CHAPTER – V

MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUDING

OBSERVATIONS

Veṇīsaṁhāra is the great dramatic creation of Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa, the plot

of which is taken from the Sabhāparvan of the great epic Mahābhārata. The
author left no stone unturned to make the drama a charming as well as full-
fledged one. Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa showed his great skill in the application of law of
Sanskrit dramaturgy as laid down by the great dramatists like Bharata,
Viśvanatha and others. The drama Veṇīsaṁhāra belongs to the class of
„Rūpaka‟ which is known as „Nāṭaka‟. It covers the use of compound words,
Alaṁkāras and other important poetic elements.

The first chapter of this work starts with an introduction which is

divided into three sections such as : Life and date of Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa; Study
conducted on Veṇīsaṁhāra and Purpose of the study. In the first section it is
discussed about the life and date of Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa. It is a great problem in
respect of almost all the Sanskrit poets regarding their personal history.
Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa is also a dramatist, who has no distinct communication in this
regard. Nothing is found about himself expect the title Kavimṛgarāja in the
prelude of the drama Veṇīsaṁhāra. Though, there are no sufficient references
in the concerned text but some references available in other sources, one comes
to know that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa was of Śāndilya family. He originally belong to
Kānyakubja or Kanouj as narrated in “Kṣitiśavamśāvalicarita” of Bengal
where it is clearly mentioned that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa was one of the five
Brāhmins brought to Bengal with special request of king Ādisura. It is also
believed that he is the predecessor of the illustrious Tagore family of Calcutta.
He is known to be the leader of Sāraśvat settlers and thus he became the
founder of Gauḍa Sāraśvata Brāhmanism in the province. The

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Kṣitiśavamśāvalicaritam indicates Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa as Kṣatriya. In the prelude
of Veṇīsaṁhāra the very word „Mṛgarājalakṣma‟, which means one whose
surname of family name is Mṛgarāja or Siṁha or Siṅha which is usually found
to the names of Kṣatriyas such as Pratap-Siṁha or Siṅha, Jaya-Siṁha and
others. That is why Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa was a Kṣatriya. But there are positive
evidences to believe that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa was a Brāhmana by Caste. The word
„Bhaṭṭa‟ clearly proves that he was a Brāhmana. Kṣtriyas are never designated
in this way as Bhaṭṭa. There are some points in the Veṇīsaṁhāra which clearly
indicate that its author was Brāhmana – for instance, the character of the
Vidūṣaka brings in the comic or lighter sentiments in a Sanskrit drama and as
he is always a Brāhmana. The author did not delineated Vidūṣaka in his drama.
So Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa is a Brāhmiṇ by caste. The author with a sense of showing
his superiority of caste in the Veṇīsaṁhāra which is obviously focused in the
3rd Act of the drama where it is seen that Rudirpriya, a demon remarked with
fear that Brāhmana -blood burn when drunk. Such a remark only can come out
from the mouth of a Brāhmaṇa writer. In the 3rd Act it has been also noticed
that superiority of Aśvathāmān and mean mindedness and back-biting of Karṇa
while the quarrels occurs in them. In the ending part of the battle i.e. in the 6th
Act of the drama though the situation is not favourable for hospitality but
Yudhiṣṭhira and Draupadī have shown their duty as a Kṣtriya by showing
honour to a Brāhmaṇa. Moreover, the benedictory verse of the drama also
exhibits that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa was a devotee of Lord Śive and Lord Hari. He
had profound knowledge of Purāṇas, different branches of philosophy and in
the science of Karma Mīmāṁsā. Therefore Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa is no doubt is a
Brāhmaṇa by caste.

It is shrowed in mistry regarding the date of Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa. The

different sources opine different opinion regarding the date of the author. But
some authors give clear hints particularly their dates. Such as, Bhāsa has been
mentioned as of 3rd century B.C. in his introductory chapter of
Svapnavāsavadattam. The date of Bāṇabhaṭṭa falls in between 606-647 century
A.D. i.e. 7th century A.D. like this, the date of Bhavabhūti is found to be first
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part of 8th century A.D. The other source proves that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa was
either posterior or contemporary of Bāṇabhaṭṭa.

Vāmana, the author of Kāvyālaṅkārasūtra exemplified from

Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa‟s usage. Scholars place Vāmana in between 750 A.D. to 800
A.D. It is evident from this fact that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa attained certain degree of
popularity by 750 A.D. It is said that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa might be a contemporary
of Daṇdī, who flourished in the second half of the seventh century A.D. and
Daṇḍī could not make it refer Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa because of geographical
distance and unavailability of the text before hand. The later rhetoricians like
Viśvanātha Kavirāja and Ānandavardhana quoted from Veṇīsaṁhāra.
Ānandavardhana, the author of Dhvañyāloka flourished in between 840 A.D.
to 870 A.D. quoted several verse from Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa‟s work. Dhanañjaya,
the author of Daśarūpaka who flourished in and around950 A.D. and
Bhojarāja, the author of Sarasvatī Kanthābharaṇa who flourished in between
1005-1054 A.D. also referred and quoted verses from Veṇīsaṁhāra of
Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa. Kṣemendra, the author of Aucityavicāracarcā and
Kavikanthābharaṇa, who flourished in between 1025-1075 A.D. also referred
to Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa. The author of Kāvyaprakaśa, Mammaṭa flourished in
between 1050 A.D. to 1100 A.D. also exemplified from Veṇīsaṁhāra
Kṣirosvāmi, the happy commentator of Amarakośa also quoted
Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa.

According to Cunningham the Sena dynasty reigned in Bengal in

between 650 and 1108 A.D. That means Ādisūra was reigning the later half of
the 7th century A.D. consequently Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa may also be considered to
belong to same period of Ādisura. All these references cited above give a clear
hint that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa‟s date is about second half of 7th century A.D.

The second section i.e. Study conducted on Veṇīsaṁhāra is as follows –

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 Maurice Winternitz in his „History of Indian Literrature‟ Vol – III. has
mentioned the main source of the drama Veṇīsaṁhāra and briefly given a clear
picture of the drama till the war description at the end.

M. Kṛiṣṇamachariar in his “History of classical Sanskrit Literature” has

mentioned that the drama is taken from the incident of Sabhāparvan of
Mahābhārata.

Arthur A. Mac Doneel in his “A History of Sanskrit Literature" has

highlighted the theme of Veṇīsaṁhāra and explained there how Duḥśāsana
dragged Draupadī in the assembly hall and so on.

Sushil Kumar Dey in his “Treatment of love in Sanskrit Literature” has

referred that Vennismahara is the second drama which does not delineate love
sentiment, the other drama is Mudrārākṣasam.

“The cultural Heritage of India” Vol – V, languages and literature also

mentioned about Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Ratnamayai Devi Diksit in her work “Women in Sanskrit Dramas”

discussed the female characters of Veṇīsaṁhāra in detail.

Dr. Swapna Devi, in his work “The concept and treatment of Dream in
Sanskrit Literature” discusses the dream episode of Bhānumatī in
Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Gaurināth Śāstri in his treatise “A consise History of classical Sanskrit

Literature” has referred Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa and mentioned the probable date of
the dramatist to be 8th century A.D.

“Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa” a book by Asoke Chatterjee Sastri which very

elaborately discussed Veṇīsaṁhāra of Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa .

“A companion to Sanskrit Literature” is a book authored by Suresh

Chandra Banarji where the author discusses Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa as the author of
Veṇīsaṁhāra .

