Physics Navneet 21 Apekshit New Class 12

STD.
XII 2023
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PHYSICS
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PHYSICS
EVALUATION PLAN
1. (a) Theory / Written examination (3 hours) : 70 marks

(b) Practical examination (3 hours) : 30 marks
Total : 100 marks
2. Question paper pattern for the theory / written examination :

Inter- Marks
Sec- Total
Question Type Question No. nal with
tion marks
choice option
Multiple Choice Q. 1. [(i) to (x)] – 10 10

Questions ( MCQ )
A
Very Short Answer Q. 2. [(i) to (viii)] – 8 8
Questions (VSA)
B Short Answer Questions Q. 3. to Q. 14. 8 out of 16 24

(SA) – I 12 Qs.
C Short Answer Questions Q. 15. to Q. 26. 8 out of 24 36

(SA) – II 12 Qs.
D Long Answer Questions Q. 27. to Q. 31. 3 out of 12 20

(LA) 5 Qs.
70 98
3
3. Chapterwise distribution of marks in the question paper :
Marks with
Chapter Marks
option
1. Rotational dynamics 5 7
2. Mechanical properties of fluids 5 7
3. Kinetic theory of gases and Radiation 5 7
4. Thermodynamics 5 7
5. Oscillations 4 5
6. Superposition of waves 4 6
7. Wave optics 5 7
8. Electrostatics 4 6
9. Current electricity 4 6
10. Magnetic fields due to electric current 4 6
11. Magnetic materials 4 5
12. Electromagnetic induction 5 7
13. AC Circuits 4 6
14. Dual nature of radiation and matter 4 5
15. Structure of atoms and nuclei 4 6
16. Semiconductor devices 4 5
Total 70 98
4
Based on the Board’s Latest Paper Patterns
Navneet
PRACTICE
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Standard XII
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d ng
iin
a cor ire
actheeEEnntit s s
re
tSyll labu
h a b u
l
Sy
☛Physics ☛ Chemistry ☛ Biology

☛ Mathematics & Statistics + ☛ English
Salient features :
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All Question Papers/Activity Sheets prepared as per the Board’s latest paper
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EW12v
5
CONTENTS
Page No.
Part 1 MODEL QUESTION PAPER
(With Full Solution and Marking Scheme) … 7
Part 2 MOST LIKELY QUESTION SETS
1. Multiple Choice Questions … 35
2. Very Short Answer Questions … 57
3. Definitions … 87
4. Laws and Theories … 101
5. Explanation, Characteristics and Properties … 117
6. Derivations – I … 164
7. Derivations – II … 209
8. Distinguish Between … 263
9. Short Answer Questions … 274
10. Experiments and Diagrams … 294
11. Instruments : Construction and Working … 306
12. Solved Problems – I … 323
13. Solved Problems – II … 373
Part 3 MODEL QUESTION PAPER FOR PRACTICE … 433
6
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Part 1 (With Full Solution and Marking Scheme)
Time : 3 Hours] [ Total Marks : 70
General Instructions :
The question paper is divided into four sections.
1. Section A : Q. No. 1 contains ten multiple choice type questions carrying
one mark each. Q. No. 2 contains eight very short answer type questions
carrying one mark each.
2. Section B : Q. No. 3 to 14 contain twelve short answer type questions
carrying two marks each. (Attempt any eight)
3. Section C : Q. No. 15 to 26 contain twelve short answer type questions
carrying three marks each. (Attempt any eight)
4. Section D : Q. No. 27 to 31 contain five long answer type questions carrying
four marks each. (Attempt any three)
5. Use of logarithmic tables is allowed. Use of a calculator is not allowed.
6. Figures to the right indicate full marks.
7. For each multiple choice type question, it is mandatory to write the correct
answer along with its alphabet, e.g., (a).../ (b) .../ (c) .../ (d) ... . No mark(s)
shall be given if only the correct answer or the alphabet of the correct answer
is written. Only the first attempt will be considered for evaluation.
8. Physical constants :
(1)  3.142 (2) g  9.8 m/s2 (3) c  3  108 m/s
(4) 0  4 10 7 T.m/A (5) e 08.85  10 12 C2/N.m2
(6) e  1.6  10 19 C (7) me  9.11  10  31 kg
SECTION – A
Q. 1. Select and write the correct answer of the following multiple
choice type of questions : [10]
(i) Two bodies with moments of inertia I1 and I2, and rotational kinetic
energies E1 and E2 (E2 > E1), rotate with the same angular momentum.
Then,
(a) I2 > I1 (b) I2  I1 (c) I2 < I1 (d) I2  I1 . (1)
7
8 NAVNEET 21 M. L. Q. SETS : PHYSICS – STD. XII
(ii) The mean free path  of molecules is given by
(a) ij
2 1 1 1
ef2 nd
(b) (c) (d) .
nd 2 nd 2 e2 nd 2
where n is the number of molecules per unit volume and d is the
diameter of the molecules. (1)
(iii) In a cyclic process,

(a)  UQ (b) Q0 (c) W0 (d) WQ. (1)
(iv) When a sound wave travelling in a denser medium is reflected at its
boundary, then
(a) a compression is reflected as a compression
(b) a compression is reflected as a rarefaction
(c) there is no phase change
(d) both (a) and (c). (1)
(v) For appreciable fringe separation in Young’s double-slit interference
experiment,
(a) the two slits should be closely spaced
(b) the slit to screen separation should be large
(c) the optical path difference between the waves from the two slits
should be large
(d) both (a) and (b) are desirable. (1)
(vi) The power factor for a choke coil is
R L
(a) (b)
efR 2L2
2 R
R R
(c) (d) . (1)
L ghR 2L2
2
(vii) The radius of the 4th orbit of the electron will be smaller than its
8th orbit by a factor of
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16. (1)
(viii) A bar magnet of magnetic moment 5.4 A.m and moment of inertia
2
2.7  105 kg.m2 performs angular oscillations about its transverse

symmetry axis in the plane of a uniform magnetic field with
MODEL QUESTION PAPER (With Full Solution and Marking Scheme) 9
period  s. Then, the magnitude of the magnetic induction is

(a) 2.5  T (b) 5  T (c) 10  T (d) 20  T. (1)
4
(ix) An unpolarized ray of light in water (refractive index, ) is incident at
3
9
an angle i on a slab of glass (refractive index, ) immersed in the water.
5
If the partially reflected ray is completely polarized, tan i is

20 5
(a) 1.35 (b) (c) 2.4 (d) . (1)
27 12
(x) A 15 V/2.5 W Zener regulator uses a 25 V input. The minimum value

of the series resistor should be
(a) 30  (b) 60  (c) 90  (d) 250  . (1)
Answers :
(i) (c) I2 < I1 (1 mark)
1
(ii) (c) (1 mark)
e2 nd 2
(iii) (d) WQ (1 mark)
(iv) (b) a compression is reflected as a rarefaction (1 mark)
(v) (d) both (a) and (b) are desirable (1 mark)
R
(vi) (a) (1 mark)
efR 2L2
2
(vii) (b) 4 (1 mark)

(viii) (d) 20  T (1 mark)
5
4I 4(2.7  10 )
[Solution : B    2  10 5 T]
 5.4
(ix) (a) 1.35 (1 mark)
n 9 3 27
[Solution : tan i  tan  B  2     1.35]
n1 5 4 20
(x) (b) 60  (1 mark)
VS  VZ VS  VZ 15(25  15) 150
[Solution : RS     60  ]
IZM PZM /VZ 2.5 2.5
Q. 2. Answer the following questions : [8]

(i) The equations of motion of a particle of mass m in circular motion
with constant angular speed  are xr cos  t and yr sin t.
Write the expression for the force on the particle. (1)
Ans. The particle is performing UCM with radius vector l r x ^ iy 6j
r ( cos t ^ i  sin t 6j ). Since l a 2l r , the force on the particle is
lFmla m2r ( cos t ^ i sin t 6j ) . (1 mark)
(ii) What is a hydraulic lift? (1)

Ans. A hydraulic lift is a machine consisting of two oil-filled cylinders
hydraulically connected. It is used for lifting a heavy object by applying
a small force on the oil which transmits the pressure. (1 mark)
(iii) What is a heat engine? (1)

Ans. A heat engine is a device which takes a system through a repeated
thermodynamic cycle that converts part of the heat supplied by a hot
reservoir into work (mechanical energy) and releases the remaining part
to a cold reservoir. At the end of every cycle, the system is returned to
the initial state. (1 mark)
(iv) At which position is the restoring force acting on a particle

executing linear SHM half its maximum value? (1)
Ans. In the linear SHM,  F    x . Then, F   Fmax  when x   A .
 Fmax  A
 F when x  , where A is the amplitude of the motion.
2 2
(1 mark)
(v) What is wattless current ? (1)
Ans. The current that does not lead to power consumption is called wattless
current. In the case of a purely inductive circuit or a purely capacitive
circuit, average power consumed over a complete cycle is zero and
hence the corresponding alternating current in the circuit is called
wattless current. (1 mark)
(vi) State the factors which control the wavelength of light emitted by
an LED. (1)
Ans. The colour of the light, i.e., its wavelength, emitted by an LED
depends on the compound semiconductor material used and its
composition (and doping levels). (1 mark)
(vii) The energy of the electron in the ground state of the hydrogen
atom is – 13.6 eV. Find its potential energy in the same state. (1)
Ans. Data : E   13.6 eV
e2 e2
E–   13.6 eV ( 12 mark)
8e0r 8e0r
The potential energy of the electron in the same state
e2 e2
–  – 2
4e0 r 8e0 r
 – 213.6
 – 27.2 eV ( 12 mark)
(viii) The equivalent capacitance of n identical capacitors in series
is C1. What will be the equivalent capacitance of their parallel
combination ? (1)
Ans. The equivalent capacitance of the series combination is given by
1 n
 , where C is the capacitance of each capacitor.
C1 C
 CnC1
The equivalent capacitance of their parallel combination,
C2  nC  n2C1 (1 mark)
SECTION – B
Attempt any eight of the following questions : [16]
Q. 3. State the characteristics of blackbody radiation spectrum. (2)
Ans. Characteristics of blackbody radiation spectrum :
(1) The emissive power R of a blackbody for every wavelength 
increases with increasing temperature. ( 12 mark)
(2) Each curve has a characteristic form with a maximum for R at a
certain wavelength m. ( 12 mark)
(3) m depends on the absolute temperature (T ) of the body and,

with increasing temperature, shifts towards shorter wavelengths,
i.e., towards the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, such that
mT  a constant. ( 12 mark)
(4) The area under each curve gives the total radiant power per unit
area of a blackbody at that temperature and is proportional to T 4,
(Stefan-Boltzmann law). ( 12 mark)
Q. 4. What are the steps through which a refrigerant goes in one
complete cycle of refrigeration? (2)
Ans. In one complete cycle of refrigeration, the refrigerant, a liquid such as
fluorinated hydrocarbon, goes through the following steps :
(1) The refrigerant in the closed tube passes through the nozzle and
expands, into a low-pressure area. This adiabatic expansion results
in reduction in pressure and temperature of the fluid and the fluid
turns into a gas. ( 12 mark)
(2) The cold gas is in thermal contact with the inner compartment of the
fridge. Here it absorbs heat at constant pressure from the contents of
the fridge. ( 12 mark)
(3) The gas passes to a compressor where it does work in adiabatic
compression. This raises its temperature and converts it back into a
liquid. ( 12 mark)
(4) The hot liquid passes through the coils on the outside of the
refrigerator and releases heat to the air outside in an isobaric
compression process. ( 12 mark)
The compressor, driven by an external source of energy, does work
on the refrigerant during each cycle.
Q. 5. What is a diamagnetic material ? Give two examples. (2)
Ans. A material which is weakly repelled by a magnet and whose
atoms / molecules do not possess a net magnetic moment in the absence
of an external magnetic field is called a diamagnetic material.
( 1 mark )
A diamagnetic material placed in a uniform magnetic field acquires a
small net induced magnetic moment directed opposite to the field.
Examples : Bismuth, copper, gold, silver, antimony, mercury, water,

air, hydrogen, lead, silicon, nitrogen, sodium chloride.
(Two examples, 12 mark each )
Q. 6. Draw a neat ray diagram showing how two coherent sources can
be obtained using Lloyd’s mirror. (2)
Ans.
Sʹ Mirror
S : Source of monochromatic light,
Sʹ : Virtual source, R : Region of interference
Lloyd’s mirror (Schematic diagram)

(Diagram : 1 mark, Labelling : 1 mark)
Q. 7. Using Ampère’s law, obtain an expression for the magnetic induction
nearacurrent-carryingstraightinfinitelylongwire. (2)
Ans. Consider a point P at a distance a from a straight, infinitely long wire
carrying a current I in free space, Fig. (a). Because of the axial symmetry
about the straight wire, the magnetic induction has the same magnitude
B at all points on a circle in a transverse plane and centred on the wire.
We, therefore, choose an Ampèrian loop a circle of radius a centred on
the wire with its plane perpendicular to the wire, as shown in Fig. (b).
( 12 mark  12 mark for diagram)
Ampèrian
lB
loop
I
(q = 0)
a Iout
ldl
P
a
P
(a) (b)
ApplyingAmpère’slawtofindthemagnetic
induction near a current in a long, straight wire
lB is everywhere tangential to the circular Ampèrian loop. Therefore,

the angle  between lB and a length element dl l is zero at all points of
the loop.
 < lB · dl l  < B dl cos   B < dl
 B ( 2 a ) ( 12 mark)
Since cos   1 and B has the same value around the path, < dl gives
the circumference of the circular loop.
In the figure, the Ampèrian loop is traced in the anticlockwise
sense, so that the current I is taken as positive in accordance with the
right hand rule.
By Ampère’s law,
< lB · dl l  0 I  B ( 2 a )  0 I
0I
 B ( 12 mark)
2a
This is the required expression.
Q. 8. State the causes of induced current and explain them on the basis
of Lenz’s law. (2)
Ans. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced emf or current is
such as to oppose the change that produces it. The change that induces
a current may be
(i) the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field or ( 12 mark)
(ii) the change of the magnetic flux through a stationary circuit.
( 12 mark)
In the first case, the direction of induced emf in the moving
conductor is such that the direction of the side-thrust exerted on the
conductor by the magnetic field is opposite in direction to its motion.
The motion of the conductor is, therefore, opposed. ( 12 mark)
In the second case, the induced current sets up a magnetic field of
its own which within the area bounded by the circuit is (a) opposite
to the original magnetic field if this field is increasing, but (b) is in
the same direction as the original field, if the field is decreasing. Thus,
it is the change in magnetic flux through the circuit (not the flux itself)
which is opposed by the induced current. ( 12 mark)
Q. 9. Compare resistance and reactance. (2)

Ans.
(1) Resistance is opposition to flow of charges (current) and appears in a
DC circuit as well as in an AC circuit.
The term reactance appears only in an AC circuit. It occurs when
an inductor and/or a capacitor is used.
(2) In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are always in phase.
When reactance is not zero, there is nonzero phase difference
between current and voltage.
(3) Resistance does not depend on the frequency of AC unless the frequency
is very high.
Reactance depends on the frequency of AC. In case of an inductor,
reactance increases linearly with frequency. In case of a capacitor,
reactance decreases as frequency of AC increases; it is inversely
proportional to frequency.
(4) Resistance gives rise to production of Joule heat in a component.
In a circuit with pure reactance, there is no production of heat.
(Any two points, 1 mark each)
Q. 10. A solid cylinder, of mass 2 kg and radius 0.1 m, rolls down an
inclined plane of height 3 m. Calculate its rotational energy when it
reaches the foot of the plane. (2)
2
Ans. Data : M 2 kg, R 0.1 m, h 3 m, g 10 m/s
The MI of a cylinder, I 1 MR2
2
I 1
  2

MR 2
At the foot of an inclined plane, the speed of a circular body
rolling down the inclined plane from a height h is
v ij
2gh
1
The rotational energy of the cylinder,
v2
E  1 I2 1 1 MR2 2  1 Mv2
2 2 2 
R 4
( 12 mark)
M 2gh M 2gh
 .  . ( 12 mark)
4 1   4 1 12
M
 gh 2 (10)(3) 20 J ( 1 mark )
3 3
Q. 11. Calculate the viscous force acting on a raindrop of diameter

1 mm, falling with a uniform velocity of 2 m / s through air. The
coefficientofviscosityofairis1.8  105N · s/m2. (2)
Ans. Data : d 1 mm, v0  2 m / s,  1.8  105 N · s/m2,
d
r   0.5 mm  5  104 m
2
By Stokes’ law, the viscous force on the raindrop is
f 6 rv0 ( 12 mark)
63.142 (1.8105  5  104) (2) ( 12 mark)
3.394  107 N ( 1 mark )
Q. 12. A sonometer wire, 35.2 cm long, vibrates with a frequency of
384 Hz in the fundamental mode when it is under a tension of 29.4 N.
Calculate the linear density of the material of the wire. (2)
Ans. Data : L  0.352 m, n  384 Hz, T 29.4 N
pq
1 T
n
2L m
( )
1 T
 n2  2
4L m
 Linear density,
T
m 2 2 ( 12 mark)
4L n
29.4
 ( 12 mark)
4(0.352  384)2
 4.023  10  4 kg/m (1 mark)
Q. 13. The combined resistance of a galvanometer of resistance 1000 
and its shunt is 2  . Calculate the value of the shunt. (2)
Ans. Data : RA  2  , G  1000 
1 1 1 1 1 1 G  RA
     
RA G S S RA G RA.G
RA .G
 S ( 12 mark)
G  RA
2  1000
 ( 12 mark)
1000  2
2000
  2.004  (1 mark)
998
Q. 14. Two particles have the same de Broglie wavelength and one is
moving four times as fast as the other. If the slower particle is an
-particle, what are the possibilities for the other particle? (2)
Ans. Data : 1  2, v1  4v2
h h
 
p mv
h h
 1  , 2  ( 12 mark)
m1v1 m2v2
As 1  2, m1v1  m2v2 ( 12 mark)

v2 m2
 m2 ( ) 
1
 m1  m2 ( 12 mark)
v1 4 4
As particle 2 is the -particle, particle 1 (having the mass 1 times that

4
of the -particle) may be a proton or neutron. ( 12 mark)
SECTION – C
Attempt any eight of the following questions : [24]
Q. 15. Give Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect. (3)
Ans. Max Planck put forward the quantum theory in 1900 to explain
blackbody spectrum. In the theory, he proposed that the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the body consists of discrete concentrated bundles
of energy, each equal to h, where h is a universal constant (now called
Planck’s constant) and  is the frequency of the radiation. ( 12 mark)
Einstein put forth (1905) that these energy quanta, called light
quanta, later called photons, interact with matter much like a particle.
When a photon collides with an electron in an atom, the electron
absorbs whole of the photon energy h in a single collision or nothing.
The electron uses this energy (1) to liberate itself from the atom, (2) to
overcome the potential energy barrier at the surface thus liberating
itself from the metal, and (3) retains the remaining part as its kinetic
energy. ( 1 mark)
Different electrons need different energies in the first two

processes. There are some electrons which use minimum energy in
the two processes, and hence come out of the metal with maximum
kinetic energy. The minimum energy required, in the form of
electromagnetic radiation, to free an electron from a metal is called
the photoelectric work function y0 of that metal. Thus, for the most
energetic photoelectrons at the time of emission,
maximum kinetic energy of the electron
 photon energy – photoelectric work function
1 1
 mv2max  h  y0  h  y0 mv 2max
2 2
The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. ( 1 mark)

