Table of Contents

1. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................3

1.1 Definition of terms................................................................................................................................................3
1.2. Feed Resources in Ethiopia and Improvement Prospects....................................................................................4
1.2.1 Contribution of livestock...............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Precondition for animal nutrition improvement...................................................................................................4
1.4 Feed Resources and Feeding System in the Different Agro ecological Zones.....................................................5
1.5 Feeding System.............................................................................................................................................5
1.5.1 The North-Western Highlands (IA)......................................................................................................5
1.5.2. The South -Eastern Highlands (IB)......................................................................................................5
1.5.3 The South-Western Humid & Sub-humid Highlands (The Coffee, Chat, Tea Zones)........................6
1.5.4 The Rift Valley and the Eastern Lowlands...........................................................................................8
1.5.5 The Western Lowlands.........................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 2. BOTANY OF LEGUMES AND GRASSES........................................................................................10
2.1. GRASSES..........................................................................................................................................................11
2.1.1 General description of grasses.....................................................................................................................11
2.1.2 Botanical characteristics of grasses.............................................................................................................11
2.1.3 Desirable characters of grasses as herbage plants:......................................................................................15
2.2. LEGUMES.........................................................................................................................................................15
2.2.1 Botanical Characteristics of legumes...........................................................................................................15
2.2.2 Taxonomically legumes are classified into three subfamilies:....................................................................16
Chapter 3 Forage Establishment, management and utilization.....................................................................................17
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................17
3.2 Common ways of establishing forage plants are:...............................................................................................18
3.3 Land Preparation.................................................................................................................................................18
3.4 Seed treatment.....................................................................................................................................................19
3.4.2 Inoculation of seeds.....................................................................................................................................19
3.4.3 Pelleting.......................................................................................................................................................20
3.5 Fertilizer Application..........................................................................................................................................21
3.6 Weed control.......................................................................................................................................................23
3.7 UTILIZATION...................................................................................................................................................23
3.7.1 Defoliation...................................................................................................................................................23
3.7.2 Grazing Methods..........................................................................................................................................24
3.7.3 Stocking rate................................................................................................................................................25
Chapter 4 forage and pasture species introduction and evaluation...............................................................................26
4.1 Characteristics required for introduction in a specific region:............................................................................27
4.1.1 High yield of good quality forage................................................................................................................27
4.1.2 Persistency...................................................................................................................................................27
4.1.3 Ability to grow together with other species.................................................................................................27
4.1.4 Ease of propagation (seed production)........................................................................................................27
4.2 ADAPTATIONS AND TOLERANCE TO STRESS........................................................................................27
4.2.1Adaptation to photoperiod............................................................................................................................28
4.2.2 Adaptation to temperature extremes............................................................................................................28
4.2.3. Tolerance of water stress............................................................................................................................28
4.2.4 Tolerance of waterlogging and flooding......................................................................................................28
4.3 Sources of tropical grasses and legumes:............................................................................................................29
4.4 Records to be kept of newly introduced species:................................................................................................30
4.5 Forage Species....................................................................................................................................................31
4.5.1 Tree and shrub legumes...............................................................................................................................31
4.5.2 Herbaceous Legumes...................................................................................................................................36
4.5.3 Grasses.........................................................................................................................................................45
Chapter 5: Forage development strategies....................................................................................................................50

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 5.1 Backyard.............................................................................................................................................................51
5.2 Undersowing of forage legumes with cereal crops.............................................................................................51
5.3 Forage development in livestock exclusion areas...............................................................................................52
5.4 Forage development on conservation structures in arable lands........................................................................52
5.5 Oversowing.........................................................................................................................................................53
5.6 Field forage crop production...............................................................................................................................53
Chapter 6. Nutritive evolution of forage.......................................................................................................................54
6.1 Methods for determining nutritive value of forage.............................................................................................54
6.1.1 Chemical analysis for determining nutritive value of forage.......................................................................54
6.1.1.1 Proximate analysis (weend’s method)......................................................................................................54
6.1.1.2 Van soest method......................................................................................................................................54
6.1.2 digestibility as a method for evaluating forages..........................................................................................54
6.2 Factors affecting nutritive value of forages........................................................................................................55
6.2.2. Maturity, stage of growth:...........................................................................................................................56
Chapter 7: Forage Conservation...................................................................................................................................57
7.1 Factors Determining Pasture Conservation........................................................................................................57
7.1.1 The quality of the pasture conserved...........................................................................................................57
7.1.2. The nature of animal product (type of production).....................................................................................58
7.1.3. Wastages in the fodder conservation process.............................................................................................58
7.1.4. Costs of fodder conservation......................................................................................................................58
7.2 Methods of Forage Conservation........................................................................................................................58
7.2.1 Hay Making.................................................................................................................................................58
7.2.2 Silage Making..............................................................................................................................................59
Chapter 8: Forage seed production principles..............................................................................................................62

2
 FORAGE & PASTURE CROPS PRODUCTION

1. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Improving animal production requires improving the quantity and quality of forage.
A major factor will be the improvement of animal nutrition and feed supplies especially in the
case of ruminants. Improved animal disease and parasite control, breeding, and management will
also be important, but emphasis must be placed on providing better nutrition.

1.1 Definition of terms

Annuals: Plants that have one growing season

Cut and carry Feeding of plant products harvested at one location and carried to livestock at
another location
Forage: Herbaceous plants or plant parts consumed by domestic animals (generally, the
term refers to such material as pasture, hay, silage, and green chop in
contrast to less digestible plant material known as “roughage”).
Herbaceous plants: Plants with a stem that do not produce woody tissue, they generally die
back at the end of each growing season
Forage crop: plants grown primarily for livestock feed and either used for grazing or harvested
for green-chop feeding, silage or hay.
Fodder: Coarse grasses such as corn and sorghum harvested with the seed and leaves
green or alive, cured and fed in their entirety as forage.
Grassland: Any plant community in which grasses and/or legumes compose the dominant
vegetation.
Roughage: Animal feeds that are relatively high in crude fiber and low in total digestible
nutrients and protein.
Shrub: A perennial woody plant smaller than a tree and having several stems arising at a
point near the ground.
Silage: Forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial anaerobic acid fermentation.
Concentrate: All feed, low in fiber and high in total digestible nutrients, that supplies primary
nutrients (protein, carbohydrate, and fat), For example, grains, cottonseed
meal, wheat bran.
Crop residue: Portion of plants remaining after seed harvest, said mainly of grain crops
such as corn stover or of small-grain straw and stubble.
Dry matter: The substance in a plant remaining after oven drying to a constant weight at a
temperature slightly above the boiling point of water.
Pasture: A fenced area of land covered with grass or other herbaceous forage plants and
used for grazing animals.
Perennial: Plants that live for three or more years and that normally flower and fruits at
least in its second and subsequent years. Include natural grasslands,

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savanna’s, shrublands most deserts, tundra, alpine communities, coastal
marshes, and wetland meadows.
Over grazing: is defined as a repeated heavy grazing, that results in deterioration of the plant community.
Over stocking: The placing of a number of animals on a given area that will result in overuse if
continued to the end of the planned grazing period.
Stocking rate: is the actual number of animals or animal units on a unit of land for a specific period of
time, usually for a grazing season.

1.2. Feed Resources in Ethiopia and Improvement Prospects.

The feed resources in Ethiopia are: Natural pasture, improved pasture, fodder crops, conserved
forage and crop residues. Ethiopia ranks 1st and 8th in cattle population from Africa and world,
respectively. The recent estimates of 56.71 million heads of cattle (CSA 2015)
70% of the livestock are concentrated (localized) in the highlands.
1.2.1 Contribution of livestock

Animal traction - (mostly) in the highlands

Food (milk, meat)
Hides & skins
Recycling of nutrients
Economically, the livestock sub-sector accounts for about 40% of the Agricultural Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and 20% of the total GDP

Productivity per head (animal) is very low, b/c of poor animal nutrition (major constraint) due to:
Poor quantity and quality of animal pasture
- overgrazed
- Poorly managed
- Not conserved
Poor quantity and quality crop residue
- Quantity not in balance with animal number
- Not supplemented, to substitute protein content

1.3 Precondition for animal nutrition improvement

We need to understand the socio-economic conditions of the farmer

Land tenure
Cropping system
Market situation
Purpose of keeping animals
Status of feed resources and improvement prospects
Traditional feeding & management system
Norms and traditions of the farmer

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1.4 Feed Resources and Feeding System in the Different Agro ecological Zones

Four agro-ecological zones are distinguished in the country

I The Central Highland

IA. The North-Western highlands
IB. The South-Eastern highlands
II The South-Western highlands
III The Rift valley & the Eastern lowlands
IV The Western lowlands

Basis for classification

1. Physiography (Topography/relief)
2. Climate
3. Vegetation
4. Major crop/Farming system
5. Livestock
6. Soil type

The density of the animals (livestock) is higher in highlands, in this region they are mainly used
for traction.
In coffee growing areas the livestock population is low, this is due to:
 In the region farmers depend on cash crops
 The land tenure system

1.5 Feeding System

1.5.1 The North-Western Highlands (IA)

a) Feed resources
1). Natural pastures- 50% of the total feed available
- marginal lands
- steep slopes
- fallow lands
2). Crop residues – 50% of the total feed available
- Teff straw
- Wheat straw
- Barley straw
b) Feeding system
- considerable herd mobility along terrain
- limited stall feeding for oxen

1.5.2. The South -Eastern Highlands (IB)

a. Arsi & Bale HL (IB1)
- Similar situations to that of the north-western highlands
b. The Eastern and Southern extremes / Hararghe and Sidamo (IB2).

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 Feed resources :

1. Natural pasture
2. Crop residue from warm weather crops
- Maize stover
- Sorghum stover
- Horticultural crop residues

Feeding systems:

- Limited herd mobility

- Cut & carry feeding system
- Hand-feeding of steers with
- garden weeds
- stovers
- chat refuses

Problems related to feed resources (Important Constraints)

1. Poor management of natural pasture

 Over grazing
 Poor conservation practice
2. Communal ownership of land, b/c of the absence of control over- no technology introduction.
3. Land shortage
 Advice farmers to plant selected/ improved pastures near their house.
4. Lack of specialized breed of animals.
 Dairy, beef type and so on.

Suggested strategies for feed resources development (Specifically for the highlands)

1. Integration of forage with food crops

2. Production of supplemental forages
3. Improvement of natural pastures
4. Develop conventional pasture technology for urban and peri-urban dairy & beef industries.

1.5.3 The South-Western Humid & Sub-humid Highlands (The Coffee, Chat, Tea Zones)

 includes the coffee producing plateaus

 e.g. Keffa, Illuababor, Jimma, parts of Wollega (Gimbi), parts of Sidamo

Altitude: 1500-2000 masl, with undulating topography

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Climate: RF - is high in amount & distribution (with the average of 1500-2000 mm)
Temp: 18-20 0C, high humidity

Vegetation: humid evergreen forest or transition to cultivation; there are original forests
(vegetation) found in this rangeland some secondary transits are also found.

Major trees:
 Albizia spp. used for shading coffee
 Cordia ('Wanza'), Podocarpus, Croton ('Bisana').
 Herublacea (broad leaved tree)=

Grasses:
 Hyparrhenia
 Andropogon
 Panicum
 Brachiaria
 Paspalum
 Pennisetum

Soil: Oxisol (major one)

Agriculture:
- Based on Horticultural crops (Coffee, Enset & some fruits (major))
- Warm weather crops (maize & sorghum (minor))
Livestock density:
- Low b/c of the ecology or climatic situation that is due to the epidemic diseases called
trypanosomiasis.

Feed resources:

1. Natural pasture & browse (edible shrubs). These include herbaceous plants growing under
coffee plantation.
2. Forage materials found around farm boundaries
3. Crop residue: comes minimal, form sorghum, maize.

Scope for livestock development

There are two points:

1. Contribution of cattle to agricultural production is low relatively, because land & labour
resources are labeled for cash crops.
2. There is a problem of epidemic disease, particularly trypanosomiasis that limits livestock
production.

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Strategies for Livestock Improvement

I) Livestock development
1. Control of vector-born epidemic diseases
2. Expansion of specialized animal production system (dairy, beef)

II) Feed resource development

1. Effective utilization of horticultural crop by-products e.g. Enset leaves, coffee
residues.
2. Production of labour intensive fodder crops.
Backyard fodder production
e.g. fodder beet, alfalfa, browse trees & shrubs (Leucaena, Sesbania, etc.)
3. Agroforestry
Planting fodder trees for the dual use as coffee shade and browse
Under-sowing tree crops with forage plants or interplanted with Enset or banana.
4. Reclamation of bottom lands for forage production
Water logging tolerant spp. like Brachiaria mutica (Para grass)
Bottom lands are least suited for coffee, and cannot be cultivated due to their water
logging problem.
5. Develop acid tolerant conventional pastures for specialized production system,
Stylosanthes spp.
Macrotyloma axillare
Arachis pintoi,
Panicum spp.

1.5.4 The Rift Valley and the Eastern Lowlands

- includes the rift valley

- adjoining regions; is a large land area

Altitude: generally  1500 masl

Climate: arid, semi-arid
RF: below 700 mm mean annual
Temp: 20-300C
Vegetation: Somali-Masai. Acacia, Commiphora

Dominant tree Spp.

trees which Acacia Boanites

produce Commiphora Tamarindus
insence Boswela Opuntia ficus
Euphorbia

Dominant grass genera:

Aristida

8
Dactyloctenium
Chrysopogon
Cenchrus
Eragrostis
Chloris
Pennisetum

Agriculture:
 Nomadic & semi-nomadic pastoralism
 There are some state-owned rangelands like - Jijiga rangelands, Afar rangelands, Negele-
Borena rangelands

The area is generally livestock area.

- There are some sedentary (settled) farming and warm weather crops.

Feed resources:
- Natural pastures browse b/c the area is an extensive rangeland.

Problems associated with pasture development

1. Pastoral skill for large number of cattle (livestock), means the number of livestock is
very large & not in balance with holding capacity of the feed resource.
2. Scarcity of alternative feed resources:
- No crop residue
- No other alternative than natural pasture & browse.
3. The problem of disease & parasite.

Development Strategies (Livestock)

1. Destocking - limiting livestock number as low as possible in balance with carrying capacity
(the feeding resources) of the rangeland.
2. Develop effective grazing system, i.e., maintain plant composition in favour of plant use.
3. Elimination of undesirable plants
4. Reseeding (oversowing) with desirable forage Spp.
5. Fair distribution of watering facilities, so as to ensure more equitable grazing pressure over
the rangeland.
6. Extension service
7. Veterinary service
8. Establish feed lots (fattening centers), Establish cattle breeding centers. .

1.5.5 The Western Lowlands

- Includes low plain woodland along the front (border) with the Sudan.

 Altitude: < 1500 masl

9
  Climate: Generally warm & sub-humid
 1200 mm mean annual RF
25-30 0C mean annual temp
 Vegetation: Sudanian woodland

Dominant trees:
 Combretum spp.
 Acacia spp.
 Piliostigma.
 Syzigium (grow along water course).

Dominant Grasses:
 Hyparrhenia (very long grass)
 Pennisetum
 Andropogon
 Brachiaria
 Panicum
 Oxythenanthera abyssinica - stands in drier areas ii a solid bamboo.

Agriculture:

 Hunting and gathering from the natural vegetation

 Some hunting
 Some farming (produce warm weather crops like sorghum, maize, small millets)

Livestock Population & Feed Resources

 Low cattle (livestock) population due to vector-born diseases particularly trypanosomiasis.

 The whole animal feed requirement - comes from natural pasture (which is quite productive
as compared with others)
 Productive and highly nutritious grass
 Large scale farms producing cotton & Sesame.

Strategies for Livestock development

1. eradication of disease vectors like Glossina (tsetse, tryps.), malaria (of humans)
2. vaccination program (for those which can be controlled)
3. effective utilization of the pasture in situ (which is composed of productive
pasture and browse spp.
4. Introducing conventional pasture (may be a less desirable approach)

CHAPTER 2. BOTANY OF LEGUMES AND GRASSES

10
Forage crops are primarily divided into two botanical families, the legumes, (Leguminosae)
(Fabaceae) and the grasses, (Gramineae) (Poaceae).

2.1. GRASSES
2.1.1 General description of grasses
They are most important, they make 75 - 85% of the plant composition
Grasses belong to the family of Gramineae or Poaceae, divided into subfamilies, which in turn
are subdivided into, tribes, genera, species and varieties.
An example of the place of a cultivar in the classification of grasses is Panicum maximum var.
trichoglume cv. Petrie (Green panic).