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 In the “The theory of Rasa in Sanskrit Drama” by Hariram Mishra, the
author discusses the Rasa in Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Prof. Bhagirathi Biswas in his book “Sociology of Sanskrit Drama”

discusses about the sociological aspects of Veṇīsaṁhāra.

The third section of this first chapter i.e. Purpose of the study. The
dramatist has chosen the most crucial portion of Mahābhārata. The Kurukṣetra
was along with its precursors and successive events. As it is known to all that
Kurukṣetra war was being fought in between Kiths and Kins all the closests of
relations were messed in those eventualities. The drama also delineated very
compatible relation of two pairs of spouse, one that is of Bhīmasena and
Draupadī and the other pair is of Duryodhana and Bhānumatī. It may again be
mentioned that Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa‟s Veṇīsaṁhāra is the only Sanskrit work
where character of Bhānumatī is portrayed with so much of attention and care.
Even the concern of Bhīmasena to Draupadī is though a theme of
Mahābhārata is very wel-portrayed in the drama. The drama is also appealing
on the ground that the author has been very successful in creating Pathos in the
fourth act and brilliant heroic sentiments in the earlier Acts. The technicalities,
sociological aspect, character delineations and deviations from the original
story make the drama an interesting subject of style. The paucity of substantial
research works on this work also make it a major point of attraction. Hence the
present study is being carried out on Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Chapter – II of the work deals with the Nature and classification of

Sanskrit drama. The Sanskrit drama or Nāṭya belongs to the Dṛśya Kāvya.
Drama or Nāṭya in the reproduction of certain situations so as to induce in the
spectators a sense of identification with hero and other characters by the way
the actor render them. Bharata defines representation as that art of an actor by
means of which he re-creates the sentiment (rasa) inherent in the original
situation forming the theme of the drama under enactment. The Nātya is also
technically known as Rūpa or a show because it is a scene. Accordingly it is
called a Rūpaka. There are ten kinds of Rūpakas which are known as Nāṭaka or
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Drama, Prakaraṇa, Bhāṇa, Vyāyoga, Samavakāra, Dima, Ihāmṛga, Utsrtanka,
Vīthī and Prahasana, of the types Nāṭaka or Drama and Prakarṇa are popular
among playwrights.

Nāṭaka is the depiction of some event or events in the life of a

distinguished prince of saintly character (Prakhyāta Rājarṣhi). The person
chosen as the hero of a Nāṭaka should be either Dhīra-lalita, Dhirodhātta or
Dhirośānta. Bharata directs that a Nāṭaka should end with the achievement of
such objects as pertaining to piety (dharma) sensual enjoyments (kāma) or
wealth (artha) by the hero. The fourth object of life, namely liberation is
included in the generic terms of piety or righteousness. Viśvanātha also admits
the several vibūtis such as piety (dharma), wealth (artha), pleasure (kama) and
absolution (mokṣa). A Nāṭaka or Drama should contain either heroic (vīra) or
erotic (Śṛingāra) of course, there would be other subordinate sentiments as
well, which are to be manifested occasionally. Bharata states that a Nāṭaka is
full of activities and displays divers sentiments and feelings. It consists of five
sandhis.

The second type of Rūpaka is Prakaraṇa where the poet plans the entire
plot of the play and creates out of his imagination its hero and other characters
a well. The originality of the plot is the main feature of a Prakaraṇa which
alone distinguishes it from the Nāṭaka group. The hero of a Prakaraṇa is
generally Dhīra-śānta or Dhīrodātta character. The Prakaraṇa deals with an
account of a Brāhmaṇa, a minister or a Vaiśya. The hero of this type of shows
(Rūpaka) would generally be of Dhīra-śānta or Dhīrodātta character. The
heroine may be a married lady i.e. wife of the hero, or may be a courtesan. But
such a blending of hero types of heroines in a Prakaraṇa finds less importance
with Bharata. Prakaraṇa, on the other hand is divided into three types, namely,
Simple (Suddha), Artifical (Dhūrta), and Mixed (Miśra) accordingly to the
types of the heroine it contains.

Bhāṇa or a monologue is a one-act play. Wherein the hero speaks for

himself as well as for other characters who are imaginary and supposed to
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speak in absentia. The plot of the play is purely a creation of the poet‟s own
imagination. The body of the play measures to a single act only, and as such, it
has only the opening (Mukha) and the Conclusion juncture (Nirvāhana)
Sandhi. By virtue of predominance of the Bhāratī Vṛtti, various sub-divisions
of humour (Prahasan) find place in a monologue. In other particulars it
borrows the pattern from the Nāṭaka.

Vyāyoga or a Military Sectacle is a type of shows wherein several

characters disagree with one another. A Vyāyoga deals with a particular topic
and its chief characters are also Well-known (Khyāta). The body of the play is
shorn of two junctures, the development and Pause, and is made up of only
three junctures, the opening, the Progression and the Conclusion. The hero of
the play is invariably Dhīrodātta nature mostly having in a sober way or the
Sāttvatī Vṛtii. Bharata, however, directs that a hero of a Vyāyoga should not be
a divine figure, nor a king nor a sage.

Samavakāra is a dramatic representation in which there is fusion of

several types of actions, characters, and motifs. It is a peculiar in its composite
elements and differs from an average show in several respects. The hero of
Samavakāra could be one from among gods and demons. Viśvanātha, on the
other hand, observes that they should be gods and men. It has only four
junctures, namely, the opening, the Expansion, the Pause and the conclusion; it
has the absence of Catastrophe or the Vimarśa Sandhi. Duration of action
displayed in the first act is expected to take the longest time i.e. six muhūrtas.
And the entire action will endure nine muhūrtas or eighteen nāḍikās. The
sentiment of the play should be erotic. Bharata holds up that it always contains
three types of horror, three types of passion and three types of deception. The
metres employed in a Samavakāra should be mostly irregular, generally
consisting of six or seven syllables in a foot.

Ḍima has only four acts and four junctures omitting the Pause (garbha-
sandhi). It has sixteen principal characters, one more vehement than the other.
They are mostly Gods, Yakṣas, Rākṣasa, Piśācas, and other infernal beings
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(Pretas). There are no introductory scenes like the Viṣkambhaka or the
Praveśaka, and the duration extends to a period of four days spread over four
acts of the play. The plot of a Ḍima should included be well-known (Khyāta).

Īhāmṛga is a one-act play or a play in four acts. The hero is a vehement

(Uddhata) characters whether a divine or a human being. The plot of the play is
of a mixed kind. It is necessary to bring the leaders of the episode (Patākā
Nāyaka) on the stage. They could be mortal or divine, but ever-ready to rise to
the occasion and help the hero. According to Viśvanātha the member of such
auxiliaries should be ten, making a total of twelve characters in all.

Utsṛshṭaṅka depicts a well-known story. It contains pathetic sentiment

(Karuṇa-Rasa); and there is a total absence of strife and affrays. It has profuse
lament actions of bewailing women and speeches full of remorse and sorrow,
but the end is never tragic.

Vīthī is a one-act play with a fictious plot. Although the rulling

sentiment is erotic, other suitable sentiments could nevertheless be introduced.
It contains only two junctures, the opening and the conclusion. It contains a
regular Induction (Prastāvanā) and gets introduced with an abrupt dialogue
(Udghātyaka). The characters are only a few, preferably one or two, who
would manage the conversation on the stage. According to Kohala it is
supposed to have all sorts of characters, both high and low. The title, „Vīthī‟
itself signifies that it is like a avenge open for all kinds of shows and could
profitably be used in all the junctures.