Light interacts with matter as concentrated bundles of energy
rather than energy spread over a Huygens type wavefront. Even under
weak irradiation, an electron absorbs a photon’s energy in a single
collision. But the rate of incident photons in dim light being less, the
chances of such absorption diminish and consequently the photoelectric
current diminishes. However, a photoelectron is emitted as soon as a
photon is absorbed. ( 12 mark)
Q. 16. Draw a neat circuit diagram of a transistor CE-amplifier and
explain its working. (3)
Ans. A device that increases the amplitude of voltage, current or power of
a weak alternating signal, by drawing energy from a separate source
other than the signal, is called an amplifier.
Principle : The collector current can be controlled by a small
change in the base current.
Electric circuit : Consider the use of a npn transistor as an
amplifier in the widely used common-emitter (CE) configuration
in which the emitter is common to the input and output circuits, as
shown in the figure. The emitter-base junction is forward biased by
the battery VBB while the collector-base junction is reverse biased by
the battery VCC.
The voltage Vi to be amplified, called the signal voltage, is applied

between the base and the emitter.
Working : The collector characteristics shows that in the active
region, the collector current IC is determined almost entirely by the
base current IB , and collector potential VC has relatively little effect
on it.
IC
T C
RB IB B Output
RL
voltage, VO
E
VBB
Vi IE
(1 mark)
VCC
T : Transistor; B, E, C : Base, Emitter, Collector;
RL : Load resistance, Vi : Input signal voltage,
VBB : Emitter-base bias, VCC : Collector-base bias,
IE : Emitter current, IB : Base current, IC : Collector current
An npn transistoramplifierinCEconfiguration
For Vi  0, applying Kirchhoff’s loop law to the output and input

loops, we get respectively,
VCC  ICRLVCE 0 ... (1)
and VBB IBRBVBE 0 ... (2)
The applied signal voltage causes small changes  VBE in the

emitter-base p.d. thereby producing variations  IB in the base current.
 VBE ri IB ... (3)
where ri is the dynamic input resistance.
 VBB Vi IBRB VBE IB ( RB ri )
 Vi  IB ( RB ri )  ri IB ( 12 mark)
The variations in IB cause proportionately larger variations IC in

the collector current because  IC ac IB , where the ac common-
emitter current gain (ac ) is always greater than 50. For normal
operating voltages, ac is almost the same as dc . From Eq. (1), since
VCC is constant, ( 12 mark)
VCC ICRLVCE 0
The time-varying collector current produces a time-varying output
voltage Vo across the load resistance RL.
Vo  VCE ICRL ac IB RL ( 12 mark)
Thus, Vo  Vi , so that the circuit produces a voltage gain. The
amplifier’s voltage gain ( AV ) is defined as the ratio of the output
voltage to the input voltage.
Vo ac RL
AV   ( 12 mark)
Vi ri
The minus sign indicates that the output voltage is 180° out of phase
with the input voltage.
Q. 17. Derive an expression for the electric field intensity at a point
outsideaninfinitelylongchargedcylindricalconductor. (3)
Ans. Consider an isolated infinitely long cylindrical conductor A, of radius R
and carrying a charge per unit length (linear charge density) . Consider
a point P outside the conductor at a distance r from its axis. To find the
electric field intensity at P, we choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface S
of radius r through P and coaxial with conductor A. A small area element
containing P has an area dS. ( 12 mark)
The net charge enclosed by the Gaussian cylinder of length l is
Ql ... (1)
Charge is uniformly distributed over the outer surface of the
conductor. Then, by symmetry, the electric field intensity at any point
outside the conductor is at right angles to the cylinder axis. Hence, the
component of the electric field intensity perpendicular to the plane
circular faces of the Gaussian surface is zero. Therefore, the electric
flux through these flat faces is zero.
Charged cylindrical
conductor, A
R
Gaussian surface, S
r ( 12 mark)
P
lE
l
dlS
Surface element, area dS
Electricfieldintensityatapointoutsideauniformly
chargedinfinitelylongcylindricalconductor
By symmetry, the electric field intensity lE at every point on the

curved face of surface S is normal to the surface and has the same
magnitude E. If the charge on conductor A is positive, lE is directed
along the outward drawn normal dlS.
The angle  between lE and dlS being zero for every surface element,
the electric flux through every element is
d lE . dlS E dS
Therefore, the flux through the curved face of the Gaussian surface S is
  < E dSE < dS ... (2) ( 12 mark)
< dS area of the curved surface  2rl, where l is the length of the
cylinder as shown in the figure.
  E 2rl ... (3) ( 12 mark)
Then, by Gauss’s theorem,
Q
  E 2rl ... (4) ( 12 mark)
e
l  
 E   ... (5) ( 12 mark)
e (2rl) 2er 2ke0r
e
where e0 is the permittivity of free space and k is the relative
e0
permittivity (dielectric constant) of the surrounding medium.
This gives the magnitude of the electric field intensity in terms

of the linear charge density . For positive , lE is outward, while for
negative , lE is inward.
Q. 18. Derive an expression for pressure exerted by a liquid column.
( 3)
Ans. At a point at depth h
p0
below the surface of a
liquid of uniform density
, the pressure due to
the liquid is due to the
weight per unit area of a
A h
liquid column of height h
above that point.
( 12 mark)
P
In the given figure,
to find the pressure due
to the liquid at point P, p
consider the cylindrical
liquid column, of cross
Fluid (density, )
section A and height h, ( 12 mark)
above that point.
The weight of this liquid column
 volume  density  acceleration due to gravity ( 12 mark)
 (Ah)()(g) ( 12 mark)
weight of the liquid column
 Pressure due to the liquid at depth h
cross sectional area
Ahg
 hg ( 12 mark)
A
If the free surface of the liquid is open to the atmosphere, the
pressure on the surface is the atmosphere pressure p0. Then, the absolute
pressure within the liquid at a depth h is
pp0 hg ( 12 mark)
Q. 19. DefineangularSHM.Statethedifferentialequationofangular
SHM. Hence derive an expression for the period of angular SHM in
terms of the torsion constant. (3)
Ans. Definition:Angular SHM is defined as the oscillatory motion of a

body in which the restoring torque responsible for angular acceleration
is directly proportional to the angular displacement and its direction is
opposite to that of angular displacement. (1 mark)
The differential equation of angular SHM is
d 2
I c  0 ... (1) ( 12 mark)
dt2
where I moment of inertia of the oscillating body about the rotation
d 2
axis,  angular acceleration of the body when its angular
dt2
displacement is , and c torsion constant of the suspension wire.
d 2c
   0
dt I
2
2, a constant. Therefore, the angular frequency,  efc/I

c
Let
I
and the angular acceleration, ( 12 mark)
d 2
 2 ... (2) ( 12 mark)
dt2
The minus sign shows that the  and  have opposite directions. The
period T of angular SHM is
 2 ij
2 2 I
T ... (3) ( 12 mark)
 efc / I

c
This is the expression for the period in terms of torque constant.

Q. 20. Derive Malus’s law. (3)
Ans. Malus’s law states that the intensity of plane-polarized light that
passes through an analyser varies as the square of the cosine of the angle
between the transmission axes of the polarizer and analyser. ( 12 mark)
Consider an unpolarized light beam of frequency  and
wavelength  , travelling along the x-direction. The magnitude of its
electric field ( lE ) is
E  E0 sin (kx  t)
. While lE
2
where E0  amplitude of the wave,   2 and k 

of this beam lies in the y-z plane, its direction is random. The intensity
of the wave is proportional to  E0 2. ( 12 mark)
This wave is passed through two polarizers. The transmission axis
of the first polarizer is vertical (say), i.e., along the y-axis. If lE0 makes
an angle y with the axis of the polarizer, its component E0 cos y passes
through while the component E0 sin y is blocked. ( 12 mark)
Polarizer
Incident q
lE1
unpolarized light
Analyser
( 12 mark)
Polarizer
light lE2
Polarizing or
transmission axis
Unpolarized light passing through two identical polarizers
The intensity of the plane-polarized wave emerging from the

polarizer is proportional to  E0 cos y 2 averaged over all values of
y between 0 and 180°. As the average value of cos2 y over this range is
1
, the transmitted intensity reduces by half.
2
The electric field (lE1) of the plane-polarized wave emerging from

the polarizer is
lE1  6j E10 sin (kx  t) ... (1)
where E10 is the amplitude of this polarized wave. The intensity of the
polarized wave,
I1  E102 ... (2)
This wave passes through the second polarizer (analyser) whose
polarization axis (transmission axis) makes an angle  with the
y-direction. So, with only the component E10 cos  passed by the
analyser, the amplitude of the transmitted wave is E20  E10 cos  and
its intensity,
I2  E202
 I2  E102 cos2 ( 12 mark)
 I2  I1 cos2 ... (3) ( 12 mark)
which is Malus’s law.
Q. 21. Explain the origin of paramagnetism on the basis of atomic
structure. (3)
Ans. Paramagnetism depends on the presence of permanent atomic or
molecular magnetic dipole moments. The inherent net atomic magnetic
moment results from a particular combination of the spin and orbital
magnetic moments of its electrons.
The spin magnetic moments of the electrons in matter are affected
by the internal magnetic field created by the magnetic moments of
surrounding electrons. This internal field,  102 T to 101 T, causes the
spin magnetic moments to precess about the field direction. At normal
temperature; the thermal motion of the electrons produces constant
fluctuations in the internal field so that the spin magnetic moments have
random directions, Fig. (a). In the absence of an external magnetizing
field, therefore, a paramagnetic material is not magnetized. (1 mark)
lB
lB
(1 mark)
(a) (b) (c)
Magnetic dipole moments in a paramagnetic sample (a) randomly directed in

theabsenceofamagnetizingfield(b) partialalignmentontheapplicationofan
externalfield(c)alignedtosaturationatverylowtemperatureorstrongfield.
When the applied field strength is greater than that of the internal
field, the spin magnetic moments tend to align parallel to the external
field direction. But the randomizing effect of thermal agitation prevents
complete alignment, Fig. (b). Therefore, at room temperature, when
a paramagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it is weakly
magnetized in the direction of the magnetizing field. ( 12 mark)
If the external field is very large or the temperature is very low, the
magnetic dipole moments are effectively aligned parallel to the field so
as to have the least magnetic potential energy and the magnetization
reaches saturation, Fig. (c). ( 12 mark)
Q. 22. The equation of a simple harmonic progressive wave is
y  4 sin  (  ). Find the displacement and velocity of a

t x
0.02 75
particle at 50 cm from the origin and at 0.1 second. (All quantities
are expressed in CGS units.) (3)
Ans. Data : y  4 sin  (  ) [in CGS units],

t x
0.02 75
x  50 cm, t  0.1 s
 y  4 sin  (  )
0.1 50
( 12 mark)
0.02 75
 4 sin  ( 5 )  4 sin ( )
2 13
3 3
 4 sin ( 4  )  4 sin
 
[B sin (4  )  sin  ]
3 3
( 12 mark)
e3
 y  4 sin 60°  4  2e3  2  1.732  3.464 cm
2
The displacement of the particle,
y  3.464 cm  3.464 102 m ( 12 mark)
The velocity of the particle,
cos  (  )
dy  t x
 4 ( 12 mark)
dt 0.02 0.02 75
 200  cos  (  )
0.1 50
( 12 mark)
0.02 75
 200  cos ( 4 )


3
 1
 200  cos  200  100 cm/s ( 12 mark)
3 2
Q. 23. An electron is accelerated from rest through 86 V and then

enters a region of uniform magnetic induction of magnitude 1.5 T.
What is the maximum value of the magnetic force the electron can
experience? (3)
Ans. Data : V  86 V, B  1.5 T, me  9.111031 kg, e  1.61019 C
Since the electron is accelerated from rest, the kinetic energy
acquired by it is
1
mev2  eV
2
2eV
 v2  ( 12 mark)
me
2 (1.61019 C) (86 V)
 ( 12 mark)
9.111031 kg
 3.0211013 m2/s2
 v  5.496106 m/s ( 12 mark)
The maximum value of the magnetic force on the electron is
Fm  evB ( 12 mark)
 (1.61019 C) (5.496106 m/s) (1.5 T) ( 12 mark)
 1.3191012N 1.319 pN ( 12 mark)
Q. 24. A hypothetical thermodynamic cycle is shown in the figure.
Calculate the work done in 25 cycles. (3)
P (×105 Pa)
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
2 4 6 V (×10–3 m3)
Ans. From the figure,

 Vmax  (6  2)  10 3  4 103 m3 ,
 Pmax  (11  1)  10 5  10 105 Pa,

n  25 cycles
asemimajor axis( )  ( )  103 m3
Vmax 4
2 2
 2103 m3 ( 12 mark)
and bsemiminor axis( )( )105 Pa5105 Pa

 Pmax 10
2 2
( 12 mark)
The work done in one cycle, < P dVab ( 12 mark)
(3.142) (2103) (5105) ( 12 mark)
3.142103 J ( 12 mark)
Hence, the work done in 25 cycles
(25) (3.142103)7.855104 J ( 12 mark)
Q. 25. An alternating emf e200 sin t (in volt) is connected to a
1000  resistor. Calculate the rms current through the resistor and
the average power dissipated in it in one cycle. (3)
Ans. Data : e200 sin t V, R1000 
The equation of a sinusoidally alternating emf is ee0 sin t,
where e0 is the peak value of the emf. Comparing the given expression
with this, we get
e0  200 V
e0
 Peak current, i0  ( 12 mark)
R
200
  0.2 A ( 12 mark)
1000
i0
 rms current, irms 
e2
 10 1 e2  10 1  0.1414 A
0.2 2
( 12 mark)
e2 e2
 
The average power dissipated in the resistor in one cycle, ( 12 mark)

e0 i0
Pav  erms irms  ( 12 mark)
2
2000.2
  20 W ( 12 mark)
2
Q. 26. A spherical conductor, of radius 10 cm and surface charge

density 8.85  C/m2, is in a medium of dielectric constant 10. Find
the magnitude of the electric intensity and the electrostatic potential
20 cm from the centre of the conductor. (3)
 12 2
Ans. Data : R  0.1 m,   8.85  10 C/m , k  10, r  0.2 m,
e0  8.85  1012 C2/N.m2
The magnitude of the electric intensity at a point outside the sphere,
( )
q 1  R 2
E . 2 ( 1 mark)
4  ke0 r ke0 r
( )
8.85  10 6 0.1 2
 ( 12 mark)
10 (8.85  10 12) 0.2
106 1
   2.5  104N/C ( 12 mark)
10 4
q .1
The electrostatic potential at that point, E   Er ( 12 mark)
4  ke0 r
 (2.5  104)(0.2)  5  103 V ( 12 mark)
SECTION – D
Attempt any three of the following questions : [12]
Q. 27. A banked circular road is designed for traffic moving at an
optimum or most safe speed vo. Obtain an expression for the
maximum safe speed with which a vehicle can negotiate the curve
without skidding. (4)
Ans. Consider a car taking a left turn along a road of radius r banked at an
angle  for a designed optimum speed v. Let m be the mass of the car. In
general, the forces acting on the car are

(a) its weight mg , acting vertically down

(b) the normal reaction of the road N, perpendicular to the road surface

(c) the frictional force fs along the inclined surface of the road.
(1 mark)
If s is the coefficient of static friction between the tyres and road,
fs  sN.
For maximum safe speed : If the car is driven fast enough, at a speed
greater than the optimum speed v, it may skid off up the incline so that

fs is down the incline, as shown in the figure.
lN
lN
N cos 
fs cos  N sin 
lac C.G. fs sin  (1 mark)

lfs
lfs

mlg
mlg
Maximum safe speed on a banked road

 
Resolve N and fs into two perpendicular components : Ncos
vertically up and fs sin  vertically down; Nsin and fs cos 
horizontally towards the centre of the circular path. So long
as the car takes the turn without skidding off, the horizontal
components Nsin and fs cos  together provide the necessary
centripetal force, and N cos  balances the sum mg  fs sin . If vmax is
the maximum safe speed without skidding,
mv2max
 N sin   fs cos 
r
 N sin   s N cos 
 N (sin   s cos ) ... (1) ( 12 mark)
and N cos   mg  fs sin 
 mg  s N sin 
 mg  N (cos   s sin ) ... (2) ( 12 mark)
Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2),
mv2max /r N (sin   s cos )

mg N (cos   s sin  )
v max
2
sin   s cos  tan   s
  
rg cos   s sin  1  s tan 
 vmax  ij
rg (tan   s)
... (3) (1 mark)
1  s tan 
Equation (3) gives the required expression.
Q. 28. State the principle of a potentiometer. Describe the use of a
potentiometer to compare the emfs of two cells by connecting them
separately. (4)
Ans. Principle of a potentiometer : The potential difference across any
length of a potentiometer wire is directly proportional to that length.
(1 mark)
A battery of stable emf E is used to set up a potential gradient
V / L along a potentiometer wire, where V  potential difference
across total length L of the wire. The positive terminals of the cells,
whose emfs (E1 and E2) are to be compared, are connected to the high
potential terminal A. The negative terminals of the cells are connected
to a galvanometer G through a two-way key. The other terminal of the
galvanometer is connected to a pencil jockey. The emf E should be
greater than both the emfs E1 and E2. ( 12 mark)
E1 P
C
E2
A Q
G (1 mark)
E V
K
B D D'
Rh E > E1, E2
Comparison of two emfs using a potentiometer by the direct method
Connecting point P to C, the cell E1 is brought into the circuit. The

jockey is tapped along the wire to locate the null point D at a distance
l1 from A. Then,
E1  l1 ( V / L ) ( 12 mark)
Now, without changing the potential gradient (i.e., without changing
the rheostat setting) point Q ( instead of P ) is connected to C, bringing

the cell E2 into the circuit. Let its null point D be at a distance l2 from
A, so that
E2  l2( V / L ) ( 12 mark)
E1 l1
  ( 12 mark)
E2 l2
Hence, by measuring the corresponding null lengths l1 and l2, E1 / E2
can be calculated. The experiment is repeated for different potential
gradients using the rheostat.
Q. 29. State any four assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases. (4)
A gas in a cylinder is at pressure P. If the masses of all the molecules
are made one third of their original value and their speeds are
doubled,thenfindtheresultantpressure.
Ans. The basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of an ideal gas :
(1) A gas of a pure material consists of an extremely large number of
identical molecules.
(2) A gas molecule behaves as an ideal particle, i.e., it has mass but its
structure and size can be ignored as compared with the intermolecular
separation in a dilute gas and the dimensions of the container.
(3) The molecules are in constant random motion with various velocities
and obey Newton’s laws of motion.
(4) Intermolecular forces can be ignored on the average so that the only
forces between the molecules and the walls of the container are
contact forces during collisions. It follows that between successive
collisions, a gas molecule travels in a straight line with constant
speed.
(5) The collisions are perfectly elastic conserving total momentum and
kinetic energy, and the duration of a collision is very small compared
to the time interval between successive collisions.
1
( Any four assumptions : 2
mark each )
Data : m2  m1/3, vrms2  2vrms1 as the speeds of all molecules are
doubled
1 mN . 2
Pressure, P  . v rms ( 12 mark)
3 V
1 m 1N
 P1  . . vrms1
2
and
3 V
1 m 2N
 P2  . . v2rms2
3 V
v 2rms 2 vrms 2
( )( ) ( )( )
P2 m2 m2 2
 ( 12 mark)
P1 m1 v2rms 1 m1 vrms 1
( ) (2)2 
m1/3 4
( 12 mark)
m1 3
4 4
 P2  P1  P ( 12 mark)
3 3
This is the resultant pressure.
Q. 30. Define:(a) selfinductance(b) mutualinductance. (2)
A motor has a coil of resistance of 5 . If it draws 8.2 A when
running at full speed and connected to a 220 V line, how large is the
back emf? (2)
Ans. (a) The self-inductance of a coil is defined as the magnitude of the self
induced emf in the coil per unit time rate of change of current in the coil.
(1 mark)
(b) The mutual inductance of a coil (secondary) with respect to a
magnetically linked neighbouring coil (primary) is numerically equal to
the emf induced in the secondary coil per unit time rate of change of
current in the primary coil. (1 mark)
Data : R  5 , I  8.2 A, eapplied  220 V
eapplied  eback  IR  0 ( 12 mark)
 eback  eapplied  IR  220  (8.2)(5) ( 12 mark)
 220  42  178 V (1 mark)
Q. 31. StatethedifficultiesfacedbyRutherford’satomicmodel. (2)
Find the ratio of the longest wavelength to the shortest wavelength
in the Paschen series. (2)
Ans. Failures of Rutherford’s classical planetary model of the atom :
(1) According to Rutherford, the electrons revolve in circular orbits
2/Navneet21M.L.Q.Sets:Physics–Std.XII D0211 (2023)

around the atomic nucleus. The circular motion is an accelerated motion.

