.
Qualitative researchers seemed to have been obsessed with the theoretical
perspective of Denzin and Lincoln (1994, 1998, 2000); Berger and Luckmann
(1967); and Creswell (2003). With this obsession, they placed themselves in a
position to explore meaning constructed by participants from their own
experiences. Grounded Theory of Glaser and Strauss (1964), and Strauss and
Corbin (1990) was used by qualitative researchers as the main theoretical guide
for their investigations. Processes of entering the field, familiarising with people
and the context, observing and understanding the nuances of local languages,
building social relationship with people, interaction with participants, iterating the
data, reflecting on the data, analysing and writing up, constituted the main
research process. Theoretical frameworks such as capability approach by Sen,
1999; behavioural theory by Gartner (1985, 1988) and the effectuation theory by
Sarasvathy (2001); bio psychosocial model, 1977; Maslow’s humanistic approach,
1954 and theory of structuration by Anthony Giddens, (1984) were used to guide
the investigations.
Social work research drew on social sciences theories as its main source of
theoretical foundation. With new theories evolving, particularly in social sciences,
concepts and ideologies were frequently discussed and compared in relation to
the context and individuals. As a result, there is improved conceptual clarity,
which deepens the theoretical foundations of social work research. For instance,
the concept ‘women empowerment’ was usually related to income but with the
development of more theories, it has become a contextual concept. ‘Social
security’, ‘movement’, ‘affinity with institutions’ and ‘engagement in recreational
and leisurely activities’, are some sub-concepts that constitute to women
empowerment. It connotes different meanings in different contexts and this
‘narrowing down’ improves clarity. Theories that are specific for a particular
context are used to guide investigations. Subsequently, this improved the
conceptual framework of investigations.
Sampling in qualitative research involves not only the people to interview but
also the context and settings of the study. Theoretical, purposive and snowball
sampling methods were dominantly used by the researchers to identify research
participants. The very nature of theoretical, purposive and snowball sampling
methods to remain context-specific and the strength to ensure that the concepts
discovered completely represent the context of the phenomenon studied
(Mahtani, 2004) provided the rationale for using them to identify participants.
Unstructured interview, participant observation, ethnography, case study
helped researchers to get access to in-depth details of people, situations and
events of a context (see Table 1). These methods were used to give meaning to
life experiences, beliefs, social realities and values. The process of iteration
allowed by these methods enhanced data and enabled the researchers to discover
layers of information. The flexible procedure of these methods allows
researchers to discover emerging themes. Insider and outsider quandary was
discussed and carefully handled by the researchers. Other methods used were
focus group discussions, group interview, oral history and structured interview.
Use of multiple methods not only enabled the researchers to capture multiple
perspectives but also established validity of the studies.
Thematic analysis was preferred by many researchers since it allows
analysis of data which is ‘rich’ and ‘thick’ in description of people and
phenomena. Researchers engaged in organising a mass of data chronologically
and arriving at themes to give meaning to the data. Qualitative researchers also
used diverse methods of data analysis namely content, narrative, comparative,
and descriptive analysis. These methods, while analysing rich and thick data,
focused on story, narrative organisation, form, language, communication and
comparison of cases.
Social work research started early to engage in theory construction in 1990s
but somehow, it only accelerated during the 2010s. Emergent theories were
mostly the extension of previous theories, which emerged through the research
process. Emergent theories reworked the inter-linkage of concepts of existing
theories such as Lehman’s Quality of Life models (1988), Sen’s Capability
Approach (1999), Anthony Giddens’s theory of Structuration (1984) and The
Ecological Systems Theory. The interplay between the guiding theories helped
researchers to locate the emerging concepts and rework on the conceptualisation.
Eight studies used grounded theory as the main approach to generate theory out
of data. Theories constructed out of grounded theory were generated from
propositions that linked concepts and categories. These theories emerged
‘originally’ through researchers’ inductive research process.
Qualitative researchers attempted various steps to ensure the ‘quality’ of

their study. Very few researchers established ‘trustworthiness’ of their study and
maintained validity. In qualitative research, trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba,
1985) has been proposed as consisting of – credibility in place of internal validity
– transferability in place of generalizability –dependability in place of reliability –
and – confirmability in place of objectivity. Prolonged engagement with the field,
performing member checks, capturing and respecting multiple perspectives,
integrating of theory with practice (praxis), staying aware of the his/her position
and making it overt, detailing the research design, sampling, data collection,
analysis and drawing attention to the specific ethical considerations served the
main steps taken. Findings emerged from the data maintained confirmability. A
major proportion of qualitative research needs to discuss more on credibility,
transferability and dependability so that the trustworthiness of their studies is not
questioned.
Informed consent, confidentiality, autonomy and not giving false promises
were the main values and ethics maintained by the social work researchers during
their studies. Informed consent was the most used ‘value’ to get permission from
the participants of the research to share information. Confidentiality was
maintained by most of the researchers to protect the privacy of the participants
and secrecy of their information. The ethical decisions were taken in accordance
with the context of research, that is, researchers took contextual ethical decisions
related to the values and beliefs of individuals and communities in the field. Topics
not thought to be sensitive can rapidly become so and sensitivity and distress may
only become manifest during the research process (Davison, 2004). While some
of the decisions were taken prior to the study, others emerged as the fieldwork
progressed. The relationship between the researchers and the participants were
kept cordial by maintaining these context-specific values and ethics.
Qualitative methodology is the new craze amongst young researchers and its
theoretical perspective disseminates quicker in research communities. Its
popularity could be due to: nature of reality under study (turmoil, culture,
practices, infrastructure, policy implementation and many others); methodological
popularity (conventional methodologies adopted in wider literature) and; internal
developments (training and nurturing, faculty and peer pressure, support and
facilities availability, values and thrust areas promoted by schools of social work
and so on).
The growth of mixed methods research
The principles of social work discipline supports methodological diversity and that
is well utilised by a few researchers to investigate their problems. The use of
mixed methods research is consistent since the beginning, however, the
dominance of quantitative methodology and then the growth of qualitative
methodology overshadowed its presence. Realising the importance of mixed
method research, several authors (Desai, Jaswal, & Ganapati, 2004) have
discussed its potential that positing that it can strengthen social work research and
social work as a discipline. (A variety of methods were suggested in research
works if social work research is to be people-centred and scientific.)

Mixed methods research involved integrating quantitative and qualitative
approaches to generate new knowledge and can involve either concurrent or
sequential use of these two classes of methods to follow a line of inquiry (Strange,
Crabtree, & Miller, 2006). While the paradigm debate of mixed methods research
continues, many scholars have linked mixed methods research with pragmatism
(that is, the approach may combine deductive and inductive thinking, as the
researcher mixes both qualitative and quantitative data) (Creswell & Clark,
2011). Pragmatism is typically associated with mixed methods research and the
focus is on the consequence of research, on the primary importance of the
question asked rather than the methods, and on the use of multiple methods of
data collection to inform problems under study. Thus, it is pluralistic and oriented
toward “what works” and practice (ibid.). The theoretical underpinnings of
pragmatism posit that there are both singular and multiple realities of a social
world and these realities are discovered through ‘practicality’, that is, collecting
data by ‘what works’ to address the research question.
The domains of social work research that adopted mixed methods research in
the analysed theses were Social Policy (1 thesis), Disasters (1 thesis), Social
Work Education (1 thesis), Management (2 theses), Health (2 theses),
Resettlement and Rehabilitation (1 thesis), Rural/Community Development (1
thesis), Criminology (1 thesis), Disability Studies (1 thesis), Voluntary
Organisation (1 thesis), Substance Use (1 thesis), Parenting (1 thesis). The
studies were either consequence-oriented or problem-centred. For instance,
study on ‘effect of alcoholism on the emotional intelligence of adult children of
alcoholics’ (Substance Use) was investigated using consequence-oriented mixed
methods research. Parenting and Voluntary Organisations were new domains in
social work research. Within the broad combined theoretical perspectives, role
theory (Robbins & Sanghi, 2007), critical theory (Mayo, 1999); the behavioural
model of healthcare of Anderson and Newman (1973); sustainable livelihoods
framework by Majale (2002) were used to guide the investigations and were used
as framework of analysis. The theories were also used to derive variables in
studies that investigated health services. Constructivism and phenomenology
were usually combined with positivist formulations to examine both socially
constructed realities (subjective experiences) as well as characteristics of people
and phenomena. Other approaches that were used to combine with positivist
formulations were positive psychology and humanistic psychology.
Triangulation was used to gain multiple perspectives of an issue or problem.
According to Jayaram (2006), it can be of four types – data triangulation,
investigator triangulation, theory triangulation and methodological triangulation.
Researchers mainly used methodological triangulation by combining both
qualitative and quantitative methods. Unstructured interviews were combined
with assessment indices and structured interviews. Mixed sampling was also
adopted in mixed methods research by initially using probability sampling,
followed by non-probability sampling methods. Purposive sampling, snowball
sampling, simple random sampling were used at multiple stages of sampling
procedures. Mixed methods researchers carried out analysis at multiple levels.
Triangulation of data constituted the main step in mixed methods research where
merging and synthesising the findings across different data sets takes place. Most
researchers used thematic analysis and descriptive analysis.
Only a few studies validated their data and incorporated ‘descriptive statistics
forming trends’ into the analysis to test validity. Apart from using quantitative
validations, ‘triangulation’ and ‘preserving the context of data’ were used to
validate qualitative data. Reliability was ensured by using various methods like
developing an ‘interview protocol for case study’.
The majority of mixed methods research emphasised ethical considerations
of the study. Being constantly aware of his/her own ethical principles is the crux
of a social worker’s professional responsibility (Fernandes & Dass, 2000). It
helps them avoid any incident of violating trust of their participants and prevents
tarnishing the image of researchers. Confidentiality, anonymity, informed consent,
rule of beneficence and rule of non-maleficence were the main ethical
considerations used in mixed methods research. Confidentiality, anonymity and
informed consent remain the principles used most often in social work not only in
quantitative and qualitative research but also in mixed methods. Rule of
beneficence and rule of non-maleficence were new principles used by mixed
methods researchers in order to act towards others’ benefit and do no harm to the
participants. The ethical decisions were taken with strong underpinning on
understanding of ethical guidelines of social work profession. Mixed methods
researchers emphasised the ethical considerations and discussed them
thoroughly.
Discussion and Conclusion
The methodological perspective of social work research mainly comes from two
distinct philosophical approaches: the positivistic and the anti-positivistic. ‘The
former, following the French philosopher and sociologist Auguste Comte (1798-
1857), proclaims methodological monism (that is, the unity of method as the basis
of all science), and the latter, following the German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey
(1833-1911) and the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920), advocates
methodological dualism (that is, separate methodologies for natural sciences and
human sciences)’ (Jayaram, 2006, p. 5).
Epistemologies in social work research changes with the changing context.
Australian social work research that started in 1920s does not limit itself within
the traditional quantitative and qualitative paradigms but draws on a number of
different research approaches from the humanities as well as the empirical social
sciences (Fook, 2003). Swedish social work research, started in late 1970s, is
dominated by qualitative research, which can be described as a rural landscape of
knowledge with a certain degree of urbanisation (Dellgran & Hojer, 2003). Britain
and New Zealand social work research have evolved from large scale descriptive
and policy oriented research to applied practice based research which have
qualitative and quantitative elements (Gibbs, 2001). The present review of social
work research at the TISS indicates that positivism and non-positivism
(constructivism, phenomenology, and constructivist grounded theory)
methodologies have dominated social work research in turns.

Social work research at the TISS is going beyond the traditional quantitative
nature of investigation. The nature of subjects is changing with more interest
towards social structures (gender, ethnicity, power relations, faith), traditional
practices (reproductive health practices, informal credit practices), forms of
injustice and discriminations (displacement, conflict and disaster related
vulnerabilities, gender, disabilities, mental illness), people’s struggles (social
movements, rights), deviated behaviours (substance use, criminology), mental
health related practices that call for methodologies which can capture subjective
experiences. As a result, researchers tend to embrace the non-positivistic
methodologies. As observed in Figure 1, qualitative and mixed methods research
curves are ascending. The inductive nature of investigation in these research
studies generates new theories from the data. As the emerging theories
developed from primary data, they are closely connected with the ground realities
of people, thus shaping social work research in accordance with social realities.
The curves of growth indicated the dynamics of quantitative, qualitative and
mixed methods research evolution. Quantitative research stressed on use of
sampling methods, research methods, test of validity and reliability, analysis. The
theoretical perspectives, on which the researches were based, were given less
importance and ethical considerations were neglected. In qualitative research,
main emphasis was given to theoretical perspectives, use of methods, data
collection, field dynamics and analysis, and theory generation too in some studies.
Ethical guidelines, theory generation, trustworthiness needs to be articulated to
strengthen the methodology. Mixed methods research placed emphasis on the use
of multiple methods, data collection, analysis and ethical considerations. Overall,
the organisation of studies and emphasis given at each step of the research
process has strengthened over the years.
Indian social work was observed to have been influenced by the American
social work model (Mandal, 1989). This trend was interrupted with the adoption
of qualitative research, followed by mixed methods research, dominating social
work research in recent years in TISS. The change in methodology has been
influenced by several factors, a) theoretical foundation – visible in the emerging
theories with improved conceptual clarity; b) external environment- visible
through a better understanding of the social, economic and political aspects of the
country; c) internal environment- setting up of Centre for Research Methodology,
training and nurturing, faculty and peer pressure, values and thrust areas
promoted by school of social work and; d) social sciences methodology- having
shared people-oriented ‘knowledge’ and ‘science’, social research impact social
work research in its ontologies and epistemologies.
To conclude, the contours of social work research is shaping in connection
with ground realities of people. Its body of knowledge or epistemology is
expanding with emerging theories. The vicissitudes in its methodology strengthen
the social work knowledge base by capturing holistic perspectives and realities of
people and phenomenon. Evolving process of theory building and deepening is
contributing to social work education and practice /theoretical knowledge, factual
knowledge and practical knowledge.
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SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 22–33
Transacting the Community Organisation Curriculum in

the Classroom as a Social Work Educator
Mouleshri Vyas
As poverty and marginalization increase in India, there is a greater need for social workers
who can work with various constituencies. Community practice, which may be aimed at
facilitating people’s access to services, mobilizing and organizing them, or engaging in
policy advocacy on a range of issues, is increasingly required and relevant. As a key
subject within the discipline of Social Work in preparing practitioners for this field, today
Community Organisation in the classroom too is faced with challenges that reflect the
complexity of the larger environment and the field. Teaching of the subject and
transacting the curriculum in the classroom is an interesting and dynamic experience. In
this paper, I trace my experiences of teaching the course on Community Organization for
several years and reflect on changes that have taken place over the years in the classroom
and outside. I have tried to place the classroom, rather than the curriculum, as the locus of
my discussion. To some extent this discussion would give an idea of the present context
of community work in the country, and my concerns as a social work educator in preparing
practitioners through classroom teaching.
Mouleshri Vyas is Professor, Centre for Community Organisation and Development

Practice, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.
Introduction
I cannot recall the precise year that I started teaching Community Organisation, a
basic course for first year students of the Master’s programme in Social Work at
the Institute. My memory when I began what I can safely put as twenty years
ago, was of discussing the content and plan for the course with two colleagues
who had been my teachers. We taught the course in three divisions then. I
remember that I then had about forty students in my class. Today with more than
two hundred and twenty students, and four divisions, I teach the course with three
other colleagues. It has been significantly modified over the years, with various
teachers bringing in their ideas and field experience to suggest how it can be made
23 Mouleshri Vyas
more relevant for the students.

As with courses that are important in any programme and have been taught
for long years, Community Organisation (referred to as C.O.) too, was handed to
me to start preparing myself to teach with some notes, readings, and a course
outline by my predecessors. I was keen to get into it, and also a bit baffled about
how to begin, and what style to adopt in teaching; the image in my mind was of my
teacher who was now a senior colleague, and whose style was a story-telling
mode; he wove in illustrations from the field, that were rich with complexities and
questions. While we thoroughly enjoyed listening to him, we were unable to write
any notes in the class, because we got lost in the narratives, and often could not
put a finger on the key points that he may have been making. The other division
was taught by a teacher whose lectures could be documented in the form of
notes. Group study saved us. In retrospect those were the heydays of group study,
and mutual support. In the 1980s, we did not need our teachers to tell us how to
share notes and study.
Within the discipline of Social Work, the Community was understood primarily
as a unit of practice. Individuals, groups, and communities came to mean levels of
work. Given the nature of field work placements in a range of sites, and student
efforts to link the classroom with the field, there were times when students found
that they either ‘did community work’ or did not. So sites of practice, or ‘settings’
as they were called, were also associated with the methods that they utilized. It
was not uncommon to find some students feeling at a loss in the C.O. class
because they were not ‘doing’ any community work. For instance, students
placed in a prison did not find scope for what they understood as community
organization. We answered their queries and pointed out that the influence of
communities was evident in the lives of the prisoners and in the effect it would
have on their rehabilitation or re-integration. They needed to see the role of the
community and scope for working with the community within and outside the
prison irrespective of whether they were working in that direction themselves.
We have gradually established the importance of the perspective for community
practice and emphasized the importance of the context in shaping strategies and
other elements of organizing. Such an analysis increases the scope for community
organization to sites other than geographic settlements, or what are typically seen
to be communities for practice.
There are certain factors that have shaped the curriculum as well as the
pedagogy of the course: historically, social work methods comprise casework,
group work, community organisation, social action, social research, and social
welfare administration. All of these are essential in practice, and have traditionally
been taught with a knowledge base, skill focus, and thrust on developing the
appropriate attitude required for practice. The values of Social Work are the
bedrock on which these three aspects are developed. With these values, and
guidelines for practice, there is considerable scope for interpretation and
discussion with students. Second, the ‘method’ focus of Community Organisation
gives it a character of practical application to the field. While this has been re-
visited in recent years, it has always been important for the social work educator
to stay connected with field initiatives, and to imbue the classroom interaction with
Transacting the Community Organisation Curriculum 24
references from the field. Third, the fact that in India, the literature on this subject
and that available for teaching, came predominantly from the United States and
Britain meant that there had to be a consistent attempt to adapt the curriculum to
Indian realities in a number of ways. In this regard, one of the quick efforts that
we were able to make was to bring in case studies from the field. These have built
nuanced understanding of students about components of community organization.
Further, there has been a conscious attempt by social work educators to write
about community organisation in India: Andharia (2013) attempts to re-
conceptualise community practice in India with a transdisciplinary perspective. In
a special issue of the Community Development Journal (2009) various social
work educators and practitioners contextualize community organisation and
practice with a focus on specific aspects of development. These continue.
The above three factors viz. the value base of social work, method focus of
community organization, and nature of literature available for teachers and
practitioners, have significantly determined the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of Community
Organisation as a subject in social work at the Institute where I teach.
The other and very significant factor is to do with the importance of
community organisation in the country. In India, community practice which
comprises direct community work and organizing as well as advocacy on issues
of marginalized communities and community segments is relevant and in fact
increasingly required. While the image of ‘community’ that the term ‘community
organization’ creates is predominantly that of a geographic community or
settlement, the understanding has moved much beyond it to encompass
communities of common interests or concerns where members may be
geographically dispersed. Poverty and marginalization are experienced in the
country by communities, or by individuals who are part of communities in terms of
identity or geographic location. In a context where poverty and vulnerability are
widely prevalent (GoI, 2009) and resources to pay social workers are scarce, with
social work practitioners being largely informal workers, it is still necessary to be
able to reach more people for service provision or mobilizing around a particular
issue. The experience of a union of informal workers with an office in an urban
low income settlement illustrates the importance of their presence and role in the
area: the union aims to focus their work on mobilizing and organizing informal
workers for entitlements as workers and finds that it is inundated with requests
for help for a wide range of problems like domestic violence, alcoholism, and
issues with ration cards and accessing essential commodities at the local outlet,
that are being faced by local residents who may not be members of the union. In
such places, where there is minimal presence of government or voluntary
organizations, the union office is seen as a place where people are helpful, have
access to information, and would be able to provide guidance to those who need it.
They have to extend themselves, though they may operate within severe financial
and human resource constraints.
In this backdrop, for several years now, I have been realizing that teaching of
this subject has made me reflect on new questions, to interrogate certain
phenomena and practice elements with a ‘community lens’, and built my
inclination towards certain approaches in the field of community practice, perhaps
25 Mouleshri Vyas
influencing me as a person in ways that I may not be able to articulate clearly. I

thought it worthwhile to therefore attempt what hopefully emerges as a coherent
discussion of what it has meant to teach Community Organisation for several
years to many batches of first year Master’s students of Social Work.
In this paper, I trace my experiences of teaching the course and reflect on
changes that have taken place over the years, in the classroom and outside. Some
of the analysis is likely to be the outcome of collective thinking rather than mine
alone. I acknowledge the discussions with several colleagues over the years that
have shaped my own understanding of the subject and the field. Rather than
centre the curriculum in this discussion, I have tried to place the classroom as the
locus of my discussion. To some extent this would give an idea of the context of
community work in the country, and concerns in preparing practitioners through
classroom teaching. The paper comprises three sections: first, the course on
Community Organisation; second, the classroom; and third, changes over time
into which the discussion is organized.
The Course on Community Organisation
The course on Community Organisation has evolved through interaction among

the team of teachers. Other than wider reading from various social science
disciplines and social work, our involvement with field organizations that are
mobilizing and organizing communities and/or are working towards community
development has enabled us to sharpen the content and our approach to it.
Students of community practice need to locate their work, approaches, as
well as conceptualising in a historical context. For a practice discipline like Social
Work this must necessarily draw upon academic as well as gray literature and
field experiences. The last two have to be consciously drawn upon as field
experiences and insights have often not found their way into published work. As
mentioned earlier, since we used existing literature from the West to begin our
teaching, part of the challenge of teaching the segment of history and issues of
community work was to construct and interpret the history. In fact, students need
to begin reading and listening with an idea of the importance of history, which
enables them to situate their work, challenges in the field, their questions and their
insights, in a context. This is easier said than done, because not all students have
a yen for history; as important is the fact that not all teachers are able to construct
and teach history in the same way. The history of community organisation within
the discipline of social work is uneven and attempts at teaching it may be found to
have gaps of events and of decades. What starts with a discussion of the
Settlement House movement in 19th -20th century England and the U.S. (Weil et
al., 2005), then moves to mid-20th century India with the Community
Development Programme (Siddiqui, 1997) and concludes with a debate on where
we are at the present point of time. Various authors dwell upon it and construct it
with varied emphases. So we refer to different sources to construct a version of
history that builds an understanding of the present. Students need to grasp why
we practice the way we do, the fact that threads of strategies and analyses
continue over the decades across continents for particular reasons, and there is
immense diversity in community practice within the Indian context. This also
means that for those who do not read to supplement what they learn in the
classroom, the history of C.O. may remain a compilation of initiatives at
community work across countries at various points of time.
A course such as this, which is a practice focused or methods course in Social
Work, is meant to provide clarity to students about working in the field. This
primarily begins through the discussion of values, assumptions and principles of
community practice. The latter in particular, serve as guidelines for the field, and
shape the nature of engagement. While they are not taught as prescriptions, they
point to certain ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ in community work. Strengthening this practice
thrust is the segment on tools for community assessment. In familiarizing students
with preparation of outline for Community Profile, Participatory Mapping,
Stakeholder Analysis etc., the approach is that one should learn how to prepare,
how to use these instruments, and to recognize misuse of these to further the
interests of the oppressors or exploiters, while utilizing these very instruments to
work in the interests of certain sections of the community (Dominelli, 2007). The
politics and power play that is embedded in practice must be recognized by the
practitioner starting out in this field. Critical community practice that builds on the
aspect of power over and power with brings incisiveness into the analysis of
community situations as well as of practice (Butcher, Banks, Henderson &
Robertson, 2009).
The propensity among practitioners to discuss their work with thick
descriptions of places, incidents, actions, and analyses, while being a source of
information and knowledge, needs concepts and theoretical formulations around
which to wrap these experiences. Students in particular, are so immersed in the
intensity of their fieldwork experiences or doubts about how to link them with
what happens in class, that often times when I ask them to highlight the nature of
Community Organisation in their fieldwork context, they launch into a narrative of
the nature of work, speaking about the sequence of activities they have
participated in and experiences that have struck them. This is not to say that there
is no point in such description; in fact, for those not familiar with the context, these
details are necessary as a background to understanding the nature of practice. It
is in an academic space or meetings where there is focus on specific issues that
one would find the audience getting restless, and wanting the speaker to ‘come to
the point’. Theoretical formulations and concepts are useful as they enable a
succinct presentation of complex realities that one is working within, and lay the
ground for studying newer contexts of practice by providing concepts that one
can focus on and begin with.
It is here that the study of models of community practice has stood the test of
time. Early work on models by Jack Rothman in the 1960s explicated components
of community organisation viz. goals, strategies, conception of the community, the
role of the social worker, among others. These, and his later formulations, have
brought coherence into understanding and explaining a field that is immensely
diverse. (Rothman, 2008) There is some excitement in the visual and theoretical
study of a model because of the stimulation it provides for those who are in this
field. It poses the challenge of trying to ‘fit’ one’s work into certain concepts that
27 Mouleshri Vyas
are related to each other to paint part of a broad picture; it also offers the prospect
of finding gaps in what has been outlined based on one’s reading or experiences.
So for the teacher of C.O. this is a critical part of the course that one draws upon
to lend substance of a certain kind to the 30 hours in the classroom. The
subsequent work on conceptual models for community practice (Gamble & Weil,
2011) is more recent and therefore allows us to trace the progress of model
development from the 1960s which is when Rothman’s initial work emerged, to
the post-2010 period, when Weil and Gamble have refined and detailed their
8-model framework for community practice. As a teacher, the emergence of new
literature on the subject has meant that there is an added impetus to teaching the
topic and some excitement that emanates from developing the key points for
discussion in the classroom.
The transaction of this curriculum in the classroom is not simple. Assuming
that the teacher is well prepared for the class, at times it is not possible to ‘deliver’
the entire content that one has planned to, because having a discussion about it in
order to make students reflect and connect with their fieldwork is very crucial to
the meaning and impact that the topic has for them. This means that they would
need to do library work to substantiate the classroom discussion. The classroom
itself is a ground that is marked by diversity and subtle and overt contestations of
ideas and practice propositions. A few of these are highlighted in the next section.
The classroom
Some of my most lively and stimulating, as well as frustrating moments as a

