A Lecture on topological Space

Md. Masum Murshed

Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics
University of Rajshahi
Rajshahi 6205
Email: mmmurshed82@gmail.com

1
 Content
• The definition of Topological Space and
Open Sets.
• Indiscrete Topological space.
• Cofinite Topology.
• Open sets in ℝ and Usual Topology on ℝ.
• Limit point and Derived set.
• Closed Sets.
• Closure of a Set and Dense Subset.
• Some Problems and their solutions.
2
 Topological Space
Definition:
Let X be a nonempty set. τ be a collection of subsets of X. Then τ is called a
topology on X, if τ satisfies the following axioms:
[o1] X, Ø belong to τ.
[o2] The union of any number of sets in τ belongs to τ.
[o3] The intersection of any two sets in τ belongs to τ.
Then the pair (X, τ) is called a topological space. The members of τ are called
τ -open sets or simply open sets.

Example:

(i) Let X={ a, b, c} and τ ={ X, Ø, {a}, {a ,b}}, then τ is a topology on X and (X,
τ) is a topological space.

(ii) Let, τ be the class of subsets of ℕ containing of Ø and all subsets of ℕ of

the form En={n, n+1, n+2,…….} with n ℕ. Then τ is a topology on ℕ.
3
 Topological Space
Definition:
Let X be a nonempty set and τ ={X, Ø}. Then τ satisfies the axioms for a
topology on X. This topology is called the indiscrete topology on X.

Definition:
Let X be a nonempty set and D denotes the class of all subsets of X. Then D
satisfies the axioms for a topology on X. This topology is called the
discrete topology on X.
Example:
Let X={a, b } and D ={ X, Ø, {a},{b}}, then D is the discrete topology on X and
(X, D) is a discrete space.

Definition:
Let τ denote the class of all subsets of X whose complements are finite together
with the empty set Ø. Then τ is a topology on X. This topology is called the
Cofinite topology on X.
4
 Topological Space
Theorem
Cofinite Topology on a finite set is the Discrete topology.
Proof
Let X be a nonempty finite set and τ be the Cofinite topology on X. We show
that τ is the discrete topology on X, i.e. every subset A of X is a member of τ.
Let A be any subset of X, then Ac is finite since X is finite. Hence A is a member
of τ.
Theorem
If τ1 and τ2 are Topologies on X, then τ1 ∩ τ2 is also a topology on X.
Theorem
If {τi : i I } is a collection of Topologies on X, Then ∩ i τ i is also a topology on
X.
Proof
Since each τi is a topology on X then X, Ø τ i for each i. Thus X, Ø ∩ i τ i .
Hence ∩ i τ satisfies [o1].
Let 𝓐  ∩ i τ i , 𝓐  τ i for each i. Since each τi is a topology on X then
U i G i τ i ; G i 𝓐 for each i. Thus U i G i ∩ i τ i . Hence ∩ i τ satisfies [o2].
Let G1, G2 ∩ i τ i , then G1, G2 τ i for each i. Since each τi is a topology on X
then G1 ∩ G2 τ i for each i. Thus G1 ∩ G2 ∩ i τ i . Hence ∩ i τ satisfies [o3].
5
 Topological Space
Open sets in ℝ
Open intervals are open sets.
Unions of any number of open intervals are open sets.
Intersections of any finite number of open intervals are open sets.

Definition:
Let U denote the class of all open sets of real numbers. Then U is a topology on
ℝ. This topology is called the usual topology on ℝ.

Definition:
Let X be a topological space. A point p X is called a accumulation point or
limit point or derived point or cluster point of a subset A of X if and only if
every open set G containing p contains a point of A different from p, i.e.,
G open, p G implies (G\{p})∩A≠ Ø.
The set of all accumulation points of A, denoted by A', is called the derived set
of A.
Example:
Consider the usual topology on the set of all real numbers ℝ and the set Q of
rational numbers. Then every real number p ℝ is a limit point of Q since every
6
open set contains rational numbers, i.e. points of Q. Therefore Q´= ℝ.
 Topological Space
Isolated point
Definition:
Let X be a topological space. A point p X is called an isolated point of a
subset A of X if it is not a limit point of A.

Closed set
Definition:
Let X be a topological space. A subset A of X is a closed set if and only if its
complement Ac is an open set.
Example:
Let X={a ,b ,c} and τ ={ X, Ø, {a},{a, b}}, then the closed sets are Ø, X, {b, c},
{c}.