According to the classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerated charge
continuously radiates energy. Therefore, an electron during its orbital
motion, should go on radiating energy. Due to the loss of energy, the
radius of its orbit should go on decreasing. Therefore, the electron
should move along a spiral path and finally fall into the nucleus in a
very short time, of the order of 1016 s. But atoms do not collapse and
we exist because atoms are stable. (1 mark)
(2) If the electron moves along such a spiral path, the radius of
its orbit would continuously decrease. As a result, the speed and
frequency of revolution of the electron would go on increasing. The
electron, therefore, would emit radiation of continuously changing
frequency, and hence give rise to a continuous spectrum. However,
atomic spectrum is a discrete line spectrum. (1 mark)
 R ( 2  2)
1 1 1
 n m
For the Paschen series, n3. For the longest wavelength (), m4
while for the shortest wavelength (), m. ( 12 mark)
R (  )
1 1 1 7R
 ( 12 mark)
 9 16 144
1 R
and  ( 12 mark)
 9
 R/9 144 16
     2.2857 ( 12 mark)
 7R/144 63 7
————
Part 2 MOST LIKELY QUESTION SETS
Question
Set MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1
Revise all important points and formulae.
Q. Choose the correct option : ( 1 mark each )
Chapter 1. Rotational dynamics
(1) When seen from below, the blades of a ceiling fan are seen to be
revolving anticlockwise and their speed is decreasing. Select the
correct statement about the directions of its angular velocity and
angular acceleration.
(a) Angular velocity upwards, angular acceleration downwards.
(b) Angular velocity downwards, angular acceleration upwards.
(c) Both angular velocity and angular acceleration upwards.
(d) Both angular velocity and angular acceleration downwards.
(2) In the vertical circular motion of a bob of mass m suspended by
a string, the difference in the tensions in the string at a horizontal
position and the uppermost position is (March ’22)
(a) mg (b) 2 mg (c) 3 mg (d) 6 mg.
(3) The radius of gyration of a uniform disc about its central transverse
axis is ef2.5 units. Its radius of gyration about a tangent in its plane
(in the same unit) must be
(a) e5 (b) 2.5 (c) 2ef2.5 (d) mn12.5.
(4) Consider the following cases :
(i) A planet revolving in an elliptical orbit.
(ii) A planet revolving in a circular orbit.
35
The principle of conservation of angular momentum is applicable to

which of these ?
(a) Only for (i) (b) Only for (ii)
(c) For both (i) and (ii) (d) Neither for (i) nor for (ii)
(5) For a conical pendulum of string length L, its angular speed is
proportional to
(a) efL
1 1
(b) L (c) (d) .
efL L
(6) For a rolling hollow sphere, the ratio of the translational KE : rotational
KE : total KE is
(a) 3 : 2 : 5 (b) 1 : 2 : 2 (c) 3 : 2 : 2 (d) 2 : 3 : 5
Ans. (1) (b) Angular velocity downwards, angular acceleration upwards.
(2) (c) 3 mg (3) (b) 2.5 (4) (c) For both (i) and (ii)
1
(5) (c) (6) (a) 3 : 2 : 5.
efL
Solution :
e5
( R )( R )  ij ef2.5  k ef2.5 ef2.5  2.5
k 1 5
(3)
kCM 2 ef2 2
Chapter 2. Mechanical properties of fluids
(7) A hydraulic lift is designed to lift heavy objects of maximum mass

2000 kg. The area of cross section of piston carrying the load is
2.5  102 m2. What is the maximum pressure the smaller piston
would have to bear ?
(a) 0.8711  106 N/m2 (b) 0.7840 106 N/m2
(c) 0.4869  105 N/m2 (d) 0.5862  106 N/m2
(8) A liquid rises in a glass capillary tube to a height of 2.5 cm at room
temperature. If another glass capillary tube of radius half that of the
former is immersed in the same liquid, the rise of the liquid in it will
be (March ’22)
(a) 1.25 cm (b) 2.5 cm (c) 5 cm (d) 10 cm.
QUESTION SET 1 : MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 37
(9) The energy stored in a soap bubble of diameter 6 cm and surface

tension 0.04 N/m, is nearly
(a) 0.9  103 J (b) 1.25  103 J
(c) 1.25  104 J (d) 0.9  104 J.
(10) A small air bubble of radius r in water is at a depth h ( r y h ). If p0
is the atmospheric pressure,  is the density of water and T is the
surface tension of water, the excess pressure inside the bubble over
the pressure outside it is
4T 4T 2T 2T
(a) gh (b) (c) (d) gh .
r r r r
(11) The SI unit of viscosity is (Sept. ’21)
2 2 2 2 2
(a) N·s/m (b) N·m /s (c) N ·s /m (d) m /N·s.
(12) A force of 0.01 N is required to move a flat glass plate of area of 10 cm2
with a uniform velocity of 1 cm/s over the surface of a liquid 2 mm
thick. If the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is 20 poise, the
velocity gradient in the liquid layer is
(a) 2  103 s1 (b) 0.01 s1 (c) 5 s1 (d) 500 s1.
(13) Two hailstones with radii in the ratio of 1 : 4 fall from a great height
through the atmosphere. The ratio of their terminal velocities is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 12 (c) 1 : 16 (d) 1 : 8.
(14) Bernoulli’s principle is equivalent to a statement of the law of
conservation of
(a) linear momentum (b) mass flux
(c) pressure (d) mechanical energy.
6 2
Ans. (7) (b) 0.784010 N/m (8) (c) 5 cm (9) (c) 1.25104 J
2T
(10) (c) [ Hint : The pressure at the depth h outside the
r
bubblep0 gh.
2T
 The excess pressure inside the bubble p (p0 gh)  ].
r
(11) (a) N·s/m2 (12) (c) 5 s1 (13) (c) 1 : 16
(14) (d) mechanical energy.
Solutions :
F 2000  9.8 1.96 7.84
(7) p    106   106 N/m2.
A 2.5  10 2
10/4 10
h2 r1
(8) h1r1  h2r2   2  h2  2h1  2(2.5 cm).
h1 r2
(9) W2T (4R2)  8  3.142  (0.05)  (1  102)2
 40  3.142 106  1.257  104 J.
dv v0 1 cm/s
(12)    5 s1.
dy y 0.2 cm
vt 1 r 2 1 2
(13) vt  r2  ( 1 ) ( )
vt 2 r2 4
Chapter 3. Kinetic theory of gases and Radiation
(15) In an ideal gas, the molecules possess

(a) only kinetic energy
(b) both kinetic energy and potential energy
(c) only potential energy.
(d) neither kinetic energy nor potential energy.
(16) If the pressure of an ideal gas is decreased by 10% isothermally, then
its volume will
(a) decrease by 9% (b) increase by 9%
(c) decrease by 10% (d) increase by 11.11%.
(17) If a 0.72 and r 0.24, then the value of t is
(a) 0.02 (b) 0.04 (c) 0.4 (d) 0.2.
(18) The ratio of the emissive power of a perfectly blackbody at 1327 °C
and 527 °C is
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 16 : 1 (c) 2 : 1 (d) 8 : 1.
(19) The root mean square speed of the molecules of a gas is proportional
to the [ T  Absolute temperature of the gas ] (March ’22)
(a) mn T
1 1
(b) (c) T (d) .
mn T T
(20) The average KE of a gas at temperature T is (July ’22)

(a) directly proportional to T (b) directly proportional to T 2
(c) directly proportional to mnT (d) inversely proportional to T.
(21) Colour of a shining bright star is an indication of its (Sept. ’21)
(a) distance from the Earth (b) size
(c) temperature (d) mass.
Ans. (15) (a) only kinetic energy (16) (d) increase by 11.11%
(17) (b) 0.04 (18) (b) 16 : 1 (19) (a) mn T
(20) (a) directly proportional to T (21) (c) temperature.
Solutions :
V2 P1 P
(16) P1V1  P2V2    1  1.111
V1 P2 0.9 P1
V2 V1
  0.1111, i.e., 11.11 %.
V1
(17) t 1  (ar)  1  0.96  0.04.
T 4 1327  273 4 1600 4
( 1 ) ( ) ( )  24  16.
E1
(18)
E2 T2 527  273 800
Chapter 4. Thermodynamics
(22) In which thermodynamic process does the volume of a system remain
constant ? (Sept. ’21)
(a) Isobaric (b) Isothermal (c) Adiabatic (d) Isochoric
(23) A graph of pressure versus volume for an
O
ideal gas for different processes is as shown. A
In the graph curve OA represents ......... .
P
(a) an isochoric process (July ’22) B
(b) an isothermal process
C
(c) an isobaric process D
(0, 0) V
(d) an adiabatic process.
(24) A gas in a closed container is heated with 10 J of energy, causing the
lid of the container to rise 2 m with 3 N of force. What is the total
change in the energy of the system ?
(a) 10 J (b) 4 J (c)  10 J (d)  4 J
(25) The second law of thermodynamics deals with transfer of

(a) work done (b) energy (c) momentum (d) heat.
(26) During refrigeration cycle, heat is rejected by the refrigerant in the
(a) condenser (b) cold chamber
(c) evaporator (d) hot chamber.
(27) The first law of thermodynamics is concerned with the conservation
of (March ’22)
(a) momentum (b) energy (c) temperature (d) mass.
(28) For a given thermodynamic process on an ideal gas, dW0 and
dQ  0. Then,
(a) the temperature decreases (b) the volume decreases
(c) the pressure increases (d) the pressure remains constant.
(29) In one cycle, the working substance in a heat engine absorbs 3000 J
from the hot reservoir. If 2250 J are wasted per cycle, the efficiency of
the engine is
(a) 75 % (b) 50 % (c) 7.5 % (d) 25 %.
(30) In a refrigerator, the external work done on the working substance in
one cycle is 20 % of the energy extracted from the cold reservoir. The
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator is
(a) 20 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 5.
Ans. (22) (d) Isochoric (23) (c) isobaric process (24) (b) 4 J
(25) (d) heat (26) (a) condenser (27) (b) energy (28) (a) the
temperature decreases (29) (d) 25% (30) (d) 5.
Solutions :
(24) Q 10 J, WF·s 3  2  6 J  UQW 10  6  4 J
W
(29)   and WQh Qc  3000  2250  750 J
Qh
750 1
    0.25 25 %
3000 4
W Qc 1
(30)  20 %  0.2  COP   5
Qc W 0.2
Chapter 5. Oscillations
(31) Two bodies P and Q, of equal masses, are suspended from two separate
light springs of force constants k1 and k2, respectively. If they have the
same maximum speed, the ratio of the amplitude of P to that of Q is
(a) ef( k1 / k2 ) (b) ( k1 / k2 ) (c) ef( k2 / k1 ) (d) ( k2 / k1 ).
(32) A simple harmonic oscillator has amplitude 16 cm and period 4 s. The
least time for it to travel from x16 cm to x8 cm is (July ’22)
1 2 5 4
(a) s (b) s (c) s (d) s.
2 3 6 3
(33) A body of mass 1 kg is performing linear SHM. Its displacement
x (in cm) at time t (in second) is given by x6 sin (100 t/4). The
maximum kinetic energy of the body is
(a) 36 J (b) 9 J (c) 27 J (d) 18 J.
(34) A mass m attached to a spring oscillates every 2 seconds. If the mass
is increased by 2 kg, the time period increases by 1 second. The initial
mass m was (Sept. ’21)
(a) 1.6 kg (b) 2.4 kg (c) 3.2 kg (d) 1.4 kg.
(35) The length of a seconds pendulum on the surface of the Earth is nearly
1 m. Given that the acceleration due to gravity (g) on the Moon is
1/6 th of that on the Earth’s surface, its length on the surface of the
Moon should be
1 1 1
(a) m (b) 6 m (c) m (d) m.
6 36 ef6
(36) Two identical springs of constant k are connected first in series and
then in parallel. A block of mass m is suspended from the combination.
The ratio of their frequencies for vertical oscillations will be in a ratio
(a) 1 : 4 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 2 : 1 (d) 4 : 1.
Ans. (31) (c) ef(k2 / k1)

2
(32) (b) s (33) (d) 18 J (34) (d) 1.4 kg
3
1
(35) (a) m [ Hint : L  g ] (36) (b) 1 : 2.
6
Solutions :
k k1 k
(31) 2  .  21  and  22  1 . vmax  1A1 2A2.
m m m
A1 2 k
  ij 2 .
A2 1 k1
xA cos t  A cos ( t)

A A 2
(32) x  A   8 cm
2 2 T
 8  16 cos ( t)  cos ( t )
2 2 1
T T 2
2 1  T 4 2
 t cos  1   t    s.
T 2 3 6 6 3
(33) A 6 cm,  100 rad/s
1 1 36
KEmax  E  m2A2  (1) [ (102)(6  102) ]2  J
2 2 2
(34) T  2  pq  pq  pq
m T2 m2 3 m2
 
k T1 m 2 m
9 m2 5 2 8
     m  1.4 kg
4 m 4 m 5
 f  efk  ij s ij
k fs k k/2
 ij 
1 1
(36) ks  , kp  2k 
2 fp kp 2k 4 2
Chapter 6. Superposition of waves
(37) The equation of a simple harmonic progressive wave on a string is

y  8 sin (0.02x  4t) cm. The speed of the wave is (March ’22)
(a) 10 cm/s (b) 20 cm/s (c) 100 cm/s (d) 200 cm/s.
(38) When an air column in a pipe closed at one end vibrates such that
three nodes are formed in it, the frequency of its vibrations is .........
times the fundamental frequency.
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
(39) In a resonance tube, if an oil of density higher than that of water is
used then the resonance frequency would (Sept. ’21)
(a) increase (b) decrease
(c) slightly increase (d) remain the same.
(40) The tension in a piano wire is increased by 25%. Its frequency becomes
......... times the original frequency.
(a) 0.8 (b) 1.12 (c) 1.25 (d) 1.56
17 170
(41) Two sound waves of wavelengths m and m beat at 4 per second
22 222
in air when they arrive at a point simultaneously. The speed of sound
in air is
(a) 320 m/s (b) 330 m/s (c) 340 m/s (d) 350 m/s.
Ans. (37) (d) 200 cm/s (38) (d) 5 (39) (d) remain the same
(40) (b) 1.12
n efT  ef1.25 1.118  1.12 ]

n2
[Hint : T2 1.25T1, 
n1
(41) (c) 340 m/s.
Solutions :
2
(37) Comparing with y  A sin (kx   t), k   0.02 cm1 and

  2  f  4 rad/s.
 4
 vf     200 cm/s.
k 0.02
170 170 170 170
(41) 1  m, 2  m. Since  , 1  2.
220 222 220 222
 n2 n1  v (  )  4.
1 1
 n1  n2.
2 1
 v( )  4.  v( )  4.
222 220 2

170 170 170
 v  2  170  340 m/s.
Chapter 7. Wave optics
(42) Which of the following phenomena proves that light is a transverse

wave ?
(a) Reflection (b) Interference
(c) Diffraction (d) Polarization
(43) The property of light that does not change when it travels from one
medium to another is (March ’22)
(a) velocity (b) wavelength (c) frequency (d) amplitude.
(44) When unpolarized light is passed through a polarizer, its intensity
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains unchanged (d) depends on the polarizer orientation.
(45) In Young’s double-slit experiment, the two coherent sources have
different amplitudes. If the ratio of the maximum intensity to the
minimum intensity in the interference pattern produced is 16 : 1, then
the ratio of the amplitudes of the two sources is (March ’22)
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 5 : 3 (c) 1 : 4 (d) 1 : 16.
(46) In Young’s double-slit experiment, a transparent glass plate of
refractive index n and thickness t is introduced between one of the slits
and screen. The central fringe shifts by (or the optical path difference
introduced is) (Sept. ’21)
2
(a) (n  1) t (b) (n  1) t (c) (n  1) t (d) (n  1) t 2.
(47) In a biprism experiment, the distances of a point on the screen from
the two slits is 1.8  105 m and 1.23  105 m. If the wavelength of
light used is 6000 At , the fringe formed at that point is (Sept. ’21)
(a) 10th bright (b) 10th dark (c) 9th dark (d) 9th bright.
(48) When unpolarized light is incident on glass or other dielectric materials
at the polarizing angle, the component with polarization parallel to the
plane of incidence is
(a) entirely reflected (b) entirely refracted
(c) partially reflected and partially refracted (d) entirely absorbed.
(49) The Brewster angle for light reflected from the surface of a pond is
53.1°. The deviation of the refracted ray is
(a) 0° (b) 16.2° (c) 36.9° (d) 90°.
(50) When a monochromatic light passes through a slit 0.2 mm wide and
falls on a screen 3.5 m away, the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern is 9.1 mm from the centre of the central maximum. The
wavelength of the light is
(a) 2600 Å (b) 4000 Å (c) 4300 Å (d) 5200 Å.
(51) A monochromatic light of wavelength  falls on a single slit. The first

secondary maximum occurs at 30° if the width of the slit is equal to
 3
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 3.
2 2
Ans. (42) (d) Polarization (43) (c) frequency (44) (b) decreases
(45) (b) 5 : 3 (46) (b) (n  1) t (47) (b) 10th dark
(48) (b) entirely refracted (49) (b) 16.2° (50) (d) 5200 Å
(51) (d) 3.
Solutions :
(45) max   ( ) where r  10

I 16 r1 2 E r1 4
 
Imin 1 r1 E20 r1 1
2r 4 1 5
  
2 4 1 3
2  l 2(1.8  1.23)  105 0.57  102
(47) p     19
 6  107 3
 p is an odd integer F dark fringe.
 
  l  19  (2m  1) with m  10 F 10th dark fringe.
2 2
(49) iB , B r ir  90°, ir 
  2i 90°  2(53.1°)  90°  16.2°
mD ax (2104)(9.1103) 18.2  2
(50) xm    m    107
a mD 3.5 7
 5.2  107 m 5200 Å
a
(51) sin mb  ( m )  a sin 30°  ( 1 )   ( ) .
1  1 3

2 a 2 2 2
Chapter 8. Electrostatics
(52) A parallel plate capacitor is charged and then isolated. On increasing
the plate separation, the charge, potential and capacitance respectively
(a) remains constant, decreases, decreases
(b) increases, decreases, decreases
(c) remains constant, decreases, increases
(d) remains constant, increases, decreases.
(53) A slab of material of dielectric constant k has the same area A as the
3
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor and has thickness d, where d is the
4
separation of the plates. The changed capacitance when the slab is
inserted between the plates is
( ) ( )
e0A k 3 e0A 2k
(a) C (b) C
d 4k d k 3
( ) ( ).
e0A k 3 e0A 4k
(c) C (d) C
d 2k d k 3
(54) The energy stored in a capacitor and the energy dissipated [supplied]
during charging the capacitor are in the ratio
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 3.
(55) The angle at which maximum torque is exerted by an uniform external
electric field on an electric dipole is (March ’22)
(a) 0° (b) 30° (c) 45° (d) 90°.
(56) A parallel-plate capacitor has circular plates of radius 8 cm and plate
separation 1 mm. What will be the charge on the plates if a potential
difference of 100 V is applied across its plates ?
(a) 1.78  108 C (b) 1.78  105 C
(c) 4.3  104 C (d) 2  109 C
(57) The electric intensity at a point 1 metre from the centre of a charged
spherical conductor of radius 20 cm is 105 N/C. If the conductor is in
a medium of permittivity 35.4 pF/m, the surface density of charge on
the conductor is
(a) 88.5 C / m2 (b) 22.125 C / m2
(c) 14.16 C / m2 (d) 177 C / m2.
(58) The dimensions of electric susceptibility are the same as those of
(a) electric polarization (b) magnetic susceptibility
(c) permittivity (d) refractive index.
(59) An electric dipole consists of two unlike charges, each of magnitude
1.6  1019 C, separated by 2 Å. If the dipole is placed in a uniform
electric field of 10 N/C, making an angle of 30° with the dipole
moment, the potential energy of the dipole is about
(a)  1.4  1028 J (b)  2.8  1028 J

(c) 1.4  1028 J (d) 2.8  1028 J.
Ans. (52) (a) remains constant, decreases, decreases
(53) (d) C 0 ( )
e A 4k
(54) (a) 1 : 1 (55) (d) 90°
d k 3
(56) (a) 1.78  108 C (57) (a) 88.5 C / m2 (58) (c) permittivity
(59) (b)  2.8  1028 J.
Solutions :
C d d 1 1 4k
(53)     
C0 t 3d 3d 1 3 k3 k3
dt d  
k 4 4k 4 4k 4k
 C  C0 ( ) 0 ( )
4k e A 4k
k 3 d k 3
[Note : The change in capacitance is
(  1)  0 ( )]
e0A 4k 3e A k  1
C  C0 
d k 3 d k 3
Ae0V 3.142(8  102)2(8.85  1012)  100

(56) Q CV 
d 103
 3.142  64  8.85  1011  1780  1011 C
1 2
(57)   eE ( )  (35.4  1012)(105) ( )
r 2
R 1/5
 35.4  25  107  88.5  106 C/m2
(59) p 2qlq(2l )  (1.6  1019 C)(2  1010 m)  3.2  1029 A·m2
U  pE cos 
  (3.2  1029 A·m2)(10 N/C) cos 30°
  3.2  1028  0.866   2.77  1028 J
Chapter 9. Current electricity
(60) Kirchhoff’s first law, i.e., &I 0 at a junction, follows from the
conservation of
(a) charge (b) energy (c) momentum (d) mass.
(61) When the balance point is obtained in the potentiometer, a current is

drawn from
(a) both the cell and auxiliary battery (b) cell only
(c) neither cell nor auxiliary battery (d) auxiliary battery only.
(62) In the following circuit diagram, an infinite series of resistances is
shown. The equivalent resistance between points A and B is
1 1 1 1
A to 
2 2 2
B to 
(a) infinite (b) zero (c) 2  (d) 1.5 .
(63) Four resistances 10 , 10 , 10  and 15  form a Wheatstone
network. What shunt is required across 15  resistor to balance the bridge ?
(a) 10  (b) 15  (c) 20  (d) 30 
(64) A circular loop has a resistance of 40 . Two points P and Q of the
loop, which are one quarter of the circumference apart are connected
to a 24 V battery, having an internal resistance of 0.5 . What is the
current through the battery ?
(a) 0.5 A (b) 1 A (c) 2 A (d) 3 A
(65) Two diametrically opposite points of a metal ring are connected to the
two terminals of the left gap of a metre bridge. A resistance of 4  is
introduced in the right gap. The resistance of the ring if the null point
is at 20 cm from the left end is
(a) 2  (b) 4  (c) 8  (d) 16 .
(66) In a pokentiometer experiment, a cell balances against a length of
240 cm. When the cell in shunted by 2  , the balancing length
becomes 120 cm. The internal resistance of the cell is (July ’22)
(a) 4  (b) 2  (c) 1  (d) 0.5 .
(67) A moving coil galvanometer of resistance G gives full scale deflection
for a certain current. The shunt resistance required to convert it to
measure a current n times the initial current is
G n 1
(a) (n 1) G (b) (c) (d) nG.
n 1 G
Ans. (60) (a) charge (61) (c) neither cell nor auxiliary battery
15 X
(62) (c) 2  (63) (d) 30  [Hint : 15 //X must equal 10 .]
15 X
(64) (d) 3 A (65) (b) 4 
(66) (b) 2  [Hint : r2 (  1)]

