An Overview of Heat Treatment

Figure 1. 40’ combustion furnace located

in Pasadena, Texas.

in the Refining, Power, and

Petrochemical Industry Part 1:
A Primer on Heat Treating
Ben Osborne, Global Product & Service Line Director – Heat Treating Services

Introduction What is Heat Treating?

Heat treatment has been used by mankind for centuries. In short, heat treating is a process in which a product is
While not as advanced as the controlled heat treatment heated and cooled with precise controls to improve its
we think of today in the refining, power, and petrochemical properties, performance, and durability while maintaining
industries, the principles and philosophies of heat-treating the product’s shape. Depending on the desired outcome, the
metal dates back over 2000 years. It’s an age-old practice variables of temperature and time can be manipulated to
that has been fine-tuned through years of science and alter the material’s hardness, strength, toughness, ductility,
technology to become one of the most essential processes and elasticity.
during manufacturing,repair, and fabrication requirements. I used the term “product” because heat treating does
There are numerous reasons to heat treat along with a not only apply to metals. Heat treating is also used to
few different methods of heat treating. The use spans alter the properties of non-metallics, coatings, and even
across many industries, including oil and gas, power, process fluids.
chemical, automotive, aerospace, and consumer product
manufacturing (glass, knives, utensils, etc.). Temperatures may range as high as 2,400°F and the hold
time at temperature may vary from only a few minutes to a
In this article, we’re going to skip over the scientific few days or more, depending on the desired outcome and
foundations of heat treating.Instead, we’ll cover the circumstances.
techniques commonly used in the refining, power and
petrochemical industry at a high level. We’ll focus on the Equally, if not more important, than the temperature
basics, including the varying reasons to heat treat, the types and hold time is the cooling time or cooling rate. Again,
of heat treating available, and methods of heat treating depending on the desired outcome, some products are
to achieve specific material properties. In addition, we’ll cooled very slowly, some are cooled in ambient air, and
focus on the role mechanical integrity plays in heat treating, some are quenched rapidly.
including special considerations and the role of inspection
during the process.
Heat Treating Methods
There are four primary methods in which to heat treat that are commonly used for
piping and equipment in the refining, power, and petrochemical industries. Each
of them are introduced in the following sections.

Enclosed Combustion and Electrical Furnace

As an analogy, think of an enclosed combustion/electrical furnace as a giant oven.
When you want your supper cooked evenly, you cook it in the oven. Just like the
oven in your kitchen, heat treating furnaces allow the most control over time and
temperature. There’s minimal setup time since the furnace is typically in place
already and ready to go.
Most reputable manufacturing facilities and fabrication shops will have a large
furnace to accompany the majority of their work. Of course, as the asset being
manufactured or fabricated grows in size, the number of shops with a furnace
large enough to accommodate the asset gets fewer and fewer. This isn’t typically
an issue for piping, but it can be for larger pressure vessels.
For field work, there are portable furnaces which can be brought or built at the
jobsite. However, the size of such furnaces are limited due to transportation and
logistical considerations.

Internal Combustion
When an asset is far too large for a furnace and requires a large area of heat
treatment, or if an asset cannot be removed from the field to be placed in
a furnace, then internal combustion (also called gas-fired) is a commonly
accepted option.
Think of this as a fireplace in a home. There’s a single source of heat from a flame
that’s used to warm the entire house. Except, in this case, the fireplace is inside
of a pressure vessel. Nevertheless, internal combustion heat treating is still a very
controlled process.
Just as a home requires good insulation to retain the heat from the fireplace, so
does a pressure vessel when performing internal combustion heat treatment.
Unlike enclosed furnaces, attention must be paid to identify cold spots. Cold
spots may not receive enough heat from the combustion process to achieve
the desired result, so electrical resistance is installed and applied to run in
conjunction with the combustion process. Internal combustion heat treating can
be more labor intensive because of the insulation requirements. In some cases, an
already insulated asset can utilize its existing insulation and may only need minor
additions to the nozzles and other uninsulated projections that may act as a heat
sink which is where the electrical resistance heat treating method will be applied
and ran in conjunction with the combustion heating application.

Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is the most common form of heat treatment used in the
field and in some manufacturing processes. It is common for both piping and
pressure vessels in which specific isolated locations, such as welds, require heat
treatment. You’ve likely noticed the bright pink ceramic flexible pads (CFPs) and
cables at the jobsite.
With this method, the pads are attached to either the inside or outside of the area
requiring heat treatment. The side chosen has minimal impact. Regardless of
which side the pads are attached, the temperature is typically measured from the
side that the CFPs are installed on with thermal couples that are spot welded to
the material; so whichever side is more practical is typically the one chosen. Once
set up, the power source is turned on, introducing an electrical current through
the CFPs which generate the heat through the electrical resistance pads.
This method is ideal for the weld tie-ins, attachments, or closure welds that
take place in the field. In most cases, it’s not practical to build a large temporary
furnace in the field for a smaller, focused scope.

Induction
Induction heating systems employ non-contact heating. They induce heat
electromagnetically rather than using a heating element in contact with a part
to conduct heat, as is the case with resistance heating. Induction heating can
be compared to a micro-wave oven. At home, the appliance remains cool while
the food cooks from within. In an industrial example of induction heating, heat is
induced in the part by placing it in a high-frequency magnetic field. The magnetic
field creates eddy currents inside the part, exciting the part’s atomic structure
that consist of metal ions and generating heat. Because heating occurs slightly
Figure 2. The effects of electrical
below the metal surface, no heat is wasted.
resistance heat treating on a stainless
Induction heating is similar to resistance heating in that conduction is required to steel header being annealed. Top:
heat through the section or part. The differences between the two is the source wrapped; Bottom: unwrapped
and method of heat and the types of the equipment required. The induction
process heats within the part and the resistance process heats from the surface
through to the part.
The depth of heating depends on the frequency. High frequency (e.g., 50 khz)
heats close to the surface, while low frequency (e.g., 60 hz) penetrates deeper into
the part, placing the heating source up to 3 mm deep, allowing heating of thicker
parts. The induction coil does not heat up because the conductor is larger than
the cur-rent being carried. In other words, the coil does not need to heat up to
heat the workpiece.

So Which One?
All of the above methods are industry proven and are suitable for heat treating. Of
course, it really comes down to the size, geometry, and the desired result.
From a mechanical integrity perspective, ASME recommends heat treating in an
enclosed combustion or electrical furnace, whenever possible. This is due to the
amount of control and consistency during the heat-treating process, minimizing
the potential uneven heating or cooling and the creation of localized hard zones.
Depending on the service conditions, hard zones from uneven heating or cooling
can create high stresses and develop into cracks down the line. The potential for
this is higher with internal combustion, electrical resistance, and induction; which
is why more surface temperature monitoring is typically required. In addition, the
temperature charts usually require a bit more scrutiny from the inspectors.
Reasons to Heat Treat Non-metallics (plastics, fiberglass, refractories etc.) and
even coatings often require heat treatment to fully cure the
As stated before, there are numerous reasons to heat treat.
material to a finished state.
In the refining, power and petrochemical industries, heat
treating is commonly used to reduce residual stresses Although not ideal, some process fluids can become
formed as a result of welding or forming a material. This is plugged or solidified and often require a controlled heat
pretty typical for metallic piping and equipment subjected treatment to soften or liquify the product to allow the
to environmental cracking. It’s also not uncommon to heat product to flow. This is a common practice in colder
treat a thick material after welding to allow it to “relax.” climates, where piping maybe subject to freezing up or in
systems that may become stagnate and lose the expected
and required flow rate.

