Electrophotography

• Electrophotography is a method of copying or printing documents by using electric charges

and light.
• It was invented by Chester Carlson in 1938 and is the foundation of modern photocopiers
and printers.

Steps Involved in Electrophotography:

1. Charging: A special surface (usually a drum or plate) is electrically charged using a high
voltage.
2. Exposure: Light is used to selectively discharge certain areas of the surface, creating a
pattern of charges (the image). Light removes the charge where the image is blank.
3. Developing: Fine powder (toner) is applied, and it sticks to the charged areas, forming a
visible image.
4. Transferring: The toner image is transferred onto paper.
5. Fusing: Heat and pressure are applied to bond the toner to the paper, creating a permanent
copy.

There are two main types of electrophotography image processing systems:

1. Transfer Electrostatic Process (Xerography):

This is the more common method used in modern photocopiers and laser printers. In this process,
the image is first created on a photoconductive drum or plate, and then the toner is transferred
from the drum to a piece of paper. Xerography uses this transfer process, making it versatile and
suitable for high-speed copying and printing.

2. Direct Electrostatic Process (Electrofax):

In the Electrofax process, the image is formed directly on specially coated paper that acts as both
the photoconductive surface and the final copy. Instead of transferring the image from a drum/plate
to paper, the paper itself is charged, exposed to light, and then developed with toner directly. This
method simplifies the process since there's no need for a separate transfer step, but it requires
special electroconductive paper.
 ❖ Xerography
Principle: Formation of electrostatic images by photoconductive discharge.

Important Parts of a Xerographic System:

Photoconductive Drum/Plate: A rotating cylinder coated with a photoconductive material that

holds an electrostatic charge.

Corona Wire: Generates a high voltage to charge the surface of the drum.

Light Source: Projects an image of the document onto the drum, discharging areas exposed to light.

Toner: A fine powder that sticks to the charged areas of the drum to form the image.

Transfer Belt: Transfers the toner image from the drum to the paper.

Fuser: Uses heat and pressure to permanently bond the toner to the paper.

Working:

A photoconductive surface is charged with static electricity. When exposed to light, the areas struck
by light lose their charge, while the dark areas retain it. The development of formed image is
obtained using toner particles. Fine, charged toner particles are then attracted to the areas with
remaining charge, forming an image. This image is transferred to paper and fused by heat and
pressure, creating a permanent copy.

Applications of Xerography:

Photocopiers: Used to produce copies of documents quickly and efficiently.

Laser Printers: Utilize xerography to print digital files onto paper.

Fax Machines: Some older models used xerographic principles to print received documents.

Digital Presses: High-volume printing systems used for commercial printing based on xerography.
 ❖ important parameters of the photosensitive surface in
xerography
The thickness of the photosensitive layer typically ranges from 10 to 100 micrometers (µm). The
ideal thickness depends on the material and the intended application

The photosensitive layer should have low electrical conductivity in the dark (high resistivity) to
retain the electrostatic charge. However, it must become conductive when exposed to light,
allowing the charge to dissipate quickly in the exposed areas. The dark resistivity is typically on
the order of 1012 to 1016 ohm-cm.

Common materials for the photosensitive layer include: 1. Selenium and its alloys (used in early
xerography). 2. Organic Photoconductors (OPCs), which are more common in modern systems
due to their low cost and environmental friendliness. 3. Amorphous Silicon: Used in high-end
systems for its durability and excellent photoconductive properties.

Key characteristics of the photosensitive layer in xerography:

1. High Photosensitivity:

Photosensitivity refers to the material's ability to respond to light efficiently. A highly

photosensitive material quickly loses its charge when exposed to light, allowing faster and more
accurate image creation in the exposed areas.

2. Good Spectral Response:

Spectral response describes how well the photosensitive material reacts to different wavelengths
of light. A good spectral response means the material can efficiently respond to the specific
wavelengths used in the xerographic process (such as visible light, infrared, or ultraviolet),
ensuring clear image reproduction.

3. Reasonable Acceptance Potential:

This refers to the material's ability to hold a uniform electrostatic charge over its surface. A good
acceptance potential ensures that the layer can maintain a strong, even charge that is necessary for
creating sharp, high-contrast images during the charging phase.
4. Retentivity:

Retentivity is the material's ability to retain the electrostatic charge in dark areas (areas not
exposed to light). High retentivity ensures that the charges in these areas are not lost until the toner
is applied, preserving the image quality.

5. Low Residual Potential:

After the image is transferred and the drum is cleaned, the material should have low residual
potential, meaning minimal leftover charge. Low residual potential prevents ghost images or
artifacts from appearing in subsequent cycles, ensuring clean, high-quality copies.

6. Fatigue:

Fatigue refers to the degradation of the photosensitive material’s performance after multiple cycles
of charging and discharging. Low fatigue means the material can undergo many xerographic cycles
without significant loss in its ability to hold and discharge electrostatic charges, ensuring long-
term reliability.

❖ Charge Transport phenomena in phtoto-conductive insulators:

1. Dark decay:
• Dark decay refers to the gradual loss of electrostatic charge on the photoconductive
surface when it is in the dark (not exposed to light). After the drum is charged, it retains a
high voltage in the dark areas. However, over time, this charge diminishes due to various
factors like leakage current and the intrinsic properties of the material.
• The rate of dark decay is influenced by various factors such as,
-the resistivity of the photosensitive material,
-its temperature,
-photoconductor substrate interface,
-environmental conditions (like humidity), etc.
 • A low dark decay rate is essential for maintaining image quality, as it ensures that the
charges in the unexposed areas remain intact until the toner is applied.

❖ Understanding the Charge Decay Process

The charge N(t) on the photosensitive surface decreases over time due to leakage. We can express
the rate of change of the number of charges with respect to time as follows:

𝑑𝑁
= −𝛼𝑁(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Where:
N(t) = number of charges (positive/negative) at time t
α = decay constant (a positive constant representing the rate of charge decay)

To solve this first-order differential equation, we can separate variables:

𝑑𝑁
= −𝛼 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating both sides gives:

𝑁(𝑡) 𝑡
𝑑𝑁
∫ = −𝛼 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑁0 0

Where, N0 = Initial number of charges at t=0.

This results in:
𝑙𝑛𝑁(𝑡) − 𝑙𝑛𝑁0 = −𝛼(𝑡 − 0)

𝑁(𝑡)
𝑙𝑛 = −𝛼𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁(𝑡)
= 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
Thus, the equation for dark decay on the photosensitive layer can be expressed as above.

2. Charge acceptance

• Charge acceptance refers to the ability of the photosensitive layer to hold an electrostatic
charge effectively. This property is crucial during the initial charging phase, where a
charging device applies a voltage to the photoconductive surface. The charge acceptance
capacity indicates how much voltage the material can withstand before saturating.
• A typical range for charge acceptance is around 300 to 800 volts.
• If the material can accept a high charge, it enhances the contrast of the final image, allowing
for better toner adhesion to the charged areas during the developing process.
• Charge acceptance is influenced by factors such as the thickness of the photosensitive
layer, its dielectric properties, and the uniformity of the applied charge.