240 G
(67) (b) .
120 n 1
Solutions :
(62) In the infinite ‘ladder’ network, notice that the shaded unit in the
following Fig. (a) repeats ad infinitum. If the equivalent resistance
between A and B is R, then the equivalent resistance of the infinite
network to the right of the dashed line is also R, so that the given
network simplifies to the circuit shown in Fig. (b). Therefore, the
equivalent resistance between A and B is the parallel combination
of 2  and R in series with 1 .
2R 2  3R
 R 1  2 //R 1    2RR2  2  3R
2 R 2 R
13
 R2 R 2  0 whose roots are  2  and  1 .
2
Since R cannot be negative, R 2 
(64) If a quarter of the circumference of the loop has resistance X, then
4X 40  or X 10 . Therefore, equivalent resistance between P
300
and Q is R 10  // 30   7.5 .
40
E 24
 I   3 A.
Rr 7.5  0.5
(65) If the resistance of each half of the metal ring is X, the resistance in
X/2 20 cm
the left gap is X/2.    X 2 
4  80 cm
Resistance of the metal ring 2X 4 .
Chapter 10. Magnetic fields due to electric current
(68) A conductor carrying a current I has three segments, as shown. What
is the magnetic field B at the centre of curvature C of the semicircle ?
0 I 0 I
(a) (b)
4 R 4 R2
I R I
 I  I
(c) 0 (d) 0 L C L
4 R 4
(69) A conducting rod along the equator is 1 m long and carries a current of
15 A from west to east. The Earth’s magnetic field there is horizontal,
south to north and has magnitude 1.33  104 T. The magnitude and
direction of the force on the rod are respectively
(a) 14  104 N, downward (b) 20  104 N, downward
(c) 14  104 N, upward (d) 20  104 N, upward.
(70) A charged particle moving with velocity lv enters a region of uniform
magnetic field perpendicular to lv. During its motion within the field,
the kinetic energy of the particle
(a) remains unchanged (b) decreases
(c) increases
(d) increases or decreases depending on the type of charge.
(71) The unit Wb/m2 is named (March ’22)
(a) the henry (b) the watt
(c) the dyne (d) the tesla.
(72) The maximum speed of the ions with which they leave the cyclotron
does NOT depend on
(a) the strength of the magnetic field
(b) the electric potential difference between the dees
(c) the radius R at which the ions leave the cyclotron
(d) the mass of the ions.
(73) The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil of
radius R varies (July ’22)
2
(a) inversely with R (b) directly with R
(c) inversely with R (d) directly with R2.
(74) A circular coil of two turns and diameter D carries a current I. At an
axial point of the coil, a distance d from its centre, the magnitude of
the magnetic induction is about
0 ID2 0 ID2 0 ID2 0 ID2
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
d3 2d 3 4d 3 8d 3
0 I
Ans. (68) (c) (69) (d) 20  104 N, upward (70) (a) remains
4 R
unchanged (71) (d) the tesla (72) (b) the electric potential
difference between the dees [ Hint : vmax  ] (73) (c) inversely

qBR
m
0 ID2
with R (74) (c) .
4d 3
Solution :
(70) lL and lB being perpendicular to each other, the force on the
conductor is maximum, equal to FILB (15)(1) (  104 )

4
3
 20  104 N. The force is vertically up at the equator, given by

Fleming’s left hand rule.
Chapter 11. Magnetic materials
(75) A magnetizing field of 360 A/m produces a magnetic flux density

B 0.6 T in a ferromagnetic material. What is its permeability in
T·m/A ?
(a) 1/300 (b) 300 (c) 1/600 (d) 600
(76) The SI unit of the Bohr magneton is

(a) C/kg (b) A·m2 (c) kg·m2/s (d) 1 (no unit).
(77) A paramagnetic crystal is placed between the poles of a magnet where

the magnetic strength is 8  104 A/m. The magnetic moment of 1 mm3
of this crystal is [ m  2.5  104 ]
(a) 2  105 A·m2 (b) 2  108 A·m2
(c) 2  109 A·m2 (d) 2  1010 A·m2.
(78) The relative permeability of a piece of soft iron is 3000. In a
magnetizing field of 400 A/m, the magnetic induction in the soft iron is
(a) 4.8 T (b) 0.48 T (c) 1.6 mT (d) 3 T.
(79) Magnetic susceptibility is positive and small for
(a) silver (b) platinum (c) mercury (d) sodium chloride.
Ans. (75) (c) 1/600 [Hint : B/H ] (76) (b) A·m2
(77) (b) 2  108 A·m2 (78) (b) 0.48 T (79) (b) platinum.
Solution :
Mnet
(77) Mz m H  .
V
 Mnet m HV (2.5 104) (8 104 A/m) (109 m3)
 20109  2  108 A·m2
(78) BH0r H (4 107 T·m/A) (3000) (400 A/m)  0.48 T
Chapter 12. Electromagnetic induction
(80) A circular coil of 100 turns with a cross-sectional area of 1 m2 is kept

with its plane perpendicular to the magnetic field of 1 T. The magnetic
flux linkage is
(a) 1 Wb (b) 100 Wb (c) 50 Wb (d) 200 Wb.
(81) Two inductors of inductances 10 mH and 20 mH are connected in
series [ and are separated by a large distance so that the magnetic
field of one does not affect the other ]. The resultant inductance of the
combination is
20
(a) 20 mH (b) 30 mH (c) 10 mH (d) mH.
3
[ Note : The condition given in bracket is necessary. The textual statement is
therefore corrected. ]
(82) A current through a coil of self inductance 10 mH increases from 0 to

1 A in 0.1 s. What is the induced emf in the coil ?
(a) 0.1 V (b) 1 V (c) 10 V (d) 0.01 V
(83) What is the energy required to build up a current of 1 A in an inductor
of 20 mH ?
(a) 10 mJ (b) 20 mJ (c) 20 J (d) 10 J
(84) For a solenoid and a toroid, the number of turns per unit length is n
and the respective interior volume is V. Self inductance is proportional
to n2 and V for
(a) only solenoid (b) only toroid
(c) both solenoid and toroid (d) neither solenoid nor toroid.
Ans. (80) (b) 100 Wb (81) (b) 30 mH [Hint: Lseries  L1 L2 ]
1
(82) (a) 0.1 V (83) (a) 10 mJ [Hint: E LI 2 ]
2
(84) (c) both solenoid and toroid.
Solution :
I (1  0)
(82)  e L  (10  103)  102  10  0.1 V
t 0.1
Chapter 13. AC circuits
(85) If the rms current in a 50 Hz AC circuit is 5 A, the value of the current
1/300 second after its value becomes zero is
(a) 5e2 A
5
(b) 5 ij A
3 5
(c) A (d) A.
2 6 ef2
(86) In a circuit, L, C and R are connected in series with an alternating
voltage of frequency f . The current leads the voltage by 45°. The
value of C is
1 1
(a) (b)
 f (2fLR) 2 f (2fLR)
1 1
(c) (d) .
 f (2fLR) 2 f (2fLR)
(87) The average value of alternating current over a full cycle is always
[I0  peak value of current] (March ’22)
I I
(a) zero (b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 2I0 .
2 mn2
(88) For a series LCR circuit at resonance the impedance of the circuit is
equal to (Sept. ’21)
(a) the inductive reactance
(b) the capacitive reactance
(c) the resistance
(d) the inductive and capacitive reactance both.
(89) In an AC circuit, e150 sin (150t) V and i150 sin (150t ) A.


3
The average power dissipated in the circuit over one cycle is
(a) 106 W (b) 150 W (c) 5625 W (d) zero.
(90) In a LCR series circuit the phase difference between the voltage and
the current is 45°. The power factor of the circuit is
(a) 0.607 (b) 0.707 (c) 0.808 (d) 1.
1
Ans. (85) (b) 5 ij
3
A (86) (b) (87) (a) zero
2 2 f (2fLR)
(88) (c) the resistance (89) (c) 5625 W (90) (b) 0.707 .
Solutions :
(85) i i0 sin t ( e2 irms ) sin 2ft (5e2) sin ( 2 50  )
1
300
e3
 (5e2) sin  5e2   5 ij A.
 3
3 2 2
e i e i cos y
(89) Pav  erms irms cos y  0  0 cos y  0 0
mn2 mn2 2
(150)(150) cos (  /3) 150 150 22500
    5625 W
2 4 4
1
(90) Power factor  cos y  cos 45°   0.707
mn2
Chapter 14. Dual nature of radiation and matter

(91) Polychromatic radiation (containing many different frequencies) is
used in an experiment on photoelectric effect. The stopping potential
(a) will depend on the average wavelength
(b) will depend on the longest wavelength
(c) will depend on the shortest wavelength
(d) does not depend on the wavelength.
(92) An electron, a proton, an -particle and a hydrogen atom are moving

with the same kinetic energy. The associated de Broglie wavelength is
longest for the
(a) electron (b) proton (c) -particle (d) hydrogen atom.
(93) If NRed and NBlue are the number of photons emitted by the respective
sources of equal power and equal dimensions in unit time, then
(a) NRed  NBlue (b) NRed  NBlue (c) NRed  NBlue (d) NRed  NBlue .
(94) The equation Epc is valid
(a) for all sub-atomic particles
(b) for an electron but not for a photon
(c) for a photon but not for an electron
(d) for both an electron and a photon.
(95) In a photoelectric cell, the product of the stopping potential and
electronic charge is equal to
(a) the potential energy of the emitted electron
(b) the kinetic energy of the emitted electron
(c) the photoelectric work function of the emitter material
(d) the maximum kinetic energy that an emitted electron can have.
Ans. (91) (c) will depend on the shortest wavelength (92) (a) electron
(93) (c) NRed  NBlue (94) (c) for a photon but not for an
electron (95) (d) the maximum kinetic energy that an emitted
electron can have.
Chapter 15. Structure of atoms and nuclei
(96) In the Bohr model of an atom which of the following is an integral

h
multiple of ?
2
(a) Kinetic energy (b) Radius of the atom
(c) Potential energy (d) Angular momentum. (Sept. ’21)
(97) If the number of nuclei in a radioactive sample at a given time is N,
what will be the number at the end of two half-lives ?
N N 3N N
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 4 4 8
(98) Which of the following properties of a nucleus does not depend on its
mass number ?
(a) Radius (b) Mass (c) Volume (d) Density
(99) Balmer series of spectral lines is obtained for all transitions to

(July ’22)
(a) 2nd orbit (b) 1st orbit (c) 3rd orbit (d) 4th orbit.
N
Ans. (96) (d) Angular momentum (97) (b) (98) (d) Density
4
(99) (a) 2nd orbit.
Chapter 16. Semiconductor devices
(100) Solar cell operates on the principle of

(a) diffusion (b) recombination
(c) photovoltaic action (d) carrier flow.
(101) In a BJT, largest current flow occurs
(a) in the emitter (b) in the collector
(c) in the base (d) through the CB junction.
(102) In common-emitter amplifier, the current gain is 80 and the emitter
current is 9 mA. The base current is (Sept. ’21)
1 1 1
(a) mA (b) 8 mA (c) mA (d) mA.
81 8 9
(103) A logic gate is an electronic circuit which
(a) makes logical decisions
(b) allows electron flow only in one direction
(c) works using binary algebra
(d) alternates between 0 and 1 value.
(104) The output logic of the Boolean expression, AB, is
(a) A·B (b) A  B (c) A { B (d) A  B.
Ans. (100) (c) photovoltaic action (101) (a) in the emitter
1
(102) (d) mA (103) (a) makes logical decisions
9
(104) (a) A·B .
Solution :
I
(102)   C  80  IC 80 IB
IB
9 mA 1
 IE 9 mA  IC  IB 81 IB  IB   mA.
81 9
————
Question
VERY SHORT ANSWER
Set
QUESTIONS
2
[ Note : See Question Sets 12 and 13 for numerical problems carrying 1 mark
each. ]
Q. 1. State the relation between the linear velocity and the angular
velocity of a particle in circular motion.
Ans. Linear velocity, l v  ll r where l is the angular velocity and l r
is the radius vector.
At every instant, l v , l  and l r are mutually perpendicular, so that in
magnitude vr.
Q. 2. What can you say about the angular speed of an hour hand
as compared to that of the Earth’s rotation about its axis ?
Ans. The periods of rotation of an hour hand and the Earth are Th12h
2
and TE  24 h, respectively, so that their angular speeds are h  rad/h
12
2
and E  rad / h.
24
 h  2E
Q. 3. What is the angle between linear acceleration and angular
acceleration of a particle in nonuniform circular motion ?
Ans. The angular acceleration in a nonuniform circular motion is an
axial vector, perpendicular to the plane of the motion. The linear acceleration
is in the plane of the motion. Hence, the angle between them is 90°.
Q. 4. State any two quantities that are uniform in UCM.
Ans. Linear speed and angular velocity. ( Also, kinetic energy, angular
speed and angular momentum. )
[Note : Linear velocity, acceleration, momentum and centripetal force are
nonuniform in UCM.]
57
Q. 5. The equations of motion of a particle of mass m in circular

motion with constant angular speed  are xr cos  t and yr sin t.
Write the expression for the force on the particle.
Ans. The particle is performing UCM with radius vector l r x 6i y 6j
r ( cos t 6i  sin t 6j ). Since l a 2l r , the force on the particle is
lFmla m2r ( cos t 6i  sin t 6j ) .
Q. 6. Why is centrifugal force called a pseudo force ?
Ans. A force which arises from gravitational, electromagnetic or
nuclear interaction between matter is called a real force. The centrifugal
force does not arise due to any of these interactions. Therefore, it is not a
real force.
The centrifugal force in the noninertial frame of reference of a particle
in circular motion is the effect of the acceleration of the frame of reference
with respect to an inertial frame of reference. Therefore, it is called a pseudo
or fictitious force.
Q. 7. Why is the work done by a centripetal force equal to zero ?
Ans. The centripetal force lFc and linear velocity l v of a particle in
circular motion are perpendicular to each other at every instant, the force
being radially inward and velocity tangential. Therefore, lFc · l v 0 at
every instant. Since l vdls / dt, the work done by the centripetal force,
W lFc ·dls lFc · l v dt 0.
Q. 8. Why does a motorcyclist moving along a level curve at high
speed have to lean more than a cyclist moving along the same curve at
low speed ?
Ans. A two-wheeler, in moving along a level curve of radius r
with speed v, must lean at an angle  with respect to the vertical, where
v2
tan1 . Therefore, for a given r,  should be more, for higher v.
rg
Q. 9. A small body of mass m is tied to a string and revolved in

a vertical circle of radius r. If the tension in the string at the highest
point is mg, what is its speed there ?
QUESTION SET 2 : VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 59
Ans. If v1 is the speed and T1 the tension in the string at the highest
2
mv1
point, T1 mg mg
r
 v1  ef2rg
2
 v 1  2rg
Q. 10. How does the normal reaction on a car crossing over a
convex bridge vary with speed?
Ans. Suppose a car of mass m, travelling with a uniform speed v,
crosses over a bridge which is in the form of a convex arc of radius r. The
forces acting on the car at the highest point are (i) the normal reaction lN
vertically upward (ii) the gravitational force mlg vertically downward.
mv2
Their resultant mg – N provides the centripetal force. mg – N 
r
v2
 Nm ( g )
r
which shows that as v increases, N decreases.
Q. 11. Why is it useful to define radius of gyration ?
Ans. The radius of gyration of a body of mass M and moment of
inertia I is k efI / M . Thus, the radius of gyration is less if I is less, i.e., if
the mass is distributed close to the axis; and it is more if I is more, i.e., if
the mass is distributed away from the axis. Thus, it gives the idea about the
distribution of mass about the axis of rotation.
Q. 12. State the formula for the moment of inertia of a solid
sphere about an axis passing through its centre. (Sept. ’21)
Ans. The MI of a uniform solid sphere of radius R and mass M about
an axis passing through its centre (i.e., about a diameter) is
2
ICM  MR 2
5
Q. 13. State the expression for the MI of a thin spherical shell
(i.e., a thin-walled hollow sphere) about its diameter. Hence obtain the
expression for its MI about a tangent.
Ans. The MI of the thin spherical shell of radius R and mass M about
its diameter is
2
ICM MR 2
3
Let I be its MI about a tangent parallel to the diameter. Here,

hR distance between the two axes. Then, according to the theorem of
parallel axis,
I ICM  Mh2
2 5
 MR2 MR2  MR2
3 3
Q. 14. A uniform disc and a hollow right circular cone have

the same formula for moment of inertia for rotation about their
corresponding central symmetry axes. Why is it so ?
Ans. The moment of inertia of a hollow right circular cone about its
1
central symmetry axis is MR 2 , the same as that of a disc about its transverse
2
symmetry axis. This is because the distribution of mass of the hollow cone
about its central symmetry axis is the same as that of a disc.
Q. 15. Show that the square of the radius of gyration of a hollow
cylinder is twice that of a solid cylinder having the same radius for
rotation about the respective cylinder axis.
Ans. For rotation about the cylinder axis, the moments of inertia of
2
(1) a thin hollow cylinder, IHC MkHC MR2
2 1
(2) a solid cylinder, ISC MkSC  MR2
2
2 2 2
 kHCR  2kSC
Q. 16. Find the ratio of the radii of gyration of a circular disc and
a circular ring of the same radii about a tangential axis in their planes.
Ans. For rotation about a tangent in its plane, the radius of gyration of
e5
(2) a ring, kring  i R
3
(1) a disc, kdisc  R
2 2
kdisc e5
i i
2 5
 
kring 2 3 6
Q. 17. What happens when a ballet dancer stretches her arms

while taking turns ?
Ans. When a ballet dancer stretches her arms in a dance spin, her
moment of inertia increases. Consequently her angular speed decreases to
conserve angular momentum. This reduces the linear speed of an ice ballet
dancer to prevent skidding while taking turns of larger radius.
Q. 18. If the Earth suddenly shrinks, mass remaining constant,
what will be the effect on the duration of the day ?
Ans. If the Earth suddenly shrinks, mass remaining constant, the
moment of inertia of the Earth will decrease, and consequently the angular
1
velocity of rotation  about its axis will increase. Since period T  , the

duration of the day T will decrease.
Q. 19. A ring and a disc at rest on an inclined plane roll down
through the same height. Compare their speeds at the bottom of the
incline.
Ans. In the usual notation,
vdisc mn(4/3) gh
i
4
mn gh

vring 3
Q. 20. Whatisanincompressiblefluid?

Ans. An incompressible fluid is one which does not undergo change
in volume for a large range of pressures. Thus, its density has a constant
value throughout the fluid. In most cases, liquids are incompressible.
Q. 21. State any two applications of Pascal’s law.
Ans. Applications of Pascal’s law :
(1) Hydraulic car lift and hydraulic press
(2) Hydraulic brakes.
Q. 22. Whatismeantbyasurfacefilm ?
Ans. The layer of the liquid surface of thickness equal to the range of
molecular attraction is called a surface film.
Q. 23. State the CGS and SI units of surface tension.
Ans. CGS unit of surface tension : The dyne per centimetre
(dyn/cm) or, equivalently, the erg per square centimetre (erg/cm2).
SI unit of surface tension : The newton per metre (N/m) or,
equivalently, the joule per square metre (J/m2).
Q. 24. Obtain the dimensions of surface tension.

Ans. Surface tension is a tangential force per unit length.
[force] [ ML1T 2 ]
 [Surface tension]    [ ML0 T 2 ]
[length] [ M0 L 1 T 0 ]
Q. 25. State the dimensions and SI unit of surface energy.