Subfamily: Panicoideae
Tribe: Paniceae
Genus: Panicum
Species: maximum
Variety: trichoglume
Cultivar: petrie

They are widely distributed in the world; 620 genera, 10,000 spp. (approximately)
They may be annuals, perennials and rarely shrubs or trees as tall as 20 m. e.g. woody grass
(bamboo).
- They are monocotyledons as legumes are di-cotyledons. (This distinction between the two
groups is based on the structure of the embryo; the major root stem axis of the embryo carries
lateral members known as cotyledons or seed leaves; monocotyledons have only one cotyledon
while di-cotyledons have two.

- Mostly they are herbaceous (non woody) plants

2.1.2 Botanical characteristics of grasses

Leaves

The leaves are borne on the steam, alternatively into two rows, one at each node.
The leave consists of sheath, blade and legule. The sheath surrounds the stem above the node.
The margins of the sheath are usually open and overlapping.
The blades are parallel veined and typically flat and narrow. The legule is appendage that clasps
the stem where the sheath and blade join.
The collar is the region on the back of a leaf at the junction of the sheath and blade.
(See fig 1)
Stem
Grasses stem are made up of nodes and internodes. The node is a solid enlarged joint on the
stem. The internodes are the area of the steam between nodes.
Leaves arise and have their vascular connections at the nodes

11
Grasses can have several stems most of this stem arise from lateral buds at the lower internodes
and develop a crown like area.

Modified stems can form horizontally at the crown area creeping along the soil surface. Those
above ground creeping steams are called stolons. They have definite nodes, internodes which
intern give rise to leaves, roots or upright branches. In addition, some grasses form below ground
horizontal stems called rhizomes. Both stolons and rhizomes enable the grass to spread.
At the base of tillers and at the nodes there are buds, from which new tillers arise. Tillering is
also a form of vegetative propagation.

Crown
The crown is the base of the grass plant. It is the connecting tissue between the roots and the
shoots. The crown produces buds that are the source of new tillers, adventitious roots, rhizomes,
and stolons. This area is critical in understanding the regrowth of grass plants because it is the
area to find buds which determine if regrowth will be successful.

Roots
There are two root systems which support a grass seedling: 1) the seminal root which arises
when the seed germinates and may persist for short or extended periods. 2) The adventitious or
secondary roots which arise from the crown node (lower nodes of the stem). The adventitious
roots system comprises the major portion of the permanent root system.

Inflorescences (flowers)

Grasses have three main inflorescence (seed head) types: panicle, spike, and raceme. Each is
unique as to how the individual flowering units, called spikelets, are attached to the central axis.
The central axis of an inflorescence is called a rachis.
Panicle inflorescences have spikelets individually supported by branches, not directly to the
main axis (rachis). Panicles are the most common grass inflorescence. Spike inflorescences have
spikelets that are sessile (attached directly to) the rachis without pedicels or branches. Raceme
inflorescences have spikelets born individually on short pedicels or stalks attached directly to the
rachis. There are no branches.

Groups:
Several ways to classify

I. Based in life forms and growth habit

A) Annuals
Life duration is < 1 year (one season)
Good seeder (produce abundant seed),

12
 - survival mechanism
- overcome hard season.
Fast establishing
Low persistence (do not stay productive for long period)
Best utilized as fodder crops, i.e. crops grown for one season & harvested for hay or silage.
Low level of nutrition, but depends on type of species
Are pioneers in degraded land (the 1st in plant succession)
Others
E.g. red top (Rhynchelitrum repens), Pennisetum polytacheou
Eragrostis spp., Pennisetum pedicellatum
- because they need less fertility

B) Perennials
Survive from 1-3 years or more
have long life span (are more persistence, give production for longer time)
seed production- low when compared to annuals.

Taxonomical groups

Five major subfamilies:

Aruadinoideae
Bambusoideae
Chloridoideae
Panicoideae
Pooideae

The top 45 pasture species belong to the two subfamilies:

Panicoideae – 39 Spp.
Chloridoideae – 6 Spp.

Subfamily Panicoideae
- contains the majority of sown pasture (39 spp. in 19 genera under 2 tribes)
Tribe Androposoneae
- inhabit mature savanna with strongly seasonal major region.
- they are usually stemmy and less palatable parts during the dry season.
- contains 12 spp in 8 genera.

The genera’s include:

Andropogon
Dichanthium
Hemarthria

13
Hyparrhenia
Sorghum (2 spp)
Tripasacum
Lasiurus
Zea

2. Tribe Paniceae

Inhabit humid climatic zones

They are leafy & palatable sp. especially with the longer growing season
Contains 27 sown spp in 11 genera.

These include:
Axonopus
Brachiaria
Cenchrus
Digitaria
Echinochloa
Melinis
Panicum (contains many spp)
Paspalum (water loving)
Pennisetum (elephant grass)
Setaria
Urochloa

* All of them are important genera.

B. Subfamily Chloridoideae

Contains spp. adapted to arid environment, which are temporarily exploiters of unstable woody
habitats in the early stage of plant succession, are the second to annuals in plant succession.
They lack bulk and persistence, easily replaced by weeds, are not productive for long period.
Contains 6 spp. including 3 genera & 2 tribes.

Tribe: Chlorideae
- Contains genera’s:
Chloris
Cynodon
Tribe: Eragrosteae
genus: Eragrostis

2.1.3 Desirable characters of grasses as herbage plants:

High rate of recovery by producing pre shoots, tillers from the crown parts.

14
Protected growth tissue that arises at the base of the plant.
Continuous growth unless & otherwise interrupted by drought.
Produce rhizomes & stolons which are to quickly cover the ground (rapid ground cover).
Efficient use of soil nutrients, they form swards. The deep roots utilize the nutrients from de

Fruit: the fruit of grass is called a caryopsis or kernel. The caryopsis may be permanently
enclosed by the lemma and paella as in oats, or it may be free as in wheat.
The embryo is on the side of the caryopsis next to the lemma. The endosperm comprises the rest
of the caryopsis, where the food for germination is stored.the embryo has a plumule, radical and
scutellum or cotyledon. Upon the germination the radical develops into the primary root system,
while the plumule develops into the above ground portion of the plant. The scutellum releases
enzyme from its outer area of cells, the enzyme dissolves the food stored in the endosperm.

2.2. LEGUMES

There are approximately 500 genera and 11,000 species of legumes,

Dicotyledons, they have two seed leaves.

The family of Leguminosae or Fabaceae belongs to the order of Leguminales and is divided into
three subfamilies:
Caesalpinioideae (e.g. genera Bauhinia, Cassia, Calliandra, Caesalpinia)
Mimosoideae (e.g. genera Acacia, Mimosa, Leucaena), and
Papilionoideae (e.g. genera Trifolium, Medicago, Centrosema, Desmodium, Macroptilium,
Stylosanthes).

Legumes are:

Protein sources
Make up to 10-50% natural pastures
Fix nitrogen
They can be annuals, perennial herbs, shrubs, trees or lianas/woody climbers.
They are widely distributed in the world. Most of the species have a taproot system, with lateral
roots branching from a main root

2.2.1 Botanical Characteristics of legumes

Leaves

Legume leaves may be either simple or compound in structure. A simple leaf is composed of one
complete structure while a compound leaf has more than one leaflet. The leaves are arranged
alternatively on the stem and may have stipules.

15
Stem:
The stem of legumes varies greatly from species to speices in length, size degree of branching.
Some stems are very woody while others are quite succulent. Stolons are horizontal above-
ground stems. Rhizomes are horizontal below-ground stems. Stolons and rhizomes allow for
vegetative reproduction without seeds. New stems and roots can arise from nodes on stolons and
rhizomes. This enhances plant persistence while creating more root sites for nodule growth.
Stolons are found in white clover; rhizomes are found in some verities of alfalfa. Legumes with
rhizomes are among the most persistent species.

Roots
Forage legumes are usually tap-rooted plants that have fine secondary roots produced from the
tap root. It is these secondary roots that are usually nodulated by nitrogen fixing bacteria.. A very
large tap root gives legumes greater drought tolerance than other forage legumes. In contrast, the
more fibrous and shallow root systems of other legumes, such as white and alsike clover reduce
their drought resistance.

Fruit: the fruit of a legume is called a pod, which contains one to several seeds. The seeds are
attached to the ovary wall. The hilum is the scar where the seed has been detached from the pod.
The seed has two cotyledons. The cotyledons store the reserve feed/food, which will be used in
germination and early seedling growth. Between the cotyledons are the plumule and radical. The
radical develops into the root system and the plumule develops into the above ground portion of
the plant. Each seed is enclosed in a seed coat.

2.2.2 Taxonomically legumes are classified into three subfamilies:

1. Subfamily: Papilionoideae
Butterfly like flowers
They can be herbaceous, e.g. pea, or woody, e.g. Sesbania
Have tap roots
Most cultivated legumes belong to this subfamily.

2. Caesalpinioideae
Have imbricate petals while in bud, later they become free.
Mostly pinnate leaves
Mostly woody
Seeds without areoles, e.g. Cassia, Bauhinia

3. Mimosoideae
Petals are united at the base forming a cup like structure (peculiar characteristic)
They are woody
Leaves bipinnate mostly

16
Seed with areoles (peculiar chara.), typically, Acacia, Leucaena

Two of the subfamilies are mostly tropical shrubs and trees.

To these belong many rainforest trees and very few cultivated species, except for ornamentals.
Nearly all the cultivated legumes for agricultural purposes belong to the papilionoideae,
Leucaena leucocephala (Mimosoideae) and Calliandra calothyrsus (Caesalpinioideae) are two
important exceptions. Both are used as browse plants for livestock.

At the same time the species adapted from warm, humid to dry cool conditions and from acid to
alkaline soils.

Legumes are important to agriculture because they can fix atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of
bacteria and because they have a high feeding value both for man and animals.
The nitrogen fixation occurs as a symbiosis between host plant and bacteria belonging to the
genera Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium. These bacteria are free living in the soil.

Chapter 3 Forage Establishment, management and utilization

3.1 Introduction

Profitable ruminant livestock production depends on the production of high-quality forages. High
yields can only be obtained from a dense, vigorous stand of an adapted forage species. The first
step in obtaining such a stand is establishment. The establishment phase of forage production is
critical because all other management practices depend upon a healthy sod. Forage establishment
begins long before the actual seeding. Successful forage establishment requires careful planning
and attention to every detail of forage establishment steps.

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Basically, the establishment of forage crops begins with the proper soil environment. Soil test
indicate whether the PH of the soil is suitable for maximum forage product on under most
situation, the optimum PH value should fall between 6.5 and 7.5. The optimum value of alfalfa
production may vary somewhat depending upon soil characteristics, such as texture, the content
of organic matter, or the lime level in the subsoil, to ensure highly productive stand of forages, in
addition to providing adequate fertility, one must also select the best adapted, high yielding,
persistent cultivar for specific soil, climate, and intended utilization. There are many cultivars
available on the market, and it is important to purchase high- quality seed, which will ensure
rapid establishment. Quality is best ensured by certified seed or brand seed from reputable seed
company.

3.2 Common ways of establishing forage plants are:

 Direct seeding
 Seedlings
 Cuttings and Splits
Plant species, planting material availability and environmental conditions all determine the
choice for these methods of establishment.
Generally, the following guide can be used:
Tree legumes: seedlings, cuttings, and direct seeding
Herbaceous legumes: Direct seeding
Grasses: Direct seeding, cuttings, and splits

Direct Seeding

Direct seeding can be undertaken in three ways:

 Broadcasting of the seeds. This is applied for under sowing, over sowing natural
pasture, conservation strips, and mixed pastures
 Row seeding (drilling) for backyard plots and mechanized forage field production
such as alfalfa plots
 Spot (Dibbling) seeding for trees in backyards and conservation strips (2 -3 seeds per
hole)

3.3 Land Preparation

The most important aims of land preparation are providing a moist environment for germination,
and minimizing competition for the developing seedling. For effective germination, it is best to
have moist soil pressed closely against the seed, which is best achieved with a fine, firm seedbed.

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Cultivation must be sufficiently deep to destroy the original grass, weed and shrub vegetation,
yet not so deep as to return up the highly infertile subsoil. Generally, the initial cultivation depth
should be 8-10cm deep to destroy weedy grasses, and to up root small shrubs and seedlings.
Seed size of most forage species is small compared with seed of traditional grain crops. This
makes seed bed preparation especially critical for forage plantings. The ideal seed bed for
conventional seeding should be smooth, firm and free of clods.
Methods of seed bed preparation depend on individual situation but tillage is usually necessary.
Demonstration grass and legume planting have shown that coarse textured (sandy) sail require
packing prior to seeding to obtain satisfactory stands. Seed beds packed twice with a press drill
prior to seeding had better stands than those packed only once.

3.4 Seed treatment

Different types of seed require different treatments in order for optimal germination. The main
purpose is to break their dormancy, improve seed flow characteristics and allow rhizobium
inoculation and protective chemicals to surround the seed. The following treatments are
commonly used:
3.4.1 Scarification - many tropical legume seeds are highly impermeable to water imbibition
because of their hard seed coats. Scarifying the seed by scratching it (e.g. Centremosa pubescens
and Glycine wightii) or softening the seed coat in hot water (e.g. for Leucaena leucocephala)or
acid (e.g. Stylosanthes or Centrosema species) can greatly improve the germination rate.
Recommendations for soaking some species seeds in hot water include:
Leucaena leucocephala should be soaked for 2 minutes in hot water at 800C;
Macroptilium atropurpureum should be soaked for 6 minutes in hot water at 750C;
Stylosanthes guianensis and S.humilis should be soaked for 20 minutes in warm water at
550C.

3.4.2 Inoculation of seeds

In addition to seed treatment inoculation with specific rhizobial bacteria may be required.
These bacteria fix nitrogen and make it available to the plant. In introduced species of legumes
this must be done before sowing for efficient nitrogen fixation.
Inoculation involves sticking a viable culture of the rhizobium inoculant to each seed
The sticking agents are a 40% gum arabic solution in water or a 4% methyl cellulose solution in
water or a concentrated sugar solution.

Inoculation procedures

 Mix the sticking agent solution with the needed amount of inoculant in a plastic bag (read
 on the label amount of inoculant needed)

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  Continue mixing until a liquid paste like 'lit' is formed
 Add the required quantity of seed and continue mixing
 Continue mixing until every seed has a fine sticky coating of the paste
 Spread the seeds out to dry in a cool shade. Once mixed the inoculated seeds should be used
as soon as possible and if not sown store in a cool place. However, the length of storage
should not exceed 3 days otherwise repeat the inoculation. Inoculant or inoculated seeds
should not be exposed to sunlight, mixed with fertilisers or other chemicals.

Inoculation - inoculating the seed with the appropriate rhizobium ensures that bacteria species
necessary for nodulation are introduced at the time of sowing. Without the correct rhizobium
legumes can still grow but are stunted and unproductive. Purchasing the appropriate innoculant
with the seeds ensures effective symbiosis and proper growth of the legumes. Many legume
species such as Macroptilium atropurpureum, Pueraria phaseoloides, Stylosanthes
hamatecv.verano, do not benefit from inoculation simply because they nodulate promiscuously
with all naturally occurring rhizobiums. However a number of legumes species do require
specific rhizobium strains. These species include Leucaena leucocephala, Lotononis bainesii,
Medicago sativa, Stylosanthes guianensis, Desmodium intortum, etc. A number of species of
legume will nodulate if infected by native cowpea rhizobium.
Inoculants generally do not affect establishment but can affect growth. If plants are bought from
nurseries (as is common for tree legumes) it is advisable to take a sample of the soil from around
the roots of the plants to ensure you are taking some of the inoculum that is present already.
A specific inoculum can be bought in artificially grown form and having been grown in peat it is
called a peat inoculum.
3.4.3 Pelleting - Coating the seed in a layer of powdered inoculants, fungicides, etc, is very
useful as it ensures:
 Even flow of seeds from the drill or aerial applicator (because the seeds have gained a
spherical shape)
 Aids inoculation of legumes under favorable soil conditions
 Introduces inoculum into soil which is already inhabited by other types of rhizobia
 Is of benefit when sowing into dry soils or high temperature soil conditions (i.e. it
improves the water absorptive capacity of the seed
 Allows the seeds to be mixed with superphosphate etc, prior to sowing without
injuring the rhizobium

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  Overcomes the effects of soil acidity on effective nodulation and seedling
development
 Repels insect, bird or rodent pests.

Use of fungicides and pesticides - legume seedlings are highly susceptible to fungal diseases and
may be killed shortly after emergence (a condition known as ‘damping off’). Grasses also suffer
from seedling diseases and the seeds can be damaged by insects. Thus seed treatments with
fungicides and pesticides can help the initial stages of plant growth.