The 10th type of Rūpaka i.e. Prahasana is a farce with comic characters.
It contains all the ten sub-division of Vīthī. It is presented in costumes suited
for comic scenes like the motley dress; and the language is also light so as to
tickle to the audience to laughter. The Prashasana is of tow kinds: regular
(Śuddha) and irregular (Saṅkrirṇa). Śiṅga Bhūpāla details the different
elements of a Prahasana, which are ten in number and could be generally

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employed in all types of shows. In regard to the particulars, the junctures and
the modes of behaviour, it follows the pattern of Bhāṇa.

These are the ten principal varities of shows to which may be added a
Mahānāṭaka, a play of Nāṭaka pattern with ten or more acts like the
Bālarāmāyṇa or the Hanuman Nāṭaka there are also a few minor Varities
called upa-rūpakas.

The third chapter of the thesis is – Veṇīsaṁhāra: an Introduction. The

chapter starts with the Nāndī Verse addressed to Lord Kṛṣṇa and Lord Hari.
Then enters angry Bhīmasena followed by Sahadeva in the stage. Bhīma
becomes angry and expresses his strong disapproval of the negotiation set on
foot by Kṛṣṇa. Sahadeva tries to console Bhīma and follow the path of his elder
brother, Yudhiṣṭhira. Bhīma consoles his wife Draupadī and vows to kill
Duryodhana and others and to tie up her hair with his hand wet with blood. The
war drum then beaten and all chiefs are asked to prepare for battle. Bhīma and
Sahadeva take leave of Draupadī and depart to take part in the battle.

In the Act II, the war has progressed for a few days and Bhīṣma and
Abhimanyu are slain. Then one morning Duryodhana is distracted to find his
wife gone away form the chamber without taking his leave as usual. He sends
the Kañcukin to see where she is and when he comes up scolds him for
expressing his disapproval of killing of Abhimanyu and makes a solemn
declaration which by a slip of tongue meant just the opposite of what he
actually wanted to say. He then asks Kañcukin to lead him to where Bhānumatī
was. On going there he finds her conversing with her friend and maid and,
therefore, makes up his mind to overhear them. The disucussion was on some
evil dream that Bhānumatī had that morning in pacification of which she was
observing fasting from the same day. Owing to the double meaning words in
the talk and his ignorance of the context, Duryodhana misunderstood the whole
talk and accused his wife of infidelity and incest with Nakula (mongoose).
Fourtunately, however, he did not act on his impulse at this stage and was glad
to realize that was all a dream that she was talking about.
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 In the Act III, in the interlude thousands of warriors on either side are
killed, principal among being – Dhṛṣṭadyumna, Bhagadatta, Drupada,
Matsyarāja, Somdatta, and others. Hiḍimbā (Bhīma‟s wife) has ordered that a
Rākṣasa is be constantly with Bhīma, who has vowed to drink Duḥśāsana‟s
blood. The Rākṣasa is to enter Bhīma‟s body and drink it for him. All this
information is conveyed through the interlude at the end of which it is told
Droṇa is being killed by Dhṛṣṭadyumna and that Aśvatthāma is coming up with
his sword drawn.

In the fourth Act, Duryodhana is laid in a swoon by injuries sustained

in battle, and his charioteer drives his ear into the cool shade of a remote
banyan tree. On regaining his senses Duryodhana comes to know of the
slaughter of Duḥśāsana by Bhīma and he is lost in grief. Then Sundaraka with
a long letter from Karṇa comes to Duryodhana. He has got details of the battle
and the death of Vṛsasena, the son of Karṇa from the latter. The repentance of
Duryodhana for the death of his Kith and Kin seen in this act.

In the fifth Act of the drama Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Gāndarī and Sañjaya try to
make peace with Pāndavas but Duryodhana refuses. Thereafter, Duryodhana
hears the news of death of Karṇa, he becomes helpless and ready to depart for
the field. At that moment Bhīma and Arjuna searching Duryodhana appeared
there and they have shown their courtesy to elders.

The Act VI of the drama opens with the appearance of Yudhiṣṭhira

worrying over Bhīma‟s promise for battering Duryodhana‟s thigh the same day
and sending orders for a close search for Duryodhana. Yudhiṣṭhira orders the
attendant to inform Sahadeva that there should not leave any place for
searching Duryodhana, who concealed himself in a pond. However by a
messenger Śrī Kṛṣṇa sends a massage to make prepare for coronatioin etc.
because Duryodhana is found. While Yudhiṣṭhira is busy in the arrangement
for the coronation, Cārvāka, the spy of Duryodhana reported that Bhīma and
Arjuna are killed by Duryodhana. Yudhiṣṭhira and Draupadī felt very grief
and resolve to die in a fire. Accordingly when both Yudhiṣṭhira and Draupadī
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attempt to jump into the fire, suddenly Bhīma came with his blood-red hand
and tied up the disheavelled hair of Draupadī. Kṛṣṇa announces the arrival of
all for Yudhiṣṭhira‟s coronation. The Rākṣasa is exposed and is punished by
Nakula and after the usual manner the play ends with the Bharatavākya.
Vāsudeva wished well and all exit.

The second part of the chapter is „Veṇīsaṁhāra as a Drama‟ where the

Nāndī and the Prasthāvanā of the drama Veṇīsaṁhāra is described. Here
Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa is described as the best of poets. The poet is very successful in
introducing the main points of the plot. The first Act starts with the war
between the Pāndavas and the Kauravas.

The war began and the Kauravas were defeated miserably by the
Pāndavas which is mentioned in the 6th Act of the drama.

Chapter IV of the thesis is Dramaturgy in Veṇīsaṁhāra. In this chapter

it is discussed about the dramatic technicalities like, Arthaprakṛtis, Vṛtti, Rasa,
Vṛtta, Arthopakshepakas, Hero and Heroine, Patākāsthānaka, Language and
Sandhi.

Bharata, the father of Nātyaśāstra lays down five elements of plot

known as the Artha-Prakṛtis which form the very substrata of the dramatic
story. They differ from the Kāryavasthas inasmuch as they represent
subjectively what is displayed by the latter objectively these elements are germ
(bīja), the drop (bindu), the episode (Patākā), the incident (Prakarī) and the
denounement (Kārya).

Germ (bīja) is defined as the course of denounement which is

manifested at outset in very small form, but gradually expands in manifold
ways as the action proceeds. This is, therefore, called the very seed of the
dramatic theme. For example, the enthusiasm of Yudhiṣṭhira ignited by Bhīma
‟s wrath in the Veṇīsaṁhāra or Cānakya‟s zeal to win Rākṣasa for
Chandragupta, his protege in the Mudrā-Rākṣasa may be cited as the
illustrated of the germ in a dramatic plot. Bīja is, therefore, the source of action

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which is always placed minutely at regular intervals and culminates into the
fruition of action.

When sudden drop caused by some animate more or an action of a

character in a play is called „Bindu‟ which is defined by Bharata as „the cause
of resuming the main purpose of play. When it gets interrupted.‟

The third element of the plot is the Patākā, and the fourth one is the
Prakarī which are discussed under the heading of the subsidiary plot. The
Patākā and the Prakarī are considered to be enternal (nitya) or necessary limbs
of the dramatic action and they are advised to be inserted as far as possible
(yathā yogam). Authors like Śiṅga Bhupāla and Viśvanātha insists on the use
of these elements in a drama unless it becomes almost impracticable to have
them. Yet there are off-quoted expression found in different glosses which
declare that the elements of the Patākā and Prakarī are of optional use.