Ans. Dimensions : [surface energy][ML2T2]
SI unit : the joule ( J ).
Q. 26. Write the expression for the angle of contact in terms of
interfacial tensions.
Ans. The angle of contact for a liquid-solid pair,  cos1 ( 2 ),

T T1
T3
where T1  the liquid-solid interfacial tension, T2  the solid-gas ( air 
vapour ) interfacial tension, T3  the liquid-gas interfacial tension.
Q. 27. In terms of interfacial tensions, when is the angle of contact
acute ?
Ans. The angle of contact is acute when the solid-gas ( air  vapour )
interfacial tension is greater than the liquid-solid interfacial tension.
[ Note : The angle is obtuse when the latter is greater. ]
Q. 28. Why is cold wash recommended for new cotton fabrics

while hot wash for removing stains ?
Ans. Cold wash is recommended for new/coloured cotton fabrics.
Cold water, due to its higher surface tension, does not penetrate deep into
the fibres and thus does not fade the colours. Hot water, because of its
lower surface tension, can penetrate deep into fabric fibres and remove
tough stains.
Q. 29. What is the effect on the surface tension of (i) molten
copper (ii) molten cadmium on increasing its temperature ?
Ans. The surface tension of (i) molten copper (ii) molten cadmium
increases on increasing its temperature.
Q. 30. What is meant by a steady flow ?
Ans. When a liquid flows slowly over a surface or through a pipe such
that its velocity or pressure at any point within the fluid is constant, it is
said to be in steady flow.
Q. 31. State the formula for critical velocity for fluid flow in
terms of Reynolds number. (March ’22)
Ans. For a given system geometry, the free stream velocity of a fluid,
of density  and coefficient of viscosity , beyond which a streamline
flow becomes turbulent is called the critical velocity given by
 Re
vcritical 
d
where d is some characteristic dimension of the system and Re is the critical
Reynolds number.
Q. 32. What is viscous drag ?
Ans. When a fluid flows past a solid surface, or when a solid body
moves through a fluid, there is always a force of fluid friction opposing the
motion. This force of fluid friction is called the drag force or viscous drag.
Q. 33. Explain why flow speed is greatest where streamlines are
closest together.
Ans. By the equation of continuity, the flow speed is inversely
proportional to the area of cross section of a flow tube. Where the area of
cross section is small, i.e., streamlines are close, the flow speed is large and
vice versa.
Q. 34. What will happen to the mean square speed of the molecules
of a gas if the temperature of the gas increases ?
Ans. If the temperature of a gas increases, the mean square speed of
the molecules of the gas will increase in the same proportion.
Q. 35. How does the kinetic theory of gases justify the increase in
the temperature of a gas when heated ?
Ans. Molecules of a gas possess kinetic energy and are in a state of
continuous random motion. The average kinetic energy per molecule being
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas, the temperature of the
gas increase on heating.
Q. 36. Two different pure gases have the same temperature. Do
their molecules have the same rms speeds ?
Ans. The rms speed of a gas molecule, vrms  ij

T
, where T is the
M0
absolute temperature and M0 is the molar mass. Since, two different pure
gases differ in their molar masses, their rms speeds at the same temperature
T are different.
Q. 37. State the types of degrees of freedom of non-rigid diatomic
molecules.
Ans. A soft or non-rigid diatomic molecule has three translational
degrees of freedom, two rotational degrees of freedom and one vibrational
degree of freedom.
Q. 38. Give an example of some familiar process in which no
heat is added to or removed from a system, but the temperature of the
system changes.
Ans. A free expansion is an adiabatic process in which the temperature
of the gas changes although no heat is added to or removed from the system
(gas).
Q. 39. Give an example of some familiar process in which heat is
added to an object, without changing its temperature.
Ans. (i) Melting of ice (ii) Boiling of water.
Q. 40. A gas contained in a cylinder surrounded by a thick layer
of insulating material is quickly compressed. (a) Has there been a
transfer of heat ? (b) Has work been done ?
Ans. (a) There is no transfer of heat. (b) The work is done on the gas.
Q. 41. What is mechanical equilibrium ? (March ’22)
Ans. A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when there are
no unbalanced forces within the system and between the system and its
surroundings.
OR
A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when the pressure in
the system is the same throughout and does not change with time.
Q. 42. What is thermal equilibrium ? (March ’22)
Ans. A system is in a state of thermal equilibrium if there is no net
transfer of heat between the various parts of the system or between the
system and its surroundings, so that the temperature remains constant and
uniform throughout the system.
Q. 43. What is an isothermal process? (Sept. ’21)

Ans. A process in which changes in pressure and volume of a system
take place at a constant temperature is called an isothermal process.
Q. 44. Give two examples of an irreversible process.
Ans. Examples of an irreversible process : (1) Free expansion of a
gas (2) All chemical reactions (3) Diffusion of two dissimilar inert gases
(4) A gas seeping through a porous plug.
Q. 45. What is a heat engine ?
Ans. A heat engine is a device which takes a system through a
repeated thermodynamic cycle that converts part of the heat supplied by a
hot reservoir into work (mechanical energy) and releases the remaining part
to a cold reservoir. At the end of every cycle, the system is returned to the
initial state.
Q. 46. What are the two basic types of heat engines ?
Ans. Types of heat engines : (i) External combustion engine — in
which the working substance is heated externally, as in a steam engine.
(ii) Internal combustion engine — in which the working substance is
heated internally, as in a petrol engine or diesel engine.
Q. 47. What is a refrigerator ?
Ans. A refrigerator is a device that uses work to transfer energy in
the form of heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir as it continuously
repeats a thermodynamic cycle. Thus, it is a heat engine that runs in the
backward direction.
Q. 48. What sets the limit on the efficiency of a heat engine ?
T
Ans. The efficiency of a heat engine, given by   1  C , shows
TH
that the efficiency is limited by the temperature of the cold reservoir; TC ;
TH is the temperature of the hot reservoir. For maximum efficiency, TC
should be as low as possible and TH should be as high as possible.
Q. 49. Spring constant is a dimensional constant. Justify.
Ans. Since restoring force, F   kx, the spring constant k has
the dimensions of F/x. Since F and x have different dimensions, k is a
dimensional constant.
Q. 50. How does the frequency of an SHM vary with the force
constant k ?
Ans. The frequency of a particle of mass m performing SHM is
f ij .  f  efk
1 k
2 m
Thus, the frequency of an SHM is directly proportional to the square
root of the force constant of the motion.
Q. 51. At which position is the restoring force acting on a particle
executinglinearSHMmaximum ? (Sept. ’21)
Ans. In linear SHM,  F    x .
  F Fmax when  x xmax  A , where A is the amplitude of SHM.
Q. 52. The period of oscillation of a body of mass m1 suspended
from a light spring is T. When a body of mass m2 is tied to the first
body and the system is made to oscillate, the period is 2T. Compare the
masses m1 and m2.
Ans. T 2 ij  2  ij 1
m 2T m m2

k T m1
m1 m2 m2 3 m1 1
 4    
m1 m1 1 m2 3
This gives the required ratio of the masses.
Q. 53. In linear SHM, what is the phase difference between (i) the
displacement and acceleration (ii) the velocity and acceleration ?

Ans. (i)  rad (ii) rad.
2
[ Note : The phase differences are independent of the initial phase. ]
Q. 54. State the expression for the total energy of SHM in terms
of acceleration.
Ans. The total energy of a particle of mass m performing SHM with
1
angular frequency , E m2A2
2
The maximum acceleration of the particle, amax 2A

1
 E  mAamax is the required expression.
2
Q. 55. Under what conditions can we consider the oscillations of a

simple pendulum to be linear simple harmonic ?
Ans. The oscillations of a simple pendulum are approximately linear
simple harmonic only if
(i) the amplitude of oscillation is very small compared to its length
(ii) the oscillations are in a single vertical plane.
Q. 56. State explaining each term in the differential equation of
angular oscillations of a bar magnet in the Earth’s magnetic field.
Ans. For a bar magnet of magnetic moment  suspended horizontally
in the Earth’s magnetic field Bh , and set into small torsional oscillations in
a horizontal plane, the equation of motion is
d 2 Bh
  0
dt 2 I
d 2
where   the angular acceleration and I the moment of inertia of
dt 2
the magnet about the axis of oscillation which is a transverse symmetry axis
of the bar magnet.
Q. 57. Write the differential equation for angular SHM.
(March ’22)
Ans. For small torsional oscillations of a body of moment of inertia I
suspended by a wire/fibre of torsion constant c, the differential equation of
angular SHM is
d 2
I c  0
dt 2
d 2
where   is the angular acceleration of the body when its angular
dt 2
displacement from the rest position is  .
Q. 58. Write the differential equation of damped oscillations of
a body in the presence of a resistive force directly proportional to the
velocity.
Ans. In the presence of a resistive force f    v, where  is the
damping constant and v is the velocity, the differential equation of an
oscillator of mass m and force constant k is
d 2x dx
m 2    kx  0.
dt dt
Q. 59. A wave is represented by an equation yA sin (CxBt).

Given that the constants A, B, C are positive, in which direction the
wave is travelling ?
Ans. The wave is travelling along the negative x-direction.
Q. 60. A simple harmonic progressive wave is given by
y sin(kxt ).Whatis(i)theparticlevelocityatapointx and time t
(ii) the wave speed ?
dy 
Ans. (i) Particle velocity, A cos (kxt) (ii) Wave speed, v .
dt k
Q. 61. What happens to a particle velocity when a transverse
wave is reflected from (i) a rarer medium (ii) a denser medium ?
Ans. When a transverse wave is reflected from a rarer medium or a
denser medium, there is no change of phase in either case so that there is
no change of the particle velocity.
Q. 62. What happens to a particle velocity, when a sound wave is
reflected from (i) a rarer medium (ii) a denser medium ?
Ans. When a sound wave is reflected from a rarer medium, there is no
change of phase so that there is no change of the particle velocity.
When a sound wave is reflected from a denser medium, there is change
of phase of 180° or  radians so that the particle velocity is reversed.
Q. 63. Two interfering waves of the same frequency are out of
phase but have different amplitudes A1 and A2. What can you say about
the intensity of the resultant wave ?
Ans. The two interfering waves are out of phase. Thus, the amplitude
and hence the intensity of the resultant wave is minimum, Imin  (Amin)2
where (Amin)2  (A1 A2)2.
Q. 64. A tuning fork is in resonance with a closed pipe. But the
same tuning fork cannot be in resonance with an open pipe of the same
length.Why ?
Ans. For the same length of air column, and the same speed of sound,
the fundamental frequency of the air column in a closed pipe is half that
in an open pipe. Hence, a tuning fork in unison with the air column in a
closed pipe cannot be in unison with the air column of the same length in
an open pipe.
Q. 65. For a stationary wave set up in a string having both ends
fixed, what is the ratio of the fundamental frequency to the second
harmonic ?
Ans. The fundamental is the first harmonic. Therefore, the ratio of the
fundamental frequency (n) to the second harmonic (n1) is 1 : 2.
Q. 66. A parallel beam of monochromatic light in vacuum

(medium 1) is incident normally on the plane surface of a medium 2.
Whathappenstothewavelengthandfrequencyofthelightinmedium2 ?
Ans. The frequency of a wave remains unchanged as it passes from
one medium to another. The speed of light in medium 2 being less than its
speed in vacuum (medium 1), its wavelength in medium 2 is less than that
in vacuum.
Q. 67. What is meant by polarized light ?
Ans. If the vibrations of the electric field lE in a light wave are confined
to a single plane containing the direction of propagation, the light wave is
said to be plane-polarized light or linearly polarized light.
Q. 68. What is a polarizer ?
Ans. A material or device which allows only those light waves to
pass through undiminished (almost) which have their electric field lE0 in
a particular plane (transmission axis) is called a polarizer. For waves with
the electric field in other directions, the component of lE0 parallel to the
transmission axis is allowed to pass while the component perpendicular to
that axis is completely blocked.
Q. 69. Give a common use of a polarizer.
Ans. Polaroid sunglasses and filter for camera lens are used to reduce
or eliminate intense reflected light from reflective nonmetallic surfaces like
glass, rock faces, roadways and water.
Q. 70. Unpolarized light is passed through two polarizers.
Under what condition is the intensity of the emergent light
(i) maximum (ii) zero ?
Ans. Let  be the angle between the axes of polarization of a pair of

polarizers. When an unpolarized light beam is passed through the polarizers,
the intensity of emergent light is
(i) maximum for 0°
(ii) minimum (equal to 0) for   90°.
Q. 71. What are crossed polarizers?
Ans. Crossed polarizers are a pair of polarizers with their transmission
axes perpendicular to each other so that the transmitted light intensity is
zero.
Q. 72. How is Young’s interference experiment performed using
asinglesourceoflight ?
Ans. When a narrow slit is placed in front of an intense source of
monochromatic light, cylindrical wavefronts propagate from the slit. In
Young’s experiment, two coherent sources are then obtained by wavefront
splitting by placing a second screen with two narrow slits at a small distance
from the first slit.
Q. 73. In Young’s double-slit experiment, if the path difference
at a certain point of the screen is 2.999 , what can you say about the
intensity of light at that point ?
Ans. As the path difference is 2.999  3 — an integral multiple of
, the intensity of light at that point will be nearly maximum and the point
will be very close to the centre of the third bright fringe.
Q. 74. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the slit separation
is d and the slit-to-screen distance is D. If the second minima in the
interference pattern are formed exactly in front of the two slits, what
is the wavelength of the light used ?
Ans. The distance of an m th minimum from the central fringe is
D
ym  (2m 1)
2d
d
Given that for m 2, y2d  .
2
D d
 (4  1) 
2d 2
d2
Then, the wavelength of the light used is  .
3D
Q. 75. What is Fresnel diffraction ?

Ans. In Fresnel diffraction, either the source of light or the screen or
both are at finite distances from the diffracting aperture.
Q. 76. What is Fraunhofer diffraction ?
Ans. In Fraunhofer diffraction, both the source and the screen are at
infinite distances from the aperture. This is achieved by placing the source
at the focus of a convex lens and the screen at the focal plane of another
convex lens.
Q. 77. What should be the order of the size of an obstacle or
aperture to produce diffraction of light ?
Ans. For pronounced diffraction, the size of an obstacle or aperture
should be of the order of the wavelength of light or greater.
Q. 78. State the condition (Abbe’s condition) for the least distance
between two illuminated objects so that they are just resolved when
they are viewed through a microscope.
Ans. When two point objects illuminated by the same source are
viewed through a microscope, the least separation between the objects such
that they are just resolved, according to Abbe, is

dmin 
2n sin imax
where  is the wavelength of light, n is the refractive index of the medium
between the objects and the objective lens, 2imax is the angle of maximum
cone of light incident on the lens. The product n sin imax is a characteristic
of a given objective lens and is called the numerical aperture; dmin is called
the limit of resolution.
Q. 79. Howcantheresolvingpowerofatelescopebeincreased ?
Ans. The resolving power of a telescope depends directly on the
diameter of the objective lens or mirror, and inversely on the wavelength
of radiation. Hence, the resolving power can be increased by
(1) using an objective lens/mirror of larger diameter
(2) observing a celestial object at smaller wavelengths.
Q. 80. Does the electric flux due to a point charge enclosed by
a spherical Gaussian surface change when the radius of the Gaussian
surface is increased ? Why ?
Ans. No. Electric flux, or the number of electric field lines, passing
through the Gaussian surface is independent of the size of the Gaussian
surface and depends on the number of field lines originating from or
terminating at the point charge, which in turn depends on the magnitude of
the point charge and the permittivity of the medium.
Q. 81. For a charged cylindrical conductor of cross-sectional
radius R, what is the relation between the surface charge density and
linear charge density ?

Ans. Surface charge density,  , where  is the linear charge
2R
density.
A
Q. 82. A charge q is moved without acceleration
from a point A above a dipole of dipole moment p to
–q +q
a point B below the dipole in the equatorial plane.
Find the work done in this process. B
Ans. The equatorial plane of an electric dipole is an equipotential with

V 0. Therefore, no work is done in moving a charge between two points
in the equatorial plane of a dipole.
Q. 83. What is the shape of equipotential surfaces in a uniform
electric field ?
Ans. In a uniform electric field, the field lines are equally-spaced
parallel lines and the equipotential surfaces are parallel planes perpendicular
to the field lines. For equal potential differences between adjacent planes,
these equipotentials are equally spaced.
Q. 84. What is the potential energy of a point charge in an
external electric field ?
Ans. Consider a charge q placed in an external electric field at a point
whose position vector with respect to an arbitrary reference frame is l r. If
V( l r ) is the potential of the point, with respect to an arbitrary reference
zero at infinity, then the potential energy of the charge q at the point is
U( l r ) qV( l r )
where it is assumed that q is sufficiently small and does not significantly
distort the electric field and the potential at the point.
Q. 85. If the difference between the radii of the two spheres of

a spherical capacitor is increased, state whether the capacitance will
increase or decrease.
Ans. The capacitance of a spherical capacitor is C 4e0 ( )
ab
b–a
where a and b are the radii of the concentric inner and outer conducting
shells. Hence, the capacitance decreases if the difference b – a is increased.
Q. 86. What are the functions of a dielectric in a capacitor ?
Ans. A dielectric material between the plates of a capacitor (i) increases
the capacitance of the capacitor (ii) provides mechanical support to the
plates (iii) increases the maximum operating voltage, i.e., the maximum
voltage to which the capacitor may be charged without breakdown of the
insulating property of the medium between the plates.
Q. 87. What is a potentiometer ?
Ans. A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring, comparing
or dividing small potential differences. It consists of a long and uniform
resistance wire along which a potential gradient is set up by connecting a
cell of extremely stable emf connected across its ends.
Q. 88. Define potential gradient along a wire. (March ’22)
Ans. Potential gradient along a (potentiometer) wire is the potential
difference (the fall of potential from the high potential end) per unit length
of the wire.
Q. 89. On what factors does the potential gradient of the wire
depend ?
Ans. The potential gradient depends upon the potential difference
between the ends of the wire and the length of the wire.
Q. 90. What will be the effect on the position of null point on a
potentiometerwireifthecurrentthroughthewireisdecreased ?
Ans. The potential gradient along a potentiometer wire is directly
proportional to the current through the wire and the null length on a
potentiometer is inversely proportional to the potential gradient. Hence, the
potential gradient decreases with a decrease in the current. Consequently,
the null length will decrease.
Q. 91. Why is no power consumed from the circuit containing

unknown emf when a potentiometer is used to measure the unknown
emf ?
Ans. The adjustment of a potentiometer is a null comparison method.
At balance, the unknown emf and the potential difference across the
balancing length of the potentiometer wire are in opposition. Hence, the
branch containing the unknown emf draws no current from the circuit at
the null point.
Q. 92. State the factors upon which the magnetic force on a
charge depends.
Ans. A charge q moving with a velocity l v through a magnetic field
of induction lB experiences a magnetic force perpendicular both to lB and
l v. Experimental observations show that the magnitude of the force is
proportional to the magnitude of l B, the speed of the particle, the charge q
and the sine of the smaller angle  between l v and lB.
Q. 93. What is the magnetic force on a charged particle which is
(i) moving parallel to the magnetic field (ii) stationary.
Ans. Magnetic force, Fm qv B sin . Therefore, if the velocity of the
charged particle l v is parallel or antiparallel to lB, i.e.,  0° or 180°, or
if v 0 (the charged particle is stationary), the magnetic force Fm on the
charge is zero in both cases.
Q. 94. Name a non-SI unit of magnetic induction. State its relation
to the SI unit of magnetic induction.
Ans. A CGS unit of magnetic induction of historical interest is the
gauss, symbol G. This non-SI unit is accepted for use with SI. 1 G  104 T.
Q. 95. State the functions of the electric and magnetic fields in a
cyclotron.
Ans. The function of the electric field in the gap between the dees of
a cyclotron is to accelerate the positively charged particles while that of the
magnetic field in the dees is to deflect the particles in semicircular paths so
that they return to the gap in a fixed time interval to reuse the alternating
electric field.
Q. 96. What is meant by cyclotron frequency ?