teacher have been in the classroom for the C.O. class. Let me construct an
image of what the C.O. class is like: the students belong to various specialisations
in social work. They could be preparing for work in the field of health, criminal
justice, disability, or with specific constituencies such as women, children,
families, dalits and tribals, or with rural or urban communities on issues of their
development. In the first year of their Master’s programme in Social Work, most
boys and girls from across rural and urban areas in the country are in their early
20s; a few are older or come with experience of having worked in the field,. This
heterogeneous group that finds itself in the C.O. class is mostly still trying to grasp
what social work is about. There are several reasons for this: they come into this
social work programme from various disciplines, and not necessarily even from
social sciences. The very language and goals of social work would need to be
learned before being absorbed and practiced by them. Secondly, even those who
come with a Bachelor’s degree in Social Work may take some time to grasp how
the course is focused; this is because Bachelor’s level curriculum for Community
Organisation varies across universities in the country and does not show clear
progression from one level to the next. Consequently, there may even be some
repetition of some of the content for those coming from the under graduate
programme in Social Work.
The content and pedagogy of the course offers scope for considerable
discussions in the classroom. For some years we grappled with the aspect that
social workers need to be reflexive and to work on themselves in order to be
sensitive to issues of the community to which they are likely to be outsiders, and to
gain the acceptance of the community. The latter is crucial in community work in
countries such as India because of the fact that the mandate for practice to the
individual or organisation needs to be earned from the community. It is not yet
derived from one’s identity as a professional. Our concern was pedagogical in
that we needed to mould classroom discussions so that they could contribute to
developing reflexivity at least to some extent. For several years, discussions on
Gender, Principles of Feminist Organising, and Power led to heated arguments
among the students centering around their personal experiences as men and
women, and inconsistencies that they perceived in classmates about statements in
the classroom and actual behavior outside, about discrepancies in behavior in the
field and in their personal lives. The classroom was seen as a space where
individual thinking and perspective could be clarified and developed, and one of
the ways to do this was by debating among themselves with the teacher as
facilitator.
Social Work education and practice is value based. There are certain sources
that values of social work may be seen to have been derived from, including
influence of religions of the world (Weil & Gamble, 2011). The methods obtain
their value focus and normative bent from the discipline. These values are
understood as being universally accepted. They define the very nature of
practice. Valuing the dignity of the individual, that communities should participate
in processes that shape their lives, and such other values actually direct
community practice. They make judgment of what we should do and what not to
in community organization practice. Inevitably, they result in conflicts for the
individual practitioner, and between two individuals or communities, since
subjectivity plays a strong role in one’s interpretation of values. For the student,
they also build an image of the community practitioner. This can be an image that
lasts in their minds long after they graduate with a Master’s in Social Work. In her
reflections on community development work in the state of Assam, as an alumna
of the Institute, Senapati (2005) discusses how the values for community
organisation and the image of the community worker came back to her again and
again during her interactions with communities in the course of her work. She
gives a lively account of her experiences in the field, her efforts to live up to
certain ideals of social work, and the conflicts that these ideals generated. It is
evident from her narrative that values when they unfold in particular contexts lead
to dilemmas for practitioners. These need to be responded to and dealt with by the
individual with their understanding of the framework of social work and how they
situate themselves within it.
Teaching the values is challenging to say the least. Classroom discussions are
very lively when we discuss values. What is a value? What are examples of
individual student’s values? Why should a practice profession like Social Work
have a value base? These are the starting points for the discussion. However, one
is not sure whether these lead to any introspection for the students during their
period of study. We assume that some of the discussions stay in students’ minds
and do influence their work in the field; we may get glimpses of this when they
come back to meet us after they leave the Institute and speak about their
29 Mouleshri Vyas
experiences. Then again, choices and decisions that students make are likely to
emerge from a range of influences and not necessarily any one course. To that
extent, the C.O. classroom may realistically be said to be one of the influences on
students’ work.
Broadly, the C.O. classroom is a lively, and yet uneasy space. It is lively
because of the nature of issues and questions that are discussed and debated:
“How have communities that I belong to shaped who I am, where I am, and how
I think? To what extent should one’s identity before-grounded in one’s work
arena? Is there scope for community practice in institutions? Where should one’s
allegiance lie – with the community one is working with, or the organisation one is
part of? How would one address conflicts between principles of practice and the
nature and pace of work of the organisation? If there is no one answer to
questions that one encounters in the field, then does practice not depend too much
on the context and the response of the individual practitioner? These are some of
the questions that have emerged over the years; some are raised by me to
provoke thought and discussion among students while teaching, and some asked
by them. They point to changes in the profile of students and perhaps to changes
in the field. These are the focus of the next section.
Changes over time…and the field becomes more challenging
Changes in the profile of students, as well as in the field, have resulted in some
alterations in the manner in which the curriculum is transacted in the classroom.
These are to do with the new modes of communication; with students’ perception
about social work and career orientation; and the project mode of work in
voluntary organisations that has gained strength in voluntary organisations.
The advent of social media has changed the nature of communication across
the globe, and for young people in the field of social work, and community practice
in particular, some of these changes are having more far reaching consequences
than we have grasped. Why do I mention the field of community practice?
Because in India, this field is unstructured and open; community organizers,
largely as outsiders to communities they work with, may not be located in spaces
where their mandate is defined; organizations and individual practitioners mostly
need to earn the legitimacy for their work from the people that they work with.
This places critical responsibility on the community workers to gain acceptance
from constituencies they aim to mobilize and organize. Being able to communicate
effectively is therefore central to efforts at gaining acceptance. In the field
therefore interactions are not always task focused and purposeful; they cannot
be. The outcomes of the community practitioner’s efforts emerge in subtle and
obvious ways but seldom instantly. Only when one interacts with various sections
of the community, gains their trust, and therefore insights into issues and views of
various stakeholders, can one build a plank for action.
The student entering this field needs to begin developing ease in interacting
with new individuals and groups. At the risk for making certain assumptions here,
I would say that this is not an easy ask for students who come from nuclear
families or backgrounds where there is limited interaction with less known or even
familiar persons in the family or neighbourhood. Some students are hesitant to

knock on the doors of houses in low income neighbourhoods where they are
assigned for their fieldwork; their notion of privacy and letting people live their
own lives translates into reticence to take a step forward to get to know people
and what they think about specific issues. Some of them would actually like to
have a set of questions that they can keep at hand to aid them in conversations
with members of the community. This, according to them helps them in achieving
some concrete points that they can work with. This is why conversations with
people, especially women, who are busy with household chores, seem to end at
the doorway with the student opting to quickly leave from there rather than
‘disturb’ the person. These are some of the experiences that also come up in the
classroom. I ask students questions about community experiences through
fieldwork and am struck with the fundamental nature of the issue with
communication. As everyday communication and interaction in the city and
campus context becomes more staccato and focused, the ability to start
conversations, let one discussion lead to another, and to simply be around when
daily life unfolds for the community, is restricted. This means that the basket of
experiences from which one can learn and gain insights as students of social work
and community practice, is restricted.
However, the nature of communication is not only to do with students, there is
an element of what is happening with lives of the economically disadvantaged in
the city1. People, especially the women, are busy through the day. Home based
work, domestic work, and other types of employment in the informal economy,
added to women’s role as homemaker, lead to the double burden of work. Time,
space, and means of leisure are limited; it is not uncommon to find people
watching television in the afternoon, and a trifle hesitant to engage with student
social workers in a conversation about neighbourhood issues. Students say that a
query they face sometimes when they visit someone’s home as part of
mobilization efforts is about what is in it for them (as in that community member).
To answer such a query is daunting for the student, who understands that this is
actually directed at the organization, and emanates from the relationship that it has
been able to build with community members and past experiences of community
members with its work, and with that of other similar organizations. The students
therefore have a lot to deal with and to answer for, than their own efforts.
The other facet influencing communication in the field and the discourse of
community practice within the classroom is the project mode of work that has
gained ascendance in the past two decades or so. In this period, voluntary
organizations obtained financial support from donor organizations within and
outside the country and the funding sector comprising these donor agencies also
gradually became consolidated. Funds to voluntary organizations came for a
specific period of time and for specific activities as projects. This project mode of
work with communities on a range of issues from access to basic services to
mobilization for entitlements has meant, among other things, that there are targets
1
I focus here on the city since TISS is located in Mumbai and our students who are placed for
fieldwork experience with urban communities are based to work through government and voluntary
organizations with low income settlements in and around Mumbai.
31 Mouleshri Vyas
for completion of activities, and for the number of persons to be reached, and so
on. When students and trained social workers work within such organizations,
they are expected to contribute to the successful completion of projects. This
means that classroom discussions on Principles of Community Practice such as
working at the pace of the community, community participation as an imperative,
community self determination and so on, now need to being in the challenge of
following these ideals for practice within the project mode of work that is largely
top-down, and may offer limited scope for community participation and self-
determination. One of the students came back to me after a few years in the field
and pointed out that some of what he learnt about Community Organisation in the
classroom created a dilemma for him in the field when he was given a target of
mobilizing women into fifty self-help groups within a year. If he were to follow
components of C.O. process that he had learnt, he would with difficulty form a
few groups in a year, and then have to work to ensure that they were sustained by
the members.
Students view the master’s programme in social work as offering them good
career possibilities. Their learning needs are also along the lines of concrete skills,
techniques and problem solving methods. To an extent this mirrors shifts in the
larger environment – in aspirations of the young men and women, in increasing
acceptance of social work as an avenue for work for young people, and the
overall role, and visibility of voluntary organizations at the national and
international levels. It also indicates that those who are coming to study social
work need to earn enough to support their families and not be dependent on
others; the voluntary sector with funding support from donor agencies does make
it possible to pay trained social workers decently. However, this is not the practice
across all types of organizations. One of the subtle consequences of this profile of
students has been that discussions along the lines of normative and ideal practice
need to be substantiated by concrete methods of problem solving and search for
solutions. So the teacher breaking into a story or case narrative to illustrate certain
points is as much needed as the fact that the students need to find the content
relevant to answer observations and questions they have from the field.
One of the biggest challenges to community work over the past two decades
or so has emerged from the fact that poverty has increased. With it, vulnerability
has also been compounded across rural and urban India. Informalisation and
contractualisation of work means that more and more people are finding
themselves in insecure employment. Migration due to distress from rural to urban
areas, and internal displacement of people in cities creates rupture in support
systems and the sense of community resulting in social disarticulation. Institutions
and systems of governance are changing due to a number of reasons; one of
these is privatization of services that results in hidden or visible costs for services
that affect the poor adversely. In this broad context, the discourse on community
and community organization has to provide space for a re-examination of key
concepts and processes. Community Organisation which has drawn to some
extent on social science disciplines viz. sociology, economics, political science,
and anthropology, needs to continue to strengthen its interdisciplinary approach in
order to gain sharper understanding of complex contexts for practice.
As the field of practice becomes more challenging, and the students as

products of these very times, demonstrate strengths and shortcomings, teachers
need to build stronger interface with the field so that teaching is firmer and clearer
without being prescriptive.
I think I have changed in several ways through my teaching of Community
Organisation. I remember starting to teach with notes and perspective that were
handed to me by my senior colleagues. This entailed laboring over grasping some
of the topics and reading about them in order to have enough to say in the
classroom. It was engagement with the field through a field action project of my
department and other field projects of the Institute, and active engagement with
certain people’s organizations, that made the field come alive for me. This built my
perspective about the nature of alignment that was required from community
practitioners in the social, economic and development context of country, because
I was able to witness and build my understanding of meaningful change in
people’s lives. Most importantly, I came across a range of practitioners, saw their
convictions, their commitment to social change and realized that many factors go
into shaping it; the classroom can be a contributory element in this regard. I think
I gained in the confidence with which I was able to state certain points and
substantiate them with illustrations. I realize that as long as I am able to listen to
the students and discuss with them, I have a chance of making some impact
through the classroom on their thinking and way of working.
Conclusion
In the globalizing world literature on community practice has a global reach with
case illustrations from various continents. As teachers we have in the past decade
and more gained from faculty exchanges and interactions with social work
educators and practitioners. We observe closely political, economic, social and
cultural changes taking place around us. Community organization requires young
practitioners who have sharp grasp of field situation, ability to communicate and
take people along, perspective that is clearly to work with the most marginalized
sections of people, and must be savvy with tools and techniques used in practice
so that they are able to lend a political edge to their work.
References
Andharia, J. (2013). Reconceptualizing Community Organization in India: A

Transdisciplinary Perspective. In K. J. Butterfield and Y. K. Korosy (Eds.),
Interdisciplinary Community Development: International Perspectives (pp. 91–
120). New York: Routledge.
Andharia, J. (Ed.). (2009). Community Organization in India [Special Issue]. Community

Development Journal, 44(3).
Butcher, H., Banks, S., Henderson, P., & Robertson, J. (2007). Critical Community
Practice. U.K.: The Policy Press.
33 Mouleshri Vyas
Dominelli, L. (2007). Women and Community Action. New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
Gamble, D. N., & Weil, M. (2011). Community Practice Skills: Local to Global
Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press.
National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector. (2009). The Challenge of
Employment in India: An Informal Economy Perspective. New Delhi: Government
of India.
Rothman, J. (2008). Multi Modes of Intervention at the Macro Level. Journal of

Community Practice, 15(4), 11–40.
Senapati, M. (2005). Looking Within to Look Without: Journey of Living and Reliving
Social Work Practice in Community Development. Mumbai: Tata Institute of
Social Sciences.
Siddiqui, H. Y. (1997). Working with Communities: An Introduction to Community Work.

New Delhi: Hira Publications.
Weil, M. (Ed.). (2005). The Handbook of Community Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 34–44
From Teaching to Practice: Reflecting on the Role of

Social Work Educators
Shweta Verma
Social work education is responsible for professional socialization of social workers as

they evolve from students into professionals. Without the focus on core values, however,
this professional socialization is incomplete. It is increasingly becoming important for
educators to reflect on their teaching and learning processes with the question – whether
we are able to transfer commitment or adherence to social work values, especially social
justice, in learning and practice of social work students? This article focuses on certain
aspects of teaching and learning, as well as the role of educators and institutions. It also
emphasizes that educators need to demonstrate social work values and principles in their
everyday interactions and practice instead of hoping that students should derive all
practice related learning from fieldwork experiences only.
Shweta Verma is presently a Guest Faculty at Department of Social Work, University of

Delhi.
Introduction
Evolution of a social work student into a social work professional is a journey that
involves social work educators; experiences in the field as a student and later as a
practitioner; activities and interactions within an institution that a student is part of;
and various learnings that one draws from all these interactions and experiences.
As educators have been and would continue to remain a significant part of this
process of professional socialization of social workers, it is important to
continuously reflect on how we see our role as social work educators and
institutions in India. Often, theoretical inputs are considered to be a domain of
social work educators and institutions while practice related learning for a social
work student is expected to happen in the NGOs or the field. But if ‘the educator
should be a facilitator of learning rather than merely a transmitter of
knowledge’ (Desai, 2002, p. 212), then are we really performing this role as a
‘facilitator’? In addition to this, as educators, how are we aligning our teaching
with what we practice everyday in our actions and interactions? Are we
35 Shweta Verma
equipped and ready to transfer core values and principles of social work to
students and evolving professionals in a manner that influences their future
practices?
In this article, I reflect on some of these questions and emphasize on greater
engagement of educators and their institutions with core values of the profession
as well as with students and community around the institution. By greater
engagement, I mean within as well as beyond classroom teaching and routine
fieldwork supervision.
Professional socialization as social workers: Aspects involved
Each discipline or professional education has specific methods of teaching and

learning that aim to socialize students or developing practitioners into their
respective fields. This process of developing practitioners can be called
professional socialization. According to Miller (2013), professional socialization is
a multidimensional process that occurs at three stages: first, consisting of
experiences and learnings before a student enters social work education; second,
involving formal education (social work); and the third, that covers career/
practice after completion of social work education.
Following three aspects are considered significant for the discussion on
professional socialization of social workers: ‘thinking and performing like a
social worker, development of the professional self, and characteristic forms
of teaching and learning’ (Larrison & Korr, 2013, p. 195). Let us reflect on
each of these three components or the aspects of professional socialization.
Thinking and performing like social workers
We have frameworks in the form of code of ethics, values and principles that
specify basic standards for us to think and perform like social workers. Although
it is often stated that social work is a value based profession (and not value-free),
we need to respond to the following question in our every day work: do the core
values of social work, such as, respect for persons, social justice and professional
integrity (AASW, 2010), drive our search for knowledge and our interventions or
practice? Social work principles, such as the ones promoted and followed by
IFSW1 and IASSW2 are drawn from these core values. I align with Mukherjee
(1977, p. 233) in her view that ‘without values, social work methods are not
only ineffective, but there is no reason why they should be tried at all.’
However, how are the values and principles of social work ensured in
practice? Let us take an example of one of the principles- Principle of
Individualization. In simple terms, it reminds us to not assume that one solution
applies to everyone. What is it that people need? The answers to this can be many
and may not be exactly same for everyone we work with. This also became
evident in the in the post Tsunami phase. On December 26, 2004, more than five
1
International Federation of Social Workers
2
International Association of Schools of Social Work
From Teaching to Practice 36
million lives were impacted by the Tsunami that struck many countries along the
Indian Ocean. In India, Tamil Nadu was the most affected state. In Tamil Nadu,
many organizations came and distributed boats and nets in the coastal villages.
While, we may assume that everyone in coastal community is involved in fishing,
this may not be true for each and every person in the community. Someone might
have been a laborer and might have lost the tools for work. He may not consider
fishing as his primary skill set and hence may not be able to utilize the distributed
boats and nets effectively. It is also important to monitor ripple effects of
interventions. The number of boats significantly increased as compared to what
existed before the tsunami. Hence, people faced difficulty in finding labour. As a
result, younger boys were increasingly being involved in fishing. This potential of
increased risk of child labour due to the shortage of labour for the vast number of
boats was being overlooked (Saarthak, 2006). Hence, even while looking at or
responding to specific needs, a person has to be understood in conjunction with
family and community. An intervention with a person has to be planned keeping in
mind the direct and indirect impacts on him/her, on other people in the family and
sometimes, other people in the community as well. This reminds us that
sometimes the impact of well-intentioned interventions can be harmful or
unhelpful as well.
As the example above suggests, our practice needs to be based on social
work principles, which in turn are based on the core social work values. Social
justice, as the core value, should be used to guide us in reviewing how some well-
intentioned interventions can become useful or harmful. This has also been
emphasised by Bisman (2004) who states that ‘for social work to have a future,
the profession must take pride in its moral core’ (p. 109) and considers focus
on social justice as an integral part, without which social work may not actually be
needed. Focus on social justice has been considered an important value for social
workers in India as well due to the prevalence of social injustice in several
forms(Mukherjee, 1977). Raising the question whether knowledge and skills
attained by social workers are of any use without values and morality, Bisman
(2004, p. 115) also states that ‘it is the application of knowledge and skills
towards moral ends that imbues the profession with meaning and defines the
role of the social worker in society.’ The same emphasis echoes in Tylor’s
(1999, p. 100) statement as he writes: ‘to remain viable as a profession, the
values which have traditionally been espoused by social work must remain
in a central, prominent position within the profession.’
Therefore, in thinking and performing like social workers, values, principles,
knowledge as well as skills- all are important. However, with such a singificant
emphasis on core values of social work profession (such as social justice), it is
important to reflect on the extent to which it is transferred to students and then
visible in their practice. Role of teaching and learning hence is being discussed in
a later section.
Development of the professional self
Professional development is a process that continues throughout one’s journey as

37 Shweta Verma
a student and later as a professional. According to Larrison and Korr (2013, p.

201) ‘the professional self is continually reassessed and evolves, as new
practice knowledge, skills, and awareness become integrated into the
person of the practitioner’. Hence, we do not work with the assumptions that
no solutions exist for various social problems, or that world is still at the same
stage or in the same state that we might have studied many years ago. The world
evolves, and so do the perspectives and the language. For example, the term
‘disability’ is generally mistaken as a synonym of what a person cannot do
because of a medical condition. However, perspectives have moved on from
medical model of disability or considering persons with disabilities as dependent
invalids, handicapped, special, etc. What we need to know now is the UN
Convention on rights of persons with disabilities (UNCRPD) and how it should
influence our policies, laws and everyday lives of people with disabilities around
us. We have to increase our knowledge on changing the processes and
environment so that people with disability can participate fully and effectively.
Similarly, we need to understand that psychosocial interventions is not just
counseling. It is more of an integrated approach with ensuring access to multi-
layered support systems at various levels- basic services and security, family and
community support, non specialized and specialized services (IASC, 2007).
Everyone in the community will not need medicines and counseling. Access to
information and other services is also an important part of psychosocial support
and services. These are just a few examples to emphasize that we need to
continuously evolve as social workers (whether educators or field practitioners),
i.e., development of the professional self is an ongoing process.
Teaching and learning
Let us begin with the belief that ‘the learning experience for the social work
students should be interesting, stimulating and thought-provoking’ (Chan &
Ng, 2004, p. 314). This belief should be guiding our work as educators and in
designing curriculum for social work students. Generally, teaching and learning in
social work involves two broad aspects: the process and content of what
fieldwork offers to students; and what educators do or can do. Let us look at both
these aspects.
The first aspect, i.e., field education or fieldwork is considered as
signature pedagogy of social work. Typically, fieldwork involves placing students
within NGOs or other institutions working on the issues of social development and
welfare, or in communities. With supervision from faculty and staff/personnel at
the placement agency, it is expected that fieldwork experience would offer
students with opportunities to apply their theoretical knowledge and skills while
following social work values and principles; learn about social realities; engage
with systems that address various social problems; and evolve skills related to
research, and working with individuals, groups and communities. Larrison and
Korr (2013), argue that fieldwork is not the only necessary component of
signature pedagogy. Fieldwork, they state, is not unique to social work and is a
prominent part of other professional education as well, e.g. teaching, health
services, etc. Moreover, according to Mohan (2015, p. 34), a critical review of the
processes of fieldwork supervision suggests how ‘students’ learning
experiences are panoptically monitored’ and how this ‘ensures faculty
dominance and student acquiescence’. This implies a doubt over the
effectiveness of fieldwork as a learning opportunity because this form of
supervision (i.e. of dominance) is evidently neither in alignment with values and
goals of profession, nor in alignment with our views on how leanring process
should be. Learning outcomes of fieldwork, hence, cannot be isolated from
educators’ or faculty’s teaching and supervision processes. Learning that takes
place within classroom and supervision and fieldwork are evidently interrelated,
and hence, should be integrated in one’s growth as a social work professional.
Hence, the fieldwork as well as the setting of an academic institution is
important for professional socialization of social work students as they evolve in
terms of their professional values, attitudes and identities. Through a study with
social work students and professionals (n=489), Miller (2013) found a strong
commitment to social work values among those who reported that social work
values had been emphasized in their classes. This brings us to the second broad
aspect of teaching and learning, and role of educators.
The second aspect, i.e., the process and content of what educators do or
can do, involves - educators performing their role as nurturing mentors, and
modeling core values and skills within all their interactions with students and
others (as students observe, experience and learn); structured conversations and
purposeful dialogues that provide transformative experiences and foster critical
thinking among students (Larrison & Korr, 2013). According to Larrison and Korr
(2013), use of professional self by the educators is an important aspect of
preparing emerging social workers in terms of how they think and perform, and
develop their professional identities. Process and level of engagement of
educators with their students is obviously an important factor. East and Chambers
(2007) discuss some of the principles of teaching offered by Parker Palmer1 and
present these through their experiences as social work educators. One of these
principles - ‘we teach who we are’, is linked with the identity and integrity of
educators. This principle seems to emphasize on being role models and on sharing
not just the theoretical concepts related to various topics being taught, but also
one’s own intellectual and emotional passions or excitements associated with
those topics. Drawing from Palmer’s principles, the importance of modelling
openness and integrity by social work educators has also been discussed by Gates
(2011) as he reflects on his own experience as LGBTQ social worker and
educator. Use of these aspects (modelling openness, integrity, etc.) could be very
helpful in cultivating commitment towards core values of social work profession
among students.
While we deliberate on the ways of transferring values of social work by
educators to students, some important questions need to be answered. Do
educators believe that it is their role to ensure alignment of students’ practice with
1
Parker Palmer- a teacher, writer and an activist, has written several books including -The Courage
to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s Life
39 Shweta Verma
values such as -social justice orientation? What might come in the way of active
engagement of educators with their students on aspects of social justice? A
qualitative research with 13 social work educators with PhD and at least five
years of full time teaching experience in USA throws up some important
reflections on this aspect (Funge, 2011). It may be worth exploring whether these
are applicable to Indian context as well. In this study, although all respondents
affirmed that social justice orientation was important for students, they had
varying perspectives on whether social work educators could ensure use of this
orientation in the practice of students. Some however, did feel that educators
could play a role in actively cultivating a conviction among students towards social
justice. Some respondents also felt that practice related experience of the faculty
also influenced the extent to which they engaged students on issues of social
justice. Practice related experience was considered valuable in the context that
doctoral studies were not really perceived to be preparing the doctoral students to
teach. Level of collaborative dialogue and engagement with colleagues on
incorporating social justice as a foundation within the teaching institution was also
perceived as a factor that influenced the level of emphasis on social justice in
educator-student engagement.
It is important to study or reflect on the relevance of the factors discussed by
Funge (2011) in the Indian context as well. It is also important to not overlook
various ways in which social media may be increasingly influencing perspectives
of social work students, professionals as well as educators. Educators and
professionals, one might assume, are better equipped to balance the outside
influences with their own research/fact finding and applying social work values
and principles to judge or respond to each opinion or story that is shared in social
media. But how far is this assumption true? And are social work educators
actively engaged in countering the influence of all those opinions (shared on social
media) that do not align with social work values? For example, in the debates on
presence of tolerance or intolerance in India, or in presence of voices that equate
opinions against government with anti-nationalism - what do educators perceive
their role to be? Do they remain neutral? Do they share their views on the basis of
social justice or injustice present in India and engage proactively with students on
these issues? Or do they consider these issues/discussions as part of personal
domain and hence do not really think of bringing them up in the classrooms? Social
justice as our core value does not really allow educators to remain silent
spectators and instead should encourage everyone to engage in discussions with
students in a manner that enhances commitment towards social work values and
principles, instead of always keeping personal-professional division between what
can or cannot be discussed in classrooms.
Building on Brij Mohan’s work on social justice and social work education,
Hodge (2010) has discussed guidelines to operationlize a social justice pedagogy
in educational settings. One of these is principles - epistemic pluralism (drawn
from Brij Mohan’s work) which proposes how different groups may have
different perspectives, which need to be included and respected. Operationalizing
this principle in our everyday language and pratice can involve following
strategies (Hodge, 2011):
 use of self-descriptors, i.e. using phrases that groups use for themsleves
instead of imposing labels on them;
 avoiding ideological modifiers which further marginalise the groups
through labels such as ‘conservative muslim’, ‘fundamentalist muslim’
etc. and instead use only self-descriptior i.e. ‘muslim’ in this case;
 depicting understandings of social justice fairly in terms of how the
efforts to foster a just society are framed- this means that it is not helpful
to impose personal values on others (e.g. through bans on specific eating
habits) by labelling an act negative on some occasions, while on other
occasions using the logic of greater common good for other efforts- such
as school admission policies;
 shunning negative associations with groups which leads to ‘othering’, for
example, associating terrorism with muslims, or associating hindus with
being anti-muslim; and
 emphasizing strengths rather than deficits- although it is easy to focus on
negative or questionable activties of various groups.
While these are only a few strategies of applying the value of social justice in
our everyday language/practice, we need to obviously engage with these and
many more ways/practices with more depth. We have to make efforts towards
recognizing nuances that demonstrate our alignment as well as our deviation from
social work values. Considering that values and ethics are the base of social work
profession, Mukherjee (1977, p. 227) emphasised that orientation to these, hence,
should be ‘one of the primary goals of social work education’. However, as
preaching is not an effective method of instilling values, Mukherjee (1977, p. 228)
suggested that values can be illustrated with the help of practitioners as ‘a
teacher in a social work institution need not necessarily be the best example
of a practitioner of the profession.’ Hence, the question that now stands in
front of social work educators is this: how far do we agree, now, with this
perspective that educators cannot be best examples as practitioners? Is the
practitioner-educator gap in skills and perspectives really this wide at present?
And what do we need to do about this gap as educators, if the gap is really very
wide? Of course, we cannot deny the fact that practitioners and educators- both
groups are engaged in enhancing learning of a social work student and this must
continue to happen. Let us discuss this further through a real example.
Engagement with social justice in University’s neighbourhood: An

Example
In early 2015, a faculty at the Department of Social Work (in a Central

University) received a phone call in evening from someone in need. This person,
in his desperation for help, had somehow got access to the faculty’s phone
number and called up for help in dealing with problems with a reputed private
Hospital (located near the University). This was faculty’s first contact with this
person. He said that his brother, a person with disability, was admitted to the
hospital in emergency due to several fits/seizures that occurred in a short span of
time. His brother’s regular treatment was going in with a doctor in another
41 Shweta Verma
hospital but in emergency, they wanted to reach the nearest hospital as soon as
possible. And this is what brought them to this reputed private hospital. His
brother (a person with disability) had no source of income. As the Hospital raised
bill of an amount, which could not have been afforded by the family, he requested
hospital for discharging the person (his brother). Hospital agreed for his brother’s
‘leave against medical advice’ but did not allow the patient to leave hospital till the
bill of over 1 lakh was settled. In this period (after ‘leave against medical advice’),
he was not being given solid food or the treatment required. The person requested
and advocated with every person who could listen to him at the Hospital but that
did not help.
The faculty member, on receiving this call, initiated contact with a few other
members at the Department for possible suggestions. This did not lead to any
immediate action. Then, the faculty along with a student reached the hospital at
night, met the person, and after this the negotiations and discussions continued
with various people till after midnight.
From the point when the faculty member received phone call (in evening) till
midnight, she was in touch with a research scholar and an NGO working on rights
and issues of persons with disabilities. The NGO provided continuous support by
sharing suggestions with faculty, and by speaking with the person as well as
doctors at the hospital. While scholars of this Department also explored and
shared potential helpful information, the NGO was able to get the faculty member
in touch with a senior doctor at the hospital who provided the best extent of
support possible. Finally, the person could get discharged the next day and his bill
was reduced by 40 thousand.
Reflections based on the example
At one level, the example shared in previous section shows how an educator,
students, and an NGO jointly responded to the need of a person who had faced
injustice. In a way, this suggests that social work educators can take on the
practitioner role when needed and how solution to problems can be found through
collaboration.
However, this example also brings up a few discomforting facts: the person
with disability without a source of income would fall in below-poverty-line
category and should be considered as a vulnerable person. But this did not seem
to convince Hospital Administration adequately to reduce or waive off his fee
earlier or even later. The hospital, instead, had decided to keep the patient without
nutrition and treatment for a significant period of the day. This raises some
important questions for us:
 Are we ready with adequate information and protocols to respond as an
Institution, or as a Department, or as a faculty when someone from
community approaches for help?
 Do Hospitals in the vicinity of an influential institution like a Central
University- do enough (or even what is mandatory) for vulnerable
groups? Within the University itself, there would be several students who
would not be able to afford the cost of hospitalization in emergency in the
hospitals such as this reputed private hospital. What should be the