The fifth element of the plot is the denounement (kārya) which depicts
the cause or the motif of the play. It is the Kārya of which the attainment is
desired, for which all efforts are directed and the achievement of which closes
the action. The objects of achievement which constitute the denouncement of a
play are the three object of human existence; and the Kārya is said to be simple
if it deals with one of them (śuddha) or mixed (miśra) if it is associated with
one or more objects.

The mode of behaviour of the principal character is called his bearing

(Vṛtti) and varies with the nature of sentiment that has prepossessed his mind
for the time being. According to the Sāhitya-darpaṇa the demeanour of the
heroine or the counter-hero, if equally conspicuous, may as well be considered
under the heading of the Vṛttis.

In this paper the Kaiśikī, Sāttvatī, Āravatī and Bhāratī Vṛittis are
discussed. Kaiśikī is that mode of conduct which is Gay and which is
associated with delightful vivacity and full of charming expressions of love by
means of songs, dance and coquetry. According to Abhinava Guptapāda it is

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the most charming Vṛtti. It has four sub-divisions, namely, (i) Pleasantry
(Narma) (ii) Bloom of pleasantry (Narma-sphūrja), (iii) Overture of Pleasantry
(Narma-sphoṭa) and (iv) Covert Pleasantry (Narma-garbha).

Sāttvatī is that mode of bearing, which is characterized with noble

qualities and rightousness and is free from grief. According to Abhinava
Bhāratī, it essentially pertains to the mental action (mano-vyāpāra) expressed
by means of verbal expressions. In the opinion of Bharata it belongs to Vīra,
Raudra, and Adbhūta rasas. It has also four sub-divisions namely, (i) Discourse
(Sanllāpaka), (ii) Challenge (Utthāpaka), (iii) Disintegration (Saṅghātya) and
(iv) Change of action (Parivartaka).

Ārabhaṭī is that mode of conduct which is full of fierce fights, varied

struggle and outrageous deeds. The horrific bearing is generally conspicuous in
the form of bodily activities and Abhinava Guptapada specifically calls it to
consist in physical movements (Kāya-Vyāpāra). It has also four sub-divisions
which are (i) Compression (Sankṣhiptika), (ii) Reconitre (Sampheta), (iii)
Tumult (Avapta) and (iv) Production of matter (Vastutthapana).

Bhāratī Vṛtti essentially differs from the previous ones; for they deal
with the procedural aspect of hero‟s activities whereas it deals mainly with
declamation and takes into account only the mode of speech. It is called
Bhāratī or the eloquent bearing after the actors who are in generic sense called
Bharatas. It has four sub-divisions: Prarocanā, Vīthī, Prahasana and Āmukha.
Here all of the four Vṛittis are discussed differently.

It reveals that the drama Veṇīsaṁhāra contains some of the Rasas like,
Vīra Rasa, Sṛngāra Rasa, Bhayānaka Rasa, etc. and so on.

Nāṭya is the representation of every day life which is full of diverse

activities prompted by different desires, longings and yearnings of a human
being. The ordinary state of human nature is compared of passion which makes
a man long for the attainment of the desired object with a consequent success
or failure. This usual mental state of being depends upon the three fundamental

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elements of Nature (prakṛiti) noted by psychologists as Sāttva, rajas and
tamas. They are seldom found to be operating in their pure individual form.
Generally, it is an admixture on any two or even at times of all three that
functions the entire machinery of human mind. These three elements in their
admixed state generally behave in a compromising manner with the effect that
one usually remains dominant at a particular moment and the other or others
remain subservient to it. As a result of their operation, a large number of mental
states are formed which become visible in the actions of mind, speech and body
of human being.

Rasa contains Sāttvika Bhāvas. It is the combination of some elements,

namely, (1) Perspiration (Sveda), (2) Stupefaction (Stambha), (3) Tremour
(Kampa), (4) Tears (Aśru), (5) Horripilation (Romānca), (6) change of Voice
(Svara-beda), (7) Swoon (Pralaya), (8) Pallor (Vaivarnya).

The Sthāyī Bhāvas also have some elements like, (i) Prema, (ii) Sneha,
(iii) Mana, (iv) Praṇaya, (v) Rāga etc.

The other type of Bhāva is Vyābhicarī-bhāvas or transitory states, for

they are susceptible to any major feeling or emotion of longer duration.

It appears that Rasa Carana has a special role in the drama.

The very connotation of the term Rasa is that which can be relished.‟
Effect of the relish of the Rasa, metaphorically called flavour, is very
wonderful. It creates an ecstatic joy in the heart of the enjoyer and leaves upon
him an impression of wonder (camatkāra), which is the source of uncommon
delight (lakottara-ānanda). It is compared to the bliss enjoyed by a yogin when
he is in unison with self. The relish of Rasa creates a concentrated state of
mental harmony (sattvodreka) unadulterated with any other element of human
nature; and for this reason, irrespective of the nature and substratum of a
particular type of rasa which is relished, there is an outcome of joy to a
sensible person (sahṛdaya). That is why even Karuṇa-rasa or Bibhatsa-rasa
with grief and disgust as their basic features produce a state of jubilance in the

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mind of the enjoyer, and elevate him to the realm of total bliss. It is so possible
for the simple reason that an enjoyer in course of his cognition (bhāvanā) of a
rasa feels that his individual existence in this world which is subjected to
diverse disabilities by virtue of his birth, caste, status, wealth and other
circumstances sinks, and he is full sympathy with the sentiment which is an
expression of Self.

It reaveals that there is the presence of Rasa –Vyākti in the

Veṇīsaṁhāra.As stated above Bhāva and Rasa are the objects of suggestion
and not of denotation. They should not be directly expressed by manifested
through such words and sense (and accents when read) as being out the
suggestion. The expression in such cases becomes the vehicle of suggestion,
for the expression is the means and the suggestion is the end. All the same,
wonder (camatkāra) is, in fact, common to both inasmuch as even the
expression can be embellished in a variety of ways by the article of the poet,
and posses a charm which may be of its own kind. In a piece of composition,
therefore, there may be a charm (camatkṛti) in expression (vācya) as well as in
suggestion (vyāngya). No doubt the type of wonder would differ and there amy
be a keen struggle between the two, where both remain present. In such a case
the wonder may vary in degress; and relative appreciation will abide by the rule
of quantum meruit. For instance, when a feeling or an emotion is suggested,
there is wonder in it as such; and suppose the mode of expression there, is also
creative of wonder, then there is duality of wonder which presents a threefold
possibility: (i) wonder in suggestion surpassing in merits the wonder in
expression, (ii) the latter subduing the former, and (iii) both of them ranking
pari passu.

It may be noted in this connection that the Vyābhīcāribhāva may, in this

way, belong to both the types; and according to its prominence, it may either be
a subordinated suggestion or a dominant one. Similarly, an emotion (sthāyin)
may also be a sub-ordinate or a dominant suggestion. In its sub-ordinate
capacity, it may have two forms: one, where it is secondary to the wonder in

200
expression (vācya-camatkāra) like any other feeling; and the second, where it
may be sub-ordinate to any other feeling suggested there. In the latter case, an
emotion may subserve a feeling even though it may dominate over the charm
of expression. In both these alternatives, where the emotions manifests itself as
sub-ordinate either to the charm of expression or the charm of suggestive
feeling, the emotion remains only as emotion, a sthāyin‟ but does not ripen into
that mellow form of a charm known as rasa, which is the transcendent
characteristic of poetry. It is, therefore, to be clearly understood that the
manifestation of rasa is always a dhvani, for it always excels all charms
presented by denotation or suggestion of another feeling. Rasa knows sub-
ordinate to none, but in its own group may permit one of its own kind to lead
the trend of the composition and behave as its best ally and foster its
development in a play to its summum magnum.