Ans. The cyclotron frequency, or the magnetic resonance frequency, is
q
the frequency of revolution of a charged particle of charge per unit mass
m
in a magnetic field of induction B inside a cyclotron. The cyclotron
qB
frequency, f  . The frequency of the alternating voltage applied to the
2m
dees of the cyclotron should be equal to the cyclotron frequency.
[ Note:f is independent of the speed and radius of the path so long as the mass m of
1
the particle is constant. This is also true for the time t  spent by the particle in a dee. ]
2f
Q. 97. What are the factors on which the maximum kinetic energy
acquired by a charged particle in the cyclotron depends ?
Ans. The maximum kinetic energy acquired by a charged particle
in the cyclotron depends upon (i) the magnetic induction (ii) the specific
charge (the ratio charge/mass) of the charged particles and (iii) the radius
of the dees.
Q. 98. What is resonance condition in a cyclotron ?
OR
What should be the frequency of the alternating voltage applied
between the dees of a cyclotron?
Ans. The frequency of the alternating voltage between the dees of a
cyclotron should be equal to the cyclotron frequency so that a positive ion
exiting a dee always sees an accelerating potential difference to the other
dee. This equality of the frequencies is called the resonance condition.
Q. 99. State the expressions for the magnetic force experienced by
a current-carrying (i) conductor of arbitrary shape (ii) closed circuit
(conducting loop).
Ans. (i) For a current-carrying wire of arbitrary shape in a uniform
magnetic field, in the usual notation,
lF  lfm I  ( ldllB )
(ii) For a current-carrying conducting loop (closed circuit) in a uniform
magnetic field,
lF  lfm I < (ldllB )

But for a closed loop of arbitrary shape, the integral is zero.
 lF 0
Q. 100. State if the following statement is true : “The magnetic
dipole moment of a current-carrying coil of given geometry is constant.”
Justify your answer.
Ans. The given statement is false.
Consider a coil of N turns, each of area A. If the current through the
coil is I, the magnetic dipole moment of the coil is, in magnitude, NIA.
That is,   I, for given N and A. Thus, for a coil of given geometry, its
magnetic dipole moment varies with the current through it.
Q. 101. What is the Bohr magneton ?
Ans. The Bohr magneton B is the intrinsic orbital angular momentum
of an electron, equal to eh/4me, when the principal quantum number is unity.
It is a fundamental constant used to express magnetic moment of an atom.
B  9.274  1024 J/T (or A·m2).
Q. 102. State the formula and dimensions of magnetization.
(Sept. ’21)
Ans. Formula : Magnetization, M l z lM net / V, where M
l net and V are
respectively the net magnetic moment and volume of the material.
 [ 3 ] [ L1 I].
[ Mnet ] L2I
Dimensions : [ Mz ] 
[ V] L
Q. 103. What is the magnetic susceptibility of a medium ?
(March ’22)
Ans. The magnetic susceptibility of a medium is a dimensionless
quantity that signifies the contribution made by the medium to the magnetic
induction inside the medium when subjected to a magnetic field. For a
material in which the magnetization Mz is proportional to the magnetic
intensity H, the magnetic susceptibility of the medium is
m Mz / H
It is equal to the fractional change in the magnetic induction due to
the medium.
Q. 104. What is the relation between permeability and magnetic

susceptibility of a medium ?
Ans. If m is the magnetic susceptibility of a medium, the permeability
of the medium is   0 (1  m), where 0 is the permeability of free space.
Q. 105. What is the relative permeability of a medium ?
Ans. The ratio of the permeability of a medium to that of free space is
called the relative permeability of the medium, denoted by r.
r   / 0  1   m.
Q. 106. What happens when a diamagnetic material is placed in
a magnetic field ?
Ans. When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic
field, the induced magnetic field inside the material is opposite to the
applied field resulting in the reduction of magnetic field inside the material.
Q. 107. What happens when a rod of diamagnetic material is
placed in a nonuniform magnetic field ?
Ans. When a rod of a diamagnetic material is placed in a nonuniform
magnetic field, it is repelled from the region of strong field.
Q. 108. What happens when a rod of diamagnetic material is
suspended in a uniform magnetic field ?
Ans. When a thin rod of a diamagnetic material is suspended in a
uniform magnetic field, it comes to rest with its length perpendicular to the
field.
Q. 109. What happens to a ferromagnetic material when it is
heated above its Curie temperature ?
Ans. When a ferromagnetic material is heated above its Curie
temperature, spontaneous domain magnetization is lost due to increased
thermal agitation. Without the domain structure, the atomic magnetic
moments are randomly oriented so that the material undergoes an order to
disorder phase transition to a paramagnetic material.
Q. 110. Which magnetic materials have (i) relative permeability
greater than 1 (ii) relative permeability less than 1 ?
Ans. (i) Both paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials have relative
permeability ( r ) greater than 1. r is only slightly greater than 1 for a
paramagnetic material. r is very high for a ferromagnetic material and is a
function of the magnetizing field.
(ii) r is slightly less than 1 for a diamagnetic material.
Q. 111. Draw a graph showing the variation of magnetic

susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material with temperature.
Ans. The magnetic susceptibility
of a ferromagnetic material above
Ferromagnetic
Curie temperature Tc is given by
C
m  , where C is the
TTc
Curie constant. m
Paramagnetic
Tc T
Magnetic susceptibility versus temperature

of a ferromagnetic material
Q. 112. What does the hysteresis loop represent ?
Ans. A magnetic hysteresis loop is a closed curve obtained by
plotting the magnetic flux density B of a ferromagnetic material against
the corresponding magnetizing field H when the material is taken through
a complete magnetizing cycle. The area enclosed by the loop represents
the hysteresis loss per unit volume in taking the material through the
magnetizing cycle.
Q. 113. What is a ‘soft’ magnetic material ? OR
What is meant by a ‘soft’ iron ?
Ans. A soft magnetic material, usually iron-based, has high
permeability, low retentivity and low coercivity. In other words, it does not
have appreciable hysteresis, i.e., its hysteresis loop is very narrow. Such a
material magnetizes and demagnetizes more easily, by small external fields.
Q. 114. Which property of soft iron makes it useful for making
an electromagnet ?
Ans. An electromagnet should become magnetic when a current is
passed through its coil but should lose its magnetism once the current is
switched off. Hence, the ferromagnetic core (usually iron-based) used for
an electromagnet should have high permeability and low retentivity, i.e., it
should be magnetically ‘soft’.
Q. 115. What is a magnetically hard material ?

Ans. A ‘hard’ magnetic material, such as ALNICO (an alloy of
aluminium, nickel and cobalt), has high permeability, high retentivity and
very high coercivity – of the orders of 1 tesla and 104 ampere per metre,
respectively. In other words, it has a large zero-field magnetization, and
large reverse field needed to demagnetize. Its hysteresis loop is very
broad. Such a material can be made into a permanent magnet, that is, its
magnetization will persist indefinitely if it is subsequently exposed only to
weak magnetic fields.
Q. 116. Which magnetic properties are desirable for making a
permanent magnet ?
Ans. A permanent magnet should have a large zero-field magnetization
and should need a very large reverse field to demagnetize. In other words,
it should have a very broad hysteresis loop with high retentivity and very
high coercivity.
Q. 117. What is magnetic shielding ?
Ans. The use of a shell or box of magnetic material of high
permeability to protect sensitive instruments from stray magnetic fields is
called magnetic shielding.
Q. 118. State the SI unit of magnetic flux. How is it related to the
unit volt ?
Ans. Magnetic flux,  m : SI unit : the weber (Wb).
1 Wb  1 V. s
Q. 119. When is the magnetic flux through an area element
(i) maximum (ii) zero ?
Ans. The magnetic flux through an area element is (i) maximum when
the magnetic induction is in the direction of the area vector, and (ii) zero
when the magnetic induction is perpendicular to the area vector.
Q. 120. A uniform magnetic field B, pointing upward fills a
circular region of radius s in a horizontal plane. If B changes with
time, find the induced emf.
Ans. The area of the region, As2, remains constant while B  B(t)
is a function of time. Therefore, the induced emf,
dm d dB(t) dB(t)

e    (BA)  A  s2
dt dt dt dt
Q. 121. What is motional emf ?
Ans. An emf induced in a conductor or circuit moving in a magnetic
field is called motional emf.
Q. 122. Why and where are eddy currents undesirable ? How are
they minimized ?
Ans. Eddy currents result in generation of heat (energy loss) in the
cores of transformers, motors, induction coils, etc.
To minimize the eddy currents, instead of a solid metal block, cores are
made of thin insulated metal strips or laminae.
Q. 123. Write the SI unit of the coefficient of self induction. How
is it related to the unit weber ?
Ans. Self inductance or coefficient of self induction (L) :
SI unit : the henry (H)
1 H  1 Wb/A
Q. 124. What is the role of an inductor in an ac circuit ?
Ans. As a circuit element, an inductor slows down changes in the
current in the circuit. Thus, it provides an electrical inertia and is said
to act as a ballast. In a non-inductive coil (L  0), electrical energy is
converted into heat due to ohmic resistance of the coil (Joule heating). On
the other hand, an inductive coil or an inductor stores part of the energy in
the magnetic field of its coils when the current through it is increasing; this
energy is released when the current is decreasing. Thus, an inductor limits
an alternating current more efficiently than a non-inductive coil or a pure
resistor.
Q. 125. Explain why the inductance of two coils connected in
parallel is less than the inductance of either coil.
Ans. Assuming that their mutual inductance can be ignored, the
equivalent inductance Lparallel of a parallel combination of two coils is given
by
1 1 1 L L
  or Lparallel 1 2
Lparallel L1 L2 L1 L2
Hence, the equivalent inductance is less than the inductance of either coil.
Q. 126. What is meant by coefficient of magnetic coupling ?

Ans. For two inductively coupled coils, the fraction of the magnetic
flux produced by the current in one coil ( primary ) that is linked with
the other coil ( secondary ) is called the coefficient of magnetic coupling
between the two coils.
The coupling coefficient K shows how good the coupling between the
two coils is; 0  K  1. In the ideal case when all the flux of the primary
passes through the secondary, K 1. For coils which are not coupled, K 0.
Two coils are tightly coupled if K  0.5 and loosely coupled if K  0.5.
Q. 127. When is the magnetic coupling coefficient of two coils
(i) maximum (ii) minimum ?
Ans. The coefficient of magnetic coupling between two coils is
(i) maximum when the coils are wound on the same ferrite ( iron ) core
such that the flux linkage is maximum,
(ii) minimum for air-cored coils with the coil axes perpendicular.
Q. 128. How does a pure inductor behave when the frequency of
the applied alternating emf is (i) very high (ii) very low ?
Ans. Inductive reactance, XL  2 f L, where f is the frequency of the
applied alternating emf. For low f ( f  0 ) , XL will also tend to zero, i.e.,
the inductor will behave as a good conductor. Increasing f will increase
XL in the same proportion. So, at very high f , an inductor will practically
block an AC.
Q. 129. When is an AC circuit non-inductive? (Sept. ’21)
Ans. An AC circuit is non-inductive when it does not contain an
inductor or when the inductive reactance equals the capacitive reactance.
Q. 130. A device Y is connected across an AC source of emf
ee0 sin t. The current through Y is given as i i0 sin (t/2).
Identify the device Y and write the expression for its reactance.
1
Ans. The device Y is a capacitor. Its reactance is XC  , where 
C
is the angular frequency of the applied emf and C is the capacitance of the
capacitor.
Q. 131. For very high frequency AC supply, a capacitor behaves

like a pure conductor. Why ?
1
Ans. The reactance of a capacitor is XC  , where f is the
2fC
frequency of the AC supply and C is the capacitance of the capacitor. For
very high frequency, f , XC is very small. Hence, for very high frequency
AC supply, a capacitor behaves like a pure conductor.
Q. 132. In an LCR series circuit, what is the condition for current
resonance ?
Ans. In an LCR series circuit, the condition for current resonance is
1
f , where L is the inductance, C is the capacitance and f is the
2efLC
frequency of the applied alternating emf.
Q. 133. In an LCR series circuit, what is the (i) reactance and
(ii)impedanceatcurrentresonance ?
Ans. In an LCR series circuit, at current resonance,
(i) reactance is zero and
(ii) impedance equals resistance R.
Q. 134. In an LC parallel circuit, under what condition, does the
impedance become maximum ?
Ans. In an LC parallel circuit, the impedance becomes maximum
1
when f  , where f is the frequency of the applied alternating
2 efLC
emf, L is the inductance and C is the capacitance.
Q. 135. What is the natural frequency of an LCparallelcircuit ?
What is the reactance of this circuit at this frequency ?
Ans. The natural or resonant frequency of an LC parallel circuit is
1
fr  , where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance. The
2 efLC
reactance (X) of this circuit at this frequency is given by
1 1 1
 
X XL XC
Since at f r , the inductive reactance XL and capacitive reactance XC are

1
equal,  0. Therefore, at ffr , X is infinite.
X
Q. 136. What is photoelectric effect ?

Ans. Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons
by a metal surface when exposed to electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently
high frequency.
Q. 137. Why are alkali metals most suitable as photosensitive
surfaces ?
Ans. The alkali metals e.g., caesium, potassium and sodium emit
photoelectrons even when visible radiation (light) is incident on them.
Hence, they are most suitable as photosensitive surfaces.
Q. 138. Is it always necessary to use red light to get photoelectric
effect ? (March ’22)
Ans. No.
Q. 139. Using the values of work function given in the following
table, tell which metal will require the highest frequency of incident
radiation to generate photocurrent.
Metal Zinc Caesium Gallium Titanium
Work function (eV) 3.63 1.95 4.32 4.33
Ans. The greater the work function, the higher is the threshold
frequency for photoemission. Hence, among the given metals, titanium
requires the highest frequency of incident radiation for photoemission.
Q. 140. What does the maximum kinetic energy (or the maximum
speed) of a photoelectron depend on ?
Ans. The maximum kinetic energy (or the maximum speed) of a
photoelectron depends upon the energy of the incident photon and the work
function for the metal irradiated (or, equivalently, upon the frequency of
the incident radiation and the threshold frequency for the metal irradiated).
Q. 141. What is the mathematical formula for the third postulate

ofBohr’satomicmodel ? (March ’22)
Ans. Em  En  h  , where Em is the energy of the electron in the mth

orbit, En is the energy in the nth orbit (m > n); h  is the energy of the
photon emitted, where  is the frequency of the radiation, h is Planck’s
constant and n is the principal quantum number  1, 2, 3, ... .
Q. 142. Give one area of application of (i) nuclear fission
(ii) nuclear fusion.
Ans. (i) Nuclear fission is used in a nuclear reactor as very efficient
and the least-polluting source of energy to generate electricity.
(ii) Nuclear fusion is used in (experimental) fusion reactors to generate
electricity without the hazards of radioactive radiations and radioactive
pollution which happens with fission reactors.
Q. 143. What is the difference between a nuclear reactor and a
nuclearbomb ?
Ans. In a nuclear reactor, a nuclear fission chain reaction is used in
a controlled manner, while in a nuclear bomb, the nuclear fission chain
reaction is not controlled, releasing tremendous energy in a very short time
interval.
Q. 144. What is a rectifier ?

Ans. A circuit or device that is used to convert an alternating voltage
(or current) to a direct (unidirectional) voltage (or current) is called a
rectifier.
Q. 145. Whatisaregulatedpowersupply ?
Ans. A dc power supply whose preset output voltage remains constant
irrespective of variations in the line voltage or load current is called a
regulated power supply.
Q. 146. What is an unregulated power supply ?
Ans. A dc power supply whose output changes when a load is
connected across it is called unregulated power supply.
Q. 147. Name any four common special-purpose diodes.
Ans. Special-purpose diodes : (1) Zener diode (2) light-emitting
diode (LED) (3) photodiode (4) solar cell.
Q. 148. What is a Zener diode ?

Ans. A Zener diode is a heavily doped pn-junction diode operated
in its breakdown region. Zener breakdown occurs when the breakdown
voltage is less than about 6 V while avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly
doped diodes and for breakdown voltage greater than 6 V. However, the
Zener effect was discovered before the avalanche effect, so all diodes used
in the breakdown region came to be known as Zener diodes.
Q. 149. How is a Zener diode different from an ordinary diode ?
Ans. A Zener diode is heavily doped — the doping concentrations for
both p- and n-regions is greater than 1018 cm3 while those of an ordinary
diode are about 1017 cm3 or less. Due to this, the peak inverse voltage
(PIV) of an ordinary diode is higher than a Zener diode and the breakdown
occurs by impact ionization (avalanche process). Their I-V characteristics
are otherwise similar.
Q. 150. Why should a photodiode be operated in a reverse biased
mode ?
Ans. A photodiode is operated in a reverse biased mode because as
photodetector or photosensor it must conduct only when radiation is incident
on it. In the reverse biased mode, the dark current for zero illumination is
negligibly small — of the order of few picoamperes to nanoamperes. But
when illuminated, the photocurrent is several orders of magnitude greater.
Q. 151. What is a light-emitting diode (LED) ?
Ans. A light-emitting diode ( LED ) is a forward-biased pn-junction
diode formed from compound semiconductor materials such as gallium
arsenide (GaAs) in which light emission can take place from direct radiative
recombination of excess electron-hole pairs.
Q. 152. On which factors does the wavelength of light emitted by
an LED depend ?
Ans. Refer to the answer to Q. 2 (vi) in the Solved Model Question
Paper in Part 1.
Q. 153. Why is the base of a transistor made thin and is lightly
doped ?
Ans. The base of a transistor is lightly doped than the emitter and is
made narrow so that virtually all the electrons injected from the emitter
(in an npn transistor) diffuse right across the base to the collector junction
without recombining with holes. That is, the base width is kept less than the
recombination distance. Also, the emitter is much heavily doped than the
base to improve emitter efficiency and common-base current gain .
Q. 154. What is the phase difference between input signal voltage
andoutputsignalvoltageinaCEamplifier ? (Sept. ’21)
Ans. In a CE amplifier, the output voltage is 180° out of phase with
the input voltage.
Q. 155. Whatisalogicgate ?OR What do you mean by a logic
gate ?
Ans. A logic gate is a basic switching circuit used in digital circuits
that determines when an input pulse can pass through to the output. It
generates a single output from one or more inputs.
Q. 156. WritetheBooleanexpressionforanExclusiveOR(XOR)
gate. (March ’22)
Ans. The output Y  A{B, where A and B are the two inputs.
Assignments
1. Draw a diagram showing the linear velocity, angular velocity and
radial acceleration of a particle performing circular motion with
radius r. (Ch. 1)
2. What is a perfectly blackbody ? (Ch. 3)
3. In which thermodynamic process does the total internal energy of
a system remain constant ? (Ch. 4)
————
Question
Set DEFINITIONS
3
Q. Define the following : ( 1 mark each )
(1) Uniform circular motion.

Ans. A particle is said to perform uniform circular motion if it moves
in a circle or a circular arc at constant linear speed or constant angular
velocity.
(2) Centripetal force.
Ans. In the uniform circular motion of a particle, the centripetal force
is the force on the particle which at every instant points radially inward and
produces the centripetal acceleration necessary to make the particle move
in its circular path.
(3) Centrifugal force.
Ans. In the reference frame of a particle performing circular motion,
centrifugal force is defined as a fictitious, radially outward force on the
particle and is equal in magnitude to the particle’s mass times the centripetal
acceleration of the reference frame, as measured from an inertial frame of
reference.
(4) Angle of banking.
Ans. Angle of banking is the angle of inclination of a banked road
with the horizontal.
(5) Conical pendulum.
Ans. A conical pendulum is a simple pendulum whose bob revolves
in a horizontal circle with constant speed such that the string describes the
surface of a right circular cone.
(6) Moment of inertia.
Ans. The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis of rotation
is defined as the sum of the products of the masses of the particles of the
body and the squares of their respective distances from the axis of rotation.
87
(7) Radius of gyration.

Ans. The radius of gyration of a body rotating about an axis is defined
as the distance between the axis of rotation and the point at which the entire
mass of the body can be supposed to be concentrated so as to give the same
moment of inertia as that of the body about the given axis.
(8) Angular momentum of a particle.
Ans. The angular momentum of a particle is defined as the moment
of the linear momentum of the particle. If a particle of mass m has linear
momentum l p ( ml v ), then the angular momentum of this particle with
respect to a point O is a vector quantity defined as l l  l r  l p m ( l r  l v ),
where l r is the position vector of the particle with respect to O.
(9) Pressure.
Ans. The pressure at a point in a fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium is
defined as the normal force per unit area exerted by the fluid on a surface of
infinitesimal area containing the point.
(10) Gauge pressure.
Ans. Gauge pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid relative to the
local atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure, pg pp0
where p is the absolute pressure and p0 is the local atmospheric pressure.
(11) Absolute pressure.
Ans. The absolute pressure, or total pressure, is measured relative
to absolute zero on the pressure scale – which is a perfect vacuum – and is
the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure. It is the same as the
thermodynamic pressure.
(12) Range of molecular attraction or molecular range.
Ans. Range of molecular attraction is defined as the maximum
distance between two molecules up to which the intermolecular force of
attraction is appreciable.
(13) Sphere of influence.
Ans. The sphere of influence of a molecule is defined as an imaginary
sphere drawn with the molecule as the centre and radius equal to the range
of molecular attraction.
QUESTION SET 3 : DEFINITIONS 89
(14) Surface tension.

Ans. Surface tension of a liquid is defined as the tangential force per
unit length, acting at right angles on either side of an imaginary line drawn
on the free surface of the liquid.
(15) Surface energy.
Ans. Surface energy is defined as the extra (i.e., increased) potential
energy of a liquid surface with an isothermal increase in the surface area.
(16) Angle of contact. (July ’22)
Ans. The angle of contact for a liquid-solid pair ( a liquid in contact
with a solid ) is defined as the angle between the surface of the solid and
the tangent drawn to the free surface of the liquid at the extreme edge of the
liquid, as measured through the liquid.
(17) Velocity gradient in a steady flow.
Ans. In a steady flow of a fluid past a solid surface, the rate at which
the velocity changes with distance within a limiting distance from the
surface is called the velocity gradient.
(18) Coefficient of viscosity.
Ans. The coefficient of viscosity of a fluid is defined as the viscous
drag per unit area acting on a fluid layer per unit velocity gradient established
in a steady flow.
(19) Volume flux.
Ans. The volume of fluid passing by a given point per unit time
through an area is called the volume flux or volume flow rate.
(20) Mass flux.
Ans. The mass of fluid passing by a given point per unit time through
an area is called the mass flux or mass flow rate.
(21) Mean free path.
Ans. The average distance travelled by a gas molecule between
successive collisions, the average being taken over a large number of free
paths (or collisions), is called the mean free path.
(22) Root mean square speed of gas molecules.
Ans. Root mean square speed of gas molecules is defined as the square
root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the speeds of all molecules of
the gas at a given temperature.
(23) Molar heat capacity of a gas at constant volume.