Theorem
Let X be a topological space. Then the class of closed subsets of X possesses
the following properties:
•X and Ø are closed set.
•The intersection of any number of closed sets is closed.
7
•The union of two closed sets is closed.
 Topological Space
Theorem
A subset A of a topological space X is closed if and only if A contains each of
its limit points.

Closure of a Set
Definition:
Let X be a topological space and A be a subset of X. Then the closure of A
denoted by Cl(A) or Ā is the intersection of all closed sets containing A.
Example:
Let X={a ,b ,c} and τ ={ X, Ø, {a},{a, b}} and A={c}. Here the closed sets are Ø,
X, {b, c}, {c}. Now closed sets containing A are X, {b, c} and {c}. Therefore, Ā=
X ∩ {b, c} ∩{c} = {c} .

Proposition
The closure of a set is the intersection of all closed supersets A.
Furthermore:
(i) The closure of A, Cl(A) is a closed set.
(ii) Cl(A) is the smallest closed superset of A.
8
(iii) A is closed if and only if Cl(A)=A.
 Topological Space
Theorem
Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then the closure of A is the union of
A and its set of limit points. i.e. Ā = A U A´.

Closure point or adherent point

Let X be a topological space. A point p X is called a closure point or
adherent point of a subset A of X if and only if p belongs to the closure of A.
i.e. p Ā. i.e. p A U A´. i.e. p A or p is a limit point of A.

Dense subset
Definition:
A subset A of a topological space X is said to be dense in BX if B is contained
in the closure of A. i.e. B Ā. In particular, A is dense in X or a dense subset
of X iff Ā = X.

Example:
Consider the usual topology on the set of all real numbers ℝ and the set Q of
rational numbers. Then every real number p ℝ is a limit point of Q. Therefore,
Q´= ℝ. Now, = Q U ℝ = ℝ. Hence Q is dense in ℝ. 9
 Some problems and their solutions
Problem: (1)
Let τ be a topology on a set X consisting of four sets, i.e. τ ={ X, Ø, A, B}.
Where A and B are non-empty distinct proper subsets of X. What conditions
must A and B satisfy?
Solution:
Since A∩B must also belong to τ , there are two possibilities:
Case I. A∩B= Ø
Then AUB cannot be A or B; hence AUB =X. Thus the class {A,B} is a partition
of X.
Case II. A∩B= A or A∩B= B.
In either case, one of the sets is a subset of the other, and the members of τ
are totally ordered by inclusion: Ø A  B  X or Ø B  A  X.
Problem: (2)
List all topologies on X={a, b, c} which consist of exactly four members.
Solution:
Case I. {A,B} is a partition of X.
The topologies in this case are following:
τ 1 ={ X, Ø, {a}, {b , c}}, τ 2 ={ X, Ø, {b}, {a , c}}, τ 3 ={ X, Ø, {c}, {a , b}}. 10
 Some problems and their solutions
Case II: The members of τ are totally ordered by inclusion.
The topologies in this case are following:
τ 4 ={ X, Ø, {a}, {a , b}}, τ 5 ={ X, Ø, {a}, {a , c}}, τ 6 ={ X, Ø, {b}, {a , b}}, τ 7 ={ X,
Ø, {b}, {b , c}} , τ 8 ={ X, Ø, {c}, {a , c}}, τ 9 ={ X, Ø, {c}, {b , c}}.
Problem: (3)
Let f: X → Y be a function from a non-empty set to a topological space (Y ,u ).
Furthermore, let τ be the class of inverses of open subsets of Y: Show that τ
is a topology on X.
Solution:
Since u is a topology, Y, Ø u. But
X = f-1(Y) and Ø = f-1(Ø), so X, Ø τ.
Let {Ai} be a class of sets in τ. By definition, there exist Gi u for which Ai = f-1
(Gi). But Ui Ai = Ui f-1 [Gi]. = f-1 [Ui Gi]. Since u is a topology, Ui Gi u so Ui Ai
τ.
Lastly, let A1,A2 τ. Then there exist G1, G2 u such that A1 = f-1 (G1) and A2 = f-1
(G2).
But A1∩A2 = f-1 (G1) ∩ f-1 (G2) = f-1 (G1 ∩ G2) and G1 ∩ G2 u. Thus A1∩A2 11τ.
Hence τ is a topology on X.
 Some problems and their solutions
Problem: (4)
Consider the second axiom for a topology τ on a set X:
[o2] The union of any number of sets in τ belongs to τ.
Show that [o2] can be replaced by the following weaker axiom:
[o2´] The union of any number of sets in τ \{X,Ø} belongs to τ.
In other words, show that the axioms [o1], [o2] and [o3] are equivalent to the
axioms [o1], [o2´] and [o3].