University’s response in such cases?
 Apart from running courses, conducting researches, does a University
see its role in making a more influential impact on other institutions in its
vicinity? Or does it leave that work on the shoulders of various NGOs-
who are anyway doing their best to reach out to as many people with
often-limited resources that they have? Generally, Central Universities
have community outreach programmes. Do they proactively focus on
change in the institutions that are used by community?
 How are we really linking academics with practice? How do various
Departments and Centers of Universities coordinate with each other and
the voluntary sector to do the best they can –together towards social
justice and making the environment accessible for all?
I believe it is important for educators to raise these questions. I am sure, however,
that these questions are not new. I am sure these occur to anyone who faces
problems with health or any other systems in their context. I am also sure that
most Universities would have adequate faculty, and scholars to jointly find
solutions, and advocate for change. From this view, it seems logical for social
work educators to ‘adopt a holistic practitioner-researcher- educator role in
their everyday practice in order to create the necessary impact to effect
change’ (Chan & Ng, 2004, p. 312). As effective educators, we have to practice
what we preach. And to do so, we have to be ‘competent in practice, effective
in research utilization, as well as innovative in teaching and learning. We
have to create a reflective environment for students to develop an attitude of
zero tolerance to injustice and exploitation’ (Chan & Ng, 2004, p. 315).
The educator, hence, is not just responsible for what transpires within classroom
but should also be seen as taking initiatives in terms of practice as well as
research. The knowledge and skill gap, between educators and field-based
practitioners, needs to reduce. This, however, does not mean that social work
professionals/practitioners should not be engaged in the process of students’
professional socialization. That must continue. Instead, my emphasis here is on
what needs to be done by educators so that they are engaged in both aspects:
taking onus of bringing change in our society, and being role models for students in
terms of actions/practice.
Conclusion
In terms of creating/facilitating learning experiences for social work students,

focus of institutions has to be on learning through both- fieldwork, as well as
interactions within classroom and beyond with educators. It is also evident that
we must move towards being educators-researchers-practitioners in our
everyday practice. Educators have to not only reflect on effectiveness of their
classroom teaching practices, but also on how they portray themselves as role
models in everyday interactions with students, and how they are transferring
commitment towards social justice and other core values of social work
profession. Social work educators and field practitioners themselves too have be
43 Shweta Verma
committed towards core values of this profession while updating themselves

regarding ever-evolving knowledge and practice. Unless we reflect, critique
ourselves and our processes as educators everyday, and move towards change,
we run the risk of proving the following statements by Mohan (2015, p.31) to be
true everyday: ‘Social work contemporary pedagogy is fundamentally anti-
intellectual. Supervisory idolatry has marked the death of dissent in a
supposedly liberating field.’ Proving this to be true is evidently not in our
interest as social work educators and institutions.
References
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Bisman, C. (2004). Social work values: The moral core of the profession. British Journal of
Social Work , 34(1), 109–123.
Chan, C. L., & Ng, S. M. (2004). The social work practitioner-researcher- educator:
Encouraging innovations and empowerment in the 21st century. International
Social Work, 47(3), 312–320. doi:10.1177/0020872804043955
Desai, M. (2002). Epilogue: Implications for contemporary social work education. In

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212). Jaipur, New Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Guwahati: Rawat Publications.
East, J., & Chambers, R. (2007). Courage to Teach for Social Work Educators. Social Work
Education, 26(8), 810–826. doi:10.1080/02615470601140583
Funge, S. P. (2011). Promoting the social justice orientation of students: The role of the
educator. Journal of Social Work Education, 47(1), 73–90. doi:10.5175/
JSWE.2011.200900035
Gates, T. G. (2011). Coming Out in the Social Work Classroom: Reclaiming Wholeness and
Finding the Teacher Within. Social Work Education, 30(1), 70–82. doi:10.1080/
02615471003721202
Hodge, D. R. (2010). Social justice as a unifying theme in social work education: principles
to realize the promise of a new pedagogical model. Journal of Comparative Social
Welfare, 26(2-3), 201–213. doi:10.1080/17486831003687600
Inter-Agency Standing Committee(IASC). (2007). IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and

Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings. Geneva: IASC.
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10437797.2013.796773
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Indian School of Social Work. Indian Journal of Social Work , 38(3), 227–233.
SAARTHAK. (2006). Facilitating Resilience- A report on capacity building for

psychosocial interventions in Tsunami affected communities. New Delhi:
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Indian Journal of Social Work, 60(1), 99–117.
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 45–60
From Functional to Social Justice Stance: A Review of

Social Work Approaches
Ronald Yesudhas
The quest for a unified conceptual framework for social work practice has resulted in the
development of models such as the ‘Person in Environment’ and ‘Integrated Social Work
Practice’ models. Though these models provide a broad frame of reference, they have
been criticized for promoting a system maintenance approach. In this milieu, the rise of
social justice approaches has been seen as both organic and substantial given the socio-
economic contexts. The author presents these countering approaches and gives a clarion
call for developing practice models based on subaltern realities.
Ronald Yesudhas is Assistant Professor, Nirmala Niketan College of Social Work,

Mumbai.
Introduction
Be it law, medicine or nursing, all professions are guided by a cohesive theoretical

and scientific body of knowledge. This enables the professionals to develop
proper practice frameworks which can be reviewed at periodic intervals. Social
work does not have a separate theory. But social workers try to use various other
social science theories in practice. This is important because if practice is
uninformed by theory, it becomes irrelevant.
The need to develop a common conceptual framework for social work
practice is felt by the educators as well as the practitioners, as it provides a
structure for analyzing complex and often highly emotional human problems and
situations. Conceptual framework also provides a rationale for action and decision
making in the field situation. They promote a systematic, orderly, and predictable
approach to work with people.
The quest for a unified conceptual framework for social work practice has
helped in the formulation of approaches such as the Person-in-Environment (PiE),
the Integrated Social Work Practice (ISWP) model, etc. These models which are
heavily based on systems approach are critiqued by various scholars for taking a
From Functional to Social Justice Stance 46
“structural-functional” stance, thereby putting the onus on people for the

problems. The social justice approaches juxtapose the systems models, and give
due weightage to the social and economic structures which create problems.
Human rights, stakeholder participation and creative intervention methods are
core to the social justice approaches.
The objective of this paper is twofold :-
a. To provide an overview of Integrated Social Work Practice (ISWP) model
based on the systems theories.
b. To counter the dominant model and introduce the readers to the alternative
paradigm, consisting of several Social Justice approaches.
Systems Thinking and Social Work
In social work, systems thinking have been influenced by the work of biologist
Ludwin von Bertalanfyy, psychologist Uri Brofenbrenner and sociologist Talcott
Parsons.
Talcott Parsons, a sociologist used the systems thinking/ idea to develop a
framework referred as “Structural- Functionalism” or the Human Actions and
Social Systems Theory. According to the theory, a human person is considered as
a system. There are several sub-systems in that whole, namely the behavioural
organism, personality system, social system and cultural system. These sub-
systems are related to different functions, namely adaptation, goal attainment/
growth, integration and latency.
Adaptation is a dynamic process in which a system responds to the demands
and pressures of the external forces and conditions. Similarly, the system
determines and prioritizes its goals and then obtains and mobilises resources in
directed action to achieve those goals. This is the function of goal attainment.
The third concept is integration, which describes the coordination and
orchestration of the system’s internal components. Latency (also called as pattern
maintenance) describes a system state in which it is invested in maintaining and
transmitting its norms and values.
Ludwin von Bertalanfyy developed a General Systems Theory (GST) which
equally provides a useful framework for social work practice. Bertalanfyy
believed that all things could be regarded as systems. In the GST, each system is
a unit of wholeness with a distinct property or structural limitation that delineates
it from other systems. This is called system’s boundary. The boundary is what
makes each system unique and gives it definition. Some boundaries are clearly
defined; others may be permeable.
The boundaries of social systems can be partially defined by norms and
customs. For example, groups are social organizations which define their
boundary through group membership. Through this process, it is possible to see
that each system has a characteristic boundary and way of defining itself. These
invisible boundaries also regulate how individuals enter and exit the system.
A system grows through an exchange of energy between the sub-systems
and its environment, a process that is possible only if the boundary possesses
permeability. The amount of energy that is permitted to pass through a given
47 Ronald Yesudhas
system’s boundary determines the permeability of that boundary. The more

permeable the boundary, the greater the extent of interaction that the system has
with its environment, thus leading to greater openness.
In the context of exchange of energy between the system and its

environment, here are two types of systems, namely open and closed systems. An
open system, unlike a closed system, exchanges matter with its environment. A
closed system on the other hand is isolated from their environment. As we have
understood, openness is a critical quality for system functioning and survival.
However, there are other times when a system closes itself as a perceived means
of protecting itself. In these instances, the system is exporting (system outputs)
more energy than it is able to import. Since systems rely on a flow of energy, with
outputs relying on fresh inputs, too much exporting can lead to a state of disorder,
referred to as entropy. When the system is importing more than it is exporting, it
is termed negative entropy, or negentropy, a state of system growth.
The exchange of information between the system and its environment is
regulated by a process called feedback. It determines whether the system’s
outputs are consonant with the perceived outcomes (goals) that the system has
established for itself. If the system perceives a variance between output and
outcome, it can alter the process by varying the level of inputs.
From the social work point of view, an open system is considered as a
functional system, while a closed system is seen as dysfunctional. A functional
system interacts dynamically with the larger environment, a need that supports
the survival of the system.
If a system is working properly, it would achieve a form of dynamic
equilibrium with the environment that he called steady state. Furthermore, the
ability of the system to adapt to its environment, through changes in its structure
leads to states of equilibrium and homeostasis. The former concept, equilibrium
is the sense of being in balance. When something is in balance, there is little
variability in movement before the state of balance is disrupted. On the other
hand, the latter, that is, homeostasis is a state of variable balance where the limits
to maintaining balance are more flexible.
Ecological Theory: A Frame of Reference for Social Work Model

Building
The ecological theory was developed by Urie Brofenbrenner. He believed

that a person’s development is affected by everything in their surrounding
environment. He divided the person’s environment into five different levels: the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exo-system, the macro-system, and the
chronosystem.
The microsystem is the system closest to the person and the one in which
they have direct contact. For example in the life of Ram (a child studying in a
school), his microsystem would be his home or school. The next level is
the mesosystem.
The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the different parts of a
person’s microsystem. The mesosystem is where a person’s individual
microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and assert
influence upon one another. These interactions have an indirect impact on the
individual. One aspect of Ram’s mesosystem would be the relationship between
his parents and his teacher. His parents may take an active role in his school, such
as attending parents–teachers association meetings regularly. This has a positive
impact on the development of the child because the different elements of his
microsystem are working together.
The exo-system is the next level. The exo-system refers to a setting that does
not involve the person as an active participant, but still affects them. This includes
decisions that have bearing on the person, but in which they have no participation
in the decision-making process. Ram’s wellbeing is affected by his father
receiving a promotion at work or losing his job. Macro-system encompasses the
49 Ronald Yesudhas
cultural environment in which the person lives. It includes the socio-political

beliefs, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity. All these factors have a
major role in the life of the child. Lastly, the chronosystem includes major life
transitions, environmental events and historical events that occur during
development process. The specific incidents tend to change how the child
interacts with all the rest of the system. Ecological theory helps us in developing
social work models as it serves as a frame of reference to engage/ enhance/ and
develop grand models of practice in social work.
Person-in-Environment Model in Social Work
Utilizing the Ecological Theory and the General Systems Theory, Germain
(1991) developed the Person-in-Environment (PiE) Model. He strongly
advocated for looking at the bio-psychosocial development of individuals and
families within cultural, historical, communal, and societal contexts, a perspective
that requires us to look as well at all the events in the person’s life. She
characterized the nature of relationships between systems as “reciprocal
exchanges between entities, or between their elements, in which each changes or
otherwise influences the other over time” (ibid., p. 16).
Germain (1991) rightly identifies adaptation, life stress, coping, power, and
human relatedness as important concepts for understanding the nature of the
interactions of person-in-environment.
Adaptation is the act/ process of changing oneself in order to meet
environmental opportunities or demands, in response to human needs, rights,
goals, and capacities. Person-in-environment interaction leads to a normal
tension, also referred to as life stress. Whenever different entities interact with
each other, the ebb and flow between them creates some friction. In other words,
two people in exactly the same environmental situation may have different
experiences owing to their differing perceptions of that situation.
The next concept is coping. The ability to cope requires both problem solving
skills and the ability to regulate negative feelings. The outcome of these factors
leads to increased self-esteem, which helps diminish the negative feelings caused
by a particular stressor.
Power has its derivation from a source extrinsic to the individual. Dominant
groups in society use their position of power to influence subordinate groups
through transactions in which resources are either provided or withheld. The
abuse of power by a dominant group can also be a source of tension in person–
environment interactions. These tensions affect whole segments of the
population, not just one individual. How the individual experiences this tension and
is able to adapt to the tension-producing situation determines that individual’s
capacity for negotiating power inequities and imbalances. Paramount in the
concept of person-in-environment is the individual’s ability to develop purposeful
and meaningful relationships and attachments with oneself and the others.
Emergence of Integrated Social Work Practice (ISWP) Model in India
Systems theories provide a grand framework integrating every dimension of

social work as a whole. It helps social workers to understand the interactions
between individuals, groups, organizations, communities, government, larger
social systems, and their environments. This understanding helped in the
emergence of the “integrated approach”. Some of the prominent authors during
the 1970s and 80s who worked on this idea include, Pincus & Minahan (1973);
Siporin (1975); Germain & Gitterman (1980); and Meyer (1983).
Pincus and Minahan created an integrated approach of social work practice
as they felt the limitations of describing social work according to its traditional
three divisions, namely casework, group work and community organization, which
they felt were not sufficient. They defined social work as having a common base
of knowledge, values and skills for professional social workers in any organization
that delivers services to people in any field of practice (Pincus & Minahan, 1973).
The integrated approach is rested on a central theme in which the
performance of the life tasks and the interaction between people and their
network of resource systems is vital. The integrated approach is crucial in the
generic model of social work education currently in vogue in many schools of
social work in India.
According to Nadkarni (1997), the first Indian social work educator to
introduce integrated approach in India was Dr. Armaity Desai, former
Chairperson of the UGC, who was then the Vice-Principal of College of Social
Work, Nirmala Niketan, in Mumbai. In 1973 (around the same time when Pincus
and Minahan were busy evolving their model), she introduced a course titled
Integrated Social Work Practice (ISWP) with theory and a seminar part to enable
students to apply the social work concepts to their practice.
The ISWP framework is based on the assumption that “person” and the
“environment” are two ends of a transaction that needs to be connected, leading
to identification and defining of social/ development problems which helps in
mobilising appropriate resources to solve the issues at hand. There are four
systems involved in the change effort in the ISWP Framework, namely the client
system, change agent system, target system, and action system.
Fig 1: ISWP Framework

51 Ronald Yesudhas
Client system refers to the individuals and group who are beneficiaries of the
change process/ services either directly or indirectly. The change agent system
refers to the social work centre/organisation that facilitates social work practice.
Target system refers to people who need to be changed or influenced to
accomplish the goals of change effort. It includes individuals and groups who may
or may not benefit from the change, but their participation in crucial for the
success of the intervention. It has to be understood that the relationship between
the change agent system and the target system is bargaining in nature as there
may be resistance for change from the target system. Action system comprises of
all those systems the change agent works with to achieve the goals [of the change
effort]. The client and the target system ought to be influenced to join the change
effort as action system.
Dr. Vimla (1997) had developed a monograph on ISWP to help students
understand the usefulness of the framework based on her own “action research”
with the Jari Mari Community in Mumbai. The monograph is based on Jagruti
Kendra’s (a NGOs) intervention in the field of garbage pollution.
Identification of the Four Systems

(Note: **The case in based on the narrative of the author as it stood in 1997)
Jari Mari slum community (Client System) has a population above 50,000.
Most of the shanties in the community are illegal and face threats of eviction
and harassment on regular basis. There are not enough facilities and basic
amenities related to water, electricity, toilets or drainage. Some owners of the
shanties use threats of eviction and legal action to keep interferences at bay to
the extent of not even allowing their tenants to improve their living conditions.
Most of the people in the community are migrants hailing from Karnataka,
Madya Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerela. The family system is the primary
coping unit ensuring the steady state. The families rely on the landlords to
provided leadership in the community. On the other hand, the youth and mahila
mandals provide alternative subsystem for coping the disruptive stimuli and
maintaining dynamic equilibrium. Jagruti Kendra (Change Agent System) is a
local NGO working in the area. It has personnel trained in community
development, social work, and law. The methods used by the change agent
system includes mass education, formation of action system of pertinent
issues, initiating action, etc. Community organisation and social action
strategies were also used. The output of the system is establishment of
several women’s groups, youth groups, networking, etc. The community in
general, mahila mandals, and youth associations (Target System) are the one
who need to understand and participate in the programmes of the Change
Agent System, i.e., the NGO. The Change Agent System, i.e., the NGO
works with all the three other systems in order to create the desired change.
Trainers, community animators, members of the mandals/ associations, and
the community at large (Action System) create the desired change.
In the ISWP model, a set of systematic series of actions ought to be

developed to bring about a particular result, end, or condition. The outcome goals
envisaged by the social worker seek to end a condition which requires change.
The outcome goals in the project includes (a) development of better
understanding of the environmental issue [of pollution] by the target system, (b)
having agreed to form the action system, the target system will prepare to initiate
some change on the issue of pollution in the area. Stages in making changes
include the following:
a. Initial Phase:
During the initial phase, social workers make contacts in the community and
prepare the community for the change process. In the due course, they handle
resistance from dominant elements in the community. Once the resistance is
peacefully/ tactfully handled, data can be obtained in the community regarding the
particular issue. Based on the data, statement of need, goals, targets and
strategies can be prepared. Finally, an oral/ written contract can be developed
based on which intervention can start.
b. Middle Phase
In the middle (field intervention) phase, one of the main tasks is to form
action systems and initiate action. Maintaining and coordinating the action
systems is also crucial during this phase.
c. End Phase
In the end phase, proper preparation of the stakeholders must be done to
carry over the project. Evaluation can be done to assess the effectiveness,
efficiency and impact of the project in the community. It is a good idea to even
publish about the project/ change theory so that others can also learn from the
project.
(Adapted from Nadkarni 1997)
Critique of Functional/ Systems Perspective
Hutchison and Charlesworth (2007), point out the circumstances behind the
influence of system perspectives in the following manner:
53 Ronald Yesudhas
The social workers who first adopted the systems perspective were heavily
influenced by functionalist sociology, which was the dominant sociological
theory during the 1940s and 1950s. In functionalism, social systems are
thought to be orderly and remain in a relatively stable state, also known as
homeostasis or equilibrium. Each part of the system serves an essential
function in maintaining the system, and the functions of the various parts
are coordinated to produce a well-functioning whole. System processes
and structures such as rules and roles serve to maintain system stability.
Although this systems approach did not deny the possibility of system
change, it was more concerned with the mechanisms of system
maintenance and stability (p. 39).
The system perspective was influential within the practitioners groups as well as
with the social work educators. However, since the 1980s, there have been
extensive debates within the social work fraternity on the tenacity of the systems
theory, leading to conflicts between the “clinical” and “social action” oriented
groups.
According to Howe (1987), the functionalists are only interested in
maintaining orderly relationship in the society. He critiques that a functionalist
social worker perceives his/her role as part of social constabularies maintaining
order by keeping an eye on social mechanisms to deal with deviance. So, any anti-
establishment behaviour is treated immediately as it disturbs the equilibrium. The
functionalist social worker therefore spent all their time in diagnosing and treating
the individual behaviour creating the problem, and work out a strategy for
treatment which finally leads to maintenance of the existing system. This model
has been heavily criticised by progressive social workers. Hutchison and
Charlesworth (2007) summarise the point, “Social workers have become
dissatisfied with the systems perspective on two counts. First, the perspective
was seen as too abstract and, second, the emphasis on stability seemed too
conservative for a profession devoted to social change” (p. 39).
Approaches under Social Justice Umbrella in Social Work
Social justice is a primary value and function of social work. It is a perspective

which stresses that everyone deserves equal economic, political, and social rights
and opportunities. Social workers with a social justice stance aim to open the
doors of access and opportunity for everyone, particularly those in greatest need.
Social justice approaches juxtapose the functionalist paradigm in social
work. There are various practice approaches which comes under the social
justice umbrella in social work. Some of the prominent approaches include (a)
Radical Social Work; (b) Critical Social Work; (c) Anti- Racist Social Work; (d)
Anti-Oppressive Social Work; and (e) Anti-Caste Social Work.
Radical Social Work
Marxian literature suggests that the current uncertainties and insecurities faced
by people are due to the crisis of capitalism. When social workers face victims of
economic and political structures, they can’t be shying away from the fact that
social work is ‘not neutral’. They need to believe that social work is a ‘political
process’.
The radical social workers’ part in the capitalist economy context is very
important as the clients are mostly unaware of public dimension of their problems
(that is, the structural-political process). Hence the role the radical social worker
is to create public awareness, and unite people within the labour movement and
trade unions.
At the macro level, the radical social workers see their role in challenging the
budget cuts of state due to current neoliberal policies. The radical social workers
believe that the welfare state is a result of working class struggle and welfare is
the price paid by the state for political security. Hence radical social workers
protest against the welfare cuts of the government in key areas such as health,
education, infrastructure, etc.
Similarly, with in the profession, radical social workers oppose the social
control function of the traditional/functionalist social workers. They challenge the
role of social workers in legitimization of social structure and inequalities.
Countering the hegemony, radical social workers create a culture of collective
decision making by focusing on de-hierarchism. They lay less emphasis on
techniques, but focus on developing analytical framework to see the structural
bottlenecks.
Radical social workers unite all consumers of welfare and help in
strengthening informed opinion making on welfare needs of people. They
therefore involve in community politics, and advocate for policy change in the
system through helping individuals locate personal issues in the macro socio-
political structures (Howe, 1987).
There are two types of radicals, namely consciousness raisers and
revolutionaries (Howe, 1987). The consciousness raisers view that it is the
dehumanizing character of the modern society which leads to the socio-economic
problems. Modern society alienates people from each other and people are not
conscious of how the socio-economic system distorts their essential being. Hence
consciousness raisers aid people in analysing personal trouble in a socio-political
context and finally help them to become aware and take control of their lives. An
example of their work is the consciousness raising of traditional sanitation
workers belonging to a particular caste group in India.
Revolutionaries believe that the means of production in the hands of few
(ruling class) should be challenged, as it leads to accumulation of capital. Labour
power of working class is required for generation of wealth. Hence the ruling
class utilizes the labour of the working class. However, only a small portion of
their value for labour is received at the end of the day. The surplus value is
appropriated by owners. The ruling class also uses the apparatus of ‘state’
(police, court and prison) to suppress dissent. To counter capitalism and the state,
revolutionaries work in two ways. The pragmatic revolutionaries work with-in the
system to alter laws and policies affecting the working class. The hard core
radicals on the other hand, work outside the system and tend to work on
55 Ronald Yesudhas
overthrowing the state.
Critical Social Work
Critical social work is based on the radical formulation of 1960s. It challenges

domination and oppression of all forms – structural, interpersonal, and personal.
Critical social workers believe that false consciousness block the idea that social
relations and structures are constructed, and therefore changeable. Hence the
role of social workers is to create a culture of self-reflection and interaction
(Fook, 2003).
There are two perspectives within the critical social work tradition, namely
structural (Marxian) & post-structural (Foucauldian). While the former
empathizes that social structure determines class/power, the latter perceives that
there are multiple ways in which power can be created and maintained. Recently,
Fook (2003) has made an attempt at combining the approaches. However, there is
a feeling among Marxian followers that post-structural analysis may obstruct
social workers in creating social change.
Feminist Social Work
As a matter of fact, it’s mostly women who dominate basic grades of paid
professionals. However, there is a glass ceiling if they aspire to reach beyond.
Women’s job is mostly considered as home based and ‘care’ work. Thus women
are mostly restricted to private sphere and are excluded from public sphere. This
public–private divide is central to feminist conceptualization of social problems.
There are several stands of feminism (liberal, radical, Marxist/ socialist, black,
postmodern) and the resultant modus operandi (Dominelli, 2002).
Liberal feminist cherish the values of independence and equal opportunities.
They attack unjust/ gender biased educational/employment policies and demand
for inclusion in respective spheres. They believe that men can be involved in
women’s struggles. The limitation of this stand is that it does not challenge basic
power structures. Moreover, gendered division of labour and private patriarchy
are left unchallenged.
Radical feminist see systemic subjugation of women by men. They believe
that men control reproductive capacities of women and use violence to tame
them. They are principally ‘anti-men’ and advocate women to live separately or
live with women (lesbian feminism). Marxist/ socialist feminist believe that
capitalism, as well as the public and private patriarchy should be challenged as it’s
through these socio-economic forms of power men control women. Marxist/
socialist feminist find masculinity as a problem rather than men per se, and are
open to work with men. They problematize ‘family’ by unmasking the sanctity of
marriage.
Black feminist are cautious of the white feminist. They argue that racism is
evident within white feminist scholarship. Black feminism is based on African
contribution to history of civilizations. African identity and black people’s strength
are emphasized in the approach. Unlike other feminists, black feminist give
importance to family and extended kinship. They find strengths in “mothering”.

Postmodern feminist challenge the homogeneous representation of women and
rejects the metanarratives of the patriarchal structures as it undermines the
systematic patterns of discrimination. They believe that it decontextualizes the
individual and turns him/her in to an apolitical being. Other feminists argue that
postmodern feminism is more rhetorical rather than practical.
Feminist social workers use feminist theory to guide their practice. They
believe that division of women’s lives in to public and private domains is the main
problem. Feminist social workers question the functionalist on their ‘confidential’
and status quo approach while handling abuse and violence. Feminist social
workers convert private troubles in to public issues, thereby deconstructing the
category ‘women’. The emphasis is on strengths-based practice (egalitarian
approach) which lays emphasis on taking action consistent with empowerment of
self.
Anti- Racist Social Work
Racism occurs at three distinct spheres, namely personal, institutional and cultural
spheres. Personal racism includes individual prejudice and activities that deny
certain group of people dignity. Institutional racism are due to unjust public policies
and pathologising. Cultural racism occurs every day through language, religion,
etc. Anti-racist social work emerged to counter racism at all three levels.
Anti-racist social work is a political commitment to eradicate racial
oppression. Anti-racist social worker should understand eight cyclic problems,
namely denial, omission, avoidance, de-contextualization, colour-blindness,
patronizing, exaggeration and dumping (Dominelli, 2008). Denial refers to the
outright rejection of the privileged class vis-à-vis the existence of racism.
Omission refers to ignoring racial dimensions of social relations. Avoidance refers
to the act of avoiding confrontation with people of power who believe in race. De-
contextualization is the artful deceit of powerful people by conceptualizing social
relations in vacuum devoid of power. Colour-blind approach is a tokenistic, like
awarding honorary white status on the oppressed. Patronizing is creating a myth
that white superior is tolerant. Exaggeration is magnifying the minimum done
towards the weaker ones and dumping refers to the notion that the weaker ones
should solve their own problems. According to Dominelli (2008), anti-racist social
work can be practised by organizing/ following several steps, namely:-
 Resisting to and countering racism

 Eradicating racist social relations
 Tackling racist practices at personal and collective levels
 Forging partnership and alliances with likeminded global organisations.
 Questioning: how and why a profession dedicated to people’s wellbeing
(social work) oppresses black people
 Promoting human rights and citizenship based practices
57 Ronald Yesudhas
Anti-Oppressive Social Work
Oppression takes place when a person acts or a policy is enacted unjustly against
an individual, or group because of their affiliation to certain group. Anti-
Oppressive Social Work (AOSW) practice emerges from social movements and
is aimed at transforming political, economic, and cultural factors generating
inequality/ injustice.
According to Baines (2011), there are ten basic premises on which AOSW is
built. They are as follows:
 Social work is a contested and highly political practice.