Welding Preheat (PHT)

Preheat is added prior to the start of welding; and, in most cases, there is a
minimum preheat requirement set forth based on the material and thickness. PHT
elevates the temperature of the base metal surrounding the weld, minimizing the
temperature differential between the base metal and the new weld metal. The goal
of preheating is to reduce the cooling rate of the deposited weld metal, allowing
time for it to fuse properly with the adjacent base metal.
Figure 3. Typical example of
a welding pre-heat set up.

Figure 4. A Typical PWHT set

up showing the Thermal Couple
locations and heat band width.

Without PHT, the rapid cooling of the liquid weld pool results in residual tensile
stresses and potential cracking as the pool rapidly contracts from the relatively
rigid, lowertemperature base metal surroundings. Solidification of the weld pool
also reduces weld ductility, with the resultant embrittlement causing a reduction in
the fatigue life of the weldment assembly.
With PHT, the weld pool has time to fuse properly to the adjacent base metal.
In most cases, PHT is performed using electrical resistance. The ceramic
pads are placed near the weld area, and the heat is maintained throughout the
welding process.

Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

PWHT is a heat treatment process designed to relieve residual stresses caused
by any such manufacturing processes. Bending, welding, grinding, rolling, cold
working, quenching, stamping, and other operations can introduce new stresses
into the structure of a metal part.
PWHT is the uniform heating of a structure to a suitable subcritical temperature
below the austenitic transformation range. After the desired temperature is
reached, it is held for a predetermined period, followed by uniform controlled
cooling. Elimination of residual stresses can be an important step to ensure
the manufacturability of parts to proper size, fit and function. The presence of
excessive amounts of residual stresses in components can manifest into problems
with size change, or undesirable mechanical properties during subsequent Figure 5. Holding sphere wrapped and set
manufacturing operations or during use in service. up for PWHT.

PWHT can be accomplished using any of the heat-treating methods mentioned

above. Again, depending on the circumstances, the most practical method is the
one that should be used.
PWHT can be used for a number of reasons, but it is primarily used to improve
weld integrity. During welding, a couple things take place that affect the
integrity of the weld. First, the rapid cooling of the liquid weld pool results in
residual tensile stresses and a higher potential of cracking as the pool rapidly
contracts from the relatively rigid, lowertemperature base metal surroundings. In
addition, solidification of the weld pool reduces weld ductility, with the resultant
embrittlement causing a reduction in the fatigue life of the weldment assembly.
This is where PWHT is beneficial. PWHT provides controlled slow heating, PWHT
soak temperature and time, and controlled cooling, to reduce residual stresses
and hydrogen content, and to restore ductility, corrosion resistance, and fatigue
life to the weldment assembly.
Depending on the desired outcome of the material properties, the cooling rate after
PWHT can be manipulated to affect the material’s hardness, ductility, and elasticity.
Because of the metallurgical benefits of the PWHT process, there are oftentimes
inspection benefits that follow. With regards to cracking susceptibility, PWHT
reduces that susceptibility to the point that cracking inspection intervals are
able to be increased or removed completely if the material is deemed no longer
susceptible. One example is the PWHT of carbon steel piping and equipment in
caustic service. The bottom line is that PWHT’ing carbon steel is much less likely
to develop cracks in caustic service than nonPWHT’d carbon steel.
Quenching is the process of heating a material above its transition temperature
and rapidly cooling. Doing this forms martensite, creating a hard, brittle material
that is able to withstand abrasion and vibrations. The downside to creating this
harder, more brittle material is that the susceptibility to brittle fracture increases.
Normalizing is the process of heating a material above its transition temperature
and allowing it to cool in the open atmosphere.
This process is similar to annealing, but the cooling process is not as controlled.
This does allow for different areas of the material to cool at slightly different
rates, depending on the geometry and complexity of the asset. This is not a big
issue with piping, as the geometry and complexity are typically simple in nature.
Annealing is similar to normalizing, except that the cooling rate is more
controlled. The material is heated above its transition temperature and is then
cooled at a controlled rate. This typically involves a stepwise cooling process,
where the material will cool to a temperature and hold for a few hours before
cooling to the next temperature. This controlled heating and cooling improves
strength, ductility, and elasticity.