Sowing
More pasture plantings fail through sowing too deeply than too shallowly. Seed size and soil
texture are important in determining sowing depth - the smaller seed and the heavier the soil, the
shallower the planting depth. While there are some large-seeded forage species, most forage
have small to minute seeds. In general, small seeds are best sown as close to the surface as
possible, and larger seeds at 2-5 cm. In more arid areas, there may be advantage in planting more
deeply to enable the developing seedling to access stored moisture more readily. However, a
good practice is to broadcast seed on the surface, cover lightly by whatever means are available,
and press the soil around the seed - best done with a heavy roller, or intensive livestock activity.
Sowing in rows has the advantage of facilitating hand-, chemical- or mechanical-weeding
between the rows of developing seedlings.
Soil moisture is usually the most critical factor determining when to start planting and whether
establishment will be successful. Always plant moist seed bed and when sufficient soil moisture
can be expected to continue for several weeks (10 to 12).

3.5 Fertilizer Application

Fertilization practices can vary according to the crop being planted. For the annual grasses,
establishment fertilizer is usually applied just prior to or at planting. For perennial grasses and
especially on sandy soils, it is recommended that producers wait until the new shoots emerge and
have developed some roots before applying the fertilizer much of the planting is done in the
summer rainy season and on sandy soils where leaching of nutrients out of the root zone can
occur. Therefore, it is desirable to have some roots in place and ready to take up nutrients when

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the fertilizer applied. The type, amount and timing of fertilizer, it is recommended to apply 60 kg
N, 30 kg P and 30 kg K for successful establishment of grass which normally takes about three
months. For the legumes and grass legume mixtures 30 kg P, 30kg K and 2000 kg of lime are
necessary for the initial growth period before first cutting or grazing commences. Phosphorus
and lime, if necessary, are incorporated in to the soil before or at planting time.

Fertilization is carried out mainly for two reasons:

a) to amend (overcome) nutrient deficiencies
b) to replace (replenish) nutrients removed by harvesting

A) Amendments of Nutrient Deficiencies

Most soils in the tropics have nutrient deficiencies for optimal plant growth, i.e. at least one of
usually more of the 16 essential elements for plant growth are not available in adequate amount.

For instance some of the elements, which are deficient in most tropical soils, are:
N is universal deficient in tropical soils. Only organic soils (peat) and soils with a light
Content of organic matter contains adequate N for crop or pasture growth.

P deficiency is widespread. Only soils of recent volcanic origin contain adequate amounts of P.
many tropical soils fix P, i.e. make it unavailable for plants. This fixation is caused by
precipitation of insoluble forms, either as a Ca compound in very alkaline soils in dry regions or
P may be bound with Fe or Al on very acid soils

S, Mo and other micronutrients are frequently deficient. Micronutrients are frequently deficient.
Micronutrients, particularly Mo are needed for an effective
Legume (Brady) Rhizobium association.

Al & Mn are the most important nutrient occurring in excessive amounts in tropical soils,
particularly when the pH is low. Unless these deficiencies are met (corrected), growth of the
plant will stagnate (Limited) until the necessary fertilizer is added.

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Fertilizers would be able to increase yield many fold provided that other growth factors such as
radiation temperature and rainfall are in adequate supply.

B) Replacement of Removed Nutrients

Nutrients are added to the soil through:

- run – on (rain)
- fertilizer
- atmospheric deposition (N- fixation by legumes)
- animal (excrete)
- As dead plant parts.
Nutrients are lost from the soil by
- by run- off (leading)
- volatilization , or denitrification e.g. NH4
- Product removal , both as grass in the case of mowing as animal products milk &
Beef

Dead plant material & animal execrate decompose and nutrients are added to a pool of
unavailable plant nutrients, which through mineralization become available for uptake by the
plant.under grazing few nutrients are removed from grassland, but there is a redistribution over
the area as a result of animal excrements (particularly as dung & urine). However, cutting
removes large amounts of nutrients from the field and this needs be replenished either by organic
or inorganic fertilizer.
The major elements limiting growth of grasses are N, P, & K.

III) The Response of the Pasture Sward to Defoliation

An understanding of pasture reaction to defoliation is necessary for attempts to devise

management systems which will alter botanical composition in a desired way which will adjust
pasture growth will provide the maximum use of nutrients provided by the pasture.

3.6 Weed control

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Weed control is critical to the development of long lived and productive forage stands. Small
seeded species generally are not strong competitors with weed and cultivation is seldom an
option. Cultural practices are important in weed control during forage establishment. Proper
seeding rate, adequate fertility, and proper pH help ensure vigorous, competitive forage plants
and help in controlling weeds.
Pasture seeding rates had little effect on vigorous weed growth in the first four months after
sowing where as growth of pasture species was drastically reduced by weeds. Current results
indicate that such weed growth had much less effect on pasture growth in the year after sowing.
3.7 UTILIZATION

The amount of plant material consumed and otherwise caused to disappear

by herbivores, expressed as a percentage of the current herbage crop, has
been known as utilization, degree of use, percentage use, actual use,
herbage use, and forage use. These terms apply to single species as well
as to the pasture as a whole
3.7.1 Defoliation is used to mean removal of plant parts by grazing or cutting. It is considered in
terms of:
a) Frequency: how often plant slots are removed
b) Intensity: how much plant material remains after defoliation or how much
is removed.
c) Timing the stage of plant development and the climatic conditions at the
time of defoliation.
Cutting often involves more complete and sudden removal of plant tissue and this is applicable
to cut-and-carry (remove) management system. Grazing causes selective and intermittent
removal of particular plant parts and plant species often in paths. Grazing also involves animal
treading and the return of nutrients to the pasture as dung and urine.
The growth of pasture is increased if the interval b/n grazing or cutting is long. However the
grass DM produced under a lenient defoliation system is of much lower nutritive value than
younger material.
Frequent defoliation harvests a higher content of leaf than infrequent defoliation. This is partly
b/c the sward is maintained in a more juvenile condition. Severe defoliation causes an energy

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shortage in the sward as the raves, which were producing photosanthate, are temporary removed.
Root growth is reduced by defoliation before reduction in shoot growth is seen. The proportion
of assimilate going to the root system is deceased by defoliation.

Probably the most important objective is the maintenance of a minimum plant canopy which will
not expose too much of the soil surface. Under these conditions the plant will usually be
maintained in a satisfactory energy status for survival. The objective should include the
maintenance of a high density of bad sites closer to or below ground level; a crown structure
with elevated apices is more prone to damage.

3.7.2 Grazing Methods

There are two basic grazing systems - continuous grazing and rotational grazing.
A. Continuous grazing is defined as that type of management whereby grazing animals are
confined within a single enclosed pasture area for the entire grazing season it may be a full a
year. Within this system the pasture may be set stocked or variable stocked.
Continuous set stocking: is uninterrupted grazing at a fixed stocking rate; or the number of
animals kept is constant.
Continuous variable stocking: the numbers of animals vary according to pasture growth; the
actual stocking rate is varied according to the amount of herbage.

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B. Rotational grazing requires that the pasture is subdivided into a number of encloses with at
least one more enclosure than groups of animals. Rotational grazing system may also be set
stocked and or variably stocked.
Rotational set stocking: the pasture is subdivided into a number of smaller paddocks and a fixed
number of animals graze each paddock in turn.
Rotational variable stocking: the pasture is sub divided into a number of smaller paddocks but
variable stocking rates. Within a rotational grazing system there is another variable the time
interval allowed for grazing each unit before moving to the next. Time allowed in each unit may
be short or long relative to the stocking rate and pasture production.
C. Deferred rotational grazing: provides for each enclosure to be rested from grazing during at
least one of the critical periods in plant growth. This system recognizes that there are critical
periods in the phenology of the desirable plants in the pasture, viz.;
 Seed germination
 Seedling establishment
 Flowering and seed set and
 The period of accumulation of root and crown reserves.
D. Strip grazing: a fixed or variable number of animals are given access to only part of a
paddock by a movable fence in addition a movable back fence may by used to prevent access to
strips already grazed. Electric fancies are commonly employed to enclose the allowed area of
forage while another fence may be placed behind the herd to fence off the previously grazed
strip. In this way grazing is carefully controlled and rationed which may be important when feed
is scarce.
E. Creep grazing (leader follower systems): is a rotational grazing system whereby the highest
producing animals (such as milking cows) are allowed the first grazing in a paddock. This allows
for maximum selection of highest quality forage. Once opportunity for selection has declined
then less demanding classes of livestock such as the dry dairy cows or beef steers are moved in
to graze the after math while the milking cows are moved to fresh grazing.

F. Soiling or zero grazing: is the feeding of cut crops to housed stock.

Advantage: a. efficient herbage utilization.
b. No loss due to trampling.

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 c. Uniform herbage intake.
d. Control bloat through wilting.
Disadvantage: a. High cost for labour or machinery.
b. Bedding required for housed stock.
C. Manure disposal is laborious.
3.7.3 Stocking rate is the actual number of animals or animal units on a unit of land for a
specific period of time, usually for a grazing season. Where the grazing season is yearlong, a
time period may not be stipulated, but in temperate and mountainous regions, stocking rate
commonly defines all the grazing that occurs during a year, for example, 30 AUs per hectare for
four months of grazing. It may be expressed as 120 AUMs per hectare or 1 AUM per 0.0092
hectare. This is an animal-to-land relationship.
Stocking rates have been expressed as units of area for each animal as well as animals per unit
area. These expressions of stocking rate have shown differently shaped functions when plotted
against a third variable such as animal gains per individual or land unit. Anirnal-to-area
expressions are preferred because they are more directly related to grazing pressure and
production per hectare than is area per animal (Shaw 1970). However, in regions with low
grazing capacity, the ideal designation may be area per animal because it avoids the use of
fractional terms.

3.7.3.1 Determination of the Optimum Stocking Rate

Stocking rate is the most important management factor influencing the output of animal products
from the pasture the stability and persistence of the pasture components and financial return
which the farmer receives. Estimating the optimum stocking rate should therefore have the
greatest importance in managerial decision making.

3.7.3.2 Factors Influencing the Optimum Stocking Rate

a) The rate of forage growth
More animals may be safely carried as the amount of pasture grown increases. If farm
practices which increase pasture growth such as:

Sowing improved forage species

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  Applying irrigation water
 Controlling woody regrowth or
 Fertilizer application
Are used higher stocking rate can be carried so that proper advantage is to be taken of the
additional pasture grown.

b) Accessibility of forage to animals

The occurrence of predators or the danger of animal theft may restrict pasture use. Yarding
animals at night or continuing their grazing to small night paddocks causes uneven use over the
farm property. There may be insufficient watering points or sub-division fencing to ensure that
all the feed grown is available for consumption. Insufficient watering point’s lead to overgrazing
trampling damage and pasture degradation near the water points.
c) The Nutritive value of pasture
Most of the forage species in the tropics have low nutritive value. Hence in such situations
animals selectively graze the most nutrition’s forages and the most desirable components of the
pasture such as the greener tissues esp. the leaves. In such cases the optimum stocking rate is
lower. Stocking rate should always be based on the total yearly production of roughages
available to the livestock.

d) Botanical composition and ground cover

Some pastures are more resistant to heavy grazing and weed invasion than others. For example
cenhuriz ciliaris (Buffer grass) is resistant to weed invasion under heavily grazed conditions
however Panicum maximum is more vulnerable in this respect. Very heavy stocking rate sully
cause the disappearance of the more valuable perennial Species, which are replaced by weeds.

e) Seasonal variations in feed supply

In areas where annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year the optimum stocking rate will
also vary from year to year. For very extensive stock razing enterprises the overall annual
stoking rate is decided by pasture supply available at the period of greatest forage deficiency.
Seasonal feed shortages cause more problems for graizers who run breeding stock than for
graizers who conduct a mixed animal enterprises having both breeding growing and fattening
stock. In very dry seasons it is then possible for these graizers to sell off the dry stock but to

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retain a nucleus of breeding stock Access to numbers and ease of restocking after a dry year will
encourage higher stocking rate.

f) Nature of animal product

The stocking rate-output relationship will depend on the sensitivity of output to nutritional stress.
For sheep wool growth is the product least reduced by stress. Liveweight gain reproduction and
milk production then follow this. It is therefore possible to run a higher stocking rate for wool
growing weathers than for beet producing animals or for fat lamb production. In making this
assessment meat producers are aware of the limits of live weight gain as an index of production.

If stocking rat is based on the yield of the grass during the rainy season the animals will suffer
greatly during the dry season and this will eventually lead to over stocking. The product is a
saleable animal or a grade. Dairy cows require a lighter stocking rate than their equivalent in
beef animals on the same pasture milk flow is very sensitive to pasture quality and greater
opportunities for selective growing are usually needed. This discussion indicates that many
factors enter the determination of the optimum stocking rate range in any farm situation. Its
correct estimation will often decide the success or failure of the livestock enterprise.
Chapter 4 forage and pasture species introduction and evaluation

4.1 Characteristics required for introduction in a specific region:

4.1.1 High yield of good quality forage

- total dry matter yield largely determines animal output
- selection programs for: legumes: only dry matter
grasses: dry matter, quality
4.1.2 Persistency
Persistency characteristics determine the ability for long-term survival under fluctuating seasonal
conditions:
- tolerance to grazing
- survive water stress (arid regions) or waterlogging (low plains)

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- withstand high and low temperatures
- withstand burning (sometimes)
- resistance to disease and insects
- regenerate from stolons, rhizomes (or seed for annual species)
See Figure

4.1.3 Ability to grow together with other species

Competition within the pasture depends on:
light
water
nutrients
growth form of species
season of growth
palatability (selective grazing)
rate of regrowth after grazing

4.1.4 Ease of propagation (seed production)

The ability to readily establish (or maintain) a pasture
Adequate seed production is important for persistency, particularly for annuals
Also for perennials because:
 to ensure regeneration after drought or overgrazing
 to establish new pastures in near future
 regeneration is important considering that pasture plants have not had long periods of
selection for seed yield as have the common crops

4.2 ADAPTATIONS AND TOLERANCE TO STRESS

Major factors to be considered when introducing new species:
Adaptation to photoperiod
Adaptation to temperature extremes
Tolerance of water stress
Tolerance of waterlogging and flooding

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 Tolerance of salinity and acid soil conditions

4.2.1Adaptation to photoperiod
The response of plants to photoperiod determines whether plants will flower at a given altitude
of particular importance for seed production determines the length of the vegetative growing
season
See Table
Both among grasses and legumes some prefer long day lengths others short day lengths
Within one species some varieties some prefer long day lengths others short day lengths

4.2.2 Adaptation to temperature extremes

In humid tropical environments temperature extremes form no major limitation
In sub-tropical environments (arid and semi-arid regions) extreme low and high temperatures can
limit pasture production and species survival
In general, tropical legumes are more affected by extreme heat and frost than tropical grasses
The problem associated with heat is not so much the temperature but the high evaporation,
leading to rapid wilting
Examples of high tolerance species:

High heat tolerance Stylosanthes humilis, Cenchrus ciliaris, Stylosanthes hamata Urochloa
High frost tolerance Lotononis branesii, Pennisetum clandestinum
Low frost tolerance Lablab purpureus, Cenchrus ciliaris

4.2.3. Tolerance of water stress

Soil moisture stress, either short-term or long-term, is a major determinant of pasture yield
Most important is the ability to survive periods of moisture stress and not the loss in production
Drought tolerance is extremely high in annual species:
grow during wet season
dormant seed during dry season
Drought tolerance mechanisms of perennial species:
 dry season dormancy

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  deep rooting (e.g. Leucaena)
 leaf shedding
 restriction of transpiration

4.2.4 Tolerance of waterlogging and flooding

Water logging is the condition of complete saturation of the soil with water
Flooding involves inundation
Oxygen deficiency (anaerobic) under flooding conditions severely limits water uptake by roots
Tropical legumes less adapted to flooding than tropical grasses
Intolerant species show accelerated glycolysis with ethanol (toxic) as end product
Tolerant species show low respiration (ethanol not produced)

Tolerance to flooding is affected by:

 age
 dormant or growing
 previous defoliation management
 duration and depth of flooding
 temperature and oxygen content of water
 flowing or stagnant water
 silt load of water

Approaches to pasture improvement:

Improved management and utilization of existing pastures replace existing natural grasslands
over sowing existing natural grasslands

4.3 Sources of tropical grasses and legumes:

Regional (or international) research institutes (cheap)
For instance the following centers are sources of forage seeds in Ethiopia
Adami Tullu Research Center (Forages for Arid and semi Arid Area)
Holleta Research Center (Forage for Highlands with adequate rain fall.
ILRI (international livestock Research Institute) all types of forages collection and testing of
plants adapted to growing in the area (expensive) for both: similar environmental conditions

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Used to identify adaptable forages
Research institutes are responsible
Innovative

Major centers of distribution of tropical grasses:

East Africa Southern Africa Arabia, Pakistan, South America
Northern India
Brachiaria Digitaria Cenchrus Axonopus
Cenchrus Urochloa Bromus
Chloris Paspalum
Cynodon Sorghum
Panicum
Pennisetum
Setaria
Urochloa

Major centers of distribution of tropical legumes:

East Africa Southern Africa South-East Central and
Asia South America
Glycine Lotononis Pueraria Macroptilium
Macrotyloma Vigna Centrosema
Calopogonium Desmodium
Indogofera Leucaena
Stylosanthes

Organization of plant introduction:

Institutes responsible should:
 acquire plant materials
 Organize the introduction in the country or region
 Organize documentation of all introductions
 provide initial screening, description and evaluation
 build up and maintain seed stocks (generative) or planting materials (vegetative)
4.4 Records to be kept of newly introduced species:
growth habit - erect, flat, bunch, leafiness, vigour - ground cover, size, bulk, time of flowering,
seed set, effect of low and high temperatures, regeneration, incidence of pests and diseases,
nodulation in the case of legumes

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Stages of evaluation:

Stage 1:
1 to 3 years
examinations under nursery conditions
grasses and legumes obviously unsuitable or showing undesirable characteristics will be
eliminated
legumes with nodulation problems must be identified

Stage 2:
examinations of agronomic characteristics of under field conditions
productivity assessments
monitoring of persistency and competition with weeds

Stage 3:
Grazing trials with most promising species
Example: Introduction of African clover in Australia
Stage 1: 27 introductions in nursery
Stage 2: 12 detailed evaluations in 4x10 m plots in repetitions
Stage 3: 6 species were tested under different grazing pressures
Two most promising clovers were recommended

4.5 Forage Species

A wide range of trees, shrubs and herbaceous legumes, grasses and root crops have potential to
be useful for forage development and conservation program. A large number of species must be
considered because of the wide range of altitude, soils, rain fall existing management systems
and forage development strategies. It is important for those working in the area to closely
observe the performance of a range of species within the area where they work. This will help
them to decide which species are best for any particular situation.