 Social work is not a neutral, caring profession, but an active political process.
 The primary role of social workers is to assist individuals, at the same time
they have the responsibility of transforming the society.
 Macro and micro social relations generate oppression (social structure to
every day practices).
 Everyday experience is shaped by multiple oppressions (gender, class, etc.).
 Social workers need to build allies and work with social movements.
 Theoretical and practical development in social work must be based on
struggles of people and needs of those who are oppressed and marginalized.
 Participatory approach is necessary in the interaction between the between
clients and practitioners in order to be anti-oppressive in stance.
 Self-reflective practice and on-going social analysis are essential qualities
of an anti-oppressive social worker.
 Anti-oppressive social work advocates for a blended, heterodox approach
with emphasis on politicized and transformative social work practice.
Anti-oppressive social workers work with-in, and against the state. They
avoid taking managerial positions because of social justice stance. The emergent
model within AOSW is addressing immediate crisis and pain, while keeping the
bigger picture in mind.
Anti- Caste Social Work
Caste system prevalent in South Asia, particularly in India is based on principles

and customary rules that involve the division of people into social groups where
assignments of rights are determined by birth and heredity.
The assignment of basic rights among various castes is unequal and
hierarchical, with those at the top enjoying most rights coupled with least duties
and those at the bottom performing most duties coupled with no rights. The
system is maintained through the rigid enforcement of social ostracism in case of
any deviations. Thus the doctrine of inequality is the core and heart of the caste
system (IDSN, 2010).
Caste based discrimination and exclusion is prevalent in various spheres of
our lives in India. In the economic sphere, exclusion is practiced in the labour
market, agricultural land market, consumer market, etc. In the civil and cultural
spheres, dalits face discrimination and exclusion in the use of public services like
roads, temples, water bodies, and institutions delivering services like education,
health, and other public services. In the political sphere, dalits face discrimination
in the use of political rights, and in participating in the decision making process
(Thorat, 2005).
Social work response to dalit exclusion has been abysmal. Ramaiah (1998),
points out that most of the Indian professional social workers conveniently ignore
caste. He argues that most professional social workers are inherently caste
prejudiced. He suggests that the first thing that social workers need to seriously
consider doing is to “de-caste” themselves as no social work practice paradigm
could contribute meaningfully and make any real dent on the marginalized till the
same is first accomplished (Bodhi, 2014).
To counter caste-based exclusion and discrimination, committed social
workers have recently come together to evolve with the Anti-caste social work
(ACSW) model. According to Bodhi, anti-caste social work is a politico-
theoretical position that rejects the structure of graded inequality based on purity
and pollution closely linked to caste and descent” (Bodhi, 2014, p. 36). He
challenges the functional approach of social work and proposes an alternative
emancipatory paradigm that liberates people from this inhuman and
discriminatory system.
Bodhi adds that anti-caste social work is also a “celebration of the strength
and resilience of the Dalit Community in withstanding years of oppression and
discrimination and using these strengths to re-conceptualize helping professions
that would further the process of empowerment. It is a paradigm shift in the
identification of causal factors, where the problem is conceived as lying deeply
embedded in dominant caste groups/system rather than the excluded caste”
(Bodhi 2014: 36). Thus anti-caste social work is contextual and tries to build
indigenous knowledgebase for professional practice in India.
Discussion and Conclusion
Social work is a highly contested terrain, vis-à-vis, the nature and the role played
by social workers in the society. This context gives rise to the problem of one
unified definition of social work. Having grappled with the issue, Thompson
(2000, p. 13) suggests a simpler definition, “social work is what social workers
do’. This definition highlights the competing and contradictory discourses in social
work on the nature and role of social work professionals (Asquith et al., 2005).
The primary question is therefore on the ‘function of social work’. At one
level, social work is construed as a profession committed to rights and justice
(Clark, 2002). On the other hand, social work is concerned about system
maintenance. Here social workers can be seen to be an agent of social control
(Davies 1981). Hence the function of social workers is far from addressing the
inequalities. In other words, naively or otherwise, social workers can play a
paradoxical role in sustaining or perpetuating the very social and economic system
which promotes such inequalities. Thus, rather than liberating, social work can be
oppressive and for that reason not true to the core values on which it claims to be
based (Asquith et al., 2005).
59 Ronald Yesudhas
It is therefore necessary to see the growth of social justice approaches in

social work in this context. Social justice approaches in social work are not only
organic, but also substantial. As we witness major social, economic and
technological changes in the society in the recent past, the scope and need for
social justice stance seems imminent.
This current situation reminds us to strengthen the value base of social work;
develop field based practice models, and the inculcate ideologies /philosophies
which are promoting/ highlighting subaltern history and life realities of socially
excluded and marginalized communities through development of indigenous field
based practice models.
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castepovertypaper.pdf
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 61–74
Reflections of Practitioners on Social Work Education:

The Case of Street Children
Kaivalya T. Desai
As social work is a practice-oriented academic discipline therefore there is a continuous

need to integrate theoretical knowledge with experiential knowledge in different areas of
social work practice. This paper attempts to capture the reflections of practitioners
working with street children on the connections, perceived gaps and desired changes in
social work education and training. The paper is based on the data collected by the author
through in-depth interviews with practitioners working with street children in the
metropolitan cities of Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai. Firstly, it draws
aetiology of the problems and issues of street children followed by implications that
social work education and training has for working with street children. Finally, it captures
the reflections of both trained practitioners and paraprofessionals working with street
children in the five metropolitan cities mentioned above.
Kaivalya T. Desai is Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Assam University,

Silchar.
Introduction
Social work both as an academic discipline and as a profession is primarily

practice-oriented. This is the reason why many social work educators consider
‘fieldwork training’ as the hallmark of social work education. It is argued that
knowledge component of classroom teaching is complemented by development of
values and skills through supervised fieldwork training in social work education.
As early as 1957, Prof. M.S. Gore, one of pioneers of social work education in
India, highlighted the importance of practice as well as fieldwork training in social
work:
Essentially social work skills are concerned with problem solving and as such they
rest upon knowledge contained in the social and biological sciences pertaining to
man and society. This knowledge is gained partly in the didactic sessions of the
curriculum but it becomes meaningful only when the student has to test it in
Reflections of Practitioners on Social Work Education 62
situation after situation in the field. Thus it can be seen that the practical
experience must be closely integrated at every step of the way with what the
student learns in the classroom (Gore, 1957, p. 3).
Having highlighted the importance of practice in social work, let us now turn
our attention towards nature of social work practice. Social work practice is plural
in nature with regard to intervention levels as well as areas of practice. Different
methods of social work warrant interventions at individual, group, community and
policy levels in diverse areas of social work practice. As social work is essentially
underpinned by altruistic spirit, social work practice involves working with
marginalized sections of population in different settings, areas and issues. These
include hospital settings, social work practice in community settings, social work
practice with the disabled, women-centric social work, social work practice with
notified and de-notified tribes, social work practice with families and children, etc.
One such area of social work intervention chosen for analysis in this paper is
street children.
It hardly needs elaboration that the people living on the streets exemplify the
extreme manifestation of socio-economic inequality and poverty. Every aspect of
their life is exposed to the public gaze; they epitomize social degradation, and this
is further emphasised when they are unaccompanied children and adolescents (de
Moura, 2002). Street children are, thus, a marginalised and vulnerable section of
the population that calls for the attention of social workers.
As social work education and training is wide in its scope and captures
different areas of social work practice, there is no specific focus on street
children in its curriculum and pedagogy. However, different fields of specialisation
in social work, such as ‘criminology and justice’ and ‘family and child welfare’, do
capture certain aspects of the problem of street children and recognise the
importance of intervening with them. The methods of social work practice such
as casework and group work are recognised as important in guiding interventions
with street children. Also, the fieldwork component in the social work curriculum
recognises street children as an area of intervention and places students in
organisations that work with street children for their on-field training process.
Before we highlight the reflections of practitioners working with street children on
social work education, it is necessary to develop an understanding on the issues
and problems of street children.
Street Children: Who are they?
Street children are largely an urban phenomenon. In the wake of rapid

industrialisation, there has been large-scale migration of people from rural to
urban areas all over the world. The underdeveloped as well as the developing
countries have been unable to deal with such a huge influx of people into towns
and cities, especially with regard to housing them. A major consequence of this
has been the proliferation of slums and shanty towns in the cities. According to
Pandey (1991), urban poverty has become a common characteristic of the new
63 Kaivalya T. Desai
human habitat. Trapped in poverty, children and youth have become one of the
most vulnerable groups to face the risks of rapid and unregulated urbanisation.
Children in cities are encountering a variety of problems such as child labour,
sexual harassment, physical abuse, neglect and abandonment. Moreover, many
international organisations, such as the United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF), as well as Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have expressed
that the most marginalised population in the cities is that of street children whose
numbers are growing rapidly.
Street children are variously termed in different countries. In the developed
countries, they are referred to as ‘homeless youth’, ‘runaways’ or
‘throwaways’. In the developing countries, they are known as ‘parking boys’ (in
Kenya), ‘pogey boys’ (in Philippines), ‘pivetes’ (in Brazil), ‘ragpickers’ or
‘sadak chaap bachche’ (in India), ‘gamines’ (in Bogota), ‘scugnizzo’ (in
Naples), ‘pajaro frutero’ (in Peru), etc. (ibid.). Interestingly, the popular names
with which they are called in different countries invariably carry a negative
connotation indicating the society’s attitude towards them.
Although there have been many attempts to define street children, the first
globally accepted definition was framed by UNICEF, and it runs as follows:
“Those for whom the street (in the widest sense of the word, that is, unoccupied
dwellings, wasteland, etc.) more than their family has become their real home, a
situation in which there is no protection, supervision, or direction from responsible
adults” (as cited in Dabir 2005, p. 9). UNICEF has further divided street children
into three operational categories:
1. Children on the Street: Forming the largest category, these are largely
working children who have homes; most return to their families at the end
of the day.
2. Children of the Street: These children are a group who has chosen the
street as their home and it is there that they seek shelter, livelihood, and
companionship. They have occasional or rare contacts with their families.
3. Abandoned Children: These children have no contact with their families.
They are entirely on their own, not only for material survival but also for
emotional and psychological support. They include orphans, runaways and
lost or destitute children. Often these children are also referred to as
“nowhere” children because they may not be traceable.
UNICEF’s definition and categorisation are based on the relationship of these
children with their families. Others have critiqued and expanded this definition on
the basis of factors such as socio-cultural conditions in different countries and
gender of street children. Aptekar (2004) has proposed to take into account a
number of factors to provide a modern definition of ‘children in particularly
difficult circumstances’:
The term describes children whose suffering indicates the highest risk to mental
health, and includes children traumatized by war, natural and technological
disasters, and street children [as per the UNICEF definition]. While the modern
definition will take these facts into account, the stress will be on how they are
coping with whatever brought them to the street in the first place, as well as the
variety of problems they encounter once they are on the street (p. 19).
In India, many interventions with regard to the problems of street children are
made by voluntary organisations/NGOs. Due to the ambiguity in defining street
children each organisation has adapted its own definition based on its area of
work. Thus, there are many definitions of street children in India depending upon
the specific problems that the organisations are working on.
Street Culture and the Problems faced by Street Children
Street children, unlike other children, experience a very different childhood on the
streets. Early on in their life they are exposed to an unprotected environment on
the streets. They are individuals who are a significant part of the political
economy of the streets. Not much has been documented or discussed in the
‘mainstream’ media about this. This perhaps signifies the stigma that is attached
to ‘street life’ and consequently to street children. The life on the streets highlights
certain aspects about its political economy. From their experience the
practitioners have observed that there is a nexus between street goons, police,
and municipal authorities for forcing street children into illegal activities such as
begging. Begging on the streets generates a lot of money for the local goons.
Since it is considered illegal, the police and the municipal authorities get an
informal license to engage in corrupt practices vis-à-vis these activities on the
streets. The money that a street child makes through begging at the end of the day
includes shares of all these stakeholders. But, irrespective of the amount of
money that the child makes, s/he is given only a fixed sum by the goon. The rest of
the money is divided between the goons, the police, and the municipal authorities.
If a child, who makes a good amount of money through begging refuses to do the
job, s/he by use of brutal physical force is dragged into it. John, a practitioner from
Bangalore, observed this with regard to street children being forced into pick-
pocketing by the street goons. Altaf Shaikh (1995), from his observations with
respect to the working life of street children at Chowpatty Beach in Mumbai, has
hinted on the political economy of the streets and how in a hidden form it utilizes
the labour of street children for meagre returns:
Earning commissions as high as 50 per cent each day from pony rides, baba gadis
and game stalls, they are probably best off among Bombay’s street children –
making as much as Rs. 300 on a good Saturday [. . . .] I could not fathom why the
stall and pony owners of Chowpatty paid such large commissions . . . It was not
long before I learnt the chilling answer [. . . .] the trap that opened for them every
morning on the beach – the gambling den . . . Run by the brother of a game-stall
owner . . . on Chowpatty. The plan was deadly – pay the children handsome
commission at night, and get it all back from them in the morning at the gambling
den (np).
Then there are other ‘legal’ businesses as well where street children serve as
cheap labour. For example, in the area around Jama Masjid in Delhi, there is a
wholesale market of different commodities such as electronic items, medicine,
and clothes. Employing street children for such work at cheap wages is a regular
practice there. Street children serve as low-wage labourers to perform temporary
and menial jobs, subsidising many activities for the affluent and non-poor. Thus,
street children are quite useful to many individuals and groups, who take
advantage of and greatly benefit from their services (Desrochers, 1999).
Moreover, these children are large consumers of other illegal commodities
such as drugs. For these children, drugs might be a coping mechanism to deal with
the harsh realities of street life, but it is a vicious circle in which they are trapped
by drug peddlers making the street culture even more complex. Practitioners from
Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai expressed that more than 90 per
cent of the street children are addicted to one or more forms of nasha (drugs,
alcohol, and inhalants).The most popular form of nasha among street children is
inhalants such as shoe-glue and whiteners, as they are easily and cheaply
available. Barnabe D’Souza (2004) has observed,
The street has its own security, unwritten norms, and survival modes. The
constellation of a street child’s relationships juxtaposes a sub-culture that is very
unique to the streets. A street child having to fend for himself on the streets, is
vulnerable to a complex array of influences: physical, social, relational, and
environmental. [. . . .] Drug consumption is not a physiological necessity, but a
survival strategy, “to conform to” and “to belong to the clique” who (sic). in
essence becomes his [street child] nucleus. A street child’s drug consumption . . .
is one that brings him acceptance and initiates him into the mainstream of street
culture (p. 44).
The examples cited above point to the fact that street children get dependent
on street life once they are trapped in drug addiction and other survival needs such
as employment (whether legal or illegal). But, more importantly, the streets and
the stakeholders there are equally in need of their services, whether for legal or
illegal activities. Once on the streets, children are part of a different social realm
and display personal characteristics which defy the norms and values of the
‘mainstream’ society. Children away from mainstream society are said to be
completely regimented by the lifestyle, values and norms of a subculture of their
own – the ‘street society’ (Lusk, 1992). The power structures on the street are
clearly defined, wherein street children are stuck at the bottom end of the
pyramid. Activities such as gambling, sexual abuse, drug abuse are a common
part of the street culture (D’Souza 2004). Such a culture gives rise to many
economic, social, psychological, and health problems that street children
encounter in their everyday life.
Why are Children on the Streets?
Street migration is a complex process in which a variety of factors – such as

poverty, abuse, abandonments, violence, natural calamities, and freedom – that

either push or pull the children from their families (some do not even have that)
and communities into the harsh life on the streets (Connolly 1990). Thus, every
street child has a reason to be on the streets of metropolitan cities. Pallipuram
(1999) has highlighted the following micro-factors that are responsible for
children to leave their homes and come on the streets: (a) harassment from
alcoholic parents, (b) ill-treatment from step parents, (c) broken families, (d)
influence of peer group (often two three children from the same native place run
together to explore glamorous life in the cities), and (e) disinterest in education.
Desai (2009), on the other hand, has pointed out macro reasons responsible
for the street children phenomenon. According to him, the phenomenon of street
children has emerged as a concomitant to industrialisation across the world.
Industrial growth and economic development have not been uniform throughout a
country and this has often resulted in imbalances between the rural and urban
areas. This has caused the migration of people from the rural to the urban areas in
search of employment. The worst to be hit by this process are women and
children. Also, due to extremely poor familial conditions, for many children, it is an
economic compulsion to be on the streets. Often, parent’s earnings are
insufficient to provide for the family’s minimum needs. Children have to be sent to
work, mostly in the unorganised sector to supplement the family’s income.
Lakshapati and Urs (1999) have taken an even more radical stand in
describing the phenomenon of street children. According to them,
In spite of the increasing visibility of India’s ‘overall’ development on the

international scene, the ‘inner contradiction’ has been that the enrichment of a few
is accompanied by the marginalisation or exclusion of millions of others. The real
issue is that development continues to benefit some people, while many others are
left out and pushed out. The phenomenon of street children has its roots not just
in what meets the eye (poverty, family problems, etc.), but in the whole gamut of
development itself (p. 86).
D’Souza (2004) has given a more comprehensive picture of the entire issue by
illustrating the forces (macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic) that seem
uncontrollable and which perpetuate and consequently produce street living
patterns that are enduring, and invert reality (see Figure 1). Thus, we may
conclude this section with the following observation: micro-reasons such as
broken families and abusive parents reflect upon causative factors that explain
the macro-reality, responsible for the street children phenomenon in urban cities
and towns.
Having drawn out the aetiology of the problem, let us now shift our attention
to the implications that social work education and training has for practice with
street children.
Figure 1
The Street Child Phenomenon – An Inverted Reality
Corruption Social Urban Rural Accelerated Natural Family Self-Identity

& lack of Inequalities Migration Poverty Urbanization Calamities Break-down
Political Will
Macroscopic Mesoscopic Microscopic
Abandoned/ Runaway Survival Modes (Security -

Children comradeship
Migration to Towns and

Cities Enduring Street Patterns
Street Children
‘Street Culture’ Influences
(Films, Gambling, Sexual
Abuse, Drugs, etc.)
Need for Self-Support
Self-Protection
(Peer/Cliques)
Source: D’Souza (2005, p. 43)
Social Work Education and Training: Implications for Practice with Street
Children
Let us now analyse the implications that social work education and training might
have for practice in this area. The methods of social work practice taught in
institutions of social work entail organised practice at individual, group,
community, and policy levels. For example, social casework presents a structured
process of dealing with individuals and their immediate social environment,
drawing on theories and concepts from the social sciences, especially psychology.
Many NGOs make individualistic interventions with street children. Thus,
knowledge of this method might help them function in a more organised and
structured manner. Lately, the work with street children involves advocacy for
their rights, involving negotiations with state and central governments. Knowledge
of social action and social work research methods might be helpful in this process.
Social work education involves, in its supportive domain, developing
understanding about the theories and concepts (borrowed from the social
sciences) to help students in comprehending the larger social phenomenon and
functioning of different social, economic, political, and cultural systems and sub-
systems. Most practitioners and activists have identified poverty, social exclusion,
and subsequent family disintegration as causative factors for street children

phenomenon. This highlights the importance of the knowledge that Social Work
students develop through theories and concepts for making interventions in this
area.
Another important area that is emphasised in social work education is the
fieldwork training of students. The idea is to facilitate learning from practical
situations through direct on-field experiences. This is also emphasised in the
pedagogy as educators draw from both their field experiences and that of
students in the classroom. The interventions in the area of street children involve
work with different stakeholders such as employers of children, street goons,
police, and politicians, besides the children themselves. This approach of direct
engagement with children and other stakeholders has been developed through the
practical experience of the practitioners. Thus, the intervention strategies are
developed on the basis of both theoretical knowledge and practical experience.
The same is emphasised in social work education and training highlighting its
inherent connection with practice in the area of street children.
Thus, with regard to this area, social work education and training has an
important role to play. It has to address itself to the social reality of street children.
The profession of social work needs to build up a knowledge base for
understanding the dynamics of the problem of street children and for the
development of appropriate policy and programmes to deal with the issues related
to street children (Rane & Shroff, 1994). Also, the institutions of social work
education can play an important role in conducting policy-based research studies
on the street children phenomenon (ibid.). Having highlighted the implications that
social work education and training has for practice with street children, finally let
us discuss the reflections of practitioners on social work education and training.
Reflections of Practitioners on Connections, Gaps and Desired Changes

in Social Work Education and Training
Practitioners had different views on social work education and training. Some
were supportive and praised it, while others were extremely critical. In this final
section of the paper, we shall highlight the practitioners’ views. We will discuss
learning that trained social workers have drawn from social work education and
training, connections that they draw between their education and practice, and the
gaps that they find between the two. The reflections of practitioners who have not
received any education or training in social work would be further insightful in
identifying the gaps. Moreover, we will discuss the reflections of practitioners on
how the gaps can be filled.
Mr Junaid from Delhi said,
By undergoing education and training in social work a lot of learning and

unlearning took place. Through the fieldwork component I got exposed to social
realities for the first time. In addition to that I learnt how to do things
professionally, be objective in my approach, and understand a problem from
different perspectives. The learning took place both in the classroom, and in the
field. In the classroom I gained theoretical knowledge through different

disciplines such psychology and sociology. In the field I learnt through the
observations that I made and the experiments that I conducted in the application
of different methods of social work practice in the field settings in which I was
placed. Principles of social work such as non-judgemental attitude and
objectivity still guide my practice with street children. Even the writing skills
that I developed through fieldwork reports are helpful in my current work as a
programme coordinator in the organisation in which I work. Overall, two years
of education and training in the master’s programme was helpful in taking out
bias from my work as well as in developing a commitment to work for the
betterment of the society.
Ms. Shivani from Bangalore observed that for her theory and practice went
hand in hand. For example, in her fieldwork placement with Child Welfare
Committee, she was able to apply the knowledge gained through casework and
group work in practice. The importance of social action as a method of social
work practice was realised when she started to work with a child rights
organisation after her master’s programme. She said,
In my work with the child rights organisation, I was involved in protests and
lobbying with government to raise awareness on issues of child rights with
special focus on street children. That is where the knowledge of social action
really helped me. Moreover, when I reflect back on two years of training in social
work, I feel that principles of social work such as confidentiality and acceptance
made me more accurate and effective in my work. They also helped me in
internalising the importance of working with people and not for them. On the
other hand my practice in the area of child rights helped me to understand the
problems of children at grass-roots level. It was then that I was able to relate to
the theories that were taught to me in MSW.
Similarly, Ms. Priesha from Kolkata observed that while pursuing social work
education she learnt theories by concurrently relating with them in her fieldwork
placements during her master’s programme. In addition, she said that she learnt
how to work with people without discriminating between them.
Ms. Shilpa from Mumbai said that as she specialised in Criminology and
Justice in her MA in social work, it helped her in developing deeper understanding
of the Juvenile Justice System and other legislations related to children as a
practitioner. Social work education also made her realise the importance of both
theory and practice and how they should go together in working with street
children. Therefore, in her work, she has tried to generate study circles between
practitioners so that they can develop a theoretical understanding on the issue as
well. Through practice, she said, she was able to understand the different roles
that a social worker needs to play while making interventions with street children.
In practice, she was also able to challenge the principles of social work profession
and develop a better understanding on the same.
Analysis of these reflections by practitioners trained in social work highlights
a few important points. Learning by doing is as important as learning developed
through theories. Probably, for this reason, all the practitioners above highlighted
the importance of fieldwork training in social work education and the exposure it
gives on different issues. A few practitioners also reflected on the methods of
social work practice that they were taught and how it helped them in structuring
their work. However, Mr Junaid’s reflection also highlights that the methods need
to be experimented with and the definiteness in practising them cannot be
achieved. Most of the trained social work practitioners also highlighted the
importance of principles of social work profession and how they develop a non-
discriminatory perspective towards people. Lastly, the importance of knowledge
of different disciplines such as law, psychology, and sociology has been
highlighted.
Practitioners who have not undergone social work education and training are
often critical about it. Mr John from Bangalore said,
I have met many trained social workers and they often refer to social work
practice as a professional activity. This they say has been taught to them in their
respective institutions of social work education. The injustice and oppression in
the society is a political process and one can only deal with it through political
means and language whether Gandhian, Marxist or Maoist. The categorisation
of social work as a professional activity takes away this political element. This
does not fit in my imagination of how change has to take place. I believe that
there is a revolutionary potential in people at any given point of time which in
the current system under neo-liberalism is being curbed. Moreover, in the Indian
society, systems such as caste and patriarchy are used to maintain hierarchy. The
only way to dismantle these systems is by helping each individual realise her/his
revolutionary potential. Does social work education and training do that? I
have my doubts about it.
Mr Kunal from Bangalore has undertaken guest lectures in many institutions of

social work education. This has given him the opportunity to interact with social
work educators and students. In addition, he has studied the curriculum of many
institutions of social work education. On the basis of his experience, he said,
I believe social work is a methodology to instrument social change. It is a process

in which the social worker derives a way to contextualise issues in a society and
work for the betterment of the society. However, in social work education and
training, the understanding of the subaltern and the various ways in which it has
been created all through history is grossly missing. Also, the work of para-
professionals has been equally important when it comes to the area of street
children. Para-professionals understand the power dynamics on the streets and
are also able to relate it to the power dynamics that operate in the communities
from where street children come. Their understanding of the issue at a macro-
level is far superior to that of trained social workers. But institutions of Social
Work do not seem to acknowledge the work of para-professionals.
Mr Inder from Delhi, who has also been a guest lecturer at an institution of social
work education, said that the work of activists and para-professionals is totally
missing in social work curriculum. He opined that they need to acknowledge the
action-oriented writings of practitioners and need to include them in the
curriculum. As this is not happening, the students miss out on practical knowledge.
It is for this reason, he observed, social work students are not able to convert their
theoretical knowledge into a perspective which is important for practice.
The reflections of these practitioners highlight the radical perspective that is
built in their practice. Moreover, their reflections are in consonance with those
social work educators who challenge a professional status for social work in
India.
Ms. Shilpa tried to highlight a few reasons behind such polarised views. She
said that, during the 1990s, the contribution of field knowledge to social work
education was immense. But, over the years, she has seen that diminishing. On
the one hand, the educators now are dealing with multiple issues simultaneously
and the education system has different components such as theoretical
knowledge, skill building, etc. She said that students are now being trained in a
generic mode. On the other hand, the practitioners are working on specific issues.
The gap between the two also arises because of this. However, she said, it has
been an on-going debate between the academicians and practitioners and the
critique that they give to each other is healthy as it helps both in realising their
shortcomings, so that they can work on them.
Ms. Vaijyanti, a trained social worker from Bangalore identified the
dynamism of field reality as a possible reason for the gap between social work
education and social work practice. She said,
The issue of street children is continuously changing and evolving. The analysis
of these changes is not happening in the institutions of social work education. As
a result of this, knowledge does not get upgraded; even the definition of social
work has not changed for last ten years. Even the books that are being referred to
are outdated and do not match with the contemporary context, this also gets
reflected in the pedagogy. For example, the word delinquent is still being used
for street children in institutions of social work education whereas practitioners
have stopped using this word on the field.
Having analysed the gaps and the critiques that practitioners reflected upon vis-à-
vis social work education and training, let us discuss their views on how these
gaps can be filled and a healthy relation fostered between Social education and
training, and social work practice.
Mr Junaid from Delhi said that more communication should be facilitated
between academicians and practitioners. Practitioners should be given the
opportunity to provide feedback into the knowledge base of social work
education. Academicians should then reflect on the field-based knowledge of
practitioners and take it to the classroom, for sharing with the students. Also,
fieldwork supervisors in the institutions of social work education should play a
proactive role in collaborating with the agencies where the students are placed for
fieldwork. They should provide theoretical inputs in the agencies’ projects so that
practitioners can learn from it.
Mr Joy from Kolkata said that deeper communication will help the
academicians to understand the task-orientation in the field. The importance of
situation-specific knowledge can only be understood if academicians are more
connected to the field. It is important for academicians to understand this and

discuss situation-specific examples in the classroom. He added, “Theories are
always at the back of the minds of practitioners and the abstraction of
theories can only be taken away through field knowledge”.
Mr Kunal from Bangalore was of the opinion that better connect can be
established between social work education/training and practice if students are
groomed to build a non-governmental, non-corporate perspective into any social
change initiative, which is critical of the current power structures in the society.
Mr Swamy from Chennai was of the opinion that social work education and
training should build into the students microscopic skills of working at the grass-
roots along with developing an understanding of the macro-reality.
Ms. Shilpa suggested that the field action projects that have been initiated by
many institutions of Social Work need to network with other NGOs and together
they can undertake action researches on different social issues so that
practitioners, academicians and students can benefit from each other’s
perspectives and knowledge.
Thus, we can see that, although social work education/training and social
work practice appear disconnected, practitioners do not discount the importance
of theory for practice. Also, they have reflected that task-orientation might
relegate theory to the background on the field; they nevertheless operate with
certain theoretical assumptions in the field. Also, their reflections highlight the
continuous change that takes place in the field and the importance of building the
changes into existing theories.
Conclusion
The practice-orientation and commitment to work with marginalised and

vulnerable sections of population, recognises work with street children as an
important area of social work practice. It is well known that ‘street children’ is
largely an urban phenomenon, triggered by the migration of people from rural to
urban areas in the wake of rapid industrialisation.
The ‘street life’ has a unique sub-culture and political economy, wherein
children are trapped in the vicious cycle of drug abuse and illegal activities, as a
result of which, street children face multiple problems. In addition to the problems
of meeting basic survival needs of food, clothing, shelter, and sound physical and
mental health, street children undergo physical and sexual harassment from
goons, police, municipal authorities, and even their peers. Another major challenge
faced by street children is the stigma attached to street life that adversely impacts
their self-esteem.
People who have been working with street children observe that there are
both micro-factors and macro-factors either pushing or pulling children on to the
streets. Micro-factors such as broken families, abuse by alcoholic or step parents,
and peer group influence arise because of macro-factors such as poverty,
unemployment, and migration leading to the existence of street children
phenomenon.
Practitioners working with street children come from different academic
backgrounds. Rather, majority of the organisations that I visited in the

metropolitan cities of Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai had few
trained social work practitioners. This highlights that education and training in
social work is not a necessary requirement for working with street children. Thus,
although street children is recognised by institutions of social work education as
an area for professional social work practice, it is not limited to only trained social
workers.
As far as social work education and training is concerned, practitioners
expressed both supportive and critical views. They emphasised the need to
develop deeper communication between the educators and practitioners.
Moreover, they were of the view that knowledge developed from on-field
experiments needs to be built into the curriculum and pedagogy of institutions of
Social Work. They also expressed the need for learning through the theoretical
knowledge of the educators if they can engage proactively with the agencies as
fieldwork supervisors of their students. Lastly, they opined that more action-
oriented research needs to be undertaken on the issue of street children. This can
also be visualised as one platform where practitioners and academicians can
come together and learn from each other’s experiences.
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SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 75–89
Women in Displacement Camps: Towards a