It appears that Śṛngāra or Adya–Rasa, prevails in the drama

Veṇīsaṁhāra .

The emotion of amor (rati) develops into the erotic sentiment, Śṛngāra
or Adya-rasa. The indirect causes (ālambana) of this sentiment are a man and a
woman, who love each other in pursuit of conjugal pleasures. It is promoted by
various exciting factors which may be broadly classifies into two categories:
one, internal which pertains to ālambana, and the other, external which refers
to the outside world. The age of a damsel attracts only at particular stages.
They are:

(i) Adolescence (Vayas-saṅdhi) is the age, growing from childhood to

youth – say, the age between fourteen to eighteen years.

(ii) Fresh youth (nava-yauvana) which ranges from eighteen to twenty-

two years is an age marked with slight development of breast, lovely smile,
sprightly looks and modest influence of Love.

(iii) Blooming youth (Vyākta-yauvana) is conspicuous with prominent

breast, linear waist, and gay apprearance and dolphin looks.

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 (iv)Full youth (Purṇa-yauvana) is characterized by fascinating bright
limbs, slim waist, corpulent hips, amplitude of breasts and tapering thighs.

Age has much to do with attraction more in a woman than in a man so

far as personal charms are concerned.

The second physical charm of a damsel is her personal lineaments, and consists
in her natural grace adoring the body without the use of any ornament or
decoration.

Lāvanya or loveliness is that glaze on the skin which glisters like the
luster of a pearl.

Saundarya or beauty consists in the proper growth of every limb and its
joints, and symmetrical constitution of the body which at one attracts even at a
casual sight.

Abhirūpatā or comeliness is that quality or every limb which attains a

hall-mark of beauty. It equals or surpasses the accepted standards of
comparison, e. g. the set of teeth like a rosary of crystals, face like petals of
rose, hair like a string of bees and so on.

Mādhurya or sweetness is an inextollable charm mainly consisting of

uniformity and ever-fresh attraction.

Mārdava or delicacy is incapacity to bear a contact with any thing

calling for hardihood. It is again of three degrees, high delicacy, the middling
delicacy and the standard delicacy. High delicacy may be illustrated by
reference to the night and found the flowers unfaded in the morning, but her
body scarred with callus here and there. The middling delicacy may be seen in
a body rubbed red by a flirting contact with a fringe of silk muslin worn by her.
Face assuming a copper colour, fatigued, and perspiring even in contact with
early sunbeams, and panting after a few hāsty steps on a level ground is the
norm of a female delicacy.

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 It appears that neither Vipralaṁbha nor Sambhoga is present in
Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Sṛṅga, in accordance with the situation of love, is two-fold: Love-in-

separation or Vipralaṁbha -Sṛṅga; and the other, love-in-union or Sambhoga-
Sṛṅga.

Vipralaṁbha is that sentiment of love which subsists between the loving

couple when theya re not united either physically or emotionally. Sambhoga on
the other hand, is a love-in-union. It should be expressly understood that union
is a state of mental agreement. The co-existence or even the juxta-position of
the two lovers cannot warrant the situation of love-in-union. Even if they live
together there is no love-in-union or experience of the Sambhoga-Sṛiṅgāra in
case either of them suffers from perverseness of attitude. Sambhoga-Sṛiṅgāra
is a very delicate situation, and it prevails only when the couple are ad idem in
toto in their amorous pursuits. In the amatory demesne, it is the Vipralaṁbha
that has a longer course to run, and is to be met with in two stages of the erotic
carrer. Firstly, it prevails in the nature of want of union before love is, in fact,
accomplished; and secondly, it is in the nature of disunion after love is once
accomplished. The latter one is more due to circumstances which do not permit
a close contact between the couple, but this stage only tends to heighten the
affection and lends charm to the long-awaited union. The well-known maxim
does every inch bear truth when Bharata says, “Without disunion, love does
not ripen and become delicious, just as the cloth does not bear a faster coulour
unless it is once tinged.”

The Vipralaṁbha Śṛngāra which is due to love in its unaccomplished

stage is called Pūrva-rāga or love-in-longing.

It may conveniently be called Love-in-courtship or the wooing love. It is

defined as the love awakened in the hearts of the yearning couple and lasts upto
the stage of consummation. It is aroused by various means: the first is the very
first sight of the object of interest. The visual contact may be personal or real.

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 The Praudha type of Pūrva-rāga prevails easily among the adult lovers
whose leanings are fairly developed so that the moment it sprouts, it becomes
effective and arrests the yearning heart. It starts with a strong passion (lālasā),
resulting in eagerness (autsukya) and impatience (capalatā) and heavy breaths.

The next tupe of Pūrva-rāga is the the balanced one (sāmañjasa), which
is mostly experienced by the adolescent lovers whose sense of amor is not
boisterous, and develops in a steady way. The balanced type of Pūrva-rāga is
said to progress in the ten stages.

Separation is equally possible even after love is accomplished and union

is one affected. The activities of life and tendencies of human nature are so
varied in fact, that they cannot help presenting a plurality of reasons for causing
subsequent separation. The most ordinary reason which may place a couple at
distance is journey. Either of the pair may be required to leave the spot and go
elsewhere on purposes of emergency. Residence at a distant place may again be
voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary sojourn is the one wherein a spouse is
away to a short or long distance on some business. During this state almost all
the Vyābhīcāri except joy, pride, intoxication and bashfulness may prevail in
the minds of the separated couple.

In fine, Vipralaṁbha is of three types: one due to Āyoga, or pre-union

separation, and the other two are the forms of Viprayaga or post-union
separation, resulting from distant situation or perverseness. Yet Viśvanātah has
a one more type, namely, Karuṇa-Vipralaṁbha which is pathetic love-in-
separation, and contemplates of a situation where the lovers are separated –
may be before union or after it – and one of them knows or believes that his
partner has passed away from this world but has been given an assurance by
some supernatural power that he will soon be re-united with the lost partner.
That is why, grief reigns there as a stationary emotion to give rise to Pathetic
sentiment (karuṇa), yet it is temporary because revival is to take place.

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 Since the tragic end is conventionally averted, the state of Vipralaṁbha
cannot prolong to an unreasonable length, and is to be got over at length. The
means and course of ending of Vipralaṁbha are bound to vary according as its
origin differs. For the Vipralaṁbha due to āyoga in the Pūrva-rāga ends in the
physical union or the consummation of marriage. Vipralaṁbha due to Pravāsa
ends no sooner than the lover or the beloved returns home from the sojourn. If
it is in the nature of śāpa, then it will end only with the period of śāpa.
Generally such malediction is provided with some means of redemption which
may become possible only after lapse of some time or by fulfillment of some
condition prescribed in the behalf or by fulfillment of some condition
prescribed in that behalf. In fact, it is more or less automatic that sapaja
Vipralaṁbha comes to an end. But mana is the one delicate type of
circumstance in Vipralaṁbha, and the expedients for securing relief from it
require a clever and sagacious use before they can bring in success. The natural
mana cannot dwell for long, for deep-rooted affection can hardly permit such a
mental attitude to prevail beyond a certain length of time.