4.5.1 Tree and shrub legumes

Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)

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A long-lived perennial shrub or tree legume. Multipurpose excellent for forage production, fuel
wood, soil stability and nitrogen fixation. It is a major use is as forage for cut and carry or as
browse for cattle and goats.

Soil requirements
In its native range, grows on shallow limestone soils, coastal sands and seasonally dry, vertisol
soils of pH 7.0-8.5. In exotic locations requires well-drained soils with pH above 5.5, or above
5.0 where aluminium saturation is very low. Intolerant of soils with low pH, high salinity and
water logging . Tolerant of moderate salinity and alkalinity.

Moisture

Prefers sub-humid and humid climates of 650-1,500 mm and up to 3,000 mm annual rainfall and
tolerates up to 7 months dry season. Does not tolerate waterlogged soils or extended periods of
flooding (>3 weeks).

Temperature

Requires temperatures of 25-30ºC for optimum growth. Growth ceases at 15-16ºC. Light frosts
will kill leaf. Very heavy frosts will kill stems back to ground level but will not kill mature
plants.

Defoliation

Extremely tolerant of regular defoliation by cutting or grazing once established.

Establishment

Relatively slow to establish, particularly in competition with weed species. For best results plant
on deep, well-drained soils with pH >5.5 and maintain a weed-free area of at least 2 m either side
of the establishing plants.

Seed must be scarified to break the outer cover. Previously, hot-water treatment was
recommended but resulted in highly variable outcomes including reduced vigour and/or viability

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and uneven germination. Mechanical scarification, using coarse sandpaper (for small seed lots)
and complete cultivation is recommended in extensive plantings.

Planted into rows 4-9 m apart at seeding rates of 1.5-3.0 kg/ha. Post-plant herbicides such as
bentazone and imazethapyr can be used to control weed seedlings in the rows. Small areas can
be planted using either seed or seedlings. Seedlings are normally raised in poly bags for plug
planting at 3-4 months old. Seedlings can also be raised in beds and removed for planting.

Fertilizer

Normally not fertilized under rain-grown conditions. Starter N and P may be used when
establishing into depleted soils on cropping lands. On acid infertile soils it is essential to add
lime, P and K at planting and after each cut.

Sesbania (Sesbania sesban)

Soil requirements

Grows in a wide range of soils from loose sands to heavy clays. Tolerates saline soils (1.0% salt
concentration in the seedling stage to 1.4% at maturity); alkaline soils (pH <10); and acidic
soils, as well as water-logging and flooding. Tolerant of low P, but P application has a positive
effect on growth and nodulation.

Moisture

S. sesban is native to, semi-arid to sub-humid regions with 500-2,000 mm annual rainfall.
Grows best where periodic waterlogging or flooding is followed by a progressively drier season.

Temperature

S. sesban is tolerant of cool highland-tropical or sub-tropical conditions, growing at up 2,300 m

altitude in Kenya and as far south as 27º latitude in Australia. These environments experience
cool winter temperatures, with mean monthly minimum temperatures for the coldest month of 7-
10ºC and average annual temperatures ranging from 17-20ºC. Tolerates light frosts, but will be
killed by heavy frost.

36
Defoliation

Normally used as a cut and carry species. With appropriate cutting management will persist for
up to 5 years. Can be cut after the plant reaches 1-2 m height. Delaying cutting until the plant is
>4 m tall, and low cutting at <50 cm, will result in plant deaths. Best results are achieved when
S. sesban is cut to 75-100 cm height and some foliage is retained. Can be defoliated up to 5
times/year depending on use and environment.

More frequent cutting will decrease the lifespan of the plants. Direct grazing by cattle will result
in considerable breakage of stems, but regrowth below the break is rapid. Direct grazing by
goats resulted in 80% mortality because of ring-barking 8-20 cm above ground level. S. sesban
is browsed by ruminants in its native range.

Establishment

It is planted at 1-2 m spacing in single rows with plants spaced 25-50 cm apart within rows Its
rapid early growth generally enables S. sesban to overcome weed competition easily and weed
management is generally not required. Scarification of seed is required to achieve uniform
germination, although many publications report no requirement for scarification. Hot-water
scarification can results in large percentages of non-viable seed.

Fertilizer

Not generally applied, although will respond to added P on deficient soils, especially during
establishment.

Pigean Pea (Cajanu cajan)

A very versatile multipurpose legume shrub, short leaved perennial suited to a wide range of
environment. Wide genetic range including day length sensitive and insensitive lines.

Soil requirements

Can be grown on a wide range of soil textures, from sands to heavy black clays but needs free-
drainage. Pigeon pea prefers pH of 5–7, but can tolerate pH 4.5–8.4. Pigeon pea is sensitive to
high salinity.

37
Moisture

As a crop, pigeon pea is very drought tolerant, able to grow with a dry season exceeding 6
months, and rainfall <300 mm, but does best with 600–1,000 mm AAR , and where elevated, in
excess of 2,000 mm. Less suited to the humid tropics with poor tolerance of wet soils or
flooding.

Temperature

Pigeon pea is very tolerant of hot conditions; grows in temperatures >35ºC when soil moisture
and fertility are adequate, but generally grown in temperatures of 18–30ºC. It can grow at
altitude but growth is slowed by low temperature . Leaf cannot tolerate frost but may escape a
light ground frost due to its height.

Light

Prefers full sunlight but can tolerate some shading during the vegetative growth phase, which can
result in etiolated stems. It is very sensitive to low radiation at pod development and requires
full sunlight at this growth phase.

Reproductive development

Pigeonpeas are day length sensitive requiring day lengths under 12.5 h for flowering and seed
production. However, many varieties have been developed with different responses to
daylength. Short varieties may start flowering only 60 days after planting while the taller woody
species flower much later, from 180–250 days after planting.

Defoliation

Cut 2-3 times during growing season. Leaf and young pods can be harvested and conserved, or
fed fresh. Under good grazing management, pigeon pea has lasted up to 5 years. Regeneration
of foliage is moderate when the plants are younger but becomes poorer as the plants become
woody nearer the end of their life. Cannot tolerate frequent, severe cutting, or heavy defoliation
as with continuous grazing, although regrowth occurs even when cut as low as 15 cm.

38
Establishment

In most developing countries pigeon pea is grown as an intercrop with cereals or legumes, which
are harvested to avoid competition before the pigeon pea flowers and sets seeds. Pigeon pea
does best when broadcast and covered or drilled into a well-prepared seedbed in rows 35 cm
apart, at a depth of 2.5–10 cm., with a seeding rate of 0.5–4 kg/ha, or 5–7 kg/ha under irrigation.
Can be planted into holes on a 2 m grid as a crop. Broadcast or planted in rows with a seed rate
of over 20 kg/ha when sown as ground cover or for fodder. The plant density recommended for
the later maturing highly branched fodder varieties is 50,000–60,000 plants/ha. Seedlings
emerge 2–3 weeks after sowing, and growth is slow until the taproot develops. The plants do not
compete well with weeds in the early growth stage and it is important to keep the crop weed free
in the first 6 weeks after establishment. Seedlings are difficult to transplant but it can be
propagated from stem cuttings.

Fertilizer

Although a nitrogen fixing species, fertilizer is recommended at levels of 20–25 kg/ha N.

Phosphorus is the most limiting factor for pigeonpea and applications of 17–26 kg/ha P can
increase seed yield by 300-600 kg/ha. Most of the pigeonpea cultivars are susceptible to zinc
deficiency. Applications of 2–4 ppm zinc as 0.5% zinc sulphate with 0.25% lime have been
effective to over-come zinc deficiencies.

Compatibility (with other species)

As a forage shrub , pigeon pea can be interplanted with grasses. Tall late flowering varieties are
commonly grown as a food grain crop intercropped with sorghum or millet in the semi-arid
tropics. Has grown well with Chloris gayana and been planted into pangola grass (Digitaria
eriantha ) pastures. When used in intercropping systems, the deep root system competes less
with associated crops than some other legumes. When cultivated as a food crop it is commonly
intercropped with other grain legumes such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ) and groundnut but is
not generally sown with other legumes as a forage

Tree Lucerne (Tagasaste in some countries) (Chameecytisus proflifer)

39
An extremely usefully tree legume with a very wide range of adaptation. Used as a multi-purpose
fodder tree for cut and carry as a productive source of high quality, palatable and non-toxic fodder
and seed for livestock and poultry in the tropical highlands and subtropics. Also used as an
ornamental and windbreak and for bee forage, fuelwood and biogas. Tagasaste can be planted as
a hedge and also has potential for alley cropping systems.

Soil requirements

Tagasaste prefers light well-drained sandy soils on slopes and hillsides, but thrives on gravels,
loams, limestones and laterites. Slag heaps and mining dumps can also reportedly be planted
with the tree. It has wide adaptability to a range of soil pH and although growing better on acid
soils as low as pH 4.0, it can also survive on sandy, alkaline soils with pH 8.5. It is not tolerant
of saline soils.

Moisture

It is extremely drought tolerant and thrives under annual rainfalls between 350-1,600 mm.
Drought tolerance is due to its deep rooting habit of 10 m or more and it can survive in areas
with as low as 200 mm rainfall, although it requires rainfall above 600 mm for good production.
It is very sensitive to poor drainage and cannot tolerate water logging.

Temperature

The normal range for cultivation is from 1,000-2,000 m altitude. Tagasaste grows well up to
altitudes approaching 3,000 m in the tropics and is one of the few fodder trees that can withstand
frost as low as -9ºC in the tropical highlands, although care should be taken with small seedlings,
which are more sensitive to frost.

Reproductive development

Profuse flowering of the scented, creamy-white flowers occurs during the rains and early dry
season in the tropical highlands or cool wet winter months in a Mediterranean climate.

Defoliation

The tree readily coppices and, during the 2- to 3-year establishment period, can be pruned back
to the ground to encourage multiple stems. It responds well to frequent cutting, although
regrowth is slow for the first weeks after harvest, increasing with time. Harvesting in the dry
season leads to stunted regrowth, low biomass yields and increased plant mortality. Trees should

40
be protected from browsing by livestock for at least 2-3 years. When young, sheep will eat the
bark and kill the tree if it is not protected, but once well-established sheep can browse them all
year round and have a remarkable capacity to recover from defoliation . It is reported that trees
persist for up to 30 years if well managed.

4.5.2 Herbaceous Legumes

Alfalfa/ Luceren (Medicago sativa)

Lucerne was one of the first forage crops to be domesticated. It is used as multi-purpose forage, able to
be used for both grazing and conservation (hay, silage, meal and forage dehydration). It can be sown as a
pure stand or in mixtures with both temperate and tropical grasses. The seed can also be used for human
consumption as sprouts.

Soil requirements

Lucerne demands deep, well-drained soils with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH. It will grow in sands to
moderately heavy clays, provided drainage is satisfactory as it is intolerant of even short periods of
waterlogging .

Moisture

It is a crop, which is relatively drought tolerant and will produce yields about in proportion to the water
supply. In periods of drought, it will adjust plant density to cope with the availability of water supply. Its
taproot is capable of following water supply to considerable depths (up to 8 m, but more commonly 2-3
m). It is well suited to growing under irrigation.

Temperature

Optimum temperatures for dry matter production appear to be in the range 15-25ºC in the day and 10-
20ºC during the night. However this may differ with the winter activity level of the cultivar (how quickly
it can grow during the cool season). Again there is variation in the way lucerne cultivars react to cold.
The foliage of winter active cultivars can be damaged by frost and killed by snow, while winter dormant
cultivars avoid damage by remaining dormant during freezing conditions.

41
Light

Lucerne needs high light intensity for maximum growth but its erect growth habit allows it to compete
well for light when sown in mixtures. Young seedlings are intolerant of shading as a result of
competition from broadleaved weeds. Hence defoliation is an oft-used method of correcting weed
problems in establishing pure stands or grass competition in mixed stands.

Reproductive development

In the subtropics lucerne plants flower throughout the year. Winter dormant cultivars have a high
proportion of plants that have a long-day flowering requirement but winter active cultivars have a greater
proportion of day neutral plants. The length of time to first flower appearance varies with season as the
plant's response to day length is influenced by temperature .

Defoliation

Defoliation timing is most appropriately matched to the build up of carbohydrate reserves in the plant's
roots. Levels in the roots are lowest about 2 weeks after cutting and reach a maximum at full bloom.
This varies with the winter activity of the cultivar and with time of the year. The timing of defoliation for
the older Australian cultivar 'Hunter River' (which is a semi-winter dormant cultivar) was determined
when 10% of the stems on individual plants were flowering. However many of the highly winter active
cultivars do not flower as actively and timing is best done when the basal shoots are around 5 cm in
length.
Lucerne is intolerant of continuous grazing. It should be rotationally grazed for long-term persistence,
whether grown as a pure stand or in mixed swards. Even under extensive grazing, where rotational
grazing can not be easily employed, lucerne should be given at least one, and preferably more, stock-free
periods a year. Management practices designed to extend the life of grazed lucerne stands include - low
stocking rates, ensuring that the lucerne stand is well established before grazing, sowing palatable species
with lucerne so that lucerne is not preferentially grazed and using disease-resistant dormant and semi-
dormant cultivars with low crowns.

Establishment

Under the grazing or cutting schedules used in the subtropics, lucerne rarely sets seed so the initial
population achieved at establishment strongly influences the long-term performance of the lucerne stand.
Lucerne should be established in a fine, firm, weed-free seedbed. Sowing rate depends on what the stand

42
will be used for; pure swards under irrigation should be sown at 12-15 kg/ha, dryland pure swards at 4-8
kg/ha and mixed swards for grazing at 1-3 kg/ha. Lucerne will establish throughout the year in the
subtropics but autumn and early winter are best as weed competition is lowest at these times. Weed
control (strategic mowing or grazing, pre- and post-establishment herbicide application) is essential
during the establishment phase in pure swards used for hay production.

Fertiliser

Lucerne needs medium to high fertility soils with a neutral to moderately alkaline pH for optimum
production. Potassium, phosphorus and sulphur levels need to be maintained at the following levels: K -
0.3 m. equiv./100g; P - 25 mg/kg, S - 10 mg/kg. The plant's nodules should satisfy nitrogen requirements
if inoculation is effective. Responses to nitrogen fertiliser can occur in winter but the economics are
questionable. On marginal fertility soils, responses to magnesium, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, boron
and copper can occur. Test strips of the respective nutrient should be applied to determine if soils are
deficient. Aluminium toxicity can occur on soils with pH of lower than 5.5.

Compatibility (with other species)

Lucerne is compatible with tropical grasses under rain grown conditions, especially in drier environments
(<600 mm). In higher rainfall areas, disease and grass competition limit its life span to 1-2 years.Lucerne
is compatible with temperate grasses, especially prairie grass (Bromus spp.), under irrigation. It is less
compatible with ryegrass (Lolium spp.) and white clover (Trifolium repens ) cultivars, especially if the
stand is used for hay making. Management should aim to reduce competition from the companion grass
to improve lucerne stand longevity.