Comprehensive Framework for Social Work Education
Shafeef Ahmed and Yasir Hamid Bhat
Within past several decades conflict induced internal displacement have become a major
social and political concern around the globe along with growing IDPs (Internally
Displaced Persons). Enforced displacement to an unfamiliar place with often limited
resources and choices, often leads to a situation where people struggle to survive as a
result of material deprivation and impoverishment. More so, displacement resulting from
violence of varied consequence often creates a sense of insecurity which inevitably erodes
the mental health and well-being of this vulnerable population with lasting impact. The
paper is an attempt to document the lived experiences of Muslim women IDPs of Hapachara
camp, Assam in the event of protracted displacement and their struggle to survive on a
daily basis as a displaced. The study attempts to develop a comprehensive framework
which could provide base for the social work practitioners to assess the situations in
displacement camps and critically understand the structural factors that underlie so as to
make an informed comprehensive intervention and to link social work values with practice.
Shafeef Ahmed is a Master’s student and Yasir Hamid Bhat is Assistant Professor, Tata
Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati.
Introduction
Internal displacement has become a major social and political concern in the
recent years. With the presence of conflict and violence around the globe, there
has been an exponential growth of IDPs (Internally Displaced Persons) facing
protracted displacement. There is an estimate of 40.8 million people displaced as
result of conflict and violence, which is twice the number of refugees (IDMC,
2016). Considering the nature of their displacement1, many of them are unseen,
undocumented, and some to the extent of denied existence by some governments.
Post-colonial Assam has witnessed several conflict induced internal
displacement2 of Muslims which have led to the social exclusion of this religious
group who are already marginalized in the society. Muslim IDPs of Hapachara
camp is one among such groupexperiencing protracted displacement in the past
Women in Displacement Camps 76
several decades. They were the victims of 1993 violence spearheaded by armed
Bodo militia which took place in the parts of Kokrajhar district of present day BTC
(Bodo Territorial Council). To further entrench their anguish, they were followed
by another displacement in the year 2000 from the government sponsored relief
camp (Goswami, 2008) experiencing double displacement in the past two decades.
Although, the history of conflicts tell us that bullets and bombs might have
killed men and women indiscriminately without invoking gender discrimination,
however, most of these histories remain silent about the gender discrimination and
how disproportionately conflict affects women and girls (Ashford & Huet-
Vaughn, 2000; Kaldor, 2006).
The consequences of any armed conflict are usually understood in relation to
deaths, injuries and atrocities in the form of rapes, enforced disappearances;
however, the indirect and long-term impact of violence is often overlooked. The
conflict with its long-term effects often perpetuates the existing inequalities and
discrimination which are gendered in nature and which disproportionately affects
women and girls (Ashford & Huet-Vaughn, 2000; Kaldor, 2006).
It is a known fact that the majority of women across the world, especially
those living in poor and developing countries, share a common burden of inequality,
discrimination and are surviving myriad forms of gender-based violence which
has its roots deeply entrenched in the structures of society. Therefore, it requires a
distinct analysis considering their vulnerability, especially in the context of
violence. This has been elucidated by the UN Platform for Action (1995) that the
unequal status of women in the society has made them more vulnerable and
affected during armed conflicts. The vulnerability and victimization does not
conclude with conflict but continues even in displacement camps where the
unequal status leads to differential suffering. Gardam (1997) argues women in
armed conflict face “double disability” due to their inferior status as women.
Taking cue from Gardam, it is significant to understand this factor especially in
countries like India where patriarchal values and norms are deep rooted in the
society’s thoughts and actions. Given the vulnerability and unequal status,
displacement can have adverse impacts on women which can further exclude
them from the society.
This has challenged the social work intervention and discipline, stipulating a
focussed and specific approach in the context of enforced displacement. As Howe
(2009, p.2) expounds, “If the world in which work happens to be complicated and
turbulent, the need to make sense and know our way around it is even more
urgent.” As displacement being a multi-faceted phenomenon, social workers need
to examine their practice and assumptions and develop new perspectives as
agents of social change. The present paper attempts to bring new insights for the
practitioners to make effective interventions based on empirical evidence. The
study provides a base for the social work practitioners to assess the situations in
displacement camps and critically understand the structural factors that underlie
so as to make an informed comprehensive intervention and to link social work
values with practice. Though social work theories and knowledge are generic
(Payne, Adams, & Dominelli, 2002), displacement requires a specialized
intervention which considers the different facets of displacement and its long term
77 Shafeef Ahmed and Yasir Hamid Bhat
effects on individuals. This is an endeavour to bring new insights about

displacement by critically engaging and addressing the gender dimensions of
displacement and how does it percolates in to the daily lives of the women in
Hapachara camp. In order to contextualize the hard realities of enforced
displacement and its effects on mental health, a border conceptual framework is
needed to develop which could not only inform the social work practitioners but
also help to develop a critical social work paradigm about displacement and
violence.
To develop new insights about the dynamics of displacement and its effects
on women living in camps, the study incorporated mental health and well-being,
into the larger framework of social determinants of health. Both have the potential
of being extended beyond the contents of conflict induced displacement which can
identify additional areas of socially patterned stressful experience in life, albeit,
using them in present context will assist us to understand the realities in which
women experience the conflict and its long term effects on their lives.
Character of Displacement
Displacement is an imposed movement from a usual place of habitat to a space

which is devoid of resources and means for survival, a complete “transformation
of life” (Oslender, 2007). It is a disruption in the whole functioning of various
systems interrelated to land, particularly communities whose livelihood depends on
land which can shape their socio-economic status (Kondylis, 2010). In fact, Tizon
(cited in Global commission on International Migration, 2005) describes
displacement as a form of ‘cultural death’, where the displaced are forced to take
up new practices and routines. Displacement further excludes the IDPs as their
accessibility to employment in the new location is often limited (Kondylis, 2010),
which reduce the consumption of displaced population (O’ Reilly, 2015). It cuts
down the “capital stock” (O’ Reilly, 2015) and the possibility to compete in the
labour market resulting in less productivity and restricted choices (Roberts, n.d.).
Consequently the economic vulnerability of the displaced population results in
taking up new social ‘roles’ and ‘routines’ which affect their well-being (Flor
Edilma, 2008; O’ Reilly, 2015).
Displacement is followed by adverse living condition due to limited and
restricted resources, often confined to the space of camps and temporary shelters.
Such spaces have further marginalized and excluded the IDPs due its
dehumanizing conditions (Oslender, 2007). These spaces are characterised by
high density population, lack of toilets and sanitation, inaccessibility of food and
resources. This population subsequently becomes a new category as ‘internally
displaced person’ leaving behind all their previous identities (Oslender, 2007). It is
a situation which gives an individual the right to demand for “restitution” along with
being ‘stigmatized” (Flor Edilma, 2008). These are the characters of displacement
taken into consideration while conceptualizing displacement. The present study
attempts understand the mental health of women within the framework of
displacement which is a process of disruption in ‘daily social life’ and
‘infrastructure’ (WHO, 2008). We conceptualize women IDPs as periphery
within the larger periphery of the society.
Conceptualizing Mental Health
Understanding mental health as just absence of disorder limits the scope of a

broader conceptualization of mental health. It is not surprising that much of the
suffering people faces are caused by different exploitative structures. Thus
overlooking factors like caste, class, religion, gender and other socio-economic
conditions leads to a very myopic understanding of mental health. In the process of
conceptualizing mental health Jahoda explains it as (1958, cited in Macklin, 1972,
p. 347) “…the absence of disease may constitute a necessary, but not a sufficient
criterion for mental health.” She is drifting from the conventional understanding of
mental health as disorder to understand in terms of well-being. Mental health is
distinctive from the term mental illness which is a broad term for all the mental
disorders. World Health Organizations has defined mental health as “a state of
well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope
with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to
make a contribution to her or his community” (WHO, 2009, para. 1).
Mental health ‘problems’ or ‘difficulties’ are triggered by ‘daily stressors’,
external pressure or other painful events, not necessarily ‘traumatic’. It is widely
understood that positive mental health will help a person to reach his/her full
emotional and intellectual potential subsequently leading to achieve their social and
working life which makes him/her an asset in social cohesion and for the larger
social and economic welfare (Creek & Lougher, 2008). Thus s/he cannot be
considered mentally healthy even in the nonexistence of any specific diagnosable
mental disorder. Mental health is a result of the larger social, economic and
political system in which an individual belongs. An individual achieves positive
mental health only when s/he attains a state of overall well-being, especially their
psychological and emotional well-being. Mental health and well-being of low and
middle-income countries are prominently directed by these macro-social factors
(Das et al., 2007). The health of the marginalized and underprivileged which is
often the result of structural injustice which ought to be understood in this regard
rather a bio-medical paradigm (Chavez et al., 2005).
Displacement: A Social Determinant of Mental Health
Displacement is a reflection of “loss of human rights” (WHO, 2008) which shapes

the quality of material conditions of IDPs. In relation to social determinants
approach, displacement can be understood as a social factor which determines the
health of the population. This approach views health in the terms of the social,
cultural and power dimensions of the society. WHO defines “social determinants
of health as the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age –
conditions that together provide the freedom people need to live lives they value”
(Sen, 1999, cited in WHO, 2008, p. 26). Evidences substantiate the direct
connection between social determinants and population health (Marmot &
Wilkinson, 2000). In contrast to psychiatric understanding of mental illness where
the causes are limited to life events as triggering factor (Sadock & Sadock, 2005),
this framework looks at mental health and well-being through deprivation of
materials and impoverishment which have direct and indirect effects. As Keating
& Hertzman (1999) mention, it is inevitable to affect the well-being of an individual
by means of material deprivation. Thus material conditions play a role in creating
disparities in psychosocial stresses (Stansfeld & Marmot, 2002).
However, much of the literatures define social determinants of health through
material deprivations (Lynch et al., 2004; Leon & Walt, 2001). This approach can
overlook certain structural factors like gender, especially in the case of women
IDPs, which shapes their health in the comparison to men in general and also
create disparities within the displaced population. It is significant to mention Raphael
(2006) at this juncture who states the influence of structural factors in shaping the
material conditions of an individual which determine the quality of social
determinants of health. In India exploitative structures like caste, religion, gender,
etc., influence the availability and accessibility of resources. This approach looks
at displacement as a factor which shapes the health of the IDPs in general and
also the structural factors like gender in particular to understand the mental health
of women IDPs.
Methodology
The present study is a qualitative inquiry into the conflict induced internal
displacement and its long term effects on the mental health of women IDPs living
in Hapachara camp, Assam. It is an attempt to understand mental health through
its social determinants and the different processes which create disparities in the
quality of social determinants of health. The research paradigm requires for a
social constructivist world view3so as to document the subjective meaning the
participants hold in the context of displacement. Thus an exploratory research
design4is opted to get an in-depth understanding of the effects of displacement on
the mental health, which demands for a qualitative method to obtain the primary
data from the participants.
Considering the reluctance of the population in participating5 in the present
study as well as their perceived insecurities6, only nine respondents could be
interviewed. Anon-proportional quota sampling method of purposive
sampling was utilized for the selection of respondents. As mentioned by Leary
(2001) this sampling method is less restrictive in nature and does not require in
matching the proportion of the population making it compatible in the given
context. The sample for the study was identified through a two stage sample
procedure. Stage one was selection of the area which was restricted to the
women IDPs of Hapachara Camp, Assam. This community is one of the oldest
displaced people who are facing protracted displacement and waiting for a durable
solution. The geographical proximity as well as the perceived acceptance7 from
the community directed the selection process. The stage two was to select sample
with conflict as a reference point. This was done to differentiate IDPs who are
born displaced from IDPs who experienced direct violence and displacement
whose mental health and well-being can be different.
Interview technique was adopted to get an in-depth understanding from the

respondents by employing a semi-structured interview guide. Although, the
interview guide was written in English language, it was translated to Hindi by the
researchers since the medium of interaction between the researchers and
respondents was Hindi. The interviews were conducted between the months of
December 2015 to February 2016. The data collected was transcribed to English
and then analysed manually. A thematic analysis was carried out based on the
recurring themes. The Ethical clearance for the study was given by the Ethical
Committee of Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati, Assam. Informed
consent was obtained before the administration of the interview guide.
Data Analysis
After thoroughly analysing the data, a thematic analysis was carried out based on
the following recurring themes:
Camp Life: A Struggle to Survive
Life with in a confined space of a camp with limited resources and choices makes
survival difficult and often a distressing phenomenon. All the respondents noted
the absence of various indispensable needs for their very existence which
entrench their distress. One such is the food insecurity and inaccessibility of
sufficient food leading to hunger and malnutrition. However what makes the
feelings and experiences of IDPs distinct from rest of the deprived population is
their easy accessibility of sufficient food and self-sufficiency before displacement.
All the respondents noted their well-being in the pre-displacement period making
their present situation hard to adjust.
There were days when we used to have 4 meals a day. But today hardly two meals
is difficult to get. It reminds of my past days when I never had to stay hungry.
(Woman, 48, daily wage labourer)
As the women were mostly dependent on the men for livelihood, displacement
took away their means of procuring food and their ability to survive. All the
respondents mentioned that today much of their effort and hard work goes to mere
subsistence and the thoughts about survival on a daily basis. One woman 44 years
old mentions:
I start my day thinking about how to make today’s meal. If either of us (husband)
does not get any work, we are going to starve. There are nights when I only think
about tomorrow’s meal. It gives me sleepless nights. (Woman, 44, daily wage
labourer)
Subsequently this has set about change in gender roles where woman felt obliged
to contribute economically to the family which was not presumed to be their role.
The unpreparedness to take such a responsibility along with their perceived
meaning of the role makes it more troublesome in the context of displacement. All
the respondents mentioned about the disappointment in the kind of work they
indulge to procure food, which they do not find pride in. In the process of surviving
they are forced to give up their dignity and self-esteem. A woman 52 years old
noted:
My husband cannot work anymore... he is gone weak. At this age I have to wash
others clothes so that we can buy rice for dinner. (Woman, 52, daily wage labourer)
Further their insecurity is augmented by the perceived fear of being harmed and
their vulnerability towards violence. The respondents noted about the fear
embedded in them and the life confined to the camp space which is an epitome of
otherness and persisting tension exacerbates this fear. A woman 49 years old
noted:
I go out with fear. Many of us got killed and never returned (after work). It is very
threatening to go out even for work... (Woman, 49, daily wage labourer)
The respondents also noted about the insecurity and their compulsion to put up
beside a river which is dangerous and guarantees minimal security. The
vulnerability and helplessness to determine their environment intensifies their
distress. They noted their limited choices in regard to their life and place of living.
A woman 44 years old says:
Monsoon is very difficult, there will be water everywhere. It is like we are living
under water... last monsoon one kid died in the river behind. This is not a safe
place for our children. (Woman, 44, daily wage labourer)
Besides the uncertainties, the respondents stated their disappointments of their

poor living conditions and limited access to resources and facilities which inhibits
their day to day activities. The overcrowded nature of the camp and its unhygienic
surrounding also augmented their struggle.
They expressed their struggle to live in a confined congested shelter which

constraints their individual freedom and privacy. Some of the respondents noted
the need of a private space with their spouse and expressed their dissatisfaction in
sharing their space with the rest.
You see, we are seven people in one room, mother in law, children and I don’t even
get a space for my husband. Even now as am talking to you, everyone is hearing
including the neighbours. (Woman, 38, daily wage labourer)
All the respondents commented on their difficulty in accessing a proper toilet and
sanitation which has become an everyday hurdle. They expressed going to toilet as
a process which creates anxiety in them as they have to walk past ‘every men’ in
the camp to use the toilet. It has become a ‘public embarrassment’ which once
used to be a private affair. Detached toilets have become a major concern for
them especially during the nights in the absence of electricity.
Toilet is very far way near the river... It is very embarrassing to walk past all the
people outside to reach the toilet... During the nights sometimes I control (natures
call) to save the troublesome process. (Woman, 33, daily wage labourer)
Displacement has increased their gendered roles in the unpaid domestic work
domain which has become more time consuming and energy draining. The
respondents commented on their difficulty to carry out both unpaid domestic work
as well as the economic support which is demanded from them. Some of them
expressed their inability to function their expected roles with limited resources and
facilities which exhausted much of their free time.
In the morning there is a chaos for water. I start waiting in the queue from the
sunrise or else I will be late for work. If I am late I might not get work that day. It
is so difficult and tiring to manage both inside (unpaid domestic work) and
outside work (paid work). (Woman, 35, daily wage labourer)
...I am working day and night. There is nothing else I do other than working.
Sometimes I feel like running away from everything. But where to? I am so tired of
this life. (Woman, 38, daily wage labourer)
The respondents noted living in such adverse environment of the camp with fewer
resources and unfulfilled needs have had negative effect on their health and well-
being. It is stated that there is a general susceptibility to poor physical health and
various diseases such as “cholera, diarrhoea, and measles”. However for most of
the respondents seeking quality health services is a process of pushing themselves
into extreme poverty. In fact it is a choice between rations and health, where
rations supersede health services. All the respondents noted their unpreparedness
to encounter such a situation where they feel they are incapable. Displacement
has taken their ability to generate additional income to meet situations other than
rations. Two of the respondents noted:
If two of my family members get sick… what will I do? It is very hard in such
situations. I am left with no options… either I buy medicines or rice. (Woman, 40,
daily wage labourer)
My husband is sick from past three months and I am not able to take him to
hospital till now… (Women, 52, daily wage labourer)
Their poor health and inaccessibility to quality health services have affected their
productivity and income generating capacity to further entrench poverty. Some of
the respondents noted their compulsion to work with poor health which further
deteriorates their condition. This has eventually led them to take medicines and
services which are not prescribed by authentic medical practitioners for instant
relief.
She (pointing at the neighbour who was on a drip) is sick from past few days…
going to hospital is expensive, so like her all of us go to the nearby shop to by

medicines. He gives us injections and other medicines… (Woman, 52, daily wage
labourer)
Notwithstanding these adversities, the respondents expressed the desire to

overcome their present condition and yearn for a better life for their children. They
mention the importance of education as the only means to elevate their present
status and escape from the domain of poverty to achieve development. However
education has been deduced to as an “unachievable dreams” which also results in
inter-generational transfer of poverty in the absence of accessibility to quality
education.
We want our children to be engineer and doctor, but it is not possible for us. We
have a lot of dreams but they are just dreams. (Woman, 40, daily wage labourer)
I want my children to go to private school… even though thinking about it right

now is hard to imagine. I feel in those schools the kids will be taught better and the
teachers will be hard working… (Woman, 33, daily wage labourer)
Some of the respondents expressed their dilemma in confirming to what is called

the ideal depiction of a legitimate camp dweller which describes an unwritten code
of what material possessions one should have or have not as a displaced. It was
stated that the people here want to keep their status as a camp dweller intact8 in
the hope that someday the Government will rehabilitate and compensate for their
losses. They feel that having certain needs will dissolve their status in the eyes of
the “others”. The respondents noted their wish to have “electricity” and own
“television sets” but the presumption of being judged regarding the legitimacy of
their needs as well as their status as a legitimate camp dweller abstains them from
such desires. The respondents feel the need for entertainment which can be a
distraction from their distressing everyday concerns.
...leave about owning a television, we do not even have electricity… what will I do
with a television set. More over what will the people say if we own such things.
(Woman, 38, daily wage labourer)
Camp Space: Reinforcing Otherness
Living in a limited boundary of a camp space under the category of ‘displaced’ in

itself exhibit ‘otherness’9 and distinction which further marginalizes the woman
IDPs who are already excluded from the society. It is the result of the states’
thoughtlessness10 and un-problematizing character and its failure to provide a
durable solution is the basis for their protracted displacement. It is evident from the
ceasing of Gratuitous Relief and security which resulted in their second
displacement11 . The normalization of the camps by the state has affected their
well-being. One of the probable reasons for this normalization can be the result of
the prevailing social consensus12 that most of the Bengali origin Muslims is ‘illegal’
Bangladeshis. The term “illegal” illustrates Muslim IDPs are different from the
rest and have broken the law. This can engender a public acceptance13 and
normalize their existence in the camp. The notion of “illegality” can also affect
their accessibility to resources and services and also the awaiting rehabilitation
from the government.
The government authorities think that all the people in the camps are
Bangladeshis. The authorities have already done 3-4 document checking and we
did submit all our documents. Still they allege us as Bangladeshis. (Woman, 33,
daily wage labourer).
The above mentioned quote depicts the anxiety regarding the identification
process which they find it objectionable as well as disrespectful. It is the feeling of
not belonging albeit the citizen of the country along with the fear of being stateless
contributes to their ill well- being. One woman noted:
...this NRC14 is creating panic amongst us, because when we submit the documents
they do not write reports in front of us. What if they put ‘D’15(Doubtful voter) or
make us Bangladeshis... we will have to suffer... we all have this fear of putting ‘D’
(Doubtful voter) before our name... again it will be an expenditure...even if you
have proper documents you can be ‘D’...this has happened to many Muslims...we
will be Bangladeshis even with proper documents... The field official said that the
NRC check in relief camp will be thorough because they feel there are
Bangladeshis living here... (Woman, 40, daily wage labourer)
Displacement often reduces people to mere category of “IDPs” disregarding

their past1which is essential for rebuilding their lives. In such context where
identity is reduced to mere ‘displaced’, being within the boundaries of camp can
reinforce the notion of ‘illegality” especially with the prevailing social consensus.
The quote depicts their challenge to be recognized as citizens and to avail their
political rights so as to overcome their present condition.
If I go outside the camp in search of the job, they might avoid saying that ‘she is
from the camp or she does not belong here’. The chance of getting a job in nearby
town is very difficult for a camp person... (Woman, 40, daily wage labourer)
If our men or children do slight mistake they beat them up but if the locals or rest
of them do any mistakes they are forgiven. They think they can do whatever they
want with us... (Woman, 36, daily wage labourer)
The respondents noted their constant reminder of their otherness in their

interaction with host community that is mostly characterised by power, inferiority,
lack of respect and dignity. They feel that the camp space has created a
demarcation, an insider- outsider relation which is a barrier to their assimilation
albeit belonging to the same ethnic group. This demarcation has also questioned
their belongingness in that particular place especially in the domain of labour
market where there is competition. Some of the respondents commented on the
perceived legitimacy and authority of the host community over their life and the
use of power in case they deviate from their “expected” behaviour. This has
further marginalized and disempowered their existence.
Discussion
The findings indicate that displacement and life within the confined space of the
camp affect the different material and nonmaterial conditions which shape the
mental health of women IDPs. The quality of social determinants of mental health
is being characterized within this context. It is quite clear from the broad findings
of the present study that the quality of mental health and well-being of women in
Hapachara camp is evidently affected by the precarious conditions created by
enforced displacement.
It is understood that exploitative structure like gender is further entrenched in
the context of displacement where women experience additional distress
compared to the men IDPs particularly in the expected gender roles. It has been
found that in addition to the traditional domestic roles, women are expected to
provide economic support. Regardless of their unpaid domestic work, the
additional responsibilities add much to their already distressed life. Their domestic
work have become difficult and challenging with limited resources and facilities in
the camp which affects their well-being.
The study indicates the role of displacement in creating disparities in health of
the women where their accessibility is limited and constrained. In the absence of
essential healthcare services and constrained economic conditions, women
cannot afford to access the quality healthcare which is often available in private
sector. The confluence of gender and their identity as Muslims of Bengali origin is
a quotidian reason for ‘otherness’ by the process of discrimination and prejudice
which is reflected in the labour market among the host community. At the same
time, state’s failure for a durable solution to protracted displacement has
marginalized and excluded the women IDPs in general and in particular among
IDPs.
Social work practice and discipline must endeavour to analyse and contain the
gender dimensions of internal displacement and various factors which engender
the women IDPs.
Although, inaccessibility to basic amenities can be found across different regions,
countries, communities and individuals, however, the conditions created by
conflict induced enforced displacement, which often reinforce and perpetuate the
pre-existing inequalities or disparities that permeate many aspects of daily lives of
the poor and marginalized, can be quite an ordeal. Living in such conditions can
result in widespread poverty with human rights abuses; scarcity of food and clean
water supplies, physical and psychological stress. It can gradually expose the
population, especially women and children, to infectious as well as non-infectious
diseases and can also negatively affect their health and well-being.
Conclusion
Displacement caused due to wars and armed conflicts have been the integral part
of the male narratives in which female voices do not figure out anywhere, at least
as victims. This demands a pragmatic social work practice with a specialized

intervention that contextualizes the lives of women in terms of displacement and
considers the structural factors which create unequal status in general and
displacement in particular. It is important that the required skills for effective
social work practice in conflict settings needs to be well informed with new
theoretical paradigms to postulate the complexities and challenges involved. The
empirical data derived from the present research is a step towards in such
direction.
In order to bring a paradigm shift in current social work practices, it is
essential that social work discipline and pedagogy be informed with new critical
perspectives that could address the gender aspects of displacement and conflict
and the long term effects it has on mental health and well-being of women living in
displacement camps. Evidence elucidates the ineffectiveness of social work
practice based on general curriculum in social work education that supposedly
demands a specialized approach. Further social work education can be added
with tested principles from the field of displacement which can substantiate a new
pedagogy in social work education.
As Howe (2009, p. 5) rightly points out that “if good practice is driven by
sound knowledge, then social workers need to know an awful lot of very different
things… To practice well, social workers have to think well, and to think well, they
have to know a good deal…something of the many disciplines that have tried to
make sense of human experience.” Therefore, to have an effective social work
intervention, it essential to bridge the gap between social work education and
professional social work practice by adding critical perspectives on contemporary
social issues in social work discipline.
End Notes
1
The IDPs are people who are displaced within the borders of the country under the state jurisdiction.
2
See Hussain (2000)
3
Leary (2010) explain it as “theories of knowledge that emphasize that the world is constructed by
human beings as they interact and engage in interpretation”. Also see Creswell (2009).
4
Schutt (2009) explains it as “seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question,
what meanings they give to their actions and what issues concern them”
5
It was observed from the field that two decades of displacement have made some of them lose
hope on any such studies and the possible outcome of the study for their well-being. The
participants also explained about the several studies conducted on them and the delay in the
outcome.
6
It was informed from the field that there were instances where some studies were written against
their well-being which they feel that questions their identity as a displaced.
7
The researchers share one of the status characteristics (religious identity) of the community.
8
Many residents of the camp have migrated to different parts of the country in search of a better
living who are mostly hidden in status.
9
Weis (1995) explains othering is a process “‘serves to mark and name those thought to be different
from oneself’’, which is experienced as a process of “marginalization, disempowerment and
social exclusion” (cited in Grove &Zwi, 2006).
10
Refers to the states’ consideration of displacement as an accepted phenomenon. For details see
Oslender (2016).
11
See (Goswami, 2008) for more details
12
Ibid
13
Grove &Zwi (2006) explains how terms like “illegal” can contribute to the public acceptance of
detention and containing them in camps and other closed physical space in way shifting the
focus from “protection of the refugees, to protection from the refugees”. Though it is
explained in the context of refugees, it is very much applicable in this case of internal
displacement.
14
NRC denotes to National Register of Citizens.
15
It is a category who has “been declared doubtful by the Election Commission”. However report
says that in 2012 out of 88192 D-voter cases only 6590 were found foreigners (Sharma,
2014).
16
Donny Meertens (2000; cited in Oslender,2016) explains “…officials who often try to reduce
them to a common denominator of ‘displaced,’ thereby converting their specific past into
something irrelevant or even dubious, and failing to realize that the identity of refugees is
rooted more in what they were and less in what they have been converted into”.
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SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 90–102
Fieldwork as Signature Pedagogy of Social Work