Solution:
Let τ be a class of subset of X satisfying
[o1], [o2´] and [o3], and let A be a subclass of τ. We want to show that τ also
satisfies [o2], i.e. U{E: E A} τ.
Case I. X A,
Then U{E: E A} = X and therefore belong to τ.
Case II. X ∉ A,
Then U{E: E A} = U{E: E A \{X}}.
But the empty set Ø does not contribute any elements to a union of sets; hence
U{E: E A} = U{E: E A \{X}} = U{E: E A \{X, Ø}} …………………..(1).
Since A is a subclass of τ, A \{X, Ø} is a subclass of τ \{X, Ø}, so by [o2´] the
union in (1) belong to τ. 12
 Some problems and their solutions
Problem: (5)
Let, τ be the class of subsets of ℝ containing of ℝ, Ø and all open infinite
intervals Ea=(a, ∞) with a ℝ. Show that τ is a topology on ℝ.
Solution:
Since ℝ and Ø belong to τ, τ satisfies [o1].

Let A be a subclass of τ \{ℝ, Ø}, that is A = {Ei: i I} where I is some set of real
numbers. We want to show that Ui Ei belong to τ. If I is not bounded from
below, i.e. if inf (I) = - ∞, then Ui Ei = ℝ.
If I is bounded from below, say inf (I) = i0 then Ui Ei = (i0, ∞) = E i . In either case
0
Ui Ei belong to τ, and τ satisfies [o2´].

Now, observe that τ is totally ordered by set inclusion. Thus A, B τ implies

A∩B= A or A∩B= B. In either case A∩B τ. Therefore, τ satisfies [o3].

13
Some problems and their solutions

14
 Some problems and their solutions
Solution: (ii)
Since the nonempty open sets are of the form En={n, n+1, n+2,…….} with n
N. Therefore, the open sets containing the positive integer 6 are the following:
E1= {1, 2, 3,…….}, E2= {2, 3, 4,…….},
E3= {3, 4, 5,…….}, E4= {4, 5, 6,…….},
E5= {5, 6, 7,…….}, E6= {6, 7, 8,…….}.
Solution: (iii)

Solution: (iv)

Solution: (v)

15
 Some problems and their solutions
Solution: (vi)

Solution: (vii)

Problem: (7)
Let A be any subset of a discrete topological space. Show that the derived set A' of A is
empty.
Solution:
Let p be any point in X. Since X is a discrete topological space, then every subset of X
is open. Therefore, {p} is an open subset of X containing p. Now, ({p}\{p}) ∩ A = Ø ∩ A=
Ø. Therefore, p is not a limit point of A. Thus, no point of X is a limit point of A.
Hence A' = Ø.
Problem: (8)
Consider the topology τ = {X, Ø, {a},{a ,b}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e}} on X={a, b, c, d,
e}. Determine the derived sets of (i) A = {c, d, e} and (ii) B = {b}.
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 Some problems and their solutions
Solution: (i)
Open subsets of X containing a are {a}, {a, b}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e} and X.
Now ({a}\{a}) ∩A= Ø ∩A= Ø. Therefore a is not a limit point of A.
Open subsets of X containing b are {a, b}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e} and X.
Now ({a, b}\{b}) ∩A = {a} ∩ {c, d, e} = Ø. Therefore b is not a limit point of A.
Open subsets of X containing c are {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d} and X.
Now, ({a, c, d}\{c}) ∩A = {a, d} ∩ {c, d, e} = {d} ≠ Ø.
({a, b, c, d}\{c}) ∩A = {a, b, d} ∩ {c, d, e} = {d} ≠ Ø
(X\{c}) ∩A = {a, b, d, e} ∩ {c, d, e} = {d, e} ≠ Ø.
Therefore c is a limit point of A.
Open subsets of X containing d are {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d} and X.
Now,
({a, c, d}\{d}) ∩A = {a, c} ∩ {c, d, e} = {c} ≠ Ø.
({a, b, c, d}\{d}) ∩A = {a, b, c} ∩ {c, d, e} = {c} ≠ Ø
(X\{d}) ∩A = {a, b, c, e} ∩ {c, d, e} = {c, e} ≠ Ø.
Therefore d is a limit point of A.
Open subsets of X containing e are {a, b, e} and X. Now,
({a, b, e}\{e}) ∩A = {a, b} ∩ {c, d, e} = Ø. Therefore e is not a limit point of A.
Hence A‘= {c, d}