Nutritive value

It is usually considered the 'King of Fodders' because it grows throughout the year if soil moisture is
available. Protein and calcium levels are high, relative to other fodders, but metabolizable energy (ME)
and phosphorus levels are low. ME and phosphorus levels are good in young growth but drop rapidly as
the foliage matures. Intake of digestible nutrients by livestock is higher than for most other forages.
Level of fibrous tissue is low and this allows rapid passage through the rumen . Lucerne foliage is highly
digestible.

Clover (Trifollium. rueppellianum)

43
Regarded as good legume for grazing in native pastures with potential for use as an annual legume for
pasture improvement. Used for intercropping with wheat or barley in tropical highlands to improve soil
nitrogen and quality of residues for livestock feed. Clovers can also be used for hay and silage . An
excellent species for bee keeping and honey production.

Soil requirements

Adapted to a wide range of soils from heavy clay vertisols and nitosols to loams and sandy loams from
pH 4.0-8.0. Tolerates seasonal waterlogging but prefers open grassland or cultivated areas. It is not salt
tolerant.

Moisture

Adapted to high rainfall areas, although grows well in drier areas. Rainfall in its natural range varies
from 700-2,000 mm/yr.

Temperature

Adapted to the cool frost-free tropical highlands, T. rueppellianum occurs from 1,500-3,650 m in its
native area. Ground temperatures below 7ºC during the growing season retard growth and an elevation of
about 2,600 m is about the upper limit for good forage production in tropical areas.

Light

Competition for sunlight leads to domination of stands by clovers that express rapid regrowth or tall
stature.

Reproductive development

Flowering occurs at the end of the rains, from 60-100 days after planting in areas close to the equator with
approximately 12-hour days. Flowers are self fertile and high seeders.

Defoliation

Clovers tolerate moderate to high grazing. Grazing late in the season reduces seed heads leading to
reduced regeneration in following years. They respond well to defoliation and compete better with
grasses when mown to about 5-10 cm.

44
Establishment

Clovers are usually sown from seed at rates of 1-2 kg/ha. Seeds are hard and require scarification before
planting to ensure uniform germination. Seeds are small and seedbeds should be well prepared to a fine,
firm tilth. Seeds are best sown just below the surface, lightly covered and rolled. Germination occurs in
about 5-7 days and young seedlings can be observed about 2 weeks after planting. African Trifolium
species are highly specialised in their rhizobium requirements. In its native habitat it readily nodulates
with native rhizobia, fixing the equivalent of 80-100 kg/ha N and nitrogen fertiliser is not required.

Fertiliser

Large dry matter yield increases are seen in response to P application on poorer soils. Fertiliser (Di-
ammonium phosphate DAP) is recommended when grown on poor soils at an optimum rate of 25-30
kg/ha P. Application of 30 kg/ha P doubled the number of nodules and increased root weight by about
50%.

Compatibility (with other species)

Combines well with other annual clovers and short-growing grasses. It has been successfully used for
intercropping with wheat without significant reduction of wheat grain and straw yields.

Common vetch (Vicia villosa)

Used as a grazing or conserved fodder (hay/silage) crop, a green manure, or ground cover in vines and
orchards. Not suitable for grain due to low seed yields and seed toxicity. Very suitable for intercropping
and it is commonly intercropped with oat species in the highland of Ethiopia.

Soil requirements

Adapted to well-drained sands to heavy clays with pH from (5.0 -8.0). Although tolerant of acid/low
fertility conditions, it is intolerant of high levels of exchangeable aluminium, and performs best in near
neutral soils of at least moderate fertility. It has some degree of salt tolerance. The species regenerates
well except on bare, hard-setting soil surfaces.

45
Moisture

Grown in areas with average annual rainfall (350- 1,000) mm, often where clovers and medics do not do
well. Has moderate drought tolerance, and does not tolerate waterlogging.

Temperature

Found naturally at altitudes from 0 to 3,000 m ASL, and between about 30° and 50° N. It has been
successfully grown elsewhere in areas with 24 hr average temperature as low as 8.4° C (S.D. 1.3)
(Bolivia, 18° 48' S, 3,900 m ASL) and up to 19.4° C (S.D. 4.2) (Australia 29° 40' S, 70 m ASL). In
warmer climates, it produces most of its growth in autumn, winter and spring. However, it is fairly
dormant over winter in colder climates, but can survive freezing conditions for days.

Reproductive development

It is a self-fertile species. In temperate areas, plants flower from late spring to mid-summer, commencing
and finishing earlier in the subtropics, with some variation among cultivars. Flowering behaviour in the
high altitude tropics appears to be somewhat controlled by wet season onset. In the high Andes of Bolivia,
it was able to flower and set seed in five months.

Defoliation

The stand should not be cut or grazed before commencement of branching, since early defoliation can kill
young plants. The general recommendation is to graze from about the 10 - 15-node stage through to
flowering. Grazing later than this can cause poisoning problems, even death, of the grazing animal. If
the legume is to be used as a self regenerating annual, it must be managed to facilitate seed set. This
means avoiding or reducing grazing from flowering onwards, particularly in the first year, in order to
build up a seed reserve in the soil. It is very tolerant of mowing, providing it is cut no lower than 12 - 15
cm, and not within two months of seed set. It is best cut in full bloom for hay production. Leaves and
stems dry rapidly and swaths can usually be gathered within a day or two if weather is suitable.

Establishment

In cooler areas, V. villosa ssp. dasycarpa is best sown in autumn so young plants are well established
before the onset of extreme cold. In warmer environments, it should be sown once the heat of the warm
season declines, perhaps late autumn-early winter. In intermediate environments, it can be sown year

46
round providing moisture is available. In very high altitude tropics (say >2,000 m), where temperatures
are suitable year round for growth of this species, it is best to sow immediately prior to the beginning of
the wet season. Most varieties have high levels of hard seed, making some type of scarification necessary
in hand-harvested seed. Recommended sowing rates vary significantly, from 10 - 15 (- 30) kg/ha when
sown alone, and 4 -8 kg/ha in mixtures. Heavier sowing rates are suggested for broadcast ((15 -) 30 - 60
kg/ha) over drilling (10 - 30 kg/ha). Seed is sown at 1 - 3 cm depth, with shallower sowings in clay soils
and deeper sowings in sandy soils. Broadcast sowings should be harrowed or lightly disced after
planting. Seedlings are initially slow to develop.

Fertilizer
Annual applications of 10 - 15kg/ha of phosphorus help maintain soil P levels in more fertile soils, but
rates up to 50 kg may be needed on calcareous or ironstone soils, or other soils with inherently low
available P levels. Deficiency of sulphur and trace elements can be indicated from foliar symptoms or soil
tests if available

Cow Pea (Vigna unguiculata)

Cowpea is one of the most widely used legumes in the tropical world. The grain is used widely for
human nutrition, especially in Africa. It is one of the most important tropical dual-purpose legumes,
being used for vegetables (leaves and flowers), grain, as fresh cut and carry forage, and for hay and silage
. Mixing of different cowpea varieties for food and feed purposes is common in northern Nigeria.

Soil requirements

Adapted to a wide range of soils from sands to heavy, well-drained clays, with a preference for lighter
soils that allow good rooting. Wide range of pH including very acid (pH 4), low-fertility soils. Better
adapted to strongly acid soils than either Lablab purpureus or Mucuna pruriens . Grows well also on
heavy textured strongly alkaline soils. Does not tolerate extended flooding or salinity.

Moisture

Moderately tolerant of drought but excessive soil moisture is harmful, reducing growth and favoring
infection by fungal diseases. Nevertheless, well adapted to a wide precipitation range (650-2,000 mm).
For forage, annual rainfall regimes of 750-1,100 mm are preferable. As a food crop for humans, often

47
grown in annual rainfall regimes as low as 400 mm. Extended water logging or poor drainage should be
avoided.

Temperature

Very susceptible to frost; grows well only in warm seasons with 25-35°C as optimum temperature.
Grows from sea level up to 1,500 m asl , depending on latitude.

Light

Moderate adaptation to shade.

Reproductive development

The different cowpea accessions can show wide variation in reproductive development. Some may start
flowering 30 days after sowing and are ready for harvest of dry seeds 25 days later; others may take more
than 90 days to flower, and 210-240 days to mature. Many cultivars mature uniformly although there are
determinate and indeterminate genotypes. Indeterminate types are particularly useful in smallholder
farming systems where a supply of fresh leaves and flowers, over an extended period of time enables a
sustained supply of vegetables for the household. Determinate types are better for machine harvesting.
Cowpea is mostly a quantitative short-day plant, but there are also day-neutral cultivars. Planting out of
season or taking seed of photoperiod sensitive genotypes to different latitudes, may inhibit seed set.

Defoliation

When seasons are suitable and when sown relatively early, the best forage types will regrow after
grazing. Grazing should be light to ensure that the plant frame is retained and damage is limited.

Establishment

Sowing arrangement according to intended use: for fodder and green manure, 30-60 cm between rows
and 10-15 cm between plants are suitable; required seeding rate about 20 kg/ha. Other seeding rates
reported are 10-40 kg/ha when sown in rows and up to 90 kg/ha when broadcast. Most common 20-50
kg/ha. Sowing depth 3-5 cm. Seed is soft so germination is usually rapid if moisture and temperature are
adequate. V. unguiculata subsp. dekindtiana usually has a high proportion of hard seed, and may need
scarification prior to sowing. Promiscuous in its rhizobial requirements. Annual grasses and some

48
broadleaf weeds can be controlled by a pre-sowing application of trifluralin which is the only herbicide
registered for use on cowpea in Australia.

Fertilizer

Responses have been recorded to P, K and S as well as molybdenum on poor fertility soils.

Dismodium (Desmodium dichotomum)

Soil requirements

The single accession of this species that has been used in experiments originated from the Sudan and is
well adapted to heavy textured alkaline soils.

Moisture

It is well adapted to dry and semi-arid environments on clay soils where it has the capacity to efficiently
extract moisture from these soils.

Temperature

D. dichotomum has been productive in regions throughout the tropics of northern Queensland and the
southern Queensland and northern New South Wales cropping systems which are environments with hot
summers, with maximum temperatures frequently in excess of 35ºC. It is burnt by frosts.

Defoliation

D. dichotomum is extremely palatable and will always be preferentially grazed. Its high palatability can
result in it being grazed to ground level so a large degree of grazing management is important if a seed
crop is desired.

Establishment

D. dichotomum establishes readily in well prepared seedbeds. It has a relatively small seed so the
recommended depth of sowing is about 1 cm and should not exceed 2 cm. The clay soils in which it
might be used often have soil crusting characteristics which can reduce establishment significantly if seed
is sown too deep and seed is of poor quality (low vigour). D. dichotomum can have a large percentage of
hard seed and this should be tested. If hard seed is greater than 50%, then seed should be scarified before

49
sowing. The rhizobium requirements for D. dichotomum have not been evaluated but it could be
expected that the standard strain for Desmodium (CB 627 in Australia) should be used. Recommended
planting rate when sown for a pure stand is 2 kg/ha.

Fertiliser

As in most legumes, D. dichotomum would be expected to respond to applications of P and Mo, and S
may also be necessary in some situations.

Lablab, (Lablab purpureus)

Lablab is a dual-purpose legume. It is traditionally grown as a pulse crop for human consumption in
south and southeast Asia and eastern Africa. Flowers and immature pods also used as a vegetable. It is
also used as a fodder legume sown for grazing and conservation in broad-acre agricultural systems in
tropical environments with a summer rainfall. Also used as green manure, cover crop and in cut-and-
carry systems and as a concentrate feed. It can be incorporated into cereal cropping systems as a legume
ley to address soil fertility decline and is used as an intercrop species with maize to provide better
legume/stover feed quality. As a dual purpose (human food and animal feed) legume , it is sown as a
monoculture or in intercrop systems.

Soil requirements

Grows in a wide range of soils from deep sands to heavy clays, provided drainage is good, and from pH
4.5-7.5. Low salinity tolerance with symptoms being reduced growth and plant death.

Moisture

Adapted to annual rainfall regimes of 650-3,000 mm. Drought tolerant when established, and will grow
where rainfall is <500 mm, but loses leaves during prolonged dry periods. Capable of extracting soil
water from at least 2 meters depth even in heavy textured soils. Will tolerate short periods of flooding but
intolerant of poor drainage..

Temperature

Grows best at average daily temperatures of 18-30°C and is tolerant of high temperatures. Able to grow
at low temperatures (down to 3°C) for short periods. Frost susceptible, but tolerates very light frosts.

50
More tolerant of cold than either Mucuna pruriens or cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ). Will grow at
altitudes from sea level to elevations of up to 2,000 m asl in tropical environments.

Defoliation

Three harvests possible from annual types, but will not stand heavy grazing of stems. For green manure,
the crop should be cut before flower initiation. More tolerant of grazing than cowpea, and more harvests
possible. As a forage , the crop should be utilised before flowering.

Establishment

Percentage of hard seed is very low and no scarification is required. Complete cultivation is used for
lablab monocultures with seeding rates of between 12 and 20 kg/ha. Rows should be 80-120 cm apart,
with 30-50 cm between plants. Seed can be planted to a depth of 3-10 cm. Will establish readily when
sown into subsurface moisture to a depth of at least 7-10 cm. When planted with grasses, seed rates
should be 5-8 kg/ha. Will not establish readily into existing pastures without some form of soil
disturbance. Provided seed is of good quality, germination should be rapid and uniform as commercial
cultivars have soft seed and require no scarification.

Fertiliser

While it is common to grow lablab without fertilizer applications, sowings in sandy soils often require
applications of phosphorus and sulphur and benefit from applications of

Nutritive value

Leaf has CP content of 21-38%, commonly about 26%. Much lower for stem (7-20%). Grain contains
20-28% CP . Digestibility ranges from 55-76%, commonly >60% (leaves). Grain high in vitamins A, B
and C.

Palatability/acceptability

Leaf is highly palatable, but stem has low palatability. Palatability of grain is low to moderate depending
on variety.

Stylo (Stylosanthes humilis)

Component of permanent pasture. Mostly for grazing; generally too low for cut and carry. Makes quite
good hay , particularly if the stand has been fertilised with phosphorus, and is not too badly affected by
anthracnose.

51
Soil requirements

Occurs over a wide range of soil textures from gravel to clay but predominantly on lighter soils. In
cultivation, prefers sands and sandy loams, but will grow on hard setting and heavier soils, not necessarily
well drained. PH range at collection sites varies from 5.0-6.5. Mostly naturalised on at least slightly acid
soils. Nodulates effectively down to pH 4.5, or pH 4.0 if the calcium supply is adequate. Has tolerance
of high levels of available Al and Mn, and fair tolerance of salinity.

Moisture

Occurs in tropical areas with 400 mm rainfall and pronounced dry season to areas with rainfall >3,000
mm and a short dry season. Relatively insensitive to dry conditions once established. Survives drought
through being annual and setting copious amounts of mostly hard seed, and developing a large bank of
soil seed. Survives short periods of waterlogging but cannot withstand flooding.

Temperature

Survive an average annual temperature range of 14-28ºC, in frosted and non-frosted environments.
Temperatures for optimum growth range between about 27°C and 33°C day temperature . Night
temperatures below 25°C and day temperatures below 30°C

Establishment

Fresh seed can have >90% embryo dormancy, which lasts about 4 months. Seed does not soften during
normal storage. Germination of commercial seed can be improved by mechanical scarification, hot water
(80ºC for 10-15 minutes, then cool and dry), or one of the various dry heat treatments (85ºC for 1-2 hours,
or heated for 15-20 seconds at 155ºC in a rotating drum, in each case cooling rapidly to ambient
temperature ). Sown just before the rainy season at 2-3 kg/ha.

Fertilizer

One of the most efficient of the tropical legumes in extracting its calcium and phosphorus from the soil.
Grows in soil with available phosphorus levels as low as 3-10 ppm . Although establishes in most soils
without P, performs better with 20 kg/ha P at planting, with an occasional follow-up dressing. Tolerant of
high manganese and aluminium.

52
4.5.3 Grasses

Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)

Uses/applications

Mainly used as a permanent pasture, but can be used for hay or silage. Not suited to short-term pasture
because too difficult to remove and binds nutrient.

Soil requirements

Often occurs in the wild on sandy soils, but is also well adapted to deep, freely draining sandy loam,
loam, clay loam and red earth soils. Although slow to establish on black cracking clay soils, once
established it grows well. Requires good fertility, particularly with respect to N, P and Ca. P levels
should be >10 mg/kg and total N levels >0.1%. The optimum soil reaction is pH 7-8, but grows on soils
with pH as low as 5.5. Very sensitive to high levels of soil aluminium and manganese. Apart from soil
depth, rooting depth is also limited by high subsoil salinity or sodicity and low pH (<5). However, does
have moderate tolerance of salinity, but not as good as that of Chloris gayana .