Love untouched by Vipralaṁbha in any shape whatsoever, and in course

of which the spouse enjoys complete harmony of mind, is the substratum of the
sambhoga-sṛngāra. With the variety of amorous sports and sensual pleasures
that the couple can invent for enjoying the mutual company, sambhoga
Śṛingāra can be of countless designs and presents no scope for generalization
and classification. Yet for the reason that every enjoyment can present a
distinction in the shape of degrees, and more so, in case of union which follows
some kind of separation or the other, and is sure to vary in form and extent.

Grief (Śoka) arising from the loss of a kindred, or huge wealth, or from
some insurmountable difficulty assumes the form of the Pathetic sentiment,
Karuṇa Rasa when manifested by means of its Vibhāvas, Anubhāvas and the
Sañcārī-bhāvas.

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 The substrata (the ālambhan vibhāvas) of the pathetic sentiment are the
deceased kinsman, the lost object or the worst calamity on the one hand, and
the sufferer on the other.

It is aroused by some reference to the lost person‟s merits, some talks

about him, the sight of the articles of his use, a visit to his residence, the
occasion where his presence is missed, the days of anniversary, offering
libations to him, and similar commemorating scenes. These are some of the
facts which serve as the excitants (uddipanā) of the pathos.

The squalor of the sufferer, his shedding or tears, shouting, dullness and
choking of throat are the consequences (anubhāvas).

Disgust, swoon, sadness, anxiety, uneasiness, moroseness and stupor are

the ancilliary feelings that prevail in the Karuṇa-rasa.

Paleness, shiver, change of voice and stupefaction are the self-existent

states that become visible on the person of the aggrieved.

The emotion of wrath (krodha) assumes the form of Raudra rasa when
suggested by its relative factors which are as follows:

(i) The ālambana of the Raudra-rasa is the person who has done the
wrong.

(ii) His offensive deed, arrogant appearance, insolent behaviour awaken

the sentiment and act as the exciting (uddipanā) agents.

(iii) Reddened eyes, smattering teeth, heated talk, handling of weapons,

offereing a duel fight are the ensuant features.

(iv) Anger (amarsha), agitation (kṣhobha), acrimony (capalatā) are the

auxiliary feeling which promote the sentiment.

(v) Change of voice, perspiration are the Sāttvika-bhāvas.

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 The predominant emotion of zeal or utsaha develops into Vīra-rasa
when manifested by means of the suggestive factors in a dramatic composition.
The ancients have observed that such a zeal appears running in four channels of
human mind and thus presents four patterns when viewed objectively. Their
suite of suggestive factors also varies accordingly. They are - (i) Munificent
heroism (Dāna-vīra), (ii) Sympathetic Heroism (Dayā-vīra), (iii) Bellicose
Heroism (Yudddha-vīra) and (iv) Righteous Heroism (Dharma-vīra).

Humorousness develops into a comic sentiment (Hāsya). The object of

ridicule is ālambana of this sentiment. The untoward movements, the unbridled
speech and the absurd activities promote laughter. Smile, tickled appearance,
exhibition of teeth and similar features are the ensuants. Contempt and
disturbance (udvega) are the auxiliary feelings.

According to Bharata, Hāsya-rasa is of two kinds: Subjective

(ātmastha) or Objective (parasthā). When one laughs himself, it belongs to the
former type; and when one makes another laugh it is of the latter type. He
further observes that generally the Comic sentiment is found among the low
characters and among women at large. Yet a humorous character may be a high
personage at times, a middling or a base person. The mode of expressing
humour is, therefore, bound to differ in nature. For this reason, humour is said
to be capable of being expressed in six ways: Smile and gentle laugh (smita and
hasita) are the two ways in which humour is expressed by the upper class of
characters. Laugh and loud laugh (vihasita and upahasita) are the two ways in
which the middling characters express their humour. Peals of laughter and
cachinnation (apahasita and atihasita) are the two modes in which the mirth of
the low chareacters is said to burst out.

A predominating state of fear when suggested in a piece of composition

develops into the Terrific sentiment (Bhayānaka). The object which frightens
is the ālaṁbana, e.g. horrific place, the appearance of wild beasts, the shrieks
of jackals and foxes, the howling of owls and the miserable plight of one‟s own
relations. Loneliness of the spot, want of company, unarmed condition,
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narration of horrific incidents and the roaring noise often excite the sentiment.
Trembling, shrieking, pallid looks, bloodless appearance, shouting for help and
scared face are the after-effects of fear. Stupefaction, choking of voice,
horripilation, and quiver are the Sāttvika-bhāvas. Suspicion, swoon, agitation,
inconstancy, uneasiness, epilepsy and even apprehension of the loss of life are
the auxiliary feelings that promote the Terrific sentiment.

Disgust transforms into the Loath some sentiment (Bibhatsya) when

brought out by means of the suggestive factors. The ugly object or the horrid
scene is the ālaṁbana. It is generally aroused by filthy descriptions, obscene
sights and talks. Squalor of body, turning of face, conspuing at the sight,
making wry faces are the anubhāvas. Agitation, capilepsy (apasmāra), retching
sensation, disease and apprehension of death are some of the feelings that
remain acilliary to the emotion of disgust.

The mental state of surprise develops into Marvellous sentiment

(Adbhuta). The wonderful object or an unexpected incident or performance of
the impossible, like the feats of jugglers becomes the ālaṁbana of the
marvelous sentiment. The circumstances surrounding such an object or incident
excite the feeling. The unwinking gaze, broadening of eyes, use of
interjections, twisting of fingers are some of the expressions that ensure from
the rise of the adbhuta-rasa. Stupor, perplexity, dumb foundedness, and flurry
are the ancilliary feelings that support the sentiment. It is generally followed by
such self-existent states as stupefaction, flow of tears, horripilation and choked
voice.

“These are eight sentiments which are said to prevail in a dramatic

composition,” says, Bharata.

In addition to the eight rasas the later canonists propound that Quietistic
(Śānta) is also the ninth sentiment185 which develops from Nirveda or Sāma,
the tranquility of mind, which forms the permanent attitude (sthāyī bhava)
according to them. The universe realized as unsubstantial becomes the

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ālaṁbana. The study of the Upanishadic texts, the visit to the penance-groves,
meeting with sages and seers excite the sentiment. Disinterest in the sensual
pleasures (tṛshṇākshya), indifference to friends and foes alike, meditation and
steadfastness and Unmāda are the ancilliary feelings. The Śānta-rasa causes
horripilatton, perspiration, cool tears and change of voice which are its
Sāttvika-bhāvas.

It appears from the dram that there is a great inter-ralation of Rasas in

the play Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Incidentally, it is necessary to discuss very briefly the relationship of the

different phases of Rasas, for an analytical study of the nature of these
sentiments evinces that some of them present light moods, wheras others cause
a serious attitude of mind. For instance, the comic and the erotic sentiments
give rise to gay and jolly attitude, but the furious and the heroic do not do so.
Then again, the pathetic and the quietistic do not admit of light-heartedness at
all. The state of consternation and wonder cannot but cause a person to be
beside himself. Thus it becomes evident that the various types of sentiments
essentially differ from one another in respect of their nature, composition and
after-effects. As the very constitution of this Universe bears the stamp of
pleasure and pain blended together, any cosmic relation causing a physical or
mental contact with a mundane phenomenon is sure to yield sometimes joy and
at others course misery.191 An unadulterated happiness is, in ordinary course of
human life, an alien feature in a mortal society unless some psychological or
mystic device is there to raise a human being above the infirmities of flesh and
blood.