17
 Some problems and their solutions
Solution: (ii)

Open subsets of X containing a are {a}, {a, b}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e} and X.

Now ({a}\{a}) ∩B= Ø ∩B= Ø. Therefore a is not a limit point of B.

Open subsets of X containing b are {a, b}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e} and X. Now ({a, b}\{b})

∩B = {a} ∩ {b} = Ø. Therefore b is not a limit point of B.

Open subsets of X containing c are {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d} and X.

Now, ({a, c, d}\{c}) ∩B = {a, d} ∩ {b} = Ø. Therefore c is not a limit point of B.

Open subsets of X containing e are {a, b, e} and X.

Now, ({a, b, e}\{e}) ∩B = {a, b} ∩ {b}= {b} ≠ Ø.

(X \{e}) ∩B = {a, b, c, d} ∩ {b}= {b} ≠ Ø. Therefore e is a limit point of B.

Hence B‘= { e }.
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 Some problems and their solutions
Solution: (ii)

Open subsets of X containing a are {a}, {a, b}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e} and X.

Now ({a}\{a}) ∩B= Ø ∩B= Ø. Therefore a is not a limit point of B.

Open subsets of X containing b are {a, b}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, b, e} and X. Now ({a, b}\{b})

∩B = {a} ∩ {b} = Ø. Therefore b is not a limit point of B.

Open subsets of X containing c are {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d} and X.

Now, ({a, c, d}\{c}) ∩B = {a, d} ∩ {b} = Ø. Therefore c is not a limit point of B.

Open subsets of X containing e are {a, b, e} and X.

Now, ({a, b, e}\{e}) ∩B = {a, b} ∩ {b}= {b} ≠ Ø.

(X \{e}) ∩B = {a, b, c, d} ∩ {b}= {b} ≠ Ø. Therefore e is a limit point of B.

Hence B‘= { e }.
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A Lecture on topological Space M
D

Md. Masum Murshed M

A
S
Lecturer U
M

Department of Mathematics M
U
University of Rajshahi R
S

Rajshahi 6205 H
E

Email: mmmurshed82@gmail.com D

20
Problem:
Let τ1 and τ2 are topologies on X such that τ1  τ2. i.e. every τ1-
M
open subset of X is also τ2-open subset of X. Furthermore, let A D

be any subset of X. M
A
S
(i) Show that every τ2-limit point of A is also a τ1-limit point of U
M
A. M
(ii) Construct a space in which a τ1-limit point is not a τ2-limit UR
point. S
H
E
Solution: (i) D

Let p be a τ2-limit point of A; i.e. (G\{p}) ∩A ≠ Ø for every G τ2

such that p G. But τ1  τ2; so in particular, (G\{p}) ∩A ≠ Ø for
every G τ1 such that p G, i.e. p is a τ1-limit point of A. 21
Solution: (ii)
Consider, the usual topology U and the discrete topology D on
R. Note that U  D since D contains every subsets of R. Let A = M
D

{1, 1/2, 1/3,......}. Then 0 is not a D-limit point of A since A' is M

empty. But 0 is a U-limit point of A. A

S
U
Interior, Exterior and Boundary of a subset A of a M

topological space X M
U
R
Definition: S
H
Let X be a topological space and A be a subset of X. A point p E
D
A is called an interior point of A if p belongs to an open set G
contained in A. i.e. p G  A, where G is open. The set of all
interior points of A, denoted by int(A), is called the interior of A.
22
The exterior of A, denoted by ext(A), is the interior of the
complement of A, i.e. int(Ac).
M
The boundary of A, denoted by b(A), is the set of points which D

do not belong to the interior or the exterior of A. M

A
S
Theorem Cl(A) = int(A) U b(A) U
M

Proposition M
U
R
The interior of a set A is the union of all open subsets of A. S
H
Furthermore: E
D
(i) int(A) is open.
(ii) int(A) is the largest open subset of A.
(iii) A is open iff int(A)=A.
23
Problem:
Consider the topology τ ={X, Ø, {a},{a, b}, {a , c , d},{a, b, c , d}, M
{a, b, e}} on X={a , b , c , d , e} and let A={a, b, c}. D