Education: As I see it!
Pamela Singla
Lee Shulman (as cited in Wayne, Bogo, & Raskin, 2010) defines signature pedagogy as
the type of teaching that organizes the fundamental ways in which future practitioners are
educated for their new professions. Fieldwork is seen as the signature pedagogy of social
work education. In other words, fieldwork is an important and integral component of
social work education. Thus, social work education comprises of both theoretical learning
through classroom teaching and experiential learning through field practice. This article
examines the various components of fieldwork at the Department of Social work,
University of Delhi and the changes in the fieldwork practicum under the semester
system.
Pamela Singla is Professor, Department of Social Work, University of Delhi.
Introduction
It is interesting to see that social work as a concept has evolved from a simple
phrase ‘social work helps people so that they can help themselves’ to a more
comprehensive global definition which states that, “Social work is a practice-
based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and
development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people.
Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for
diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by theories of social work,
social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledge, social work engages
people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing”(IFSW &
IASSW, 2014).To attain these goals it is important that the curriculum of social
work has both a theoretical course structure, and a planned and supervised
fieldwork practicum.
A supervised fieldwork practicum helps the students to develop requisite
skills for working with people. Supervised fieldwork training helps to build
students’ capacities and enables them to apply social work theory to real life
situations in social service agencies or in communities. The practicum is
91 Pamela Singla
considered necessary to prepare the students to perform practice roles. A number

of scholars have suggested that classroom based cognitive education needs to be
integrated with practical field experience in order to teach professional practice
skills (Caspi & Reid, 2002). With this perspective, the fieldwork practicum was
formulated at the Department of Social Work (DSW), University of Delhi (DU).
DSW had, for years, a generic and annual mode of education which was changed
to the semester mode, and the first batch graduated in the year 2011 under the
semester system.
Fieldwork in Social Work and its Significance
Recommendations of a workshop at the Department of Social Work, DU (1981),

highlight the field as, the situation in which social work has got a professional
concern and which provides opportunities for positive learning experiences
through guided interaction in the areas of need, problems, resources and requisite
action. A document published as early as 1957, by the Delhi School of Social
Work, titled ‘Fieldwork supervision: in an Indian school of social work’,
highlighted the importance of practice in Social Work:
Essentially social work skills are concerned with problem solving and as such they
rest upon knowledge contained in the social and biological sciences pertaining to
man and society. This knowledge is gained partly in the didactic sessions of the
curriculum but it becomes meaningful only when the student has to test it in
situation after situation in the field. Thus it can be seen that the practical
experience must be closely integrated at every step of the way with what the
student learns in the classroom (Gore, 1957, p. 3)
The term ‘fieldwork’ can be defined in various ways depending upon the
context of the situation. Wayne, Bogo and Raskin (2010) mention field education
as the ‘signature pedagogy’ (a term coined by Lee Shulman) of social work
profession. Quoting the Council of Social Work Education (CSWE) the authors
say that “signature pedagogy is a central form of instruction and learning to
socialize students to perform the role of the practitioner and impart pedagogical
norms with which to connect and integrate theory and practice (ibid., p. 8)”.
According to them the students engaged in field education are not entirely
invisible as they have assigned roles involving other people and they are
accountable for their work. Students while interacting in the field may be
subjective in their perceptions, unaware of their non-verbal behavior, may have
faulty recall of their experience and may neglect significant moments or may
offer a skewed report of their experience. To assess the student’s ability to
perform the core functions of the profession effectively, instructors must examine
their interaction in practice situations.
Hamilton and Else (as cited in Dhemba, 2010) define fieldwork in social work
as a consciously planned set of experiences occurring in a practice setting
designed to move students from their initial level of understanding, skills and
attitudes to levels associated with autonomous social work practice. In their
fieldwork manual Twikirize and Tusasiirwe (2015) express views on fieldwork
Fieldwork as Signature Pedagogy of Social Work Education 92
saying that, “Fieldwork placements represent a laboratory where theories taught

at the university are tested and practiced under the supervision of a qualified
practitioner, for the student to acquire skills” (pp. 5–6).”Fieldwork placement is a
critical method and phase of social work instruction, which provides the student
with the opportunity of integrating classroom knowledge with experiential learning
in a relevant social work setting. While acquiring the experience, a student is
supervised by professional staff members of the agencies and supervisors from
the academic institution” (ibid., p. 5).
According to I. S. Subhedar (2001),
Fieldwork in social work education refers to training and education . . . . It consists

of accumulating knowledge in different situations. It is a dynamic process of
observing, amassing and implementing creative and innovative ideas. Moreover, it
fosters the development of intellectual and emotional processes and attitudes [. . .
.] Fieldwork programme provides an opportunity to the students to apply their
theoretical knowledge taught in the classroom appropriately in different practical
situations (pp. 22–23).
Each one of the above mentioned explanations reinforces the fact that field work
in social work is beyond the ‘doing without knowing’ approach. It is a platform
where the students practice the classroom learning of human behavior, social
structures, data collection and analysis in practice to understand the problem and
arrive at a plan of action. This evidence based knowledge equips them to devise
genuine plan of action appropriate to the situation.
Components of Fieldwork Programme
This section traces the various components included under the fieldwork
programme of some of the schools of social work in other countries. Subsequently
it mentions the broad common components of fieldwork of Indian institutions of
social work education. Finally, it focuses on fieldwork as practiced in Department
of Social Work, University of Delhi, one of the pioneer institutions of social work
education in India.
The study conducted by Dhema (2012) was found very useful for this section
as it covered the fieldwork model of three schools of social work, namely Institute
of Social Work (ISW), Tanzania; National University of Lesotho and University
of Zimbabwe. As per the study, the various forms of fieldwork in the social work
institutions include concurrent, block, a combination of concurrent and block and,
in- service placements. Under concurrent field work, simultaneous fieldwork with
classroom instruction is programmed in such a way that in a week the student
spends few days in field and few in class, depending upon the institution. A block
placement means a full time engagement of the social work student at a field
work agency for a duration ranging anything from one month to one year
depending on the institution of the student. The in-service placement which is a
less popular concept provides social work training in job to those already working.
As per the study ISW has both concurrent and block placements in field work.
93 Pamela Singla
The block placement occurs in the third year for a period of three months.
The National University of Lesotho has block placements at the
undergraduate level and concurrent field work at the post graduate level. The
block placement occurs in second year for a month and in the third and fourth
year for a period of two months respectively. University of Zimbabwe organizes
block placement in the second and the third year for durations of three months and
three weeks respectively.
In most of the institutions of social work education the fieldwork programme
at the Masters level comprises of various components namely- orientation
programme, concurrent fieldwork, rural camp/ study tours, block placement.
These components are supervised and evaluated. The fieldwork unit is
coordinated/headed by a faculty under the designation of ‘Director, Fieldwork and
Placements’ or ‘Fieldwork Coordinator’.
Job placements, although not a part of fieldwork programme, are an important
responsibility of the fieldwork director at the Department of Social Work (DSW),
University of Delhi. Similarly, other activities such as inter agency meet, regular
workshops/ interactions with the faculty form an inherent part of the directorial
responsibility. Though there have been deliberations that to effectively coordinate
and implement the various components, the fieldwork unit should be assigned a
full time experienced person but in DSW this responsibility continues to be
shouldered by the teaching faculty of the department who are co-partners in the
smooth running of fieldwork activities. The position is rotated among the faculty
members as per the seniority and with relaxation of the number of students
allocated to the director.
At DSW, components of field work practice have evolved over a period of
time. The components of fieldwork practice from mid 1980s include- orientation
programme, concurrent fieldwork, and block placement. Efforts were made to
place students in jobs but it was not mandatory by way of placement brochure and
percentage of placements. Rural camp which probably existed in the earlier years
prior to 1980s was once again added during the 1990s at the time of curriculum
revision and around 2004 the Supportive Field Instructions Programme (SFIP)
was formally added to the list of fieldwork components. The concurrent fieldwork
was assigned marks while the student’s performance on other components was
observed by way of their attendance and participation, The components as
practiced at DSW from the mid 1980s are explained as below:
1. Orientation Programme
2. Concurrent Fieldwork
3. Group Conferences
4. Supportive Field Instructions Programme
5. Rural Camp
6. Block Placement
7. Winter Placement (Optional)
8. Job Placement
Orientation Programme
The orientation programme is organized for students of both the semesters in the
month of July, depending upon the University opening schedule. The new entrants
are inducted into the course through the ten days programme by providing
information about the course structure offered and about the fieldwork
programme. This is important because the students admitted to the DSW come
from various disciplines, socio- economic backgrounds and from various parts of
the country. Hence, the objective of the programme is to orient the students to the
course structure, that is, the papers offered, their content, the fieldwork and the
placement agencies, report writing, to the ongoing extension and demonstration
projects of the department and to the faculty, staff and the students. This is
combined with exposure visits to the agencies and culminates with an outing/
picnic now shifted to an indoor celebration within the Department since past few
years due to the bad weather around this time of the year. The third semester
orientation aims at sharpening understanding of the field and the focus areas for
the social workers in the Indian setting specifically. This is done through lectures
and interactions with the practitioners invited as resource persons to the
department. The aim is to facilitate understanding of the role of the social worker
and the various settings in which they could work.
Each aspect of the orientation programme is thoughtfully designed by the
faculty to facilitate professional learning of the student. For instance, the outing/
picnic unlike the meaning conveyed carried learning opportunities for both the
students and the faculty and was an important aspect of the orientation
programme. Every faculty along with the new entrants was part of this practice,
the idea being to create an atmosphere of togetherness after the ten days long
orientation for the new entrants. This was also the time for the faculty to observe
the students and assess whether the student allocated to the agency was suitable
for the setting. The list was shared by the Director, fieldwork informally with the
faculty prior to the outing. The concurrent fieldwork made an effort to place each
student in the setting appropriate for him/ her to the extent possible. One of the
senior professors (now retired) even went through the autobiographical statement
of the students so closely as to understand even the kind of supervision the student
requires so as to avoid any mid-way dropping from the course due to fieldwork.
Concurrent Field Work
Concurrent is the core component of fieldwork in social work education which

provides the students opportunity to develop their intervention skills using
integration of theory into practice. Concurrent fieldwork is for both the academic
years of post-graduate programme. Under this component every student is
assigned a setting for the entire year along with the learning objective. The
placement of the student can be either in an agency or a community or in a
community through an agency. The students visit the respective field setting every
Tuesday and Thursday, spending a minimum of 6–8 hours per visit and under the
guidance of a faculty supervisor and an agency supervisor (in case of agency
95 Pamela Singla
placement). On the other four days they attend the classes at the department.
Both government agencies/organizations and NGOs which offer scope for
students’ learning and growth in the social sector are selected for concurrent
fieldwork placements. Preference is given to those organizations which have one
or more positions for a social worker in their administrative staff. However,
organizations without such position but which offer good work exposure to the
social work trainees are also considered for concurrent fieldwork placements.
Individual conferences are an integral part of the concurrent fieldwork wherein
the supervisee and the supervisor collectively meet once a week for allotted time
of half an hour to discuss the progress of their work.
Allocation of the field setting and faculty supervisor has always been the
primary task of the ‘Director Fieldwork’ and the team assisting him/her. For the
students, getting to know the agency and the supervisor allocated to them was and
continues to be a very important as the engagement with the allocated faculty
supervisor by way of individual conferences, fortnightly evaluation of the work by
the supervisor, supervisory field visits, group conferences every alternate Fridays,
etc. was direct and continuous.
Evaluation: The evaluation process has changed over a period of time in

response to the challenges faced in the field by the students and the faculty. For
instance the fortnightly evaluation system was gradually shifted to the monthly
evaluation format. Under the fortnightly evaluations the work progress of the
student was evaluated in writing through a proforma every fortnightly by the
faculty supervisor. The evaluation of the student’s work was done on various
parameters such as progress on the work, regularity and punctuality maintained in
the field and related assignments, quality of reports submitted, regularity and
punctuality of the student in the individual and group conferences, use of
classroom learning in the field along with skills and principles of social work
practice. Fortnightly evaluation was a powerful tool which kept the students
updated on their progress as it also checked irregular students through issuing of
memo by the faculty supervisor. This format of evaluation existed till mid-2000
and thereafter was changed to monthly evaluations. Under the monthly evaluation
the work progress of the student was evaluated on same parameters but after 30
days and this practice continued till 2012.
Group Conferences (GCs)
The GCs are an important component in social work education in general and field
work in specific. They enable students to undergo a wide range of experiences in
a structured and controlled setting and is a successful medium of fieldwork
learning. It trains the students into reflecting on their fieldwork, selecting a field
situation for sharing at a wider forum extending beyond their respective
supervisors, preparation of a formal paper, distribution of the paper on time, and
performing the roles of presenter, chairperson and recorder on fortnightly basis.
GCs were held every Friday afternoon, alternatively, for both the years and for
one and a half hour with a group of approximately 15 students placed under three
to four teachers who would be the resource persons. These conferences would
start around September after the students had been in the field for a month. Under
the GCs the students were expected to present their paper finalized in
consultation with their supervisor. The practice of GCs was a feature of the
annual mode and was practiced briefly in the semester mode till the year 2011.
Supportive Field Instructions Programme (SFIP)
The SFIP was started with the objective of widening the student’s perspective of
the field realities. This was done by providing them a platform for
interaction with the practitioners and distinguished persons to share their
experiences. The aim also was to add to their body of knowledge, their skills, to
keep them informed about the latest developments in the field. The programme
was started in the annual mode.
Rural Camp
The rural camp aims to provide an exposure to the students on the rural life and
the related issues faced by them and to the kind of challenges faced by rural India.
The rural camp was held in the second year under the annual mode and in the
third semester under the semester mode in the month of December after the
termination of the exams. The methodology adopted for organizing the camp was
in partnership with organizations working in the social sector especially those
which could provide the necessary logistical arrangements (on payment basis)
besides a fruitful exposure to the students. Earlier with a reasonable batch of
around 55 students logistics was manageable which gradually became difficult
due to the increased size going upto 75 to 80 students per batch. The camp
besides providing a rural or a semi-rural exposure facilitated good bonding among
the students including building team spirit, undertaking leadership roles, developing
sensitivity to the needs of peer group and the field.
Block Placement and Winter Placement
The block placement programme includes training of the students in a particular

setting of their choice for a continuous duration of 30-45 days without faculty
supervision. This programme was initiated to provide the students with an
exposure to job employment and the intricacies involved therein. Under the annual
mode the block placement had to be completed after the completion of the second
year exams. The students choose an organization of their choice keeping in mind
the nature of work expected from them. The block placement is without a
supervisor and it is left to the student to work as per his/her understanding. They
are expected to submit logsheets (indicating progress of their work) on weekly
basis to fieldwork unit. Under the annual mode the block placements were neither
evaluated nor marked. Under the semester system the block placement has been
given a weightage of 100 marks to be evaluated through a viva voce examination.
The winter placements are optional for the students. Under this the interested
97 Pamela Singla
students can decide on 15 days placement every year during the month of
December to enhance their learning skills.
Job Placements
Though the job placements are not considered as a component of fieldwork

practicum, but in DSW, it forms a very important component of the Field Work
Unit and for the Director Fieldwork. The job placements started formally in mid
1990s and have gradually expanded to ensure maximum placements of the
students. The inception of a placement cell during mid-90s in the department was
a wise decision. Bringing out a placement brochure featuring CVs of students and
mailing it to possible employers was another good initiative undertaken by the
fieldwork unit.
A Transitional Period: 2010–2013*
This period can be seen as transitional as during this period the Department saw a
shift from the annual mode of education to the semester system. This posed
newer challenges by way of new courses and a revised curriculum which had
major implications on the fieldwork practicum traced in this section. Table 1
(below) delineates the changes introduced during this phase in the signature
pedagogy of social work that is fieldwork.
Table 1: Overview of the changes in fieldwork practicum and its impact

S.No Fieldwork Present Status Impact*
Component
Strengths Current Challenges
1. Concurrent: (i) Concurrent: (i) Platform for (i) Only two day presence in
Tuesday and Tuesday and Thursday regular integration of agency/ community
Thursday continues theory and practice; (ii) End semester evaluation lacks
(ii) Monthly evaluation (ii) Exposure to field student monitoring and evaluation
removed. Only End settings throughout on regular basis
Semester evaluation in the year (iii) New Performa is repetitive and
November/ December verbose
(iii) Evaluation
Performa revised
2. Group Students Conference: Formal exposure to (i) Inhibits active student
Conferences Once in a year per the roles of presenter, participation and learning;
(GCs): batch recorder, chairperson ii) Hampers continuous exchange
Every alternate continues of ideas among peer group in a
Friday for each formal setting;
batch and for (iii) Presentations are less reflective
entire year of field situation and more
theoretical
3. Rural Camp: Rural Camp: Cordial weather and Less faculty participation due to
December and October and one less health hassles; mid semester break
one agency agency less liability on
agency; better field
learning
4. SFIP: Discontinued The slot was used for Impacted student exposure to
Every week for classes interaction with practitioners
both semesters
*Analysis in this section is based on the author’s personal views.

Concurrent Fieldwork: The alternate model that came up as a proposal to
concurrent placement (Tuesdays and Thursdays) was ‘block placement’. This
meant placement for a month in any one setting which would suffice the field
requirement of 27-30 days. The suggestion went bleak on various grounds firstly;
it was not practical to supervise students beyond NCR. The possibility of using
technology/skype for supervision was not considered practical due to poor
network connectivity in many parts of the country particularly in the rural areas.
Block placement was anyways an existing component of fieldwork at the
department wherein the students did get an opportunity for a month continuous
placement in the field after the second semester.
Students’ choice for concurrent placements: The practice that started in 2000
gave students the freedom to suggest the areas of their choice for the concurrent
placement to the field work unit. This practice was discontinued due to the
increased strength of students and related administrative hurdles. Secondly, there
was absence of accurate records with the fieldwork unit related to the agencies.
Thirdly, there had been cases where despite the best efforts of the fieldwork unit
there were cases of student dissatisfaction regarding their placement on basis of
their area of their interest. Placing the students as per their elective also was a
good idea but not feasible.
Students’ Evaluations: As mentioned above, the fortnightly evaluation system

had gradually changed to the monthly evaluations and finally to the End Semester
Evaluation format. The justification for the change was that the semester system
curriculum was heavily packed with additional number of courses thus making it
not feasible to continue with the ongoing practice of fieldwork evaluation. It was
also justified on the grounds that a month was too small a period to assess a
student’s performance especially for those students who were either irregular or
slow to understand the requirements of fieldwork. The counter arguments
supported the benefits of regular evaluation. The new evaluation system which
comprises of only the End Semester Evaluation fits well into the semester format
but leaves space for periodic monitoring. Also, the new Proforma needs to be
simplified for the benefit of the students who come with different competence
levels with regard to medium of instruction and writing skills.
Group Conferences to Students Conferences: The Group Conference was

changed to ‘Students Conference’. The changed system includes presentation of
the papers on two days by the students and in two large groups, per batch. It was
decided that, based on a pre-determined criteria, few papers would be selected
for final presentations. Though the idea was to promote competition among
students so that they strive for excellence, somewhere the essence of equal
learning opportunity for every student got lost the in the entire endeavor. Thus, it
was decided to have presentations from all the students.
The new format for paper presentation is comprehensive and includes review
of literature, reflection on theoretical paradigms, and on the nature of engagement
99 Pamela Singla
of the student. The students are free to consult any faculty for their paper which
is a shift from the earlier pattern of preparing the paper under the guidance of the
allocated supervisor. While the new format provides wider space to the students
in planning their paper and nurtures reading habits but in the process the papers
have become theoretical and fail to reflect on the learning in the field. Also the
continuous learning which was an integral part of the earlier format seems
dwindled making the new system become symbolic and ritualistic.
Rural Camp: The increase in the number of students did pose a challenge of
continuing the practice of taking all the students to one organization for rural
camp. There were suggestions for taking the students to different locations in
groups of two or three or may be even more but the freedom of choice rested with
the Director Fieldwork. The pattern for rural camp which was continued till July
2013 included taking all the students to one organization and if required split them
to two different project sites. This format of being together for an outdoor learning
trip was continued for various reasons enhancement of inter-personal
relationships among the students along with mutual learning as well building the
spirit of team work amongst students. Students reported back with positive results
of more cordial relationship and learning to work in teams. The effort that went
into identifying the agencies which were willing to host a large number of students
and which could provide requisite exposure was quite herculean.
In order to facilitate the students’ learning through the camp and to avoid
becoming a liability on the host organization, the rural camp since 2011 was shifted
to the month of October instead of December. This change facilitated better
organization of the rural camp primarily due to friendly weather conditions.
However, the non-availability of the faculty due to mid semester break and other
academic engagements related to semester system acted as a limitation.
Nevertheless it was managed well with the support of available faculty members.
Supportive Field Instructions Programme (SFIP): The practice of supportive

field instructions was stopped as it was felt that under the semester system there
was a need to complete the courses that required taking additional classes. Hence
allocating slot for SFIP was not feasible. Only one programme was organized in
the entire three years.
Job Placements
Though not a part of the fieldwork practicum, job placements form a vital
responsibility of the Director, Fieldwork. A detailed programme was hence
planned for job placements from 2011 onwards which was improvised further in
next two years:
1. Democratic selection of placement committee on the last day of the week
long orientation programme, that is, the last day of the week long orientation
programme, for the third semester students. The committee comprised of one
Director of placements and 4 to 5 students.
2. Profiling of the students by September end. This was a demanding task as it
required continuous follow-up with the students. While most students

complied but a falter by even one delayed the process.
3. Getting the permission from the university for getting the prospectus published
by a private printer.
4. Getting the first draft of the Placement Brochure latest by mid-November and
subsequent printing of the brochure after corrections additions.
5. Hosting a four-day placement fair (that started in 2010) to invite maximum
organizations for recruitment within a given time period.
6. A policy decision was taken that once a student is selected for two jobs he/
she cannot sit for the third one. Later this was revised to one person one job
so as to accommodate and secure job placement for most of the students.
7. Though only those organizations offering a remuneration of at least Rs. 15,000
per month were entertained by way of calling them for pre-placement talk
(PPT).However, in reality a minimum of Rs. 20,000 per month was the quoted
salary to the organizations. At the same time, students were apprised of the
organizations so that even if one of the students got interested seeing the
perks and nature of work, it was worth it. Spinal Cord Injuries is one such
organization which paid less but was good by way of the perks and health
benefits that it offered.
8. Presence of the Director Fieldwork for all the days when the organizations
came to ensure smooth functioning was essential.
The entire placements were done by the four member student committee
along with the Director, Fieldwork. There were many occasions where the salary
had to be negotiated and the work expected from a social work student had to be
defined and revisited by the placement committee to the prospective employer.
CSR initiatives lacked a well-defined role for social work students, which were
then discussed with the teams who came for placement and also with the higher
level authorities of those organizations.
Besides NGOs, schools and hospital settings, the list was extended to include
corporate houses, which were by now mandated to contribute two per cent of
company profits for CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) initiatives. So
companies like Yamaha, Maruti Suzuki, Moser Baer, Taj Safari, Airtel, Tata
Power Division, Hindustan Zinc among others came for campus recruitments.
The establishment of a well-structured placement cell helped to grab
employment opportunities for the social work students with the expansion in the
scope of social work practice in various settings besides the CSR initiatives of
companies. For instance, corporate sector (welfare officers and deputy managers
in Hero Honda, Hero Motorcorp, etc.), private sector social enterprises (project
executives in Empower Pragati, New Concept Information, etc.), scholarship
programmes (national and international foundations like America India
Foundation, Gandhi Fellows, etc.), schools (school social worker), hospitals
(medial social workers) as well as positions in international organizations.
Lastly, the Department was ranked number two by Outlook-MDRA survey,
2013, and job placements of the students were an important parameter in the
ranking criteria. In 2010–11, the average salary was below Rs.3 lakh per annum.
In 2012-13, it went above Rs.3 lakh per annum. With the entry of first-rate
101 Pamela Singla
corporate houses in the job arena, the NGOs also started to offer more
competitive salaries to the students (The Hindu, 2013).
Proposed Model
A model with few modifications to the existing fieldwork practicum is proposed in

Table 2.
Table 2: Proposed Model for Fieldwork Practicum
Fieldwork Present format Remarks Proposed format
component
Concurrent Tuesdays and Thursdays Student exposure to field Continue with existing model
Fieldwork setting for entire year
Block Placement i. After second semester i. Provides exposure to a i. Continue
setting and regular ii. Faculty allocation will
ii. Without faculty supervision in third facilitate guidance
supervision semester facilitates better whenever required by
iii. Evaluated for 100 field learning student. and for evaluation
marks with Viva Voce ii.100 marks in hands of of students work.
external examiner may not iii. 50 marks viva voce and 50
be justified for 15 minutes marks assessment by
viva voce allocated faculty
Rural Camp December December has weather October during mid semester
extremes which is neither break.
Not marked student friendly nor host Preparing a Roster will
agency friendly. October is facilitate faculty participation.
more weather friendly. Marking not necessary
Group Conferences Students Seminar Ritualistic thereby limiting The original model of GC be
student learning implemented.
Evaluation format End Semester Evaluation Repetitive and exhausting i. Fortnightly evaluation
Performa ii. Performa should be
objective and not take more
than 5 minutes to fill.
iii. End semester evaluation
continues
iv. Performa to be made easy
on English and duplication
to be avoided
Conclusion
Importance of field work in social work education gets reinforced with the ongoing
debates and efforts to strengthen the programme as per the newer requirements
and changing perspectives of the new and old faculty. The beauty lies in not letting
the past go but restructuring the past with the new requirements. For fieldwork to
continue as signature pedagogy of social work education it is important that the
various components are framed to support each other and facilitate the students’
learning. The process of deliberations and discussions in context of the perceived
changing scenario may disturb the established format or may strengthen the
fieldwork programme through the induced changes. It is thus important to be
sensitive to the situations and be ensured that student learning is not adversely
affected.
Note
*The author was the Director Fieldwork and Placements from 2010 to 2013
References
A Rising Graph. (2013, June 13).The Hindu (New Delhi ed.), p.3.
Caspi, J., & William, J. R. (2002).Educational Supervision in Social Work. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Department of Social Work (1983).Workshop on Field Work: Recommendations. Delhi:

University of Delhi (Unpublished Paper).
Dhemba, J. (2012). Fieldwork in Social Work Education and Training: Issues and Challenges
in the Case of Eastern and Southern Africa. Social Work and Society:International
Online Journal, 10(1), n. p. Retrieved from http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/
view/310/651.
Gore, M. S. (1957). Fieldwork Supervision in an Indian School of Social Work. Delhi:

Delhi School of Social Work.
IFSW & IASSW. (2014). Global Definition of the Social Work Profession. Retrieved from
http://ifsw.org/get-involved/global-definition-of-social-work/
Subhedar, I. S. (2001). Fieldwork Training in Social Work. Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Twikirize, J.M.,& Tusasiirwe, S. (2015). Social Work Fieldwork: Guidelines for Students
and Supervisors. Kampala: Fountain Publishers
Wayne, J., Bogo, M., & Raskin, M. (2010).Field Education as the Signature Pedagogy of
Social Work Education. Journal of Social Work Education, 46(3), 327–339.
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 103–113
Social Work Education for Undergraduate Students :