Technically a Vṛtta may be compsed of monosyllabic or bisyllabic

quarters, still Bharata has not recognized a Vṛtti with less than a hexa-syllabic
quarter. The play wrights and the classical poets too have not patronized meters
of shorter pattern than the octo-syllabic ones, though their genius could have
conveniently permitted them to do so. For this reason the shorter Vṛttas are not
dealt with here.
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 A variety of Vṛttas is formed on account of the combination of four
quarters, which may be either all uniform or may be dissimilar. On this ground,
Vṛttas become capable of a major classification, and are accordingly divided
into three categories:

1. Regular meters (Sama-vṛttas) are those which contain all the four
quarters of equal measure both in respect of number of syllables and the order
of their succession.

2. Semi-regular meters (Ardha-sama Vṛttas) are those which are

partially uniform inasmuch as they contain quarters of two types which may
differ from one another both in the number of syllables and their order of
succession as well. This is again possible in three ways: (i) the first and the
third quarter agreeing with the second and the fourth one respectively, the
scheme of combination being in the aa bb form; (ii) the first quarter agreeing
with the fourth one and the second quarter agreeing with the third one, the
scheme of agreement being in ab ba form ; (iii) and lastly, one hemistich201
agreeing with the other hemistich, the sheme of composition being in the aa bb
form. Out of these three forms, the first and the third are more in vogue.

3. The third category is of the Viṣama or irregular Vṛttas, where no

quarter agrees with the other, or one of the quarters, at least, is dissimilar to the
other three quarters. It is avariety which admits of all sorts of irregularity.

So far as the dramatic literature is concerned, the Sama-Vṛttas are more

popular as compared to the Ardha-sama ones of which only a few specimens
have found favour with the playwrights. The stanzas of the Viṣama class
present an exteme rarity.

Among the Sama-vṛttas then, the first point of distinction is by virtue of

the numerical strength of the stanzaic line. From this point of view Bharata has
recorded the following generic names to the different classes of Vṛttas.

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 ARTHOPAKSHEPAKAS: From the point of view of portrayal, the plot
of a drama is again of three kinds, viz., the Indicative (Śucya), the Audible
(Śravya), and the Narrative or Visible (unmeya or dṛsya).

All that is preliminary or subsidiary or lengthy or uninteresting or

incapable of portrayal but needed for connecting the different episodes of a
drama belongs to the Indicative class of events. There are certain recognized
modes for indicating such matters relating to the plot. They are five in number
and are called the Intermediary scenes or Arthopakshepakas in as much as they
set forth the subject (artha) of the play.

(i) Explanatory Scence (Viṣkambha orViṣkambhaka): It presents before

the audience those portions of the story which link the events that have already
taken place and those that are yet to happen. It purpose to make a long a short
of past events and acquaint the specatators with them so that they can easily
pick up the yarn of the story and connect the events that are to follow. Such a
scene may be monologue or a conversation between two or more characters.

(ii) Introductury Scene (Praveśaka): The second mode of indication is

the use of an Introductory Scene. Its function is almost the same as that of the
Viṣkambhaka, but it is presented by inferior characters in language which is not
elevated (udatta). It serves the purpose of explaining matters omitted between
two Acts. It is intended never to be used in the first Act, for its definition
clearly prescribes that it is always to be put in between two Acts. In a
Praveśaka, Bharata says, all characters should use the Prākṛta language, but
Śāradātanaya and Sāgaranandin following Mātṛgupta permit the use of
Sankrit also in case the Praveśaka is conducted by such characters as the
ascetics, brāhmanas, sages, kañcukins and rakes (vita).

According to Bharata, the Praveśaka has a five-fold purpose to serve:

(i) It is meant for indication of time including the season or the part of the day
in which the action is taking place; (ii) The inner purpose of some particular
move is also explained by means of the Praveśaka; (iii) A mstate of

211
bewilderment (sambhrama) due to plurality of action or the implicit nature of
some momentous acts could be brought out through a Praveśaka; (iv)
Sometimes a major endeavour or the attainment of some expedients likely to
help endeavour or the attainment of some expedients likely to help the
consummation of the principal motif is idicated by a Praveṣaka; (v) It may also
be used for introducing the nucleus of the events of the succeeding act.234
Sagarānandin observes that a Praveśaka could also be employed of the
purpose of intimating long journeys and sketching the happenings in course of
such journeys. In fact, it is an effective device for condensing events ranging
over a long duration of time. It is employed mostly in such cases where even at
the end of an Act the argument could not be completely set forth because of
multiplicity of motives and actions.

The hero and heroin are prominent in the drama Veṇīsaṁhāra.

Yudhiṣṭhira is the hero and Draupadī is the Heroin are the main focus in the
drama.

The essential qualifications of a hero are enumerated by Abhinava,

Kālidāsa as generousity, grandeur, high birth, prudence, comeliness, valour and
piety. These different qualities make him a perfect a man. He is adventurous
and yet God-fearing. He is eminently regardful of his duty to himself, to his
peoples, and to his religion. Without this much of personal equipment none is
demed worthy of being a leading character of a play for want of imitable
virtues in him. To these qualities, Siṅga Bhūpāla addss a few more
characteristics, as cleaverness in conversation, sense of gratefulness,
statesmanship, self-confidence, brilliance, love of art and amiability of
disposition. Profundity of character, sympathetic temperament, sense of
emulation and purity are a few features which are added by Śri Kṛṣṇa Kavi to
the other accepted features of a hero in general. Vāgbhaṭṭa , of course, has got
the longest list of qualities necessary for a hero, that comprises as many as
twenty-eight covetable accomplishments;259 but all that is required of a
principal character is summed up by Viśvanātha in his text, “Munificent,

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cleaver, high born, handsome, youthful, enthusiastic, prompt, devoted by
people, powerful and tactful is the nature of a hero.” To be possessed of the
Śāstric vision is one of the essential merits of a hero according to Dhanañjaya.
Gunachandra is still brief in defining a hero who is possessed of the prominent
virtues, neither vicious nor befallen in calamities.

The hero or the principal character is classified into four types; namely,
dhīrodātta, dhīra-lalita, dhīroddhata, and dhīrapraśānta. Though the naïve
tendencies of each of these types depend mainly upon the heredity, social
environment and professional career as discussed above, still for purposes of
dramatic delineation, it is their mode of acquittal, their actual frame of mind,
line of thought and action that determines their types according as they
disclose, on the whole, the Udātta, the Lalita, the Uddhata or the Praśānta
character. All the same, it becomes an essential qualification of a hero that eh
shouldbe at all events dhīra, i.e. full of fortitude and courage, and should be
possessed of the nerve to bear the brunt and withstand all the undulations of the
billows that toss him up and down in the tidal waters of human life.

A hero is deemed to be Udātta or of gallant character if he evinces a

spirit of tolerance (kṣhamā), gravity of outlook (ati-gambhiratā), absence of
boastfulness (avikattahānah).

The next important character is the heroine (Nāyikā) who is the very
life-breath of an amatory play. It is the portrayal of this character that may be
called the touchstone of the playwright‟s skill of acquittal which is the vouch
for the ultimate success of the dramatic art. The heroine, as in other respects
too, surpasses the hero in diversity of her characteristics as well as her
qualities, both personal and natural.