(i) Find int (A). M

A
(ii) Find ext (A). S
U
(iii) Find b(A). M

M
U
Solution: (i) R
S
H
We know that the interior of a set A is the union of all open E
D
subsets of A. Here the open subsets of A are: Ø, {a} and {a, b}.
Therefore, int(A)=Ø U{a} U{a, b} = {a, b}.
24
Solution: (ii)
We know that the exterior of A, denoted by ext(A), is the
M
interior of the complement of A, i.e. int(Ac). Now, Ac ={d, e}. Here D

the only open subsets of Ac is Ø. Therefore, M

A
ext(A) = int(Ac) = Ø S
U
M

M
Solution: (iii) U
R
S
We know that the boundary of A, denoted by b(A), is the set of H
E
points which do not belong to the interior or the exterior of A. D

Therefore,
b(A) = X \ (int(A) U ext(A)) = {a , b , c , d , e} \ {a, b} = {c, d, e}.
25
Neighborhoods and Neighborhood system
Definition: M
D
Let p be a point in a topological space X. A subset Np of X is a
M
neighborhood of p iff Np is a superset of an open set G A

containing p. i.e. p G  Np where G is an open set. The class

S
U

of all neighborhoods of p, denoted by Np, is called the

M

M
neighborhood system of p. U
R
S
Example H
E
D
The intervals [-1/3, 1/4] and (-1/8, 1/7) are both neighborhood
of 0 in R, while [0,1] is not.
26
Problem:
Consider the topology τ ={X, Ø, {a},{a, b}, {a , c , d},{a, b, c , d},
M
{a, b, e}} on X={a , b , c , d , e}. D

List the neighborhoods of M

A
(i)The point e. S
U
(ii)The point c. M

Solution: (i) M
U
We know that the neighborhood of e is any superset of an open R
S
set containing e. Here the open sets containing e are {a, b, e} H
E
and X. The super sets of {a, b, e} are {a, b, e}, {a, b, c, e}, {a, b, D
d, e} and X. The only superset of X is X. Therefore, the class of
all neighborhoods of e, i.e. the neighborhood system of e, is Ne
= {{a, b, e}, {a, b, c, e}, {a, b, d, e}, X}. 27
Solution: (ii)
Here the open sets containing c are {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d} and X. M
The super sets of {a, c, d} are {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, c, d, e} D

and X. The super sets of {a, b, c, d} are {a, b, c, d} and X. The M

A
only superset of X is X. Therefore, the class of all S
U
neighborhoods of c, i.e. the neighborhood system of c, is Nc = M

{a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}, {a, c, d, e}, X}. M

U
R
S
Problem: H
E
D
The intersection N∩M of any two neighborhoods N and M of a
point p is also a neighborhood of p.
28
Solution:
N and M are neighborhoods of p, so there exist open sets G and H such that
p G  N and p H  M. M
Therefore, p G∩H N∩M. Since G∩H is open, therefore N∩M is a D

neighborhood of p. M
A
Problem: S
U
A set G is open iff it is a neighborhood of each of its points. M

Proposition: M
U
Let Np be the neighborhood system of a point p in a topological space X. R
S
Then: H
(i) Np is not empty and p belongs to each member of Np. E
D
(ii) The intersection of any two members of Np belong to Np.
(iii) Every superset of members of Np belong to Np.
(iv) Each member N Np is a superset of a member G Np where G is a
neighborhood of each of its points. 29
Coarser and Finer Topologies
Definition: M
Let τ1 and τ2 be topologies on a non-empty set X. Suppose D

that each τ1 open subset of X is also a τ2 open subset of X. M

A
That is, suppose that τ1 is a subclass of τ2, i.e. τ1  τ2. Then S
U
we say that τ1 is coarser or smaller than τ2 or τ2 is finer or M

larger than τ1. M

U
R
S
Observe that the collection T = {τi} of all topologies on a set X H
E
is partially ordered by class inclusion; so we shall also write τ1 D