Issues and Challenges in Field Work
Swati Bist
Social work is a practice based discipline. It has two components- theory and field work
practicum. Social work education offers a student to deal with real life situations by using
theoretical knowledge, develops capability to work with people at different levels and to
design interventions aimed at improving human conditions. The present article revisits
the modalities and structure of field work practicum. It sheds light on certain practices that
could improve field work practicum. The paper also highlights the role of supervisors and
discusses certain dilemmas and challenges that they may face during supervision of
students at undergraduate level. The emphasis of this discussion is on the openness of
supervisor towards new situations, experiences and challenges; and on the dialogue
process with the social work students.
Swati Bist is faculty in Department of Social work, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College,
University of Delhi.
Introduction
We are sometimes like “frogs in a well” with limited knowledge acquired through
the immediate family and environment that we live in. We can expand our
knowledge only when we interact with different social and cultural milieus.
Keeping this in mind, field work practicum is an integral part of social work
education at the undergraduate and post graduate level. The Social Work syllabus
has two core components –Theory and Field Work practicum. The fact that field
work is an integral part of the subject is indubitable.
Field work, as defined by Singh (1985) “ is a guided interaction process
where a student comes across a situation where social work profession has a
concern and which needs intervention to improve human conditions”( p. 43).
This implies that field work is a guided process where a student faces real life
situations and he/she is given constant guidance by his supervisor to act and
ameliorate the taxing and dysfunctional situations, at both individual and
community levels.
Social Work Education for Undergraduate Students 104
The broad objectives of Field work can be summarised as follows-helping

students acquire knowledge of different social structures and situations so that
they develop the ability to observe and analyze social realities and identify
situations where social work intervention is needed; enhancing sensitivity of the
students towards the marginalised sections of society by drawing attention to the
aspects of human rights and social justice; and hence also helping students
appreciate the relevance of legislations and various policies of development.
According to UGC (2001, p.98), fieldwork also aims to develop and enhance a
student’s “understanding of the organization structure, various programme of
intervention, resource management” while participating in the effort at various
levels. Further, field work helps students in developing necessary skills and
competences to work with people at different levels ranging from individual client
to communities or issues affecting larger section of the society. It also helps to
develop a professional approach which encompasses all the three components i.e.
knowledge, skills and attitude (Delhi University, 2015; Jamia Millia Islamia
University (JMI), 2015; Singh, 1985).
Field work motivates the student to internalise the values and principles he/
she has read. Whenever a student comes across a new and a different situation in
the field, he/she faces internal conflict which provides an opportunity to introspect
one’s emotions and beliefs thereby bringing a change in his/her behaviour. This
enables the student to become a sensitive and socially accountable professional.
These aspects become very significant at undergraduate level.
An undergraduate programme in Social work which is of three years is
offered after the completion of 10+2 years of schooling. A student at an
undergraduate level is often highly dependent and his/her problem solving
capacity is yet evolving as he/she is coming from a protective and structured
environment of school. As he encounters the ‘field’ in Social work education, he
may often find situations to be challenging and very different from what he
expected. Field work sometimes puts students in a highly unstructured and open
environment which initially creates anxiety and conflicting situations among
students. This paper focuses on issues and concerns related to supervision of
undergraduate students of social work. Perspectives presented in this paper are
based on my observations and experiences as a fieldwork supervisor for
undergraduate students of social work in one of the colleges of University of
Delhi.
The first section discusses major areas of concerns in field work and few
practices which could help in enhancing the quality of field work and learning
among undergraduate students. The paper also discusses role, characteristics of
Field supervisor. In the later section, paper highlights certain challenges and
dilemma that a supervisor may encounter while dealing with the undergraduate
students.
Major areas of concern in field work
Field work in social work education is given special importance and most of the
schools have a systematic curriculum for it. However, a few institutions do not
105 Swati Bist
give much importance to the field work and they lack well defined curriculum and
practices for field work. A uniform minimum standard for curriculum is yet to be
achieved across the country (Botcha, 2012; UGC, 1980; n.d, Shodganga). In this
section, I discuss some of the key aspects that contribute to learning process of
social work students. Although many of these aspects are already in place, here
are my reflections on what could further improve their application for social work
students at the undergraduate level.
Social work educator: According to the UGC curriculum 2001, besides teaching
theory, Social Work Educator is also responsible for Field work supervision and
research activities in the schools. Social work educators have an important role to
play in the development of Social work practice skills and knowledge among
students. Besides having a well defined curriculum in field work, it is equally
important to have a good infrastructure and uniform guidelines for recruitment of
Social Work educators to maintain quality of Social work education and practice.
This aspect is compromised in many institutions (across India) where faculty is
drawn from other disciplines of social sciences as well (Shodganga; UGC 1980).
Towards this end, National Council of professional Social Work in India
(NCPSWI), Bill 1993 defines “Social work educator as person who holds
prescribed social work qualification and has been involved in teaching and
research in the recognised social work institution university”. But the issue
regarding the quality of Social Work educator has not been adequately addressed
yet. UGC regulations on minimum qualification for appointment of teachers, 2010,
do not clearly specify qualifications for faculty engaged in Social work discipline
in various universities and institutes. It yet needs to incorporate and specify the
qualifications in Gazette, for example, a degree in Master of Social Work or M.A.
in Social Work. Measures like these will strengthen social work education and
profession in general, and field work in social work education in particular.
Components of fieldwork: There is disparity in field work structure and

components across various schools in terms of importance given to field work
practicum in their curriculum. However, most widely existent and accepted
structure &components of field work prescribed by universities as well as UGC
Social Work Education Model Curriculum Report, 2001 involve- orientation
programmes and observation visits1; concurrent field work2; Inter-agency meet3;
Field work supervision which includes weekly individual conferences 4& group
conferences5; rural camp or educational camp6; skill development work-shop7;
self evaluation8;and finally, block placement9 (Delhi University, 2015; Jamia Millia
Islamia University, 2015;UGC, 2001)
This however may not be enough for undergraduate students. Induction
meetings, just after the orientation programme and before the commencement of
the concurrent field work, could be held by the respective supervisors with the
group of all supervisees in order to inform them in detail about expected behaviour
in the field and the structure of the evaluation process. Some of the behaviours
expected from students in their field work have been mentioned in the Delhi
University syllabus of 2015 but some are yet to be recognised and written down in
the rules. E.g. no dissemination of information to anyone without prior consent

which could lead to the breach of confidentiality of the client and agency; not
exploiting the client and his/her family; not misusing the resources of the agency
for one’s personal gain; no falsification of documents in agency records and field
work reports; there can be no physical conflict with the client or any member of
the agency. Lack of punctuality is also a major area of concern which adversely
affects the relationship of the university with the agency (Delhi University, 2015).
Besides this, there are few more points which need to be emphasized for
students. For example, differences in education should not negatively impact the
student’s interaction with others working in the field i.e. every individual from the
grass root level to the management level should be accorded equal respect; no
action can be taken unilaterally by the student without consultation with and
authorization by the agency and the supervisor, for instance, signing of documents
& any initiative which he/she feels in the interest of the client; taking leave with
prior intimation to the supervisor and the agency concerned.
Selection of fieldwork site: Selection of an agency and the field needs careful
consideration. During selection of field, following points to needs to be taken care
of - “The philosophy of agency should be in consistent with values and ethics of
social work profession and fulfil objectives of social work curriculum” ( Delhi
University, 2015, p.13). The agency should give comprehensive opportunity to
learn and understand social processes. It should also provide suitable time and
resources to a social work trainee. The agency should have a trained social
worker and provide an experienced staff as a field work supervisor who can
direct and monitor students’ activities frequently. In order to give diverse
experiences to the students; they should be placed in the institutional and in the
non-institutional set up during two different years of the course. During selection
of field, the distance between the residence of a student and the field should be
considered. The language barrier of the student should be taken note of during
placement (Delhi University, 2015; Jamia Millia Islamia University, 2015; Kumar,
2011). At the undergraduate level, a group of two to three students should be
placed in one site/field. In this way, they learn to work in a team and adjust with
the fellow workers (Kumar, 2011). This also ensures that interest and enthusiasm
among students is retained, especially among the students enrolled in an
undergraduate programme of social work. Peer support encourages and sustains
students’ interest, enthusiasm in their work and also instils confidence in them.
Within processes such as group conferences, generally it has been observed
that those students who are more vocal are given more opportunities in different
roles such as presenter, chairperson and recorder during several sessions.
Sometimes students, who are sincere and keen on pursuing social work as a
profession but not skilled orators, are sidelined. All supervisors must encourage
engagement of all the students and in various roles. To ensure complete and
regular active participation of all the students, some marks perhaps could be
allotted for this exercise as it is essential to the development of each and every
individual.
107 Swati Bist
Rural camp: It is also one of the components of fieldwork as shared earlier in this
section. The purpose behind such a camp is to expose students of social work
trainee to the realities of rural life. This helps student to understand the socio-
economic, political and cultural aspects of rural communities and associated
issues and challenges. (Delhi University, 2015, Jamia Millia Islamia University,
2015). Certain aspects could be emphasized upon while organising rural camps.
Living with the villagers closely in open camps would widen students’ horizons
while teaching them alternative and sustainable ways of living, helping them
introspect on their comfort zones and also understanding the problems and hence
coming up with solutions to ensure a better quality of life for the villagers.
Institutional accommodation could be avoided in making the arrangements for
staying at the site.
Evaluation: In terms of the evaluation process, weekly reports& interactions

during Individual conferences and self evaluation forms provides the basis for
constant evaluation. There are two core areas for evaluation, namely work
habits and development of knowledge & skills. It has been observed that external
skill and knowledge (i.e. writing skills, interviewing skill, observation of client’s
behaviour and environment, communication and interpersonal skill, knowledge of
agency, communities& theoretical concepts) are given more importance to
evaluate professional development of students. However, knowledge about self is
also an important and implicit process in one’s professional development. External
skills and knowledge about self are two important dimensions towards
professional development of a social worker. In weekly reports & self
evaluation form, rather than writing only the theoretical principles involved, the
student should also give a detailed description of changes in his perception and
beliefs over the period of time in view of the code of conduct of the social work
profession. This description could include the student’s awareness of his/her
emotional response to various situations; conflicts experienced during various
situations in the field and application of social work principles to resolve the
conflicts. A student needs to constantly observe and carefully examine his
thoughts and feelings during field work. This would be a step towards self
awareness. Self awareness will enhance a person’s adherence to the values and
principles of social work profession. Self-awareness is of prime importance to the
supervisee and practitioner as the problem of client can affect the emotional well
being of a worker and this in turn can adversely affect the helping relationship
(Kaudshin & Harkness, 2002).
In order to achieve self-awareness, few classes on yoga and meditation
techniques could be introduced and encouraged for all the students of social work
as it would enable to pay attention and check their thought processes during
interaction in the field and personal life situations. According to me, this could
contribute to a healthy life. Perhaps these sessions could be included in the skill
development workshops. Books on works of eminent spiritual thinkers could also
be included in the reading list of the syllabus of the subject of Social Work. In the
next section, I have discussed aspects specific to supervision of students.
Role of Supervisor and challenges in Supervision
In the curriculum of Social Work education, the tradition of supervision in field

work has been borrowed from charity organisations wherein volunteers offered
help under the direction of paid agents. Paid agents were primarily responsible for
supervision of volunteers and used to be an important link between the first line
worker and the administration. Supervision in Social work education also draws
its inspiration from the tradition of Case work. The individual conferences and
written reports provide a important context for supervision (Kaudshin &
Harkness , 2002).
At the undergraduate as well as postgraduate level in social work

education, supervision is a process whereby a supervisor and a student sit face
to face to discuss life and challenges of client and the field (Lager, 2011).
Kaudshin and Harkness (2002, p.2), in the context of a social service agency,
describe supervision in the following manner: “the supervision meant helping
the social worker develop practice skill and knowledge and providing
emotional support during difficult situation to the person in the role of
social work practitioner”.
Role of the supervisor, hence, includes various components. First and
foremost, the role of supervisor is to help students adjust in their field/agency. At
the same time, supervisor needs to make an effort in aligning the thoughts and
behaviour of a student with the code of conduct of Social work profession while
facilitating the use of knowledge in the field. A supervisor also helps student in
planning activities that fulfil the objectives of fieldwork and align with the role of
Social work professionals. A supervisor also needs to liaison with the field or
agency in order to provide a more effective supervision. A supervisor also plays a
significant role in helping and motivating students to accept themselves with all
their weaknesses or limitations while working to address these very aspects. A
supervisor also needs to suggest literature to the supervisee so as to strengthen his
theoretical knowledge base which would further be helpful in practice. Another
key aspect is to probe and stimulate questions which could provide ground for
discussion in the next scheduled interaction (Delhi University, 2015; Jamia Millia
Islamia University, 2015; Kaudshin & Harkness, 2002; Lager, 2011). During the
supervision session, a supervisor also constantly monitors field work activities of
students and evaluates the development of a student (Delhi University, 2015;
Jamia Millia Islamia University, 2015; Lager, 2011). Along with all of the above,
the supervisor must also ensure that his or her behaviour is consistent with the
aspirations of social work profession so as to exemplify himself as a role model.
“Recognition that the supervisor is empathetic and accepting makes the
supervisee more receptive to the content (p. 167)” (Kaudshin & Harkness, 2002).
Hence, qualities of a supervisor are as important as the activities that she is
expected to perform to be a good supervisor. According to Zorga (2007),
characteristics and competences of supervisors include the ability to understand
the boundaries of supervision; readiness to face uncertainty; skill in observing the
client and environment; skill in analyzing and interpretation of the observed and
109 Swati Bist
intervening effectively; ability to provide support and a feeling of secure

environment thereby encouraging openness in the relationship of supervisor and
supervisee; ability to integrate knowledge and practice; clarity on the issues that
student might be working with and developing one’s framework for supervising in
a given setting; flexibility so as to meet the needs and demands of different
supervisees; ability to reach consensus and negotiate in planning activities with
the students (p. 2). Besides this, he should also demonstrate respect for the
supervisee and belief in his capability.
The role of the supervisor is a challenging one and there are certain issues
that need to be addressed.
According to Baird (1996) the problem in field work arises due our mindset
because we do not want to face any kind of unpleasant situation or challenge.
This way, the mindset of a supervisor becomes the biggest obstacle in the field
work. We need to understand that this is a normal process and these challenges
and unexpected situations give opportunities to learn and expand our horizon.
Addressing students’ concerns: Lack of punctuality and irregular attendance in

individual conferences and field work poses considerable obstacles. These are
the students who may lack interest, confidence and eventually are directionless.
For instance at undergraduate level, there were few students who used to attend
field work but they used to be late in reaching the agency on fieldwork days. The
outreach worker (O.R.W.S) used to leave the office at a stipulated time whereas
the students being late were often left behind at the agency office. Gradually,
these students were directionless and felt that they were wasting time during field
work. These students were also irregular in participating in the individual
conferences. In addition to this, they were also losing interest and their self
confidence. When the supervisor went for agency visit, he discovered all these
aspects and also noticed that the students had failed to maintain communication
with their field supervisor and the outreach workers. These work habits of the
students were not only posing obstacle in the functioning of the agency but were
also affecting their relationship with the agency. The outreach workers used to
wait to accompany students in the field site for sometime but they used to leave
for community visit if students were taking much time to reach the agency.
In order to resolve such problems, efforts needs to be made to ensure that the
students are punctual in their field and regularly attend individual conferences.
There should be a rule to mark their attendance in individual conferences and a
student should be asked to mark their attendance. In this way, the student is likely
to take his field practicum more seriously and it will help in developing a habit of
punctuality and discipline among students. More attendance during individual
conference will encourage open communication and dialogue between students
and supervisor. If a student is found missing from his field work or individual
conferences repeatedly or for a long duration, he should be served a ‘memo10’.
Whenever necessary, memos should be served in the interest of the future of the
student himself/herself apart from the fact that the good relations between the
university and the agency can also get adversely affected if social work educators
are not seen taking concrete steps to address problems in students’ behaviour.
This will ensure seriousness among students towards their field work practicum
and will also ensure in maintaining a positive relationship between the university
and the agency. These measures will help in cultivating good work habits among
students which will eventually enhance quality in field work practice and learning.
Ideally, a supervisor should encourage an open environment for dialogue and
provide space to students for sharing their fears and concerns. At times self
disclosure by the supervisor can be of use to a supervisee in shedding his
inhibitions and encourages him to share his fears and difficulties. Self disclosure
by the supervisor helps in establishing trust and strengthening bond between the
supervisor and supervisee (Davidson, 2011). If a student is tense and unable to
adjust in the field for long duration, then there is need to review his field placement
or the student can be facilitated to review his/her decision to continue the given
discipline.
In most of the discipline, theory and practical classes are conducted
throughout the session and only one day is assigned for examination to evaluate
the performance of the student and understanding in the given discipline.
However, the situation is different in field work practicum where evaluation is a
constant process. This many times student fail to understand resulting in casual
attitude towards requirement of field work practicum affecting their performance
and resulting in lesser grade/marks. This often leads to a sense of dissatisfaction
among students towards evaluation due to lack of sufficient knowledge. The
induction meeting would do away with any possibility of dissatisfaction among
the students with the evaluation process as mentioned earlier. It is imperative
that the student understands the criteria for field work evaluation and recognize
that the evaluation process is constant and ongoing.
Preventing potential risks in fieldwork: The risk factors for students in field
work are another problematic area. It might be useful to consider the idea that
students should not be allowed to work in such zones where there is a distinct
risk of violation of one’s person and life. E.g. students were working on HIV/
AIDS prevention project and the agency was running a targeted intervention
programme for female sex workers. The agency was providing various services
to the female sex worker and community nearby i.e. integrated testing and
counselling centre (ICTC), Clinic for Sexually transmitted diseases (STI clinic)
and drop-in Centres (DIC) for these marginalised sections of the society in the
agency office. They were also engaged in arranging STI clinic for sex workers
inside the brothels. Besides working in the agency office and in the nearby
community, the students placed in the agency were also getting opportunity to go
inside the brothels to observe and understand the services being given to the
population and to know more about their lives. Given the fact of human trafficking
and sensitivity of work involved with this population, it is advisable not to send an
undergraduate student trainee for fieldwork in this area. So, students should be
given instructions to certainly work with these women but outside brothels area in
a secure place or in the agency office but they should refrain going inside the
brothel area. Of course a student, in the future, can decide the course of his
career life and can choose these circumstances to work as a Social worker
111 Swati Bist
professional.
Managing relationship with agencies: The expectations of the agency should

not be unrealistic and there should be a regular and clear line of communication
between the agency and the supervisor. The supervisor should go for field visit at
least twice in the given session to observe the interaction of the student in the
field. A field supervisor should also keep an eye on the relationship between the
student and the agency supervisor to find out if there is any tension between the
two. Many times, it has been observed that the agency supervisors have
unrealistic expectation from the student trainee. Sometimes, students are
assigned tasks which are beyond the capacity of students or many times the
students for the most part of their field work are asked to engage in administrative
work and desk job (i.e., data entry, register entry). In these tasks, students get
limited opportunity to learn. If possible, university should share their field work
manual or written objectives of the field work practicum to agency supervisors. In
addition to this, student may also be finding it difficult to work in the structured
environment of an agency and may need to be supported to challenge his/her own
barriers and enhance capacities of work in diverse teams.
Addressing parental concerns: A formal meeting with the parents in the

orientation programme of the trainees with the supervisor would also dispel all
doubts, possibilities of misunderstandings and fears regarding the course
requirements and the future career prospects, especially for the first year
students of Bachelor of Social Work. This will help in ensuring full and hearty
support of guardians to the student as that is of crucial importance to carry out
field work.
The above mentioned measures will ensure more harmonious and positive
relationship between supervisor and the student trainee, and hence would
enhance field work learning. The concerns discussed in this article will also
provide direction to the supervisors working at undergraduate level to deal
effectively with students and diverse scenarios in their fieldwork.
Conclusion
Field work practicum helps a student in self-development and development of

necessary skills that help in addressing problems of the client and the society at
large. Engagement in various activities helps in developing personality of the
worker, helps him understand various problems, and enhances conflict resolution
abilities (Batra, 2016). However, there are several challenges for an
undergraduate student with limited exposure to various social groups and social
issues. At this level, students are yet adjusting with the change from a well
structured and predictable school life to an unpredictable and ambiguous field
work situation. Hence a supervisor becomes a critical link between the student
and the field. A supervisor can help in adjustment of students in the new
environment by providing constant support and encouragement. Whenever a
student faces internal conflict, the supervisor can help him introspect and imbibe
values and principle of social work profession in the personal and professional life.
A supervisor should always be prepared and open for dialogue while encouraging
students to share their fears and concerns. Several other aspects can make
fieldwork more meaningful to students. For example, induction meetings;
clarifying evaluation process and expected behaviour at the outset of the field
work; self awareness strategies; preventing risks in fieldwork for students;
preparing guardians to extend their support to the student; frequent
communication with agency supervisor; and addressing irregularity and lack of
punctuality among students. All these aspects are significant for students at
undergraduate level.
References
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Jersey: Prentice hall.
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workshop on “ Youth connect” at Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar college, Delhi
University, 29– 30, January, 2016.
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Alliance Among Social Work Students in Field Placement. Journal of Teaching in
Social Work, 31(3), pp. 265–277
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work. New Delhi: Delhi University.
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Delhi retrieved from http://jmi.ac.in/upload/menuupload/
field_work_manual_msw_2015.pdf.
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Kumar, M. ( 2011). Social work practicum in open and distance learning. In G. Thomas &
P. K., Gandhi (Eds.), Social work practicum: An overview (Field work practicum,
Block 1)(pp 43–59). New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National open University ( IGNOU),.
Lager, P. (2011). Models and modes off social work supervision. In G. Thomas & P.K.,
Gandhi (Eds.), Field work supervision (Field work practicum, Block-3) (pp 5–
14). New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Open University ( IGNOU).
NCPSWI. (1993). National Council of Professional Social Work in India Bill 1993.
Singh, R. R. (1985). Field work education in India. New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company.
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portal hosted by the University Grants Commission (UGC), GOI, launched in Feb,
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2013, retrieved from, shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/23970/9/

09_chapter%201.pdf.
UGC. (1980). Review of Social Work Education in India, Retrospect and Prospect. New
Delhi: University Grant Commission.
UGC. (2001). Social Work Education Model Curriculum Report. New Delhi: University
Grant Commission.
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other academic staff in universities and colleges and measures for the
maintenance of standards in higher education 2010. New Delhi: University Grant
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Centar Socijalnog Rada. Ljetopis. 14(2) (July 2007): p433
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 114–121
Social Work Practice And Conflict Situation In India : A

Preliminary Observation
Shukhdeba Sharma Hanjabam

Ningthoujam Rameshchandra
India’s professional social work started in the year 1936. This profession however, have
not been given a serious thought about contextualising the discipline to deal with the
conflict situation.The present social work intervention, particularly in conflict situation
has not been effective in bringing about conflict resolution as the focus of the discipline
has confined mainly to humanitarian service particularly in rendering indirect service to
the victim/causalities of the political conflict. In other words, the practice is more about
treating the symptoms of conflict rather than identifying the roots of the conflict from
which models of conflict resolution can be built up. However, this is not the limitation of
the discipline per se but could be the weakness on the part of the institutes imparting the
knowledge of social work. The paper highlights the need to incorporate the experiences of
research and practice that focused on the conflict areas into the curriculum of social work
in India. The experiences and interventions will be highlighted by examining the limited
literature available in the public domain. This would help us to initiate and/ or strengthen
the limited intervention as we are experiencing the situation as part of the practice and
education for the last few decades.
Shukhdeba Sharma Hanjabam is Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Indira

Gandhi National Tribal University, Regional Campus, Manipur; and Ningthoujam
Rameshchandra is a PhD scholar in International and Intercultural Studies,
Universidad de Deusto, Bilbao, Spain.
Social Work Practice in Conflict Situation
There are enough literatures on social work interventions for various social
problems but the intervention dealing with political conflict is limited. For instance,
European social work has been dealing with the impact of terrorism and state
violence and also with the consequences of world wars, regional conflicts and
local insurgencies (Campbell, 2007). But there are limited interventions from
115 Shukhdeba Sharma Hanjabam & Ningthoujam Rameshchandra
social work perspectives. However, the role of social work in conflict-ridden

areas is now being recognised as the professional who engaged in conflict zones
are faced with numerous challenges, such as fear for loss of life, violence,
unstable infrastructure, and working conditions. Besides, they regularly faced
with moral and ethical dilemmas because of bomb attacks on civilians or buildings
or intimidation from rebel or paramilitary forces become normalized (Moore,
2016).
A study investigating the impact of violent political conflict on social workers
and service users in Northern Ireland, Israel and Palestine by Ramon, Campbell,
Lindsay, McCrystal and Baidoun (2006) highlighted the burden of working and
living in a violent political conflict, not just for service users but also for social
workers. Emotional stress, fear, competing national and religious identities, yet
some indication of resilience, are key findings from the studies. For example, in
the Northern Irish study, the geographical location of the workplace often
determined the levels of stress related to the conflict. The most frequent type of
problematic incident was traffic disruption caused by ongoing violent incidents
(e.g. bomb scares), followed next in frequency by the direct effects of explosions
(e.g. physical injuries), sectarian harassment, disruption of statutory services, and
crossing geographical boundaries. Similarly, in the Palestinian study, the
difficulties in getting to and from work due to checkpoints and closures were
reported. This led to disruption in the provision of services. Stress, fear and
humiliation were felt by Palestinian workers in their encounters with Israeli
soldiers at checkpoints. Often, this added to the time it took to make journeys
and led to frustration when visits had to be postponed. In the Israeli study,
problems were caused because those service users affected by the violence
tended to have high levels of social and health needs, which required intensive and
time-consuming interventions, often causing increased waiting times for other
service users who also saw their financial benefits reduced. Similarly, Nadan and
Ben-Ari (2014) revealed that, identifying the ‘other’, coping with the spectre of
war, tension between the personal and the political, and attempts to extract the
conflict from social work education are the main concerns that influence of life in
the shadow of protracted violent conflict on those engaged in education and
training in social work.
Similar challenges and complexities were also reported while conducting
research in conflict settings. For instance, Moore (2016) observed that research is
fraught with political implications for all sides of the conflict. Methodological
rigidity has no place in a conflict or post-conflict setting, and as such, is quite
different from research outside of conflict zones. The researcher’s objectives,
funding, and even the researcher come under scrutiny by local actors. The
activity of research in conflict settings is not ‘neutral’, and researchers have to
consider the implications of the decisions about which populations to study, whose
knowledge is important to gain and how that information is going to be
disseminated. Research design in a conflict setting has to take in account the
origins and the construction of the conflict as it is experienced by the groups living
with violence, and must not assume homogeneity of conflict settings. The ability to
have methodological flexibility is a critical skill in working in conflict settings, as is
Social Work Practice And Conflict Situation In India 116
the ability to adapt methods to new security risks or the need for confidentiality.
She suggest that mixed method designs are suited to conflict settings, largely
because multiple sources and methods can address changing conditions, and the
need to both quantify and identify complex behaviors and experiences. Some of
the important methodological considerations that she suggest in conflict settings
are (i) Sampling, (ii) Generalizability, (iii) Bias, (iv) Validity and reliability, (v)
Access, (vi) Vulnerability, (vii) Confidentiality and (vi) Security concerns.
Social Work Education in North East India
Professionalisation of social work began with indigenous practice in newly

industrialized Mumbai (erstwhile Bombay) in 1936 led by Sir Clifford Manshardt,
an American Missionary, at the Nagpada Neighbourhood House (settlement
house for family welfare). With collaboration of the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, the Sir
Dorabji Tata Graduate School was started which offered diploma in social service
administration. In 1964, with the recognition of the M.A. degree in Social Work by
the University Grants Commission, the School became the Tata Institute of Social
Sciences (a Deemed University). It was followed by the introduction of
“development of professional social work education” in the University of
Lucknow in 1946 and later shifted to Delhi in 1948 and named it as the Delhi
School of Social Work in 1949. Today there is such a mushrooming of social work
programmes that the numbers belie us – maybe there are at least 300 plus
institution which offers the course of Social Work today all over the country,
including the departments/schools/colleges offering social work education in the
North-East (Nadkarni, 2013)
It was only in the 1990s, that the Social Work education was initiated in North
East India particularly at Assam University, Silchar and North East Hill University
(NEHU) Mizoram Campus, (presently Mizoram University), Aizawl. The
Department of Social Work at Assam University started in the year 1997 with a
Five Year Integrated Course in Social Work which consists of BSW and MSW.
This department has recently offers Ph.D. programme too. Similarly, the
Department of Social Work in Mizoram University was initiated under North East
Hill University (NEHU- Mizoram Campus) in the year 1990. But, it was only
after the establishment of Mizoram University that the Masters of Arts in Social
Work was started in the year 2002. At present, the department is offering MSW,
M.Phil and PhD programmes. Recently, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University,
Regional Campus, Manipur, Tezpur University in Assam, and Rajiv Gandhi
University in Arunachal Pradesh has also started the post graduate programme on
Social Work. Besides, Indira Gandhi National Open University also offers
courses on Social Work through its various centres in the region. It can be noted
that only the central universities are offering the Social Work programme so far
and none of the state universities in the region have started the programme. But,
in the last few years, and realizing the importance of the programme, a significant
number of private Institutions, colleges and Universities in almost all parts the
north-eastern region have started to introduced Social Work programmes
(Sharma, 2012). Yet, a matter of concern is that the curriculum and course
contents of the programme, both at the university level as well as at the college
level mainly focuses on the general social work curriculum that has limited
context of the region, and this is the gap, rather a limitation on the institutes of this
region that offers Social Work as a programme. In fact, the conflict situation like
the north-eastern region of India should be a significant part of social work
curriculum, if at all, we discuss about intervention as social work practice.
Conflict Situation in North-East India
The state-steered discourse and practice of ‘security’ and ‘law and order’ have
miserably failed either to contain conflict or bring peace. The failure of the state
exposes the limited, regimented and also parochial ‘vision’ of peace pursued by
Indian state. On all fronts, wherever the state has stepped in to pursue either
peace or development there were peoples ‘discontents and resistance. This is
true in case of all coercive laws like Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act
(AFSPA), 1958, Land Acquisition Act, 1894, ongoing and proposed mega dams
etc. Even the initiatives and efforts on the part of the state to settle ‘ethnic
disputes’ by guaranteeing autonomy has also been marked by tactics of ‘divide
and rule’ (Dutta, 2013). Thus, peace remains elusive in India even after 68 years
of independence, as the Government of India (henceforth GoI) has been
confronted by various degrees of political violence. The political violence ranges
from the assertion of the right to self-determination (external and internal) to
demand for creating mechanism for protection of indigenous peoples and
minorities. The political violence has affected more than half of the total states
that constitute India such as Naxalite zone, Jammu and Kashmir zone, and the
Northeast zone. The people of the region have been exposed to violence and
collateral damages either in direct or indirect form for the last many decades due
to the conflict situation between the Indian State and various armed opposition
groups. As a result, a militarised culture has developed among the people,
particularly the youth and children. The youth are more vulnerable to the conflict
situation and this is evident from the fact that most people who got killed in
Manipur during the conflict were mostly youth particularly, male between the age
group of 20 to 40 years (Sharma & Pukhrambam, 2011).
Besides, stringent counter insurgency operations were launched by the Indian
armed forces including the Indian army by declaring the state as a ‘disturb area’.
Martial law such as AFSPA, which empower any central armed forces to kill on
mere suspicion with impunity, was imposed in the state since the late 80s. The
incursion of the military into the civil sphere and violence meted out through
counter insurgency operations, despite the motto of use of minimal force
(Roychowdhury, 2002), tells a lot about the nature of the Indian State. What has
emerged in the militaristic approach is that the agents of the State (including the
army, para-military forces and police), rather than approaching the affected
people as citizens, treats them as “subjects”. Equally true is the action of the
armed opposition groups. In the militarised situation, ordinary people are caught in
the crossfire, lives remain dear, and human rights continue to be violated. Table 1
shows the number of people killed in Manipur from 2001 to 2016.
Table 1: Insurgency related Fatalities in Manipur : 2001-2016
Years Civilians Security Forces Militants Total