Moisture

The most drought tolerant of the commonly sown grasses, Cenchrus ciliaris occurs naturally in areas with
average annual rainfall from as low as 100 mm up to about 1,000 mm, but most commonly between 300
and 750 mm. Under cultivation, it has been grown in areas with rainfall as high as 2,900 mm, although
this is exceptional. Winter rainfall should be < 400 mm. Does not survive prolonged waterlogging ,
particularly in cold season, but can stand up to 5 days of flooding with negligible adverse effect. Losses
of 15-70% occur after 20 days of flooding. Tolerance of flooding varies with ecotype, the taller varieties
appearing to be more flood-tolerant.

Temperature

Optimum temperature for photosynthesis in varieties measured is 35ºC, and minimum between 5 and
16ºC. Relative growth rate rises steeply from 15/10º-30/25ºC, with a small further increment to 36/31ºC.
Some varieties are better adapted to cooler environments than others.

Light

Intolerant of shade.

Defoliation

Slow to establish and grazing may need to be delayed 4-6 months after sowing, and up to 9-12 months,
depending on establishment conditions. Very tolerant of regular cutting or grazing. Since quality
declines rapidly with age, should be cut or grazed at least every 8 weeks. Leafiness is maintained by low
cutting at about 7 cm.

53
Establishment

Fresh seed often has high level of dormancy. Germination rate can be improved with storage of 6-18
months. Total live seed content is commonly 30-50%. Establishment is difficult on hard setting and
heavy clay soils. Establishes readily if competition is controlled. Sown 0-1 cm deep at 1-2 kg seed/ha,
the lower rate on sandy-loam soils. Mixing with fertiliser, or sand improves distribution through out the
land.

Fertiliser

Establishment fertiliser is rarely necessary since Cenchrus ciliaris should only be sown on fertile soils.
However, phosphorous may be necessary if sowing with a legume . Stands become unproductive with
time as nitrogen is tied up in the root system. It is generally not economical to apply nitrogen fertiliser to
overcome this situation, but management techniques include use of legumes (e.g. Leucaena leucocephala
) or limited cultivation to release mineral N from the soil organic matter every 3-5 years.

Nutritive value

CP values are mostly in the range of 6-16%, and IVDMD and CP digestibility from 50-60%, depending
on age of growth, cultivar, and soil fertility. P levels are usually higher than in other tropical grasses and
range from 0.15-0.65% in the DM.

Panicum (Panicum maximum)

Long term pasture if fertility maintained. Ideal for cut-and-carry, although bristly types may cause
discomfort to forage collector. Suited to agroforestry due to shade tolerance. Reasonably palatable when
mature, providing good roughage for use in conjunction with urea molasses licks. Has been used
successfully for making silage and hay .

Soil requirements

P. maximum grows in most soil types providing they are well-drained, moist and fertile, although some
varieties are tolerant of lower fertility and poorer drainage. It is Tolerance of low soil pH. The species is
generally intolerant of waterlogging or salinity.

Moisture

Mostly grown in areas with annual rainfall above 1,000 mm, while Some varieties are planted in areas
with 800 mm or less. Drought tolerance varies among cultivars, although generally they do not tolerate
dry periods longer than 4 or 5 months.

54
Temperature

Occurs from sea level to >2,000 m. Temperature response varies with genotype.

Defoliation

Susceptible to frequent low cutting. For long-term maintenance of stand, TM varieties should not be cut
or grazed below about 30 cm, and should be cut or grazed at about 4-weekly intervals to obtain best
balance between quality and quantity. S varieties can be grazed lower, but still are better under a
rotational regime.

Establishment

Germination should be tested, since seed of some genotypes may not reach maximum germination until
up to 18 months after harvest, while others may take only a few months. Dormancy can be overcome by
removal of glumes from fresh seed. Seed can be drilled or broadcast at 2-3 kg/ha, and being a small seed,
should be planted at no more than 1 cm deep. Rolling after sowing improves germination and
establishment. P. maximum can also be established from rooted tillers (or cuttings with thick stemmed
varieties) planted on the contour every 0.5-0.6 m in rows 1.25-1.5 m apart, or as close as 40 cm in a
triangular pattern if a faster cover is required.

Fertilizer

Establishment fertiliser is necessary on infertile soils, using 20-40 kg/ha P, and about 50 kg/ha N if
limited cultivation prior to planting. Maintenance fertiliser is needed for pure grass swards especially in
cut-and-carry systems. Inadequate N will lead to weakening of the stand and invasion by less desirable
species. Maintenance dressings of 200-400 kg/ha/yr N are required to promote healthy, productive stands
on less fertile soils. Soils with a pH <5 require addition of lime to raise pH to 5.5-6.

Limitations
 Requires fertile soils.
 Intolerant of waterlogging .
 Intolerant of heavy grazing.
 Becomes steamy if not cut or grazed frequently.

Elephant grass/ Nipper grass (Pennisetum purpureum)

55
Mostly planted for cut and carry systems, and not for long-term grazed pastures. Also used for
hedgerows and living fences, although roots compete with adjacent crop. Young growth makes good hay,
which can be fed as hay or pellets. Coarse stems in older growth make it unsuitable for hay. Makes good
silage, although inferior to maize and sorghum. Old growth becomes too coarse to be of value for
anything other than soil conservation.

Soil requirements

Grows on a wide range of soil types provided fertility is adequate. Grows best in deep, well-drained
friable loams with a pH of 4.5-8.2 (mean 6.2).

Moisture

In the wild, normally only found in areas with rainfall >1,000 mm, and on river banks in areas of lower
rainfall. Although extremely drought tolerant by virtue of deep root system, needs good moisture for
production. Does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging .

Temperature

Produces best growth between 25 and 40°C, and little growth below about 15°C, with growth ceasing at
10°C. Tops killed by frost, but re-grows with onset of warm, moist conditions. Grows from sea level to
2000 m altitude.

Defoliation

Normally cut at 15 cm above ground, although difficult to maintain constant cutting height. Cattle eat
mostly leaf. Proportion of leaf decreases, and stem increases, with age and height. Should not be allowed
to grow >1.5 m before cutting, to ensure cut material is mostly leaf.

Establishment

Can be established from seed (no post-harvest dormancy), although almost invariably planted from setts
or cuttings (pieces of cane). Setts are taken from the basal 2/3 of moderately mature stems and should
contain at least 3 nodes. These are pushed into the soil at 45º, basal end down, with 2 nodes buried.
Normally planted in rows 0.5-2 m apart, and 0.3-1 m apart within rows. Close spacing is required for soil
conservation contour hedgerows and for high rainfall environments. More open spacing is used in drier
environments.

Fertiliser

Should be planted into fertile soil. Once established, requires, 150-300 kg/ha/yr N, together with other
nutrients as indicated by soil tests. Responses at much higher levels

56
Nutritive value

Varies greatly with age of regrowth (leaf:stem ratio), and fertility, particularly nitrogen e.g. 6 week
regrowth 10% CP, 10 week regrowth 7.6% CP. Can give up to 2-fold difference in CP level.

Palatability/acceptability

Extremely palatable to all classes of stock when provided young and leafy.

Rhodes Grass (Chloris gayana)

Used in permanent pasture or as a short- to medium-term pasture ley to restore soil structure, improve
organic matter levels, and reduce nematode numbers. Can also be under sown into maize. Makes good
hay if cut at or just before very early flowering. Generally not suitable for silage . Provides fair
standover roughage when mature, better than Cenchrus ciliaris and Panicum maximum due to its greater
cold resistance and lower loss of dry leaves. Develops good ground cover and effectively controls
erosion once established (needs regular defoliation to maintain cover).

Soil requirements

While preferring well-structured loams and clays of volcanic origin, it grows on most well drained soils,
except very heavy clays, provided fertility is adequate. Very tolerant of high soil Na levels (conductivity
>10 dS/m), particularly as HCO3- and SO4--, but less so as Cl- or NO3-. Also tolerant of high Li+ but not
Mg++ . More tolerant of high than low pH, growing best in soils with pH between about 5.5 and 7.5, but
will grow down to pH 4.5 and up to 10. Intolerant of high soil manganese.

Moisture

Rainfall in its natural range varies from about 500-1,500 mm/yr. In cultivation, it is usually planted in
areas with rainfall from 700-1,200 mm, but has been successful at lower annual averages. It does not
thrive in areas with more than 1,800 mm rainfall. It is popular in irrigated pastures, particularly where
irrigation water may be too saline for other species. Drought tolerance is less than that of Cenchrus
ciliaris and Panicum maximum , but can still survive in areas with a 6-month dry season, by virtue of a
root system that can extract water to a depth of >4 m. Tolerates seasonal waterlogging , and up to 15
days' flooding.

57
Temperature

Occurs from near sea level to 2,000 m in the tropics, and sea level to >1,000 m asl in the subtropics, and
from near the equator to 34.5ºS. This equates to a range in average annual temperatures from about
16.5ºC to >26ºC. This wide geographical and thermal distribution is probably reflected in the variable
reports in the literature for optimum growing temperatures, ranging from 20-37ºC, with extremes of 5º
and 50ºC. Sufficient to say that within the germplasm available, there are types that can produce
significant growth at relatively low temperatures, even showing significant frost tolerance , and types that
can grow at high temperatures. Low night temperatures in controlled environments reduced seed set in
'Callide' and 'Pioneer'.

Light

Generally poor shade tolerance.

Reproductive development

Flowering behaviour varies with ploidy level. The diploids (2n = 20) are generally insensitive to
daylength and flower throughout the growing season. The tetraploids largely respond to shortening
daylength, and although a few inflorescences are produced throughout the growing season , there is a
flush of flowering when daylength falls below 12 hours. In the southern hemisphere subtropics, this
equates to an intense flowering in mid-April, and another post-winter in October/November.

Defoliation

Stands develop quickly and can be grazed 4-6 months after planting, although highest production is
reached in the second year. Growth commences early in spring. Since feeding value declines rapidly
with onset of flowering, it is important to maintain the stand in a leafy condition by fairly regular
defoliation. The late flowering tetraploid varieties give more flexibility in this regard. Chloris gayana is
tolerant of heavy grazing, but production is reduced by very frequent defoliation (e.g. 14 day v. 28 day).
Makes good hay if cut at or just before very early flowering, giving up to 6, 25- to 50-day harvests.

Establishment

It can be propagated vegetatively or from seed. Planting material can be obtained by breaking up larger
clumps into pieces, or using the small tussocks along the stolons that establish readily. Either is planted
on about a 1 m grid. A more rapid cover can generally be obtained by planting from seed, usually at

58
sowing rates of 0.5-1 kg/ha. Seed of the diploids has little or no post-harvest dormancy, while seed of the
tetraploids may not reach maximum germination for 3-6 months (sometimes up to 18 months) after
harvest. Seed is best sown on the surface (definitely no deeper than 2 cm) of a well-prepared seedbed,
followed by rolling. The fluffy seed tends to "ball" or bridge when planting. For broadcasting, seed is
best mixed with sawdust or sand ; and for drilling, it flows more readily if pelleted. Seed germinates in
1-7 days, and seedlings develop rapidly.

Fertiliser

Although Chloris gayana can survive on infertile soil, it is very unproductive, and may eventually die out,
particularly if grazed regularly. Responds to phosphorus in poorer soils, and gives a linear yield and
crude protein response of up to 300 kg/ha of nitrogen if other nutrients are adequately supplied. Split
applications, each of 50-100 kg/ha N, are

Palatability/acceptability

Young growth is very palatable, but after the plants have seeded they are less attractive. Tetraploids are
generally more readily eaten than diploid varieties, particularly when mature.

Chapter 5: Forage development strategies

Forage development strategies enable farmers increase the supply of animal feeds both in
quantity and quality. Apart from increasing animal feed supply, these strategies enable to
reinforce the traditional linkage between livestock and crop production. They promote sound
soil and water conservation in strip and bare grazing lands. However, this does not mean that all
forage development strategies can have these benefits equally nor does it mean that they can be
promoted under any circumstances. Each of these strategies has its own area of application.

Numerous strategies for forage development have been devised for Ethiopian conditions and
these are being promoted by the Bureau of Agriculture and other development bodies. The aim
of these strategies is to increase the quantity and quality of the forage available to livestock. The
main methods for improving the quality of forage through incorporating protein-rich legumes
into the farming systems are listed below. Such measures are cheaper and can be more easily
adopted by farmers into their present farming systems. It is important to stress that one of the
main concerns of forage development strategies promoters is that these strategies should not, in

59
any way, compete with production of food for human consumption which must be given priority.
It is obvious that there is something wrong if the livestock are well-fed while the human
inhabitants of an area are malnourished.

5.1 Backyard
This strategy refers to using land close to the homestead where the backyards have sufficient
space. It includes small plots or hedges of productive forage planted in or round houses. Such a
strategy is useful in towns where land is limited but people might have small-scale intensive
dairy farms.
The advantages of such a system are:
It takes advantage of higher fertility round homesteads;
It uses woody leguminous browse and root crops which can be multi-purpose and exhibit
rapid growth rates;
It can be used to supplement poor quality crop residues with high quality forage;
It can provide shelter, firewood, improved soil fertility, protection, etc;
It assists in reducing grazing pressure on overgrazed rangelands.
Such production is ideally suited to a system of cut and carry.
Suitable species include Leucaena, Sesbania, Gliricidia, Tree lucerne, Erythrina, pigeon pea,
elephant grass, Guinea grass, Phalaris, Alfalfa, Lablab, Desmodium, Siratro and Fodder beet.
Backyard production can be promoted at:
 Altitudes ranging from 1500 - 2500 m.
 Where livestock numbers are high and grazing land is scarce.
 Where good control of livestock is possible.

5.2 Undersowing of forage legumes with cereal crops

This is particularly suited to tall cereals such as maize, sorghum or finger millet. It uses
sprawling, low-growing annual legumes or dual purpose climbing legumes. In some parts of
Ethiopia it is already a traditional practice. In some areas cowpeas are grown with sorghum and
maize and sometimes haricot beans are included.
Advantages include:
 Protects soil from erosive rains;

60
 Contributes nitrogen for the food crop;
 Improves the feed value and intake of crop residues;
 Improves soil structure;
 Makes more intensive use of limited space.
The undersown legume should be managed on a cut and carry basis. The forage crop is best
sown at the time of the final weeding of the host crop. Early maturing cereals are best as they
compete with the undersown legumes for a shorter time.
Suitable species are deep rooting species which are drought tolerant and retain their green leaves
longer into the dry season are needed to increase the feeding value of the stubble. They should be
easy to establish and should seed heavily and early.
Good species include: vetch; lablab; cowpeas; greenleaf and silverleaf desmodium; siratro;
verano stylo; Trifolium spp. and Macrotyloma uniflorum. It needs a reliable supply of seeds to
be available.

5.3 Forage development in livestock exclusion areas

Watersheds, degraded areas and common land can recover quickly if livestock are excluded.
These exclusion areas can be used by farming communities to develop forage banks. Degraded
areas can be rehabilitated by seeding with forage species. Browse species, productive legumes
and improved grasses can rapidly increase the protected areas productivity. broadcast sowing
should follow the beginnings of the rains. Generally, leguminous browse and tall grasses are the
best species. Woody species do best if planted as bare root seedlings early in the main rains.
Rather than reopening the exclusion area for grazing once the fertility improves, a system of cut
and carry should be continued. It is best near villages so that cut and carry systems are possible.
Suitable species
Herb legumes such as: greenleaf and silverleaf desmodium, siratro, glycine, Cassia rotundifolia,
Axillaris, Calopo, Seca and verano stylo.
Grasses: Rhodes, Plicatulum and Buffel grass.
Tree legumes: Tree lucerne; Sesbania; Leucaena.

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5.4 Forage development on conservation structures in arable lands

Forage strips can be used to bind the soil on terraces, bunds, along contours, etc. Such structures
could also include alley cropping and shelter belts. The best plants are perennial, deep rooted
grasses mixed with woody legumes. The main problem facing such a strategy is the free grazing
of livestock over the crop stubbles which might make establishment of such strips difficult. The
advantages of such a strategy are; they can be multipurpose species, providing forage, fuel wood,
adding nitrogen to the soil, physically preventing erosion, windbreaks, etc.
Suitable species
Contour strips and bunds:
 Erect grasses such as Guinea grass, Setaria and Phalaris.
 Herbaceous legumes: Lablab and vetch.
 Tree legumes: Gliricidia, Leucaena, Sesbania, Tree lucerne and pigeon pea.
Alley farming (cropping):
 Tree legumes: Gliricidia, Leucaena, Sesbania, Tree lucerne, Calliandra.
 Herbaceous legumes: Optional.
Hedges and shelter belts:
 Tree legumes: Gliricidia, Leucaena, Tree lucerne, Erythrina, Pigeon pea.
 A good mixture is Elephant grass, climbing and tree legumes.