≾ τ2 for τ1  τ2
And we shall say that two topologies on X are not comparable
if neither is coarser then the other. 30
Examples

(i) Consider the discrete topology D, indiscrete topology I and M

D

any other topology τ on any set X. Then τ is coarser than D and M

finer than I. That is, I ≾ τ ≾ D. A
S
U
M

(ii) Consider the cofinite topology τ and the usual topology U on M

U
the plane R2. Recall that every finite subset of R2 is a U-closed R
S

set; hence the complement of any finite subset of R2, i.e. any H
E
member of τ, is also a U-open set. In other words τ is coarser D

than U. That is, τ ≾ U.

31
Relative Topology
Definition: M
Let (X , τ) be a topological space and Y  X, then {U∩Y : U τ} D

is easily seen to be a topology on Y, called the relative M

A
topology. S
U
M
Example M
U
Let X = {a , b , c , d , e} and τ = {X, Ø, {a},{c ,d}, {a , c , d},{b , c , d , e}} then R
τ is a topology on X. Consider the subset A={a , d , e} of X. Observe that S
H
X ∩ A=A, Ø ∩ A = Ø, {a} ∩ A = {a}, E
{c ,d} ∩ A = {d}, {a , c , d} ∩ A = {a , d}, D

{b , c , d , e} ∩ A = {d , e}
Hence the relative topology τA = {A,Ø,{a},{d},{a , d},{d , e}}
32
Problem:
Consider the usual topology u on the real line R. Describe the M
relative topology uN on the set N of positive integers. D

M
A
Solution: S
U
M
Observe that, For every positive integer n N, {n} = N ∩ {n-½,
n+½}. And {n-½, n+½} is a u-open set; so every singleton
M
U
R
subset {n} of N is open relative to N. Hence every subset of N S
H
is open relative to N since it is a union of singleton sets. In E
D
other words n is the discrete topology on N.

33
Problem:
Consider the usual topology u on the real line R. Determine
M
whether or not each of the following subsets of I = [0, 1] are D

open relative to I, i.e. τI-open: M

A
(i) (1/2, 1], (ii) (1/2, 2/3), (iii) (0, ½]. S
U
M
Solution: (i) M
Observe that, (1/2, 1]=I∩(1/2, 2) and (1/2, 2) is open in R. U
R
Hence (1/2, 1] is open relative to I. S
H
E
Solution: (ii) D

Observe that, (1/2, 2/3)=I∩(1/2, 2/3) and (1/2, 2/3) is open in R.

Hence (1/2, 2/3) is open relative to I.
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Solution: (iii)
Since (0, ½] is not the intersection of I with any u-open subset
M
of R, it is not open relative to I. D

M
Convergent Sequence in a Topological Space A
S
Given a topological space (X , τ), we say a sequence xn U
M
converges to a point x, written xn → x (as n → ∞), iff for every M
open set G containing x, there is an m such that xn G for all n UR
≥ m. S
H
E
Example D

(i) Let (x1, x2, x3,………) be a sequence of points in an indiscrete

topological space(X, τ). Then X is the only open set containing
any point x X. 35
X contains every term of the sequence {xn}. Accordingly, the
sequence (x1, x2, x3,…) converges to every point x X.
M
D

M
(ii) Let (x1, x2, x3,………) be a sequence of points in an discrete A

topological space(X, D). Now for every point x X, the singleton

S
U
M
set {x} is an open set containing x. i.e. {x} is a neighborhood of
M
x. So if xn → x, then the set {x} must contain almost all of the U
R
terms of the sequence. S
H

In other words, the sequence (x1, x2, x3,…) converges to a point E

D

x X iff the sequence is of the form (x1, x2, x3,….xm, x, x, x,…..).

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Problem:
Let τ be the cofinite topology on the real line R, and let (x1, x2,
x3,…) be a sequence in R with distinct terms. Show that {xn}
M
D

converges to every real number x R. M

A
S
Solution: U
M

M
Let G be any open set containing x R. Then G is also a U
R
neighborhood of x. But by definition of cofinite topology G c is a S
H
finite set and hence can contain only a finite number of the E
D
terms of the sequence {xn} since the terms are distinct. Thus G
contains almost all of the terms of {xn}, and so {xn} converges to
x. 37
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