Ans. Molar heat capacity of a gas at constant volume is defined as the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of the gas
through one degree (1 °C or 1 K), when its volume is kept constant.
(24) Molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure.
Ans. Molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is defined as
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of the gas
through one degree (1 °C or 1 K), when its pressure is kept constant.
(25) Coefficientofabsorption( Absorptance ).
Ans. The coefficient of absorption (absorptance or absorptive power)
of a body is defined as the ratio of the quantity of radiant energy absorbed
by the body to the quantity of radiant energy incident on the body in the
same time.
(26) Coefficientofreflection( Reflectance ).
Ans. The coefficient of reflection ( reflectance ) of the surface of a
body is defined as the ratio of the quantity of radiant energy reflected by
the surface to the quantity of radiant energy incident on the surface in the
same time.
(27) Coefficientoftransmission( Transmittance ).
Ans. The coefficient of transmission (transmittance) of a body is
defined as the ratio of the quantity of radiant energy transmitted by the
body to the quantity of radiant energy incident on the body in the same time.
(28) Emissive power of a body. (July ’22)
Ans. Emissive power of a body at a given temperature is defined as
the quantity of radiant energy emitted by the body per unit time per unit
surface area of the body at that temperature.
(29) Coefficient of emission (emissivity) of a body. (July ’22)
Ans. Coefficient of emission (emissivity) of a body is defined as
the ratio of the emissive power of the body to the emissive power of a
blackbody at the same temperature as that of the body.
(30) Internal energy.
Ans. Internal energy of a system is defined as the sum of the kinetic
energies of the atoms and molecules belonging to the system, and the
potential energies associated with the interactions between these constituents

(atoms and molecules).
(31) Periodic motion.

Ans. A motion that repeats itself at definite intervals of time is said to
be a periodic motion.
(32) Oscillatory motion.
Ans. A periodic motion in which a body moves back and forth over
the same path, straight or curved, between alternate extremes is said to be
an oscillatory motion.
(33) Linear simple harmonic motion.
Ans. Linear simple harmonic motion is defined as the linear periodic
motion of a body in which the force on the body (or its acceleration) is
always directed towards the mean position of the body and its magnitude is
proportional to the displacement of the body from the mean position. OR
A particle is said to perform linear simple harmonic motion (SHM) if
it oscillates about a point of stable equilibrium, subject to a force always
directed towards that point and whose magnitude is proportional to the
displacement of the particle from that point.
(34) Period or periodic time of SHM.
Ans. The time taken by a particle performing simple harmonic motion
to complete one oscillation is called the period or periodic time of SHM.
(35) Frequency of SHM.
Ans. The number of oscillations performed per unit time by a particle
executing SHM is called the frequency of SHM.
(36) Amplitude of SHM.
Ans. The magnitude of the maximum displacement of a particle
performing SHM from its mean position is called the amplitude of SHM.
(37) Phase of SHM.
Ans. Phase of simple harmonic motion represents the state of
oscillation of the particle performing simple harmonic motion (SHM), i.e.,
it gives the displacement of the particle and its direction of motion from the
equilibrium position.
The displacement of a particle in SHM is given by x  A sin (t  ).
The angle (t  ) is called the phase angle or simply the phase of SHM.
(38) Ideal simple pendulum.

Ans. An ideal simple pendulum is a heavy point mass suspended from
a rigid support by a weightless, inextensible and twistless string, and set
oscillating under gravity through a small angle in a vertical plane.
(39) Seconds pendulum.
Ans. A simple pendulum of period two seconds is called a seconds
pendulum.
(40) Angular SHM.
Ans. Angular SHM is defined as the oscillatory motion of a body in
which the restoring torque responsible for angular acceleration is directly
proportional to the angular displacement and its direction is opposite to that
of angular displacement.
(41) Damped oscillations.
Ans. Oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude in the presence of
dissipative frictional forces are called damped oscillations.
(42) Progressive wave OR Travelling wave.

Ans. A progressive wave or a wave motion is a periodic or oscillatory
disturbance in a medium or in vacuum which is propagated without any
damping and obstruction from one place to another at a finite speed.
(43) Transverse progressive wave.
Ans. A progressive wave in which the vibration of the individual
particles of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave is called a transverse progressive wave.
(44) Longitudinal progressive wave.
Ans. A progressive wave in which the vibration of the individual
particles of the medium is along the line of propagation of the wave is
called a longitudinal progressive wave.
(45) Stationary wave OR Standingwave.
Ans. When two identical progressive waves, i.e., waves having the
same amplitude, wavelength and speed, propagate in opposite directions
through the same region of a medium, their superposition under certain
conditions creates a stationary interference pattern called a stationary wave
or a standing wave.
(46) Transverse stationary wave.

Ans. When two identical transverse progressive waves travelling in
opposite directions along the same line superimpose, the resultant wave
produced is called a transverse stationary wave.
(47) Longitudinal stationary wave.
Ans. When two identical longitudinal progressive waves travelling
in opposite directions along the same line superimpose, the resultant wave
produced is called a longitudinal stationary wave.
(48) Free vibrations.
Ans. Vibrations of a body, free to vibrate, when it is disturbed from its
equilibrium position and left to itself are called free vibrations.
(49) Forced vibrations.
Ans. The vibrations of a body in response to an external periodic force
are called forced vibrations.
(50) Resonance.
Ans. If a body is made to vibrate by an external periodic force, whose
frequency is equal to the natural frequency (or nearly so) of the body,
the body vibrates with maximum amplitude. This phenomenon is called
resonance.
(51) Beats.
Ans. A periodic variation in loudness (or intensity) when two sound
notes of slightly different frequencies are sounded at the same time is called
beats.
(52) Period of beats.
Ans. The time interval between successive maxima or minima of
sound at a given place is called the period of beats.
(53) Beat frequency.
Ans. The number of beats produced per unit time is called the beat
frequency.
(54) Wavefront.
Ans. A wavefront is defined as a surface of all neighbouring points
which receive light waves from a source at the same instant and are in the
same phase.
(55) Wave normal.

Ans. A wave normal at a point on a wavefront is defined as a line
drawn perpendicular to the wavefront in the direction of propagation of the
wavefront.
(56) Plane of vibration.
Ans. The plane of vibration of an electromagnetic wave is the plane of
vibration of the electric field vector containing the direction of propagation
of the wave. Experiment shows that it is the electric field vector lE which
produces the optical polarization effects.
(57) Plane of polarization.
Ans. The plane of polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined
as the plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration. It is the plane containing
the magnetic field vector and the direction of propagation of the wave.
(58) The Brewster angle OR the polarizing angle.
Ans. The Brewster angle or the polarizing angle for an interface is the
angle of incidence for a ray of unpolarized light at which the reflected ray
is completely plane polarized.
(59) Interference of light.
Ans. Interference of light is the phenomenon in which the superposition
of two or more light waves produces a resultant disturbance of redistributed
light intensity or energy.
(60) Diffraction of light.
Ans. Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light waves
at an edge into the region of the geometrical shadow.
(61) Resolving power of an optical instrument.
Ans. The resolving power of an optical instrument is defined as the
reciprocal of its limit of resolution which is the smallest linear or angular
separation between two point objects which appear just resolved when
viewed through the instrument.
(62) Resolving power of a microscope.
Ans. The resolving power of a microscope is defined as the reciprocal
of the least separation between two closely-spaced points on an object
which are just resolved when viewed through the microscope.
(91) Ground state of an atom.

Ans. Ground state of an atom is defined as the lowest stable energy
state of the atom.
(92) Excitation energy of an atomic electron.
Ans. The energy required to transfer an electron from the ground state
to an excited state (a state of higher energy) is called the excitation energy
of the electron in that state.
(93) Binding energy of an atomic electron.
Ans. Binding energy of an electron in an atom is defined as the
minimum energy that should be provided to an orbital electron to remove
it from the atom such that its total energy is zero.
(94) Ionization energy of an atomic electron OR Ionization energy
of an atom.
Ans. Ionization energy of an electron in an atom is defined as the
minimum energy required to remove the least strongly bound electron from
a neutral atom such that its total energy is zero.
(95) Radioactivity.
Ans. Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which unstable nuclei of
an element spontaneously distintegrate into nuclei of another element by
emitting  particles, or  particles, accompanied by -rays.
(96) Half-life of a radioactive element.
Ans. The half-life of a radioactive element is defined as the average
time interval during which half of the initial number of nuclei of the element
disintegrate.
(97) Decay constant or disintegration constant.
Ans. The decay constant or disintegration constant of a radioactive
element is defined as the ratio of the disintegration rate at an instant to the
number of undecayed nuclei of the element present at that instant.
(98) Mean-life of a radioactive element.
Ans. The mean-life of a radioactive element is the average time for
which the undecayed nuclei of the element exist before decaying. It is equal
to the reciprocal of the decay constant of that element.
QUESTION SET 4 : LAWS AND THEORIES 103
Q. 5. State Stokes’ law. ( 1 mark )

Derive Stokes’ law using dimensional analysis. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Stokes’ law : If a fluid flows past a sphere or a sphere moves
through a fluid, for small enough relative speed v0 for which the flow is
streamline, the viscous force on the sphere is directly proportional to the
coefficient of viscosity of the fluid  , the radius r of the sphere and the
free-stream velocity l v0.
Derivation : Since the viscous force f depends on  , r and v0 , we
can write
f   b .   . r  . v

0
where b is a dimensionless proportionality constant.
Therefore,
[ f ]  [  ] . [ r ] . [v0 ]
With [  ]  ML1T1 , [r]  L, [ f ]  ML1T2 and [v0]  LT 1,
we get
ML1T 2  (ML 1T1 ) . (L) . (LT 1)
 ML1T2  M . L    . T   
Homogeneity of the above dimensional equation requires that
  1,        1 and       2
On solving, we get
     2   1  2  1,   1      1  1  1  1
Thus,       1
 f   b  r v0
Inserting the value of b from theory and experiments,
l f   6   r l v0
This is Stokes’ law.
Q. 6. State Bernoulli’s principle. (1 mark)
Ans. Bernoulli’s principle : Where the velocity of an ideal fluid in
streamline flow is high, the pressure is low, and where the velocity of a fluid
is low, the pressure is high. OR
At every point in the streamline flow of an ideal (i.e., nonviscous and
incompressible) fluid, the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy of a given mass of the fluid is constant at every point.
QUESTION SET 5 : EXPLANATION, CHARACTERISTICS … 119
(4) The pressure at a point within a given liquid is the same in all
directions.
(5) The pressure at all points at the same horizontal level within a given
liquid is the same.
Q. 5. Explain gauge pressure and absolute pressure within a liquid
open to the atmosphere. OR
Explaintheeffectofgravityonfluidpressure. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a cylindrical fluid column of uniform density , area of
cross section A and height h, as shown in the figure.
p1
p2
Fluid (density, r)
The mass of the fluid within the column is

m density  volume  (Ah)  Ah
If p1 and p2 are the pressures at the top and bottom faces of the column,
the forces on the top and bottom faces are respectively.
F1  p1A  mg … (downward)
and F2  p2A … (upward)
If the column is in equilibrium,
F2  F1
 p2A  p1A  mg  p1A  Ahg
 p2  p1  hg
If p1  p0  atmospheric pressure, the gauge pressure
p2  p0  hg
In the absence of gravity, p2  p0. But since atmospheric pressure is

equal to the weight per unit area of the entire air column above, even p0 will
be zero in the absence of gravity.
Q. 6. Explain why a low density liquid is used as a manometric
liquid? (2 marks)
Ans. An open tube manometer measures the gauge pressure,
p  p0  hg, where p is the pressure being measured, p0 is the atmospheric
pressure, h is the difference in height between the manometric liquid of
density  in the two arms. For a given pressure p, the product h is constant.
That is,  should be small for h to be large. Therefore, for noticeably large h,
laboratory manometer uses a low density liquid.
Q. 7. Explain why the free surface of some liquids in contact with
a solid is not horizontal. ( 3 marks ) OR
Explain the formation of concave and convex surfaces of a liquid
on the basis of molecular theory. ( 3 marks )
Ans. For a molecule in the liquid surface which is in contact with a
solid, the forces on it are largely the solid-liquid adhesive force lFA and the
liquid-liquid cohesive force lFC. lFA is normal to the solid surface and lFC is
at 45° with the horizontal, Fig. (a). The free surface of a liquid at rest is
always perpendicular to the resultant lFR of these forces.
If FC  e2 FA, lFR is along the solid surface, the contact angle is 90°
and the liquid surface is horizontal at the edge where it meets the solid, as
in Fig. (a). In general this is not so, and the liquid surface is not horizontal
at the edge.
If FC y FA or if FC  e2 FA, the contact angle is correspondingly zero
or acute and the liquid surface curves up until it becomes perpendicular to
lFR, Fig. (b).
If FC  e2 FA, the contact angle is obtuse and the liquid surface
curves down until it becomes perpendicular to lFR and acquires a convex
shape, Fig. (c).
Solid Solid Solid

Air Air Air
P A P P
A A
R C
R C R C
Liquid Liquid Liquid
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Forces on a liquid molecule P at the liquid-solid interface.

Forces on a molecule P of a liquid which is (b) wetting (c) non-wetting
Q. 8. Explain the capillary action. ( 4 marks )
Ans.
(1) When a capillary tube is partially immersed in a wetting liquid,
there is capillary rise and the liquid meniscus inside the tube is concave, as
shown in Fig. (a).
Consider four points A, B, C, D, of which point A is just above the
concave meniscus inside the capillary and point B is just below it. Points C
and D are just above and below the free liquid surface outside.
Capillary tube
PA ˃ PB PA ˂ PB
Air A C Air A C
B D B D
h
B' D'
Liquid (wetting) Liquid (non-wetting)

(a) (b)
Explanation of (a) capillary rise (b) capillary depression
Let PA, PB, PC and PD be the pressures at points A, B, C and D,
respectively.
Now, PA  PC  atmospheric pressure
The pressure is the same on both sides of the free surface of a liquid,
so that
PC  PD  PA  PD
The pressure on the concave side of a meniscus is always greater than
that on the convex side, so that
PA  PB
 PD  PB (B PA  PD )
The excess pressure outside presses the liquid up the capillary until
the pressures at B and D (at the same horizontal level) equalize, i.e., PB
becomes equal to PD. Thus, there is a capillary rise.
(2) For a non-wetting liquid, there is capillary depression and the
liquid meniscus in the capillary tube is convex, as shown in Fig. (b).
Consider again four points A, B, C and D when the meniscus in the
capillary tube is at the same level as the free surface of the liquid. Points A
and B are just above and below the convex meniscus. Points C and D are
just above and below the free liquid surface outside.
The pressure at B (PB) is greater than that at A (PA). The pressure at A is
the atmospheric pressure H and at D, PD  H  PA . Hence, the hydrostatic
pressure at the same levels at B and D are not equal, PB  PD . Hence, the
liquid flows from B to D and the level of the liquid in the capillary falls.
This continues till the pressure at B is the same as that D, that is till the
pressures at the same level are equal.
Q. 9. Explain velocity gradient in a steady flow. ( 2 marks )
Ans. When a fluid flows past a surface with a low velocity, within a
limiting distance from the surface, its velocity varies with the distance from
the surface, as shown in the figure. The layer in contact with the surface is
at rest relative to the surface. Starting outwards from the surface, the next
layer has an extremely small velocity; each successive layer has a slightly
higher velocity than its inner neighbour, as shown. Finally, a layer is reached
which has approximately the full, or free-stream, velocity v0 of the fluid.
The situation is reversed if a body is moving in a stationary fluid : the fluid
velocity reduces as the distance of a layer from the body increases. Thus,
the velocity in each layer increases with its distance from the surface.
Distance from
bottom
vo
vo
v + dv v + dv
v dy v
0 Velocity
Velocity profile of a fluid flowing past a surface
Consider the layer of thickness dy at a distance y from the solid surface.

Let v and v  dv be the velocities of the fluid at the base and upper edge of
this layer. The change in velocity across the layer is dv. Therefore, the rate
dv
at which the velocity changes between the layers is . This is called the
dy
velocity gradient.
Q. 10. Explain what is meant by the terminal speed of a body
falling through a viscous fluid. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a small sphere of radius r, falling through a fluid with
coefficient of viscosity . Initially, as the sphere falls through the fluid
under gravity, its speed increases. According to Stokes’ law, the magnitude f
of the viscous force on the falling sphere is proportional to its speed v. The
direction of this force is upward since the velocity of the sphere is downward.
Also, the fluid exerts an upthrust or buoyant force on the sphere. As soon
as the speed reaches a value, vt , the magnitude of f becomes equal to that
of the gravitational force on the sphere minus the upthrust. Then, the net
force acting on the sphere becomes zero. Its subsequent downward motion
is at this constant speed. This is called its terminal speed : vt represents the
highest speed which a body can attain when freely falling through a fluid
with coefficient of viscosity  .
Q. 11. Explainthecontinuityconditionforaflowtube.Showthat
theflowspeedisinverselyproportionaltothecross-sectionalareaofa
flowtube. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a fluid in steady or streamline flow. The velocity
of the fluid within a flow tube, while everywhere parallel to the tube,
may change its magnitude. Suppose the velocity is l v1 at point P and l v2 at
point Q. If A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the tube and 1 and
2 are the densities of the fluid at these two points, the mass of the fluid
passing per unit time across A1 is A11v1 and that passing across A2 is A22v2.
Since no fluid can enter or leave through the boundary of the tube, the
conservation of mass requires
A11v1  A22v2 ... (1)
lv 2
Flow tube Q
Area, A2
Density, r2
lv1
P Area, A1
Density, r1
Equation (1) is called the equation of continuity of flow. It holds true

for a compressible fluid (like all gases) for which the density of the fluid may
differ from point to point in a tube of flow. For an incompressible fluid (like
all liquids), 1  2 and Eq. (1) takes the simpler form
A1v1  A2v2 ... (2)
v1 A2
  ... (3)
v2 A1
that is, the flow speed is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of a
flow tube. Where the area is large, the speed of flow is small, and vice versa.
Equations (2) is the equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid
for which density is constant throughout.
Q. 12. Explain, on the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, how

the pressure of a gas changes if its volume is reduced at constant
temperature. ( 2 marks )
Ans. The average kinetic energy per molecule of a gas is constant
at constant temperature. When the volume of a gas is reduced at constant
temperature, the number of collisions of gas molecules per unit time with the
walls of the container increases. This increases the momentum transferred
per unit time per unit area, i.e., the force exerted by the gas on the walls.
Hence, the pressure of the gas increases.
Q. 13. Explain the degrees of freedom for (i) an atom
(ii) a diatomic molecule. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Gas molecules of all types have x-, y- and z-components of
velocity that are entirely independent of one another. Thus, they have three
degrees of translational freedom.
An atom (or a monatomic molecule), treated as a point mass, has no
rotational energy. Hence, it has only three degrees of translational freedom.
A diatomic molecule, in addition to translation, can rotate about axes
perpendicular to the line connecting the atoms, as shown in the following
figure, but not about that line itself. Therefore, it has only two degrees of
rotational freedom.
Two degrees of rotational freedom of a diatomic molecule
Further, there is the possibility of vibrational motion in which the two

atoms oscillate alternately toward and away from one another along the
line joining them, as if attached to opposite ends of a spring. Because a
harmonic oscillator can have potential energy and kinetic energy, a diatomic
molecule is regarded to have two degrees of vibrational freedom. Thus,

at high enough temperatures, a diatomic molecule has seven degrees of
freedom : three of translation, two each of rotation and vibration.
Q. 14. On the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, explain the
conceptofpositiveandnegativeworkdonebyagas/system.Drawthe
P – V diagrams. ( 3 marks )
Ans. System : An ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with a movable,
frictionless piston of cross section A at one end.
Piston, area A Piston, area A
Force, F = PA Force, F = PA
dx dx
Piston pushed out Piston pushed in
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 : (a) Expansion (b) Compression of a gas
Explanation : When the gas expands against the piston, Fig. 1 (a),
the gas molecules colliding with the piston lose momentum to it and exert
a force through a finite distance. Here, the gas does positive work on the
piston and the environment.
If the piston is moved inward compressing the gas, Fig. 1 (b), the gas
molecules colliding with the piston gain momentum from it. Here, the work
is done on the gas by the piston and the environment. The work done by
the gas is negative.
The work done by the confined gas in moving a piston a distance dx is
dWFdx (pA) dxpdV ... (1)
since the change in volume of the gas is dVA dx.
For a finite change in volume from V1 to V2, the net work done by the gas is
V2
W  PdV ... (2)
V1
Graphs : The P – V diagrams for a finite change in volume from V1

to V2 under varying pressure are shown in Fig. 2 (a) and Fig. 2 (b). The
integral in Eq. (2) is interpreted graphically as the shaded area under the
P– V curve. W is positive when the gas expands from V1 to V2. When the
gas is compressed (V2  V1), W is negative.
P P
(V1, P1 ) (V2, P2 )
P1 P2
Expansion Compression
(V2, P2 ) (V1, P1 )
P2 P1
V1 V2 V V2 V1 V
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 : P – V diagrams for (a) expansion (b) compression of a gas
Q. 15. What is a cyclic process? Explain with a P – V diagram.