5.5 Oversowing.

This is the simplest and lowest cost form of forage development. It involves seeds of improved
forage species or varieties being broadcast on common grazing lands, natural pastures, degraded
areas, etc. Forage yields are not large but some species establish well and these may spread and
colonize grazing areas and increase overall species composition. They can spread very rapidly.
Such species need to be able to establish easily on poor seedbeds, be tolerant of heavy grazing
and be capable of setting seed and spreading even under heavy grazing.
Suitable species - Verano and Seca stylo, Siratro, Axillaris, Calopo, Cassia rotundifolia, vetch,
etc.
5.6 Field forage crop production
This is based on growing annual or perennial forage crops in prepared fields. It can then be used
for finely controlled grazing by livestock or cut and carry. This is limited to specialist farmers or
organizations that produce high value products such as dairy products and fattened beef it
requires good, fertile soils, a longer growing season, good management and intensive enterprises.

62
It produces higher quality forage that enables higher stocking rates. This strategy should only be
recommended where extra land is available so human food production will not be reduced.
Suitable for species of fodder crops and permanent grass/legume mixture pastures.
 Low altitude (up to 1,500 m.a.s.l):
Fodder crops: Sorghum/ Lablab, Sorghum/cowpea, maize/common vetch or haricot bean,
Rhodes/ alfalfa,
Permanent pasture: Rhodes, Green panic, Desmodium, Siratro, Stylo.
 Medium altitude (1,500 - 2,200m):
Fodder crops: Oat/common vetch; Sorghum/Lablab;Sorghum/cowpea;Maize/common
vetch/Haricot bean;Rhodes/Alfalfa;Elephant grass/ Desmodium; Fodder beet.
Permanent pasture: Phalaris, Rhodes, Setaria, Desmodium, Trifolium.
 High altitudes (2,000 - 3,000m)
Fodder crops: Oat/Common vetch; Elephant grass/Desmodium; Fodder beet.
Permanent pasture: Phalaris, Cocksfoot, Tall fescue, Trifolium and vetch.
Fodder crops (suitable at most altitudes): Alfalfa, Oats, vetch, fodder beet.
When a forage development programme is planned for a particular area, it is vital to consider as
many factors as may affect the implementation of the plan (see diagram below).

Chapter 6. Nutritive evolution of forage

6.1 Methods for determining nutritive value of forage

The main components of forage are
 Water
 Dry matter
Organic and inorganic minerals
The organic components are carbohydrate, lipids, proteins nucleic acid, organic acid and
vitamins
6.1.1 Chemical analysis for determining nutritive value of forage.
There are several chemical analysis used to determine the composition of the forage feed:
A Proximate analysis (weend’s method)
B Van soest method
6.1.1.1 Proximate analysis (weend’s method)
It is a system of analysis that divides the feed into six fractions
These are: moisture, crud protein, ash, ether extract and nitrogen free extraction

63
6.1.1.2 Van soest method
Van soest method divides the feeds /plant materials into two main fractions:
 Cell content
 Cell wall constituent
6.1.2 digestibility as a method for evaluating forages

The first tax imposed on forage is that represented by the part of it that is not absorbed and is
excreted in the feces. The digestibility of forage is most accurately defined as that portion, which
is not excreted in the feces and which is, therefore assumed to be absorbed by the animal.
In digestibility trial the forage under investigation is given to the animal in known amount and
the output of feces measured. The difference between these two values is the amount digested. It
is commonly expressed in terms of dry matter and as coefficient or percentage.

Example, if a cow ate 12kg of hay containing 10kg of dry matter and excreted 4kg of dry matter
in its feces, the digestibility of the hay dry matter would be:
Dry matter consumed – dry matter excreted x 100
Dry matter consumed
DDM = 10 - 4 x100 60% or 60
10

This method determines the apparent digestibility. Another method is true digestibility- the
actual digestibility of forage, measured as the difference between intake and fecal loss of
undigested material. This is always higher than apparent digestibility because part of the feces is
a metabolic loss.

Protein value of forage

The nitrogen content of the forage is expressed in terms of crud protein percentage. Chemically,
the crud protein of forage is calculated from its nitrogen content assuming that all the nitrogen of
forage is present as protein and that all forage contains 16% nitrogen (100÷ 16=6.25). The
amount of nitrogen is multiplied by 6.25 to calculate the crud protein.

Example 1.the nitrogen content of 3gms of dry alfalfa was found to be 0.1gram when chemically
analyzed. What is the crud protein percentage of the feed, assuming that all the N of the feed is
present as protein and that the feed protein contains 16% nitrogen?
N content of 3gm alfalfa = 0.1gm
N content of CP = 16% in terms of coefficient of N =6.25, that is 6.25 parts of the cp contains 1
part of N, therefore, CP in 3gms of alfalfa = 0.1 x6.25 = 0.625gms, hence %CP = (0.625 ÷ 3)100
= 20.8

64
Example 2 if a cow ate 9kg dry alfalfa containing 1.87kg of CP and excreted 0.65kg of CP in its
feces, what is the percentage of digestible CP (DCP);
DCP% [(CP consumed –CP excreted) ÷ CP consumed] 100
Therefore, DCP% = [(1.87-0.65) ÷1.87]100 = 65.2
Before the forage protein becomes available to the animal it must undergo digestion.
The digestible CP in a feed may be determined by digestibility trials (example 2).

6.2 Factors affecting nutritive value of forages

1. Environmental factors: climate factors such as light, temperature and moisture greatly
influence the final quality of forages.

Light is essential to photosynthesis, which produce sugar and organic acids. Light alone
increases digestibility of plant tissue.

Increasing temperature increases the metabolic process with in plant, decreases the production of
sugar, increases the proportion of cell wall in the plants and their degree of lignifications and
lowers the plant digestibility.

Moisture may be excessive or lacking. If moisture is limited, maturity may be hindered or the
plant may go into dormancy. In most species this lowers digestibility.
6.2.2. Maturity, stage of growth:
As the forage plant matures, the proportion of cell content decreases, but the cell wall increases
and nutritive quality reduced. The percent of digestibility lowers with maturity. This one factor
probably plays the greatest role in forage quality.

Forage intake
Animals will consume forages in different amount. Therefore assessment of forage quality
depends not only the nutritive value of the forage but also on the quantity of the forage
voluntarily eaten, or in other words, on the total quantity of digestible nutrients consumed by the
animal. The feeding value of forage depends primarily on the magnitude of its contribution
towards the daily energy need of an animal.

In monogastric animals, intake in controlled mainly by the levels of blood metabolites. In

ruminants, intake depends largely on the capacity of the digestive tract, particularly the rumen.
The animal stops eating when a certain degree of fill in reached and starts to eat again when a fill
in reduced as a result of digestion and movement of the residue through the digestive tract. Even
though with forages of very high digestibility (over 70 – 75%) blood metabolite level can control
intake by ruminants under most conditions, particularly in the tropic where forages generally
have lower digestibility, the gastro-intestinal tract fill controls intake.

65
Thus, involuntary physiological reflexes rather than subjective preference control voluntary
forage intake by the ruminants.

Animal intake of tropical forages, particularly the grasses, is in most cases considerably lower
than temperate species. This low level of intake is generally considered to be the major cause of
low animal productivity in tropical environments. The low intakes place serious limitations on
forage utilization in the tropics. Intake of tropical legumes, however, is considerably higher than
that of tropical grasses.

Measurement of intake:
Voluntary intake is defined as, the amount animals ingest when an excess of 15% is offered.
Accurate weight records of the amount presented and that removed are essential. Voluntary
intake can be expressed as kilograms of forage dry matter eaten per 100kg of live weight or g/kg
LW. In order to correct the difference in intake that arise due to species or size of animal, most
data are reported in terms of metabolic weight of the animal, expressed as live weight raised to
0.75 power(LWkg0.75).for comparative purpose these values are then converted to g/kgLW0.75.

Factors affecting intake: among the various factors influencing voluntary intake of forage by
animals, the most important ones appear to be stage of growth, digestibility and genotype.

Stage of growth: advancing maturity adversely affects the nutritive value of forage and may
affect its voluntary intake by animals. Intake of grass declines with advancing maturity.

Digestibility and genotype: within a particular forage variety or cultivars, intake is related to its
digestibility. As herbage matures, its digestibility declines. When forage lower digestibility
consumed by an animal, it occupies a greater volume, remains within the rumen for a longer
period of time and produce a large quantity of indigestible residue to passed down the hind tract
as compared to forage of high digestibility. Thus, dry matter intake of low digestibility forage is
poor. It increases as digestibility increases until the animals requirements are satisfied. Above a
digestibility level of 65-70%%, intake is not affected by digestibility. In fact it may decrease
with increasing digestibility since the need of the animal are likely to be satisfied with lower
intake.

The relationship between digestibility and intake is highly variable. Inherent difference among
families, species and varieties significantly affect voluntary intake. It has been recognized that
animals consume considerable large amount of legume than grasses when both have similar
digestibility. A close relationship between the daily intake of digestible organic matter and
retention time was observed. It has been observed a higher proportion of cell contents and a
lower proportion of cell wall constitutes in legumes than grasses of the same level of
digestibility.

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Chapter 7: Forage Conservation
The primary aim of fodder conservation is to transfer surplus forage from the peak growing
period to the period of deficit. In many areas of the tropics pasture growth is highly seasonal
owing to limitation of temperature and moisture. Pasture conservation provides more efficient
animal production by making use of wasted surpluses in the growing season. This reduces the
decrease in body weight or production, which may occur in the dry season and can prevent
animal mortality in drought years.
Is forage conservation really necessary?
Before embarking on forage conservation programs

7.1 Factors Determining Pasture Conservation

7.1.1 The quality of the pasture conserved
Tropical forages have a lower nutritive value than most temperate forages and thus total
digestible nutrient stored per unit volume is lower and storage cost will be higher. Silage
production from tropical forages is unreliable. The bulky low-density nature of most tropical
forages makes compaction difficult so that exclusion of air is more difficult. Sugar content of
most tropical forages is low. This makes good lactic acid fermentation harder to achieve.

7.1.2. The nature of animal product (type of production)

The nature of animal product will influence whether seasonal feeding is profitable. For example
for fresh milk production and lamb fattening or baby beef production where a good price may be
available for rapidly grown animals conservation will be more attractive than for wool or the
production of animals in store condition.
7.1.3. Wastages in the fodder conservation process.
For example in the making process with tropical grasses losses of DM of 10-13% during curing
and about 5% during storage is common. In silage-making with tropical species DM losses in
property sealed silos seem to average around 20% but where problems of compaction occurs
losses up to 75% are recorded. Forage conservation gives poor economic returns for the
production of low value of commodities. This is particularly so if the product is not very
sensitive to nutritional stress e.g. wool or growing stock. However, for production situations
involving high price products grown in areas with a very dry season it is a good.

7.1.4. Costs of fodder conservation

Where the process is mechanized there is a large capital investment in specialized machinery and
in storage facilities plus the costs of fuel and labour for harvesting storing and feeding out.
Fodder conservation in the tropics is a high cost practice which would yield less return on
investment than alternative practices for increasing forage supply during deficit periods. Only
feed, which is truly surplus to animal needs, should be conserved. i.e., only fodder in excess of
current needs should be harvested. Each of these situations needs to be considered in terms of
local returns and costs before embarking on forage conservation program.

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7.2 Methods of Forage Conservation
There are various methods of forage conservation. The commonly used methods are making of
hay and silage. Hay is an appropriate forage conservation method for both big and small-scale
farming. Silage is applicable to large-scale (commercial) farming such as dairying.
7.2.1 Hay Making
Hay is normally produced by reserving a field from grazing cutting at a specified development
stage e.g. early flowering and curing the cut material in the field until all the material has dried to
a moisture content safe for storage. The material is than collected in bulk or baled and stored in a
dry place.
Time of Cutting
Pasture quality decreases steadily as the season advances and as DM yield increases. At this
stage digestibility and N content is usually low and fiber content is high. At longer cutting
interval (frequencies) there is greater increase in DM yield. The recommended time of cutting
hay is to cut just before flowering or early in the flowering stage of the grass component. If cut
after flowering, the increased yield does not compensate for decreased palatability and nutritive
value. This will ensure a reasonable yield of hay with high digestibility and high protein content.
Height of Cutting
Cutting very close to the ground level can retard the recovery of the sward and can result in soil
contamination, which can have an adverse effect on intake by animals. The recommended
cutting height for grasses is 2.5 cm above ground. Cutting height determines the regrowth of
each grass species.
Evaluation of Hay for Quality
The feeding value of any conserved product is largely dependent on:
1. The stage of maturity at time of cutting.
2. The species or cultivar of the grass component.
3. The proportion of legume components.
4. The amount of N fertilizer applied to the crop (esp. grasses).
The most important factors, which determine the quality of hay, are;
1. Maturity: Affects both yield and composition of hay. Young plants are more
digestible than older plants b/c they have low lignin. Young plants have higher
content of protein, minerals, carotene and are more palatable, tender and less
fibrous.
2. Percentage of leaf (leafiness):
The percentage of leaves is the best indicator of quality. The higher the percentage of
leaves in the forages the higher the contents of protein digestible DM higher % age
minerals and vitamins and a higher energy value. A high percentage of leaves also
indicate good harvesting methods and storage conditions.
3. Colour:
A high percentage of natural green colour in a hay indicates early cutting,
good curing, pleasant aroma, high palatability freedom from must or mould

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 and a relatively high carotene content (high vitamin content).
4. Foreign matter: indicate hay of low feeding value.
5. Condition: refers to soundness of hay unsound hay is one which contains
Excess moisture contains must one which is mouldy one which one which
lacks the aroma of well-cured hay.
6. Texture: refers to the size of the stems. Texture is influenced by maturity
by the %age of leaves and the rainfall, soil fertility etc.
7. Species: refers to Varity or cultivar Grass hay usually contains 10 to 12%
CP and has a 55 to 60% TDN value. Legume hays usually contain 16 to
20% CP and are 65 to 70% TDN.

7.2.2 Silage Making

Silage is the product of controlled anaerobic fermentation of green forage. The process is called
ensiling and it occurs within the silos (containers) where fermentation takes place.
7.2.2.1 types of silage
1. High moisture silage (direct-cut silage) is one in which the forage material going into the
silos is 70% or more moisture.
2. Wilted silage: in the range of 50 to 65% moisture
3. Low-moisture silage or haylage which is from 40 to 50% moisture.
7.2.2.2 The Ensiling Process
The ensiling process is controlled by several factors;
1. the makeup of the plant material that goes into the silo
2. the amount of oxygen or air that is within the silage or allowed to enter the silage material
3. the type of bacteria that is on the plant material going into the silo
7.2.2.3 Steps involved in the fermentation process:
1. materials are placed into the silo
2. the plant cells continue to respire
3. oxygen is consumed
The forage material is chopped and placed in a silo continue to respire (oxidized) use up sugars
and oxygen gives off co2 water and heat. Aerobic bacteria grow and multiply until the
available oxygen is used up. Acetic acid is the first acid produced from day1 until about day 4.
During day 3 or 4 acetic acid formation essentially stops. When the o 2 is used up, the anaerobic
condition, the heat, and available sugar favors the development of LAB. Then LAB (anaerobic)
begins to develop and multiply and form Lactic acid. Lactic acid formation continues for approx
2 more weeks. The completion of the fermentation process and bacterial stops when the PH is
lowered to around 4.0 at about 21 days. The last phase is the constant silage that remains. If no
additional air or oxygen is present the silage remain constant (stable) for a longer period of time.

If oxygen (air) is allowed to seep into the silo and if insufficient amounts of lactic acid are
formed than butyric acid and breakdown proteins into NH3 which buffers acids and encourages

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rotting process. Good- quality silage material processes high concentrations of acetic and lactic
acids and with a final pH of 4.2 or below. Poor-quality silage with a final pH above 4.2 contains
butyric acid as well as high levels of succinic acid and some propionic and formic acids.
Quality Standards for silage
Quality of silage

Standard Good Medium poor

pH < 4.2 4.3-4.5 > 4.5

Butyric acid (%) < 0.2 0.2-0.5 > 0.5

Ammonia (%) < 0.8 9-15 > 15

The maintenance of a low temperature below 38 0C is very desirable for making quality silage. At
temperatures above 380C, sweet aromatic foul-smelling, dark-brown silage is formed. The
palatability of this material is fairly high but its protein is less available than is that in quality
silage. Quality silage has approx. 67% digestible protein whereas black extremely heated silage
has around 3% digestible protein.