2001 70 25 161 256
2002 36 53 101 190
2003 27 23 148 198
2004 40 41 127 208
2005 138 50 143 331
2006 107 37 141 285
2007 150 40 218 408
2008 131 13 341 485
2009 77 18 321 416
2010 26 8 104 138
2011 25 10 30 65
2012 25 12 73 110
2013 21 6 28 55
2014 20 10 24 54
2015 17 24 53 94
2016 9 8 6 23
Total* 2260 1014 2792 6066
Source: South Asia Terrorist Portal, *Data till July 24, 2016
According to the Table, a total of 6066 persons were killed in the stated period
of time. What is more unfortunate is that more than 60 percent were militants and
civilian casualties constituted nearly 30 percent. A disturbing feature of the armed
conflict is the kind of impact it has on the demographic profile of the indigenous
population. More than 90 percent of the victims were from the indigenous stock.
This table is used for indicative purpose to state the fact that people are
indeed killed without really looking into the authenticity as the compilations is done
by Government sponsored think tank. One fear arising out of such a compilation is
that more than often, civilians killed in extrajudicial killings or fake encounters are
clubbed under the category of militants. Take for instance; altogether 1,528
people including 31 women and 98 children were killed in fake encounters by the
security forces in Manipur between 1979 and May 2012. Of these, 419 were
killed by the Assam Rifles, while 481 were killed by the combined teams of
Manipur Police and Central Security Forces (The Sangai Express, 2012). In
addition, the weak governance, security guided governance and lack of research
capacity has further undermined the situation. For instance, the Northeast India
which is experiencing conflict since the late 50s has no authentic data to justify the
conflict and also the victims. The victims are across generations and it’s now an
intergenerational issue. The intergenerational trauma created by such situation
has had a severe impact on the development of the community and the state as a
whole.
Exploring Social Work Areas of Intervention in Conflict Situation
The militarised culture that has witnessed in the North East Region has resulted in
breaking down of the socio-political-cultural institutions that bind and regulate the
people and the communities. The militaristic approach of the government has
already complicated the issue and now, they are taking up the developmental
activities guided by the military framework. However, the government is neither
able to contain the movement nor bring peace to the region (Sharma &
Pukhrambam, 2011). Moreover, the present social work practice particularly on
conflict situation has not been able to contribute significantly in resolving the
conflict resolution peacefully. Although social professional work practice started
in 1936 in India, none has seriously given a thought about contextualising the
discipline with conflict situation in India.
However, there is a need to incorporate the issues of conflict resolution into
the curriculum of social work particularly in the conflict ridden states of North
Eastern region as they are engaging the situation as part of their practice and
education. But, the response of the professional social workers to these regional
and local issues is unsatisfactory as most of the social work graduates have done
their training from outside the region as well as the curriculum in their courses
have limited space for these issues. This, in fact remains a challenges for the
effective response through the social work education. Acknowledging the need of
professional social work in addressing the human rights issues, the International
Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) has adopted the human rights issues in its
policy statements. It includes (i) right to life, (ii) right to freedom of liberty, (iii)
right to equality and non-discrimination, (iv) ensuring justice, (v) expressing
solidarity, (vi) enhancing social responsibility (vii) ensuring peace and harmony
with self and others (viii) working for protecting the environment. Similarly the
International Associations for Schools of Social Work has approved and assigned
professionals to work on Social Work and Political violence. Similarly, the Inter-
University Consortium for International Social Development (IUCISD) in 2003
emphasizes the need to contextualize social work education and practice in the
local context (Narayan, 2008).
The limited literatures examined in the paper clearly illustrate how social
work can intervene effectively at different levels. For instance, the European
PEACE III sponsored teaching and learning project that was designed to enable
social work students to better understand the needs of victims and survivors of the
conflict in Northern Ireland. They stated that their approaches such as the use of
ground rules, group teams consisting of lecturer and service user dyads, learning
exercises and case studies is very effective and at the same time, crucial in
developing new pedagogical approaches in this area. They found that the students
were generally committed to this form of teaching and engagement with victims
and survivors of the conflict (Campbell, Duffy, Traynor, Coulter, l Reilly &
Pinkerton, 2013). Similarly, the study of Northern Ireland, Israel and Palestine by
Ramon and others and Nadan and Ben-Ari (2014) could be incorporated to our
engagement as the region is not only experiencing conflict situation but also an
ethnic hotspot of India. For instance, British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
commentator once described Manipur as “India’s Bosnia” (Singh, Sharma &

Sanasam, 2011). Likewise, Moore (2016) observing that methodological rigidity
has no place in a conflict or post-conflict setting, and as such, is quite different
from research outside of conflict zones is very relevant mainly because, the
conflict situation disturbs one or the other component of the research procedures.
We are witnessing these similar situations in our context, when they move to
the field settings. Moreover, we have the major limitations of not being able to
access the paid journals, where most of the publications on social work
intervention in conflict situation are published. Besides, there is no government
institution in Manipur that provides courses to effectively address or intervene in
the situation. The Centre for Human Rights and Duties Education, Manipur
University offers a one year PG Diploma and six month courses but their
activities are mostly limited to class rooms and to some extent awareness
programmes as there is no regular faculty. Similarly, the Department of Social
Work at Indira Gandhi National Tribal University also offers a paper on Issues of
Peace and Conflict in North East India. But the limited nature of such intervention
could not effectively intervene in the protracted conflict scenario of the region.
Since we have a limited intervention from social work perspectives, we can
learn and contextualise the experiences to suit and to respond to the local
situation. This can be by conducting a comprehensively review of literatures on
social work intervention in conflict areas. This can be done through the already
established institutions such as Tata Institute of Social Sciences and others similar
institutions and University who has expertise in both social work and political
conflict. This can help us to innovate the intervention and to strengthen the social
work intervention in conflict areas of India in particularly and Asia in general.
Moreover, we can learn from the research and practice in conflict areas
particularly in Latin America, the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa. What
appears to be missing in many analyses of the social work role in situations of
conflict, however, is an acceptance of the need to consider this role in the context
of wider social political and historical processes, however difficult a proposition
that might be. The avoidance of such issues may exacerbate and prolong the
conflict which creates the problems which social workers are expected to
alleviate and solve (Campbell, 2007)
References
Campbell, J., Duffy, J., Traynor, C., Reilly, I., & Pinkerton, J. (2013). Social work education
and political conflict: preparing students to address the needs of victims and
survivors of the Troubles in Northern Ireland. European Journal of Social Work,
16(4) pp.506–520. Retrieved fromhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
13691457.2012.732929.
Campbell, J. (2007). Social Work, Political Violence and Historical Change: Reflections
from Northern Ireland. Social Work, and Society: International Online Journal, 5
(3). Retrieved from http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/143/512.
Dutta, A. R. (2013). Curriculum on Peace and Conflict Studies: Challenges for a University/
Institution in North-East India. In S. S. Hanjabam., A. K. Singh., and G. Laltlinzo

(Eds.), Hybridising Theory and Practice: Social Work Towards Meeting the
Challenges of Global and Local. New Delhi: Essential Books.
Hanjabam, S. S., & Pukhrambam, R. (2011). Peace Education in Manipur. Alternative

Perspectives, 5, Special Issue, March, pp. 105–115.
Hanjabam, S. S. (2012). Contextualizing Social Work Education: Illustration from India‘s

North East. A Social Work Journal, 3 (1), pp 128–135.
Nadkarni, V. (2013). Contextualising Social Work Education: Lessons From The Indian
Experience. In S. S. Hanjabam., A. K. Singh., & G. Laltlinzo (Eds.), Hybridising
Theory and Practice: Social Work Towards Meeting the Challenges of Global
and Local New Delhi: Essential Books.
Nadan, Y., & Ben-Ari,. (2014). Social Work Education in the Context of Armed Political
Conflict: An Israeli Perspective. British Journal of Social Work, 45 (6). Retrieved
from http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2014/01/28/bjsw.bct212
Narayan, L. (2008). Contextualizing Social work Practice in India: Some Exploration. Indian
Journal of Social Work, 69 (2), pp. 107–110.
Ramon, S., Campbell, J., Lindsay, J., McCrystal, P., & Baidoun, N. (2006). The Impact of
Political Conflict on Social Work: Experiences from Northern Ireland, Israel and
Palestine. British Journal of Social Work, 36 (3), 435–450.
Roy chowdhury, S. (2002). Officially at Peace. New Delhi: Viking.
Singh, A. K., Hanjabam, S. S. & Singh, A. S. (2011). Removing the Veil: Issue of North East
Conflict. New Delhi: Essential Publication.
The Sangai Express, 1528 people killed in fake encounters: Report, Imphal, 19, 2012.
Williams, M. M. (2016). Social work practitioners in post-conflict Northern Ireland:

Lessons from a critical ethnography. International Social Work, June 14.
Retrieved from http://isw.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/06/10/
0020872816644664.full.pdf+html
SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL
(BI-ANNUAL)
ISSN 0976-5484
6 (1) January–June 2015, pp. 122–129
Social Work Education: An Experience from Barak Valley,

Assam
Bijoy Das
Social work education is based on practice in the realm of society with its variety of
diversification. In continuing and upgrading social work education, there are numbers of
institutions coming up both in government and private institutions to tackle different
issues prevalent in the context of socio-economic, geographical set up, etc. The nature of
Social Work practices will vary according to the problems and kinds of help required by
the people as a group or as an individual. Today, to tackle the issues and problems of the
North East regions, Barak valley of Assam is successfully running Social Work education
in Department of Social Work, Assam University, Silchar in its very limited conditions
since its inception, 1997. The present article tries to highlight some of the important
milestones of social work education of this region of Barak valley. It also focuses on the
challenges encountered by the department in practicing praxis.
Bijoy Das is a Research Scholar in Department of Social Work, Assam University,

Silchar.
Introduction
The diversity of social work profession represents great challenges for social
work education, research and practice in the rapidly internationalizing and
globalizing world. Social work education comprises of a theoretical component
taught in the classroom and field-based education involving integration of the
academic aspect of practice. We believe social work is a process of learning by
doing i.e. working with the people. It is the common perception of people in
general that social work deals only with seeking and gathering information from
the people, sharing their knowledge through which they intend to bring social
change and development.
Social work is a practice based profession and an academic discipline that
promote social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment
and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective
responsibilities and respect for diversities are central to social work (IFSW, 2014).
123 Bijoy Das
The above stated definition revealed that, Social work addresses multiple and
complex situations related to people and their environment. Its objective is to
enable all people to develop their full potentials. The social work profession
focuses on problem solving and bringing a change. It is an interrelated system of
values, theory and practice. Further, the profession beliefs in humanitarian
approaches, respect for the equality, work and dignity of all people. Human rights
and social justice serve as the motivation and justification for social work action.
In the dynamics of social work education and practice, it is changing over the
periods of time. Social work is dealing with individual, family and groups, where
the practice may influence through the psychodynamic perspective i.e. Freudian
theory and Neo-liberalism. Freudian theories of human behavior social work
practice lies on human behavior and their needs (Dhemba, 2012). The dominance
of this perspective challenges to the practice of social work. In contrast to the
theoretical basis of social work practice, general system theory, ecological system
theory all suggests to work with the existing problems of individual and the
society. The trained student of social work engaged themselves in various
developmental work of government, non-government, corporate sector and in
various international organizations. The profession itself developed to empower
and to work for the marginalized sections of the society with its knowledge, skills
and techniques.
The course of social work education has started its journey in India in the
year 1936 with the first School of Social Work namely the Sir Dorabji Tata
Graduate School of Social Work popularly known as Tata Institute of Social
Sciences (TISS) in Mumbai. In the year 1947 another school of social work
known as Delhi School of Social Work was established. In the same year Kashi
Vidyapeeth, Varanasi and Baroda similar schools were started. Coming across
the milestones of eighty five years of its journey is marked with experimentation,
expansion and spread of social work education in whole country. There are about
350 schools in India offering Social Work courses as per the sources gathered
from experts of social work from across the country (Botcha, 2012).
Compare to earlier trend, the present social work education is widened in
different institutes across the country. Courses offered with synonyms to Master
of Social Work, M.A in Social Work which covers Bachelor of Social Work
(BSW) and Master of Social Work (MSW). Most of the institution provides BSW
and MSW as an integrated base course curriculum on the other hand many of
institutions offering either BSW or MSW courses. From last few decades people
are also pursuing MPhil as well as PhD degree in different fields of social work
practice.
Social Work Education in Northeast (NE)
The North East regions of India have several ethnic, linguistic, cultural, religious
and geographical entities. Different groups have diverse origins, histories, political
aspirations and different traditional institutions (Samson, 2015). The education
system of Northeast India has gone beyond the border of traditional social
sciences for many decades. The social work education was supposed to be
Social Work Education : An Experience from Barak Valley, Assam 124
started in Northeast (NE) India by North Eastern Hills University (NEHU) in 90s.
Later on, Assam University Silchar started first course of Social Work in NE India
in the Year 1997 and the journey began with a mission to provide better quality of
Social Work Education especially in North-East region of India to prepare
committed professional Social Workers that can contribute purposefully and
meaningfully in this region. The Department of Social Work, Assam University is
offering 5 years Integrated course which covers Bachelor in Social Work (BSW)
and Master in Social Work (MSW) i.e. 3 years for Bachelor and 2 years for
Masters respectively. Overall, the Integrated five-year course has been designed
in a manner that students develop a basic knowledge of social work profession
and its methods at Bachelor’s level and at the Master’s level and they build
advanced knowledge of the same. Similarly, the Mizoram University was the
second university that started offering social work education in NE region. But
during 2005 to 2010 there had been sudden blooming of social work profession
offered by government and private institutes in northeast India like; Lokpriya
Gopinath Bordoloi Regional Institute of Medical Health (LGBRIMH) an another
institute that offers MPhil in Psychiatric Social Work in the region. Recently TISS
Guwahati branch and Tezpur University, DON Bosco University Guwahati, Indira
Gandhi National Tribal University, University of Science and Technology,
Meghalaya (USTM) has also started Post Graduate courses in Social Work.
People can also access the distance education facilities in social work under
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). At present there are more
than 20 institutes in Northeast offering Social Work education by government and
private institutes.
Social Work Education in Barak Valley
As of southern part of the state of Assam, the region of Barak valley is consisted
of three districts such as Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi districts with total 47,
91,390 populations. Despite of numerous problems ranging from conflict,
livelihood, health issues, women and children vulnerabilities in this region, the
literacy rate has been impressive in respective districts of the region. According to
Census, 2011 report, the literacy rate in Cachar district is 67.82%, the district of
Karimganj with 79.72% and Hailakandi district with 59.64% respectively.
The impression of social work education in this region was not much up to the
mark during the first decade of its development. As it was the new course to the
people of this region, there was not much awareness on the benefits of the
course. Social Workers had been generally considered as politicians, community
leader, etc. thus, social work as a profession was not received properly in the
region. Lack of public recognition of social work education is another critical
shortcoming that has a lot to do with its future prospects in India. The notion of the
professional social work in the people’s mind is in contradiction to an idealized
image of conventional social service worker who possess the sterling qualities of
heart rather than of mind (Botcha, 2012). But gradually, students started getting
jobs in good positions across the country after their completions of BSW and
MSW; people then recognized its importance and raised their interests towards
125 Bijoy Das
social work education. Hence, in later period, the demand of the course had been
increased from the region; thus, Department of Social Work in Assam University,
Silchar has increased its intake capacities (Chart no.1 &2)). This helps many
students obtained their post-graduation of Master in Social Work. By the time, the
Social Work Department of Assam University expanded its field placement by
incorporating different communities and social welfare agencies for the purpose
of field work practicum. But, the Traditional Social Work approach limits the
progress in the region.
Chart No.1 and 2: Intake Capacity in Department of Social Work
Source: Department of Social Work
Field work is an inseparable component of social work education. It is the

central mechanism for transmitting theoretical knowledge into the practical level
of work. It provides opportunities to students in exposing, learning and developing
skills necessary for working with people through their innovative practices in the
field, administration, training and research work.
In all semesters of the courses, the students get opportunities to integrate
their theoretical learning and develop a holistic understanding of the problems,
situations, their causative factors and develop the possible strategies of
intervention to their concurrent fieldwork. In the First semester, the students are
taken for observational visits to different agencies of both GOs and NGOs to
acquaint themselves to the objectives, administrative structure and process of
various organizations involved in welfare of aged, women and children and
development activities working on different areas of Barak Valley. They, thus get
an opportunity to observe and to acquire knowledge about the techniques and
strategies used by different government and Non-governmental Organizations.
After satisfactory completion of concurrent field work, at the end of MSW final
year, students go for block placement for a period of 45 days for a full time work
in an approved agency outside Barak Valley. This bock placement gives a
platform to students to broaden their perspectives of development and welfare
concerns which also enhanced the practiced skills and techniques and integrate
the learning independently while dealing with agency setting. Through this block
placement, students were enhanced in their social skills and developed leadership
qualities, acquired first hands experience and knowledge about the field of social
work profession.
Problems and Challenges in Social Work Education in Barak Valley
1. The nucleus of social work education is to impart the integration of social

work knowledge, attitudes and skills with relevant to the contemporary
social realities and local social realities. The course contents of syllabus of
social work education in the department is very generic in nature which
neither presenting any paper on the geophysical aspects nor socio-cultural
background of Barak valley. Thus the participation from the people
towards exercising field work practicum is comparatively less
2. When theory is applied to practice, one of the biggest challenges for social
work students is integrating theory with practice in an effective way.
Although many social work programmes espouse the importance of
integrating theory with practice in their field courses, there are still
difficulties in realizing such integrations (Gentle-Genitty, 2014). Similarly
such problems and challenges are seen in this region that students face
many difficulties in practicing the relevant methods of social work in
communities during their concurrent field work. Students are expected to
develop and relate the theoretical frameworks of social work through their
practices. Applications of theoretical knowledge of these methods are quite
difficult for the trainees to apply in the field. Course contents and the
existing socio-cultural and geographical scenario of the region further
challenge the students’ abilities. On the other hand, lack of adequate
literatures on social work methods and its practice is also a challenging
factor for the students to apply theory knowledge into practice. Due to the
existing scenario of Barak valley, they often lack the abilities in identifying
and understanding the issues which lead them complicated in applying
relevant theories to their work while dealing with their clients, groups and
community.
3. There is a high student teacher ratio (16:1) in 2015, in the department which
hampers the quality teaching, learning and field practicum. Often teachers
are unable to organize Individual conference due to high number of
students.
Table No.1: Year wise student teacher ratio.
Year Ratio
2008 20:1
2009 19:1
2010 20:2
2011 21:2
2012 28:1
2013 28:1
2014 17:1
2015 16:1
127 Bijoy Das
4. There are visible shortages of suitable agencies for field work purposes.
There are limited numbers of agencies for concurrent field work as
opposed to high student-teacher ratio. As the numbers of agencies are
less and students are more, it becomes difficult for the agencies to
provide sufficient space to the Social Work Trainee for practicing
concurrent field work. Thus, only the final year students of both BSW and
MSW are able to engage in agency, rest students are placed in different
communities. Thus, there are challenges related to practice relevant
methods in the field such as case work, group work, community
organization and social welfare administration.
5. The relationship between department and field work agency is one of

equal partnership where both department and agency supervisor take the
responsibility for students learning and acquisition of social work skills.
Unfortunately, in Barak Valley, there is shortage of qualified agency
supervisors which is another challenge to social work education. It has
been observed that most of the agency supervisor, who appointed for the
post of Project manager, counsellor and others, do not have adequate
knowledge and skills to guide the students in the field. They are not much
of expertise on field work practicum of social work profession to guide
the students in the field. It’s also noticed that location of the agencies
from the institution which is much expensive for the students in managing
their field work activities.
6. Botcha, (2012) in an article mentioned that most of the social work

educational institutions are located in urban areas; students practice
fieldwork in urban places and prefer jobs in cities and metropolis.
However, social work professionals are most needed in rural areas where
about 70 percent of the population lives. Students who have passed out
from the department do not want to retain for longer period in the region.
Majority of the students have preferred their jobs outside Barak Valley
for better exposure and better salary packages. Thus the qualified Social
Workers who are the alumni of the department are not much seen in the
available agencies of the region.
7. Lack of employment opportunities is another challenge for the region

basically in the field of social work in government as well as non-
governmental sector. Students those who have obtained MSW degree
usually go outside to get better job opportunities because the region of
Barak valley does not have many agencies to provide job opportunities to
them.
8. Low salary and job stagnation, high turn-over, easy burnouts are some of
the crucial issues that would be resolved if we are able to bring
standardization in the social work teaching, and practice and at the same
time portray a desirable and advantageous image of social work
profession in the country (Devi, 2009). Reflecting upon Barak valley,

those students who have passed out with BSW and MSW degree are
getting maximum jobs in non-governmental sectors with less amount of
salary. Hence it is hard to develop standard of social work education by
retaining the qualified students in agencies in Barak Valley.
9. Regarding the placement, there is Placement Cell both at Department

and University level. But many good companies and other Recruiting
Agencies are reluctant to come for Campus Recruitment due to
connectivity issues. Thus students themselves need to look for better job
opportunities.
Nonetheless, the scope of social work education has put some remarkable
changes in India’s NE regions. A large numbers of post-graduate students in
social work are engaged in different government and private sectors like National
Health Mission (NHM), National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), National
AIDS Control Organization (NACO), Child line India, Integrated Child Protection
Scheme (ICPS), National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM), and also working
in various NGOs in different projects and other related fields. The observation
shows that mindset of the people of this region has changed over the period of
time towards social work education and as a result people are now interested in
obtaining degree in Social Work. Presently, the social work education has also
started offering PhD courses in its diverse fields.
Conclusion
Hence, despite of many limitations, the social work education is quite impressive
in Barak Valley. The Department of Social Work of Assam University has a
tremendous contribution in bringing up social work education in progress
especially for the people of Barak valley. There are numerous issues and
challenges in the context of NE India. Despite of all these challenges social work
education has gained much recognition and importance from the people of this
region as well as from different government and private institutions. However, it
carries a picture of areas where professional social workers and academicians
both need to be cautious and continuously think on the relevance of traditional
social work practices in areas where the problems is more on region specific
welfare activities. There is also needed to develop more effective course
curriculum in response to the needs, issues, and problems of socio-cultural aspects
of the region and also covering as per the scope of social work, recent programme
oriented, introduction to the new fields so that it can raise interest among the
people towards social work education. There should be proper orientation to the
students which will help them in relating theory and practice while working in the
field. There is an urgent call for collaborative efforts among the professional
organizations of Social Work practitioners/ Educators in North East Regions and
also involvement of the government agencies for improving the standard of Social
Work education in NE regions.
129 Bijoy Das
References
Botcha, R. (2012). Problems and Challenges for Social Work Education in India: Some
Recommendations. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research. 1(3).
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Assam University for NAAC visit.
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Social Work Journal (Bi-annual)
ISSN No. 0976-5484 (Print)
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ISSN 0976-5484

SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

Volume 6 Number 1 January-June 2015

SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

EDITORIAL BOARD ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Gopalji Mishra Prof. Subhabrata Dutta Prof. K.V. Ramana

Dr. Gangabhushan M. Dr. Tarun Bikash Sukai Prof. C.S. Ramanathan

Ms. Ritwika Rajendra Dr. Lalzo S. Thangjom Prof. R. Parthasarathy

Dr. Aditi Nath Mr. Ajit Jena

Ms. Joyashri Dey

This issue was published in September 2016.

Volume 6, Issue 1 January-June 2015

Guidelines for Authors

perspectives besides the continuation of charity, clinical and ecological

M. Tineshowri Devi and Kaivalya T. Desai

Social Work Research and its Methodological Vicissitudes

A review of social work theses of different universities (Brun, 1997; Dellgran

The Quantitative Base

Traditionally, the methodological approach in social work research is based on

The problem of obtaining knowledge rested mainly on positivistic ontology and

believed human behaviour to be observable, measurable and predictable

Notes: (1) The numbers in parenthesis indicate the number of theses.

Figure 1: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research Curves

Practice, Substance Use and Aging.

Growth of Qualitative Methodology

The beginning of the 21st century showed tremendous growth of qualitative

values of the people (Mathbor, 2001).

Qualitative researchers attempted various steps to ensure the ‘quality’ of

The growth of mixed methods research

works if social work research is to be people-centred and scientific.)

Discussion and Conclusion

methodologies have dominated social work research in turns.

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Creswell, J. W. & Clark, V. L. P. (2011). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods

Davison, J. (2004). Dilemmas in research: Issues of vulnerability and disempowerment for

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Gartner, W. B. (1985). A conceptual framework for describing the phenomenon of new

Gartner, W. B. (1988). “Who is an entrepreneur?” is the wrong question.

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Transacting the Community Organisation Curriculum in

Mouleshri Vyas is Professor, Centre for Community Organisation and Development

more relevant for the students.