Hydrogen Bake-Out
Hydrogen bake-out, also known as degassing, involves heating the steel to an
elevated temperature and allowing time for the hydrogen or other contaminant
to diffuse out of the material. This leaves the material contaminant-free and
increases the desired quality for the welding process. The time and temperature
used may vary depending on the thickness of the part being degassed. A typical
rule of thumb suggests to bake-out the steel at 600°F (316°C) for at least one hour
per inch. In some cases, a higher temperature may be substituted for a shorter
duration. The end goal is to have a clean, contaminantfree, material to weld on.

Refractory Dry-Out (RDO)

This is a common need for most industry applications that use refractory linings
to help protect the shell of equipment seeing high temperature gases and
liquids. While the type of refractory materials differs greatly, the need to dry the
water-based material is high. This is mostly due to the usually thick application
ranging anywhere from 3” to upwards of 18” thick.
Cracking in refractory can render the lining useless. Controlled RDO minimizes
and sometimes eliminates the potential for cracking in the refractory liner, thus
extending its life. In addition, the controlled heating rate helps avoid thermal
shocks to the refractory during startup.
Combustion heating is the more common method used for this application and
can be used on anything from a small exchanger or refractory lined piping to
providing an entire FCCU reactor lining dry out.
Coating Cure
Similar to RDO, coating cures is another common need in the refining and
petrochemical industries. A controlled coating cure improves the coating
integrity, keeping it to within the manufacturer’s specifications, and reduces the
risk of overheating or damaging a new coating.
Like many materials in the refining and petrochemical industries, coatings have
been heavily engineered and scientifically manufactured to withstand many of
the harshest conditions. With these highly engineered coatings comes stringent
specifications for applying them. The curing process is one of them.
Just as with RDO, combustion heating is typically used for coating cures.

Product Thaw
Another common purpose of heat treating is to liquify solidified products
which have plugged the piping system. This is a fairly common remedy in colder
climates, where insulation and steam or hot oil tracing is very important to keep
the process flowing. It is also a common remedy for heavy services such as
crude vacuum tower bottoms and coker or asphaltene piping. A failed section of
steam, flow or hot oil tracing can lead to the solidification of the product inside,
especially when temperatures are at or below freezing.
The primary method of heating up and loosening the product is by way of
electrical resistance. The ceramic pads are installed on the piping with the
solidified product and heated up to the temperature needed to liquify the
product. It sounds easy, but there are many steps and stringent monitoring of
the metal temperatures during this process.

Role and Impact on Mechanical Integrity

Now that we’ve covered the basics of heat treating, we can begin to further
explore to the role that mechanical integrity plays in heat treating. With the
basic knowledge of this article, you can better understand the impact that heat
treating has on your inspection programs.
In part two of this series, we’ll dig deeper into the benefits that heat treating
has on mechanical integrity as well as the quality control measures that take
place during the heat-treating process. We will discuss the common damage
mechanisms whose susceptibility can be greatly reduced with the heat
treatment and how it’s used to reduce risk in RBI programs. We will also cover
the importance of the heat treatment plan, including the engineering that takes
place which determines pad layouts, supports, etc. the Mega Rule, but also
operators around the world with their integrity assessments, we have introduced
a Material Verification Framework (Figure 1).
For over five decades, TEAM Inc. has provided asset integrity to diverse industries, including oil and gas, aerospace,
petrochemicals, pipeline, and power generation. Our integrated service approach covers everything from inspection to
repair, ensuring our communities operate safely and efficiently.

TEAMINC.COM > 800.662.8326 contact@TeamInc.com

VERSION 2.0 08/14/2024