In addition if temperatures rise considerably higher than 38 0C and if air is allowed to seep into
the silo spontaneous combustion may occur. The moisture contents of silage that is to be
harvested and stored in most conventional silos should be in the range of 50 to 65%. When the
material that goes into silos is too dry in conventional silos it is difficult to remove all of the air.
Conversely if the material is too wet or if the moisture content is too high excessive seepage will
occur resulting in the loss of soluble nutrient. i.e. effluent losses will be high. It is important to
get the proper length of cut compaction and distribution of the material in the silo so that the
proper amount of air is available to allow acetic and lactic acid formation to begin. It is
recommended that the material is both chopped finely and distributed properly throughout the
silo.
The production of lactic and acetic acids depends a good deal on the amount of sugar in the
original material from which these acids are derived by fermentation. A sugar content of about
6% is necessary for successful silage. The use of additives is advised if the material being ensiled
is non-sealed airtight storage contains over 70% moisture and is known to be low in sugar

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content. The feed additives furnish a readily available source of carbohydrates for bacterial
fermentation and absorb some of the moisture from high moisture material.

7.2.2.3 The two general types of silage additives are:

1. nutritive additives such as grains feeds and molasses and
2. Chemical or nonnutritive additives such as lactic acid, mineral acid and formic acid.
Molasses has been the most common additive to silage in tropical countries where sugar cane is
grown. It gives a satisfactory fermentation. Addition of 7% (approx. 71 kg/t) molasses is needed
to make satisfactory silage.
7.2.2.4 Choice of species for ensilage
The production of silage from tropical forage grasses is rarely practiced b/c of climate physical
and quality problems.
 Low density
 Most tropical grasses have a relatively low feeding value and changes during ensiling
may reduce it even further.
 Wilting prior to ensiling also improves silage preservation but in some tropical
countries it is difficult to achieve the desire degree of wilting b/c of the occurrence of
long wet (rainy) seasons.
However tropical fodder crops such as maize, sorghums and elephant grass are frequently ensiled
b/c of their high yield of good quality silage without additives. Elephant grass is usually
preferred for silage in the humid tropic maize for the wetter sub humid regions and the sorghum
species for the drier sub humid and wetter semi-arid areas. It is generally recommended to
harvest maize for silage when 50-75% of the grains have become dented are turning from milky
to the dough stage. At ten weeks (early milk stage) yields and silage protein were at max levels.
(for sorghums) Harvests after 8 weeks (boot stage) produce excellent acid silage showing no
evidence of protein degradation in the case of sorghums. Effluent losses reduce markedly after 8
weeks.
Types of silos
1. The Trench silo
2. The bunker silo
3. The bun silo
4. The stack silo
5. The tower silo
6. The vacuum silo

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The Trench silo: This is the best type of silo for tropical condition b/c it is cheap to construct
with local resources. It is constructed by excavating the ground by hand or a bulldozer and then
the sides and the bottom of the trench is lined with concrete. It has three walls, which slope
slightly outward from the bottom to allow the silage to wedge itself into the trench thus
increasing compaction. The upper end of the trench should have a slope of 20-30 0 to allow
vehicle to drive in with its load discharge it and drive out the other end of the trench. This also
compacts the material during each passage. It is advisable to construct the trench at a slop land
(hillside) in order to allow an effective drainage system for any effluent. The dimensions of the
trench vary according to the amount of material to be ensiled. For example a trench which is 30m
long 7m wide and 2m deep can hold about 100t of material.

Filling the silo

Fill the trench as quickly as possible compacting the material by trampling or with a heavy
vehicle (tractor) after each load is discharged. Fill the trench to a height of about 1m above
ground. Building up the material above ground gives it extra pressure for wedging itself into the
silo and provides a chamber that will shade rain easily. Allow the material to settle for 2 days
and then cover it with a plastic sheet first and then earth. When the silage is needed excavation
should start at the lower end removing only sufficient material for each day’s use. The remaining
material is still covered.

Chapter 8: Forage seed production principles

If forage and pasture crop production is to be long lasting and dependable, the production of
forage seeds locally should be encouraged and promoted. In Ethiopia seed supply has been the
main stumbling block to forage and pasture development.
This seed production is the final stage of a sequence of plant processes, some of which can be
more easily controlled by the producer than others. The potential seed yield of a forage crop is
limited by the density of flowers produced, which itself depends on the degree of plant
branching to form shoots (which is very sensitive to moisture and nutrient supply), the
proportion of the surviving shoots which are fertile, and the extent of inflorescence
differentiation to form flowers.

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The development of specialized forage seed production enterprises in most African countries has
been hindered by
(1) Low seed yield
(2) Lack of adequate technology needed for growing and processing forage seed crops and
(3) Non-existent or inefficient seed marketing and distribution networks.
The seed yield of tropical pasture varies from species to species. In species such as Digitaria
decumbens, some cultivars and clones of Cynodon species, Brachiaria mutica, Pennisetum
purpureum, P. clandestinum the seed yield is almost nil; low (less than 60 kg/ha of harvested
seeds) in B. mutica, Panicum coloratum var. makarikariense, Andropogon gayanus, P.
purpureum, and Hyparrhenia rufa; moderate (60-250 kg/ha) in B. brizantha, B. ruziziensis,
Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum coloratum var. coloratum, P. maximum, Chloris gayana, Melinis
minutiflora and Setaria anceps.

For higher seed yields proper agronomic practices, particularly nitrogen fertilization of grasses
and efficient harvesting methods are very useful. Legumes have a higher potential yield of seeds
than grasses. However, due to irregular flowering and seed shattering, actual yields are lower.
The following are factors limiting seed production of tropical pasture species: low inflorescence
density, delayed flowering and seed shattering, low seeding, susceptibility to disease and pest
attack, lodging and indeterminate growth habits.

Low inflorescence density

In grasses inflorescence density is dependent on the rate of appearance and growth of tillers as
well as their survival and fertility. This can be modified by species and varietal differences,
weather conditions, and agronomic practices.
Prolonged flowering and selection for leafiness and late maturity rather than low tillering ability
per se contribute to low inflorescence density at optimum harvesting time and low seed yields.

Delayed flowering and seed - shedding

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Inflorescence production in many tropical grasses follows a sigmoid pattern and prolonged
flowering is due to the combined effects of extended an thesis and stigma exertion within an
individual inflorescence; prolonged inflorescence emergence within individual plants; and inter
plant variation in days to flower within a cultivar prolonged flowering results in uneven maturity
of inflorescences and spikelet within an individual inflorescence. Late emerging inflorescences
produce few seeds and are of low quality. Due to these circumstances seed production of tropical
grasses is spread over a period of several weeks.

Low seed setting

Seed formation in tropical grasses is often low with large numbers of empty spikelets.

Diseases and pests

Many grasses are susceptible to smut, bunt, and ergot infections. Legumes are generally more
affected by diseases and pests than grasses.
Plant characteristics

Intermingling of inflorescence with vegetative parts occurs as a result of lodging in grasses and
indeterminate growth habit of many legumes. Presence of bristles, hooks, awns, involucres and
other seed parts cause difficulties in harvesting and cleaning.
Therefore, it is essential to practice agronomic and management practices for seed production.
These include choice of location, spatial isolation requirements, weed control, plant density, time
and rate of fertilizer application, disease and pest control, defoliation effects and time and
method of seed harvesting.

Seed production systems

Seed production systems can be generally grouped in to two:

 Opportunistic system
 Specialist system
The opportunist system can be;

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 Labour intensive (involving hand harvesting from pastures at road sides (seed that is hand
harvested is of low germination rate due to difference in seed maturity caused by differences in
filler maturity at harvest)
Mechanized from closed areas
Specialist system can be:
Labour intensive (for example a contract seed system)
Mechanized
In Ethiopia, a contract seed system is the common way of producing forage seeds. This involves
establishing a contractual agreement between farmers and the seed purchasers. These enter some
commitments for the final production of seeds. These include provision of seed for initial
sowing, close supervision and technical backup, and purchase of seed at an agreed price on the
part of the purchaser. Production of agreed quality seeds, over all management from seedbed
preparation through to final delivery of the seeds on the part of the producer (farmer)

When selecting plant species for seed production it is important to consider their life cycles
(annuals vs. perennials)

 Annual legume have a better chance of growing in drier climates than perennial
legume species as long as the wet season is sufficiently long and reliable to complete
seeding
 In annual species seeding is synchronized and hence easy to manage and harvest
 Annuals are suitable where there is a distinct wet and dry season
 Perennials cannot survive in drier environments with short growing seasons
 However, annuals cannot respond to out of season precipitation as the moisture may
not be reliable and long lasting
 Perennials give a longer sequence of seed production than annuals.

Seeding rate

Generally seeding rate for forage seed crops should be greater than those recommended for
normal pasture sowings. Lower rates are recommended for row planting than with broad cast
sowing.
Synchronization

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This refers to the timing of flowering of the plants to relatively consecutive days of seed
maturation.
In grasses this can be achieved through the application of nitrogen by cutting/defoliation
However, degree of defoliation and time of application must be considered.

Post harvest management

Harvesting

For legumes seed ripening can be judged by testing for ease of seed removal from pods, seed
hardness, and field colour.
Pods should be harvested as soon as most of the seeds can easily be removed by gentle rubbing
or shaking the pods. Grass seed are bitten to test for fullness and hardness. The seeds or pods of
some species such as Siratro, Rhodes, tree Lucerne and Leucaena change colour as they ripen.
Seed harvesting is usually done manually. It is the main problem in forage seed production as
each species or cultivar must be treated differently and it takes experience to learn when a
particular species or cultivar should be harvested and how it should be harvested for maximized
yields of viable seed. Experience of working with such crops is the best way to learn when, and
how, to harvest the different species or cultivars. For every new species or cultivar being
screened the forage producer must learn afresh as to the best harvesting methods, timing of
harvest and management conditions for their area. This can only be learned through experiment
ation and trial and error.
Methods of harvesting and drying grass seeds can differ greatly from methods used for legume
seeds.
The following general procedures are followed when harvesting grass or legume seeds:
1. Grasses - a) Cut with a sickle (often when still immature for species that shatter).
b) Stack in a stoking system for 2 weeks to sweat.
c) 3 to 4 days drying on threshing floor (seed falls very easily).
d) Shaking of stalks to release seed.
e) Sweeping up the seed.
f) Cleaning and fumigating the seed.
g) Storing seed in clearly labeled containers.
2. Legumes - Three methods are commonly used:

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 a) Shattering legume crops, particularly those on trellises, have their pods picked
and collected by hand. They are then dried and threshed. Typical method for
verano stylo and siratro.
b) Herbaceous legumes such as cowpea, vetch and lablab can be cut, windrowed
(brushed into rows) and left to dry for a week or two, after which they are
collected up and threshed on a threshing floor.
c) Legumes that shatter easily may be left in the field to shatter then the seed may
be swept up and cleaned in machines. Canvas sheets may be laid on the ground
below a crop of grass or legumes which shatters easily to collect the fallen seed
which can then be cleaned.

Post harvest seed conditioning

Following harvesting there are activities that the seed producer has to do and commonly termed
as post seed harvest conditioning.
These include threshing, cleaning, drying and storing. The freshly harvested seeds contain husks,
straw, soil particles, and other unwanted seeds (off types). These are removed through threshing
and cleaning. Since seeds are also harvested at higher moisture contents than those recommended
for storage (<10%), most seeds are more susceptible to damage during cleaning as they are soft.
Threshing separates seeds from panicles and straw while winnowing using wind separates the
chaff from the seeds.
Threshing can be done by manual (stick or flail, stone, shaking), animal powered, or engine
powered

Drying methods

Freshly harvested seeds can have a moisture content of 40-70% and for safe storage this should
be lowered to 8-12%. The temperatures for lowering the moisture to 18%, 10-18%, and < 10%
are 320C, 370C, and 430C, respectively
The common methods of drying are:

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  Sun or shade drying (grass seeds should not be exposed to direct sunlight for drying
while legume seeds can withstand some exposure due to their harder seed coats) and
turning of the seeds is required every 1-2 hours.
 natural forced air drying (ventilation)
This uses natural air and works on the principle that hot air risen removing the moisture.

 Artificial drying
Early harvesting is possible and weather damage and shattering loss use minimized. This
method increases the air flow around the seed. If raise the air temperature to 35-40 0C.

Seed cleaning

Seed cleaning is the removal of inert matter, off type, damaged seed from the harvested,
threshed, and dried seed. This increases purity and germination if done with the right
equipment and suitable materials.
There are three major characteristics by which seeds can be cleaned from non seed
materials:
 Geometric: (width and thickness, size, length, and shape)
 mechanical (resilience, shape, size, surface texture and density)
 Physical (surface texture, specific gravity , and affinities for electromagnetic
field)

Packaging

This serves as convenient unit of handling, purchase, transport and storage. Contamination,
mechanical damage and loss are avoided. It also creates a favorable storage environment.

Seed storage

Until the next sowing season seeds have to be stored in safe storage conditions (moisture and
temperature). High moisture content at storage leads to increased microbial activity and resultant
heating and attack by pests and insects.

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Relative humidity and temperature of the storage environment affect maintenance of good seed
quality and its longevity. Storage facilities can be open naturally ventilated or conditioned (with
controlled relative humidity and temperature).
The moisture content of seed is in equilibrium with the ambient relative humidity of the
environment during storage. This relative humidity for effective storage depends on the kind of
seed, length of storage, and ambient temperature.
The general categorization of storage periods are:-
 1 - 9 months (for next planting season)
 18 - 24 months
 3 - 10 years (long term)

For storage beyond 5 years, the seed should be kept at temperatures below 15 0C and R.H less
than 4%.
Seed Quality Control

Quality is a relative term which signifies a degree of acceptance (or excellence) by the user and
is expressed as a rating in reference to an acceptable standard.
Seed quality is measured using a number of attributes such as:

 analytical purity (physical)*

 genetic (cultivar) purity
 germination
 vigour
 moisture content
 weight per number
 origin or provenance
 incidence of various weed seed*
 homogeneity
 appearance
* Most commonly used in seed quality evaluation
Seed quality assurance

Seed quality control can be introduced in two ways.

 pre-marketing control (up to the point of sale)
 marketing control

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The first concentrates on maintaining the identity of the variety through production,
procurement, conditioning, and storage. This requires that the variety comes from an approved
source, commonly referred to as certification which re-confirms the genetic identity and quality
of the seed.
Therefore, the pre-marketing control requires determining eligibility of varieties, verification of
seed source, field inspection, sampling processed seed, seed testing and evaluation against set
quality standards, producing and fixing certified seed labels, conducting variety control tests,
information and education.
In the marketing control programme emphasis is often on seed sampling, laboratory evaluation
and appropriate follow-up. This is shown in the following seed quality diagram.

Seed Quality Testing Methods

Seed sampling
Take samples from several locations in the seed lot samples should be taken from top, middle,
and bottom of each sack (using special spears designed to take seeds of different sizes from a
specific area within the seed mass).
Procedures of sampling:
 Sample randomly a quantity of seed using a method where every seed in the population has
equal chance of being chosen.
 Where there are only few sacks, samples can be taken from the top, middle, and bottom of
each sack. For up to 5 sacks sample all with not less than 5 primary samples (a small
portion taken from one location in the lot). From 6 to 30 sacks sample every third sack but
not less than 5 primary samples from each sack. From 31 to 400 sacks every fifth sack but
not less than 10 primary samples. More than 400 sacks sample 80 sacks or at least 1 in
every 7.
 Where seed stocks are depleted by taking samples of recommended size, a sequential sample
is taken (taking a smaller initial sample) and compared with a pre-determined criterion for
acceptance or rejection. If this satisfies the requirement then it can be used for testing if not
other sequential samples are taken until the combined sample meets the criteria for
acceptance.
 Sampling should be more frequent in seeds stored for long periods.

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The primary samples are mixed to form the composite sample from which the submitted sample
(sent for analysis) is taken. A reduced sample taken from the submitted sample is termed as
working sample which is used in a given quality test.
Moisture content determination
The moisture content of the seeds can be measured using the air oven method and expressed on a
wet weight basis.
Drying period varies on the type of species. For most non-oily species (1 hour at 130 0C); cereals
(2 hrs); maize (4 hrs). Seeds containing oil are dried for 17 hours at 103-1050C.

The moisture content is expressed as:

(Original wt-oven dried wt) *100

Original wt

Purity analysis
This determines the composition by weight of the variety and contaminants in the sample.
The sample is differentiated into:
 pure seed
 other seeds
 inert matter

Germination test
Germination refers to the emergence and development of the seedling to a stage where the aspect
of its essential structures indicates whether or not it is able to develop further into a satisfactory
plant under favourable conditions in soil.

The following procedure is used to conduct germination t test:

* Pace the blotting paper in the germination tray (shallow dish) and moisten it. Do not
wet the paper;
* Place 100 seeds in the tray, scattering them evenly along the shallow dish;
* Keep the tray at room temperature;
* Keep the blotting paper moist all the time
* Check the seeds once a day and count the germinated ones

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* Continue this for a week
* Express the number that sprouted on percentage basis
* Make three replications or repeat it three times

THANK YOU!!!

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