The types of the heroine may be, in the first place, considered from the
point of view of nature of her association with the hero. She may be associated
with him as his legally wedded wife, in which case she is the Śviya Nāyikā or
the married consort. The heroine may not be the married consort and yet may

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have fallen in love with him. In such a case she is called Parakīyā as
distinguished from the one who belongs to the hero. The third type of
association may be of a courtesan, a dancing girl or a common harlot arresting
the heart of a lascivious hero. Such a courtesab is called a commoner or a
Sādhārana-stṛī. So the heroine is primarily of three types whose natural
characteristics are as follows:

1. The Married consort (Śviya = Ātmiya): She is a caste lady devoted to

the domestic duties, modest in behaviour and straightforward in her dealings.
She is a partner both in times of weal and of woe like Sītā of Rāmacandra.

2. The Unwedded (Parakīyā): She may be a virgin or a mistress. The

former is a bashful firl, blooming in youth and is without the wedlock. The
latter one is an immodest adulteress seeking an association while in sojourn or
in out-door frivolities, being prompted or pressed by her libidinous tendencies.
Dhanañjaya holds the view that such a character should not form the
substratum of the principal sentiment and be not ordinarily introduced in a play
as the chief character except in case of the Farce (prahasana).

3. Commoner (Sādhārnī): She is common girl allowing free admittance

to the one and all. She is always fully developed and is a self-controlled figure.
She is stern in attitude a stiff in bheavious. Her love is mostly a pecuniary
gamble. She is remarkable for her inconstancy and does not abhor the vicious,
nor woo the meritorious. She has got a group of lick-pennis around her, rakes,
fools, thieves and eunuchs who fleece her habitués who are, when robbed of all
their possessions in due course, driven out the house through the agency of the
grannie or the old beldam who is her marker in the art of love-making.287
among the commoners also, some-times extremely devoted to one lover an
showers genuine affection upon him.

It may be noted here that the dramatic literature has only the latter type
of hetaerae who may be socially or professionally called courtesans; but

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virtually they are as sweet and chaste as any other type of the heroine could be
expected. Of this class Urvaśī or Vasantasenā stand as instances.

Although from the view-point of the nature of their association with the
hero, the heroins are thus of three types; yet, in fact, it is their behaviour that
forms the crucial test for purpose of classification. Their stage of love, its
development or depth is the factor to determine their type. Accordingly, each
one of the above-mentioned may be of three kinds: the shy, the free, and the
bold. They are defined as follows:

1. Youthful (Mugdha), 2 Adolescent (Madhya) and 3 Mature

(Prāgalbha).

A Patāka-sthānaka is an indication of a matter other than what is

contemplated by the mention of something which, though extraneous, tends to
oblige the motif of the play. the Patākā-sthānakas are, in all, four in number
which is in keeping with the Bharata‟s dictum of the subject. No specific
names are given to them, but they are distinguished inter se by the use of the
ordinal numerals prefixed to them. According to Bharata and his followers
they are verily defined as below:

1. The first (prathama) Patākā-sthānaka consists of an abrupt revelation

of facts which in the acquisition of a desired object. The abruptness is the
source of wonder in this case, and it amuses the visitors on account of the
unexpected turn that the events take in course of the dramatic action.

2. It becomes a second (dvitīyā) type of Patākā-sthānaka where a

statement is full of suggestion on account of its text being capable of giving out
more than one sense.

3. The third Patākā-sthānaka presents itself at a spot where a deuplicate

sense brought forth by means of a play on words suggests an idea which falls in
suit with the subject-matter in discourse. This is more appreciable when it
consists of an equivocal catechism, as is presented in the Chamberlian‟s

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dialogue with Duryodhana in the second Act of the Veṇīsaṁhāra or in the
dialogue of Cānakya and Siddhārthaka in the Mudrārakṣasa.

4. The fourth (caturtha) patākā-sthānaka becomes available where there

is some statement full of pun which is directly related to the subject-matter of
the play ad brings in suggestively the motive of the action. A suitable
illustration is found in the Ratnāvalī, where by common adjectives capable of
yielding dual sense, reference is made to the acquisition of yielding dual sense,
reference is made to the acquisition of Ratnāvalī who is put together with
Vāsavadatta‟s her co-wife.

According to the oriental theory of Sanskrit drama, our play contains all
the five Sandhis. The Mukha Sandhi and Pratimukha Sandhi cover Acts I and
II respectively. Act III, IV constitute the Garbha Sandhi. Act V and a portion
of the Act VI form the Vimarṣa Sandhi ; while the Nirvāhaṇa Saṅdhi is to be
found in the last act after the appearance of the blood-smeared Bhīma sena on
the stage.

A Sandhi is the combination of different phases of the main action with

its subsidiaries. Thus is said to mark the component divisions of the dramatic
action. With regard to the constitution of these Sandhis there are two schools of
option one holding that the formation of dramatic Junctures depends upon the
combination of the different stages of action (avasthā) with the respective
Sources of the plot Prakṛti; the other demarcating them in view of the different
phases of the dramatic germ sprouting from its initial appearance to its fruition
at the end.

According to the first school there are five Sandhis in a drama which
respectively copulate each stage of action to its corresponding substratum of
the plot. Thus where the germ (bīja) is associated with the commencement of
action, it present the first Juncture known as opening or Mukha-sandhi, which
may on the analogy of the Greek Drama, be termed conveniently as the Protasis
of the play. In course of Mukha-sandhi the main theme is introduced, the seed

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of the action is shown. After the commencement of the action, it is usual that
the main subject is digressed by the under-current of events which intervenes
the course of development of the principal action. For such reason, there starts
the stage of Endeavour which is gradually associated with Bindu or the sudden
drop of such events as resume the main theme. Thus the meeting point of the
stage of Endeavour with the element of Drop starts the Pratimukha Sandhi or
the Expansion of the dramatic action. The third stage of action, namely, the
hope of getting the objects is often associated with the episode which helps in
removing impediments that stand in the way of the principal character. In this
way the conjunction of Prāptyāśā with Patākā the third Juncture known as the
Development of action, the Garbha-sandhi or Catastasis in a drama. The
prospect of success is further put a premium to by the actions of certain
minors helpers whose efforts of shorter duration known as incidents ensure the
Certainly of success. Thus the stage of Niyatāpati blended with the element of
Prakarī brings in the Juncture of Vimarṣa-sandhi or the Pause, which may be
termed as the Epitasis in a drama. The surety of success thus anticipated,
results in the fruition of the objects, and the phalāgama combines with the
denouement (kārya) of the play towards its end. It presents the fifth juncture
called the Nirvāhana or Upasaṁhāra Sandhi, the Consummation or the
Apodosis in a drama.

The view that the Juncture are meant for catenating the five stages of
action with corresponding five elements of plot is held prominently by
Dhanañjaya, Siṅga Bhūpāla and Śāradātanaya,337 who seems to base their
opinion more on the strength of the Nāṭyaveda than that of Bharata‟s
Nāṭyaśāstra. Their theory, which may be distinctively called as the Co-
ambulation theory of junctures, can be clearly stated in the Following form:

Serial stage of Element of Juncture

No. Action: Plot:
I Ārambha + Bīja (Germ) = Mukha-saṅdhi

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II Prayatna + Bindu (Drop) = Pratimukha-saṅdhi

III Prāptyas‟a + Patākā(Episode) = Garbha-saṅdhi

IV Niyatāpti + Prakarī (Incident) = Vimars‟a-saṅdhi

V Phalāgama + Kārya (De‟nouement) = Nirvāhaṇa-saṅdhi

Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa, a dramatist of great repute showed his great skill in

applying the technicalities of drāmāturgy as laid down by Bharata,
Ānandavardhana, Viśvanātha and others. In the drama Veṇīsaṁhāra the
author has made some innovations. In spite of which, the drama occupies a
place of pride in the Sanskrit literature.

……………………………

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