( 2 marks )
Ans. A closed series of thermodynamic processes in which a
system is brought back to its initial state is called a cyclic process or a
thermodynamic cycle.
The P – V diagram shows that a P
system undergoes a change of state from
Pi A
A  (Vi , Pi ) to B  (Vf , Pf ) via path 1
Path 2
and returns to state A via path 2. As the
system returns to its initial state, the total Path 1
Pf
change in its internal energy is zero. B
Hence, according to the first law of

V
thermodynamics, heat supplied is, Vi Vf
Q UW 0 WW P – V diagram of a cyclic process

The shaded area enclosed by the cyclic process is interpreted as the
work done by the system.
Q. 16. What is a heat engine ? Explain the efficiency of a heat
engine. ( 3 marks )
Ans. A heat engine is a device that converts part of heat absorbed

into work (mechanical energy). A system (working substance) is repeatedly
taken through the same thermodynamic cyclic process in which it absorbs
energy in the form of heat from a hot reservoir and does useful work and
releases the remaining heat to a cold reservoir. The net work delivered
to the outside is called the output, and the heat absorbed by the working
substance is called the input.
The thermal efficiency (or simply efficiency) (  ) of the engine is
defined as
work output
 (in one cycle)
heat input
with both work and heat expressed in the same unit.
In one cycle, let Q H be the energy absorbed as heat by the working
substance from a hot reservoir (constant temperature TH ), Q C be the energy
discharged or rejected as heat by the working substance to a cold reservoir
or sink (a heat reservoir at constant temperature TC  TH ), and W be the
work output.
There is no net change in the internal energy as the working substance
completes the cycle, returning to the initial state.
Applying the first law of thermodynamics, dQdEdW, we have
 Q EW 0 W on completion of a cycle.
 Q H  Q C  W
W Q H Q C  Q 
   1 C
QH QH QH
 is always less than 1 ( i.e., less than 100% ) as QC  is always less than QH.
Q. 17. Explain the energy flow in a refrigerator and define the
coefficient of performance of a refrigerator. ( 3 marks )
Ans. In a refrigerator, QC is the heat absorbed by the working
substance (refrigerant) at a lower temperature TC, W is the work done on
the working substance, and QH is the heat rejected at a higher temperature
TH. The absorption of heat is from the contents of the refrigerator and
rejection of heat is to the atmosphere. Here, QC is positive and W and QH
are negative. In one cycle, the total change in the internal energy of the
working substance is zero.
 QH QC W
 QH W – QC
 QH QC – W
Now, QH  0, W  0 and QC  0
 QHQCW
The coefficient of performance (CoP), K, or quality factor, or Q-value
of a refrigerator is defined as
 QC   QC 
K 
 W   QC  –  QH 
Q. 18. Explain angular or torsional oscillations. ( 2 marks )
Hence obtain the differential equation of the motion (angular
SHM). ( 2 marks )
Ans. Suppose a disc is suspended from its centre by a wire or a
twistless thread such that the disc remains horizontal, as shown in the
following figure. The rest position of the disc is marked by a reference line.
When the disc is rotated in the horizontal plane by a small angular
Rigid support
Suspension wire
Reference line
+m
0
m : Angular amplitude –m
Torsional pendulum
displacement m from its rest position ( 0), the suspension wire is
twisted. When the disc is released, it oscillates about the rest position in
angular or torsional oscillation with angular amplitude m.
The device is called a torsional pendulum and the springiness or
elasticity of the motion is associated with the twisting of the suspension
wire. The twist in either direction stores potential energy in the wire and
provides an alternating restoring torque, opposite in direction to the angular
displacement of the pendulum (disc). The motion is governed by this torque.
If the magnitude of the restoring torque () is proportional to the
angular displacement (), which is true for small ,
  () or  c  ... (1)
where the constant of proportionality c is called the torsion constant, that
depends on the length, diameter and material of the suspension wire. In this
case, the oscillations will be angular simple harmonic.
Let I be the moment of inertia (MI) of the oscillating disc.
Torque  MI  angular acceleration
d 2
 II
dt 2
Hence, from Eq. (1),
d 2
I 2 c 
dt
d 2
I c  0
dt 2
This is the differential equation of angular SHM.
Q. 19. State the principle of superposition of waves. ( 1 mark )
Ans. Principle of superposition of waves : The displacement of a
particle at a given point in space and time due to the simultaneous influence
of two or more waves is the vector sum of the displacements due to each
wave acting independently.
Q. 20. State the characteristics of stationary waves. ( 12 mark each)
Ans. Characteristics of stationary waves :
(1) Stationary waves are produced by the interference of two identical
progressive waves travelling in opposite directions along the same line,

under certain conditions.
(2) The overall appearance of a standing wave is of alternate intensity
maximum (displacement antinode) and minimum (displacement node).
(3) The distance between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) is  / 2.
(4) The distance between successive node and antinode is  / 4 .
(5) There is no progressive change of phase from particle to particle.
All the particles in one loop, between adjacent nodes, vibrate in the same
phase, while the particles in adjacent loops are in opposite phase.
(6) A stationary wave does not propagate in any direction and hence
does not transport energy through the medium.
(7) In a region where a stationary wave is formed, the particles of
the medium (except at the nodes) perform SHM of the same period, but
the amplitudes of the vibrations vary periodically in space from particle to
particle.
Q. 21. Show that only odd harmonics are present in the vibrations
ofanaircolumninapipeclosedatoneend/anaircolumn.
OR
With neat labelled diagrams, explain the three lowest modes of
vibration of the air column in a pipe closed at one end. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider a narrow cylindrical pipe of length l closed at one
end. When sound waves are sent down the air column in the pipe, they are
reflected at the closed end with a phase reversal. Interference between the
incident and reflected waves under appropriate conditions sets up stationary
waves in the air column.
In this case, the stationary waves are subject to conditions that there
must be a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end.
Taking into account the end correction e at the open end, the resonating
length of the air column is Lle.
Let v be the speed of sound in air. In the simplest mode of vibration
[Fig. (a)], there is a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end.

The distance between a node and a consecutive antinode is , where  is
4
the wavelength of sound. The corresponding wavelength  and frequency n are
v v v
 4L and n   ... (1)
 4 L 4 (le)
A A A
N
A
3l1 5l2
l
4 4 4
N
A
N N N
(a) (b) (c)
º length of air column, N º node, A º antinode
Vibrations of an air column in a pipe closed at one end
This is the fundamental frequency of vibration and the mode of

vibration is called the fundamental mode or first harmonic.
In the next higher mode of vibration, the first overtone, two nodes
and two antinodes are formed [ Fig. (b) ]. The corresponding wavelength 1
and frequency n1 are
4L v 3v 3v
1  and n1    3 n ... (2)
3 1 4 L 4(le)
Thus, the frequency in the first overtone is three times the fundamental
frequency, i.e., the first overtone is the third harmonic.
In the second overtone, three nodes and three antinodes are formed
[ Fig. (c) ]. The corresponding wavelength 2 and frequency n2 are
4L v 5v 5v
2 and n2   5 n ... (3)
5 2 4 L 4 (le)
which is the fifth harmonic.
Therefore, in general, the frequency of the pth overtone ( p1, 2, 3, ...)
is
np  (2p 1) n ... (4)

i.e., the pth overtone is the (2p 1)th harmonic.
Q. 22. With neat labelled diagrams, explain the different modes
of vibration of a stretched string. ( 3 marks ) OR
Show that all harmonics are present on a string attached between
two rigid supports. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a string of linear density m stretched between two rigid
supports a distance L apart. Let T be the tension in the string.
Stationary waves set up on the string are subjected to the conditions
at all times : the displacement y 0 at x 0 and at x  L . That is, there
must be a node at each fixed end. These conditions limit the possible modes
of vibration to a discrete set of frequencies such that there are an integral
number q of loops between the two fixed ends.
Since the length of one loop (the distance between consecutive nodes)
corresponds to half a wavelength (),
L 

q 2
L
l/2
(a)
N A N
Fundamental mode or first harmonic
l
(b)
N A N A N
First overtone or second harmonic
3l/2
(c)
N A N A N A N
Second overtone or third harmonic
N : Node, A : Antinode, l : Wavelength, L : Length of the string
Modes of vibration of a stretched string

2L
  ... (1)
q
The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is

v n efT / m ... (2)
Therefore, from Eqs. (1) and (2), the allowed frequencies are given by
ij
q T
n ( q 1, 2, 3, ... ) ... (3)
2L m
In the simplest mode of vibration, only one loop ( q 1) is formed
[Fig. (a) ]. The corresponding lowest allowed frequency,
ij
1 T
n ... (4)
2L m
is called the fundamental frequency or the first harmonic. The possible
modes of vibration with frequencies higher than the fundamental are called
the overtones.
In the first overtone, two loops are formed ( q 2) [ Fig. (b) ]. Its
frequency,
n1  ij  2n
2 T
... (5)
2L m
is twice the fundamental and is, therefore, the second harmonic.
In the second overtone , three loops are formed ( q 3) [ Fig. (c) ].
Its frequency,
ij  3n
3 T
n2  ... (6)
2L m
is the third harmonic.
Therefore, in general, the frequency of the pth overtone (q1, 2, 3, ...)
is
nq  (q 1) n ... (7)
i.e., the qth overtone corresponds to the (q 1)th harmonic.
Equation (3) gives the set of discrete frequencies for the normal modes
of vibration of a stretched string. Equation (7) shows that for a stretched
string all the harmonics are present as overtones.
Q. 23. Explain the construction and propagation of a spherical
wavefront using Huygens’ principle. (2 marks)
Ans. Huygens’ construction of a spherical wavefront : Consider a
point source of monochromatic light S in a homogeneous isotropic medium.
X' Wavelets
A'
vT
X Rays
A
B'
B
S
C C'
Y
Y'
XY : Spherical wavefront at time t,
X' Y' : Spherical wavefront after time T
Huygens’ construction of a spherical wavefront
The light waves travel with the same speed v in all directions. After time t,
the wave will reach all the points which are at a distance vt from S. This is
spherical wavefront XY. Let, A, B, C, ... be points on this wavefront.
To find the new wavefront after time T, we draw spheres of radius vT
with A, B, C, ... as centres. The envelope or the surface of tangency of these
spheres is the surface ABC. This is the new spherical wavefront XY. Thus,
in an isotropic medium, spherical wavefronts are propagated as concentric
spheres.
Q. 24. What are the conditions for obtaining good interference
pattern ? Give reasons. (Any three) OR
State and explain any three conditions necessary for obtaining well
defined and steady interference pattern. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Conditions necessary for obtaining well defined and steady
interference pattern :
(1) The two sources of light should be coherent :
The two sources must maintain their phase relation during the time
required for observation. If the phases and phase difference vary with
time, the positions of maxima and minima will also change with time and
consequently the interference pattern will change randomly and rapidly, and
steady interference pattern would not be observed. For coherence, the two
secondary sources must be derived from the same source.
(2) The light should be monochromatic :

Otherwise, interference will result in complex coloured bands (fringes)
because the separation of successive bright bands (fringes) is different for
different colours. It also may produce overlapping bands.
(3) The two light sources should be of equal brightness, i.e., the waves
must have the same amplitude.
The interfering light waves should have the same amplitude. Then,
the points where the waves meet in opposite phase will be completely dark
(zero intensity). This will increase the contrast of the interference pattern
and make it more distinct.
(4) The two light sources should be narrow :
If the source apertures are wide in comparison with the light
wavelength, each source will be equivalent to multiple narrow sources and
the superimposed pattern will consist of bright and less bright fringes. That
is, the interference pattern will not be well defined.
(5) The interfering light waves should be in the same state of
polarization :
Otherwise, the points where the waves meet in opposite phase will not
be completely dark and the interference pattern will not be distinct.
(6) The two light sources should be closely spaced and the distance
between the screen and the sources should be large :
Both these conditions are desirable for appreciable fringe separation.
The separation of successive bright or dark fringes is inversely proportional
to the closeness of the slits and directly proportional to the screen distance.
Q. 25. Explain the phenomenon of diffraction of light. ( 2 marks )
What are Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffractions ? ( 2 marks )
Ans. Phenomenon of diffraction of light : When light passes by the
edge of an obstacle or through a small opening or a narrow slit and falls on
a screen, the principle of rectilinear propagation of light from geometrical
optics predicts a sharp shadow. However, it is found that some of the light
deviates from its rectilinear path and penetrates into the region of the
geometrical shadow. This is a general characteristic of wave phenomena,
which occurs whenever a portion of the wavefront is obstructed in some
way. This bending of light waves at an edge into the region of geometrical
shadow is called diffraction of light.
The diffraction phenomena are usually divided into two classes :

(1) Fraunhofer diffraction : In this class of diffraction, both the
source and the screen are at infinite distances from a diffracting aperture of
finite width. This is achieved by placing the source at the focus of a convex
lens and the screen at the focal plane of another convex lens. The aperture
is thus illuminated with parallel wavefronts.
(2) Fresnel diffraction : In this class of diffraction, either the source
of light or the screen or both are at finite distances from the aperture. The
incident wavefront is either cylindrical or spherical depending on whether
the source is a point or an elongated source. A lens is not needed to observe
the diffraction pattern on the screen.
Q. 26. State the characteristics of a single-slit diffraction pattern.
( 2 marks )
Ans. Characteristics of a single-slit diffraction pattern :
(1) The image cast by a single-slit is not the expected purely
geometrical image.
(2) For a given wavelength, the width of the diffraction pattern is
inversely proportional to the slit width.
(3) For a given slit width a, the width of the diffraction pattern is
proportional to the wavelength.
(4) The intensities of the non-central, i.e., secondary, maxima are
much less than the intensity of the central maximum.
(5) The minima and the non-central maxima are of the same width,
D/a.
(6) The width of the central maximum is 2D / a. It is twice the width
of the non-central maxima or minima.
Q. 27. State and explain Rayleigh’s criterion for minimum
resolution. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Rayleigh’s criterion for minimum resolution : Two over-
lapping diffraction patterns due to two point sources are acceptably (or just)
resolved if the centre of the central peak of one diffraction pattern is as far
as the first minimum of the other pattern.
The sharpness of the central maximum of a diffraction pattern is
measured by the angular separation between the centre of the peak and the
first minimum. It gives the minimum resolvable angular separation or the

angular limit of resolution.
Airy discs
Minimum resolvable
angular separation
(a) Not resolved (b) Just resolved (c) Well resolved
Rayleigh criterion
Two overlapping diffraction patterns due to two point sources are not
resolved if the angular separation between the central peaks is less than the
minimum resolvable angular separation. They are said to be just separate,
or resolved, if the angular separation between the central peaks is equal
to the minimum resolvable angular separation. They are said to be well
resolved if the angular separation between the central peaks is more than
the minimum resolvable angular separation as shown in the figure.
Q. 28. Explain why microscopes of high magnifying power have
oil filled (oil-immersion) objectives. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Higher angular magnification of a high magnifying power
microscope is of little use if the finer details in a tiny object are obscured
by diffraction effects. Hence, a microscope of high magnifying power must
also have a high resolving power.
2n sin 
Resolving power of a microscope 

where  the half angle of the angular separation between the objects,
at the objective lens. n the refractive index of the medium between the
object and the objective,  the wavelength of the light used to illuminate
the object.
The factor n sin  is called the numerical aperture of the objective
and the resolving power increases with increase in the numerical aperture.
To increase , the diameter of the objective would have to be increased.
But this increase in aperture would degrade the image by decreasing the
resolving power. Hence, in microscopes of high magnifying power, the

object is immersed in oil that is in contact with the objective. Usually cedar
wood oil having a refractive index 1.5 (close to that of the objective glass)
is used. Closeness of the refractive indices also reduces loss of light by
reflection at the objective lens.
Q. 29. With a neat ray diagram, explain the resolving power of a
telescope. On what factors does it depend ? (3 marks)
Ans.Definition:The resolving power of a telescope is defined as
the reciprocal of the angular limit of resolution between two closely-spaced
distant objects so that they are just resolved when seen through the telescope
(Figure).
f
S2
 A
S1 Airy disc
of the image
S'1
S2 S'1

S1 x
S'2
Airy disc
S2
 of the image
S1 B S'2
Objective (D = AB)
S1, S2 : Distant stars, S'1, S'2 : Images of the two stars,
f, D : Focal length and diameter of the objective lens,
x : Linear separation between the images
Resolving power of a telescope
Consider two stars seen through a telescope. The diameter (D) of the
objective lens or mirror corresponds to the diffracting aperture. For a distant
point source, the first diffraction minimum is at an angle  away from the
centre such that
D sin   1.22 
where  is the wavelength of light.  is usually so small that we can substitute
sin    (  in radian ). Thus, the Airy disc for each star will be spread
out over an angular half-width   1.22 /D about its geometrical image
point. The radius of the Airy disc at the focal plane of the objective lens is
r  f   1.22 f/D, where f is the focal length of the objective.
When observing two closely-spaced stars, the Rayleigh criterion for just
resolving the images as that of two point sources (instead of one) is met when
the centre of one Airy disc falls on the first minimum of the other pattern.
Thus, the angular limit (or angular separation) of resolution is
1.22 
 ... (1)
D
and the linear separation between the images at the focal plane of the
objective lens is
yf ... (2)
 Resolving power of a telescope,
1 D
R  ... (3)
 1.22 
It depends
(1) directly on the diameter of the objective lens or mirror,
(2) inversely on the wavelength of the radiation.
Q. 30. Explain the concept of electric potential difference and
electric potential. ( 3 marks )
Ans. A charge in an electric field possesses electric potential energy
just as a particle in a gravitational field possesses gravitational potential
energy. Consider a test charge q0 in an electric field, moved very slowly by
an external agent from point B where its electric potential energy is UB to a
point A where its electric potential energy is UA.
The change in the potential energy, UA UB , is defined as the work
WBA that must be done by an external agent to move the test charge from
B to A against the electric force, keeping the charge always in equilibrium,
i.e., without accelerating the charge so as not to give it any kinetic energy.
WBA   UUA UB
The potential difference  VVAB VA VB between two points A
and B in electric field is
W U
 V BA 
q0 q0
We choose the potential energy UB and potential VB to be zero when
the initial point B is infinitely far from the source charges which produce
the field. Then, the work done per unit test charge by an external agent in
bringing a test charge from infinity to a point is the electric potential at that
point.
The electric potential at a distance r from a source charge,
W U(r)
V(r)  r 
q0 q0
Q. 31. Electric field lines and equipotential surfaces are always
mutually perpendicular. Explain. (2 marks)
Ans. If a test charge q0 is moved on an equipotential surface of potential
V, the electric potential energy U  q0V remains constant. Because U does
not change as q0 is moved, the work done by the electric field on q0 must
be zero. If lE is the electric field on the surface,
dW  lF. dlx  q0 lE. dlx  0
dlx lE
q0
Equipotential
surface
+Q
A test charge moved on an equipotential surface
Hence, the electric force q0lE is always perpendicular to the displacement

of a charge moving on an equilateral surface. Thus, electric field lines and
equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular.
Note that if lE is not perpendicular to a equipotential surface everywhere,
it would have a component E along the surface, so that for a displacement
dx between two points on the surface, the work done dW  Edx  0. This
would imply a potential difference between the two points which contradicts
the definition of a equipotential surface.
Q. 32. Explain the reduction of electric field inside a polarized
dielectric. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a rectangular slab of a linear isotropic dielectric placed
in a uniform electric field.
In case of a nonpolar dielectric, the external field slightly separates the

centres of negative and positive charge in a molecule inducing an electric
dipole moment in the direction of the field. In most cases, this separation is
a very small fraction of a molecular diameter. In case of a polar dielectric,
the permanent dipole moments of its molecules are partially aligned with
the field. In either case, the dielectric is said to become polarized.
In a uniformly polarized dielectric, the charges of adjacent interior
dipoles add to zero. But due to the unbalanced positive ends of dipoles at
one face of the slab, bound positive charge appears on that exterior surface.
Similarly, bound negative charge appears on the opposite exterior surface
of the slab. These bound surface charges are called polarization charges.
There is, however, no excess charge in any volume element within the slab
and the slab as a whole remains electrically neutral.
The external electric field lE0 polarizes the dielectric, with a net
polarization lP parallel to lE0. Within the dielectric, the induced field
lEp lP/e0 due to the polarization charges is opposite to the applied field,
as shown in the figure.
lE0
lEp lE
lP
– Qp + Qp
lE0 : Applied electric field, lP : Polarization vector,

lEp : Induced polarization field, – Qp, + Qp : Polarization charges
Polarization field due to polarization charges
lE lE0 lEp lE0 lP/e0

i.e., EE0 Ep in magnitude.
Assuming the dielectric to be isotropic and linear,
lP e e0 lE
where  e is the electric susceptibility of the dielectric.
 lE0  (1 e ) lE klE
where k 1  e is the dielectric constant. This implies EE0/k, thus less

than E0. Thus, the effect of a dielectric material is to decrease the electric
field below the applied electric field.
Q. 33. State and explain the principle of a capacitor. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Principle of a capacitor : Any conductor can be used to store
charges, however, its capacity can be increased by keeping a grounded
conductor near it.
Consider a metal plate A whose potential is raised to V by depositing
a charge Q on it, so that its capacity is C  Q / V. Now, if an uncharged
metal plate B is brought close to plate A, then negative bound charge Q
will be induced on the surface of B near A and positive free charge Q on
the other side of B, Fig. (a).
If plate B is grounded, the free charge on it will escape to the Earth,
Fig. (b). The bound charge (Q) thus remaining on B will lower the
potential of A, as if superimposing a potential V1 on the potential V of
plate A. The resultant potential of A will become V  V1, and its capacity
will be Q / ( V  V1 ).
A B A B
Q
C
VV1
Keeping plate B very close
to A, V – V1 can be made very
small, so that the capacity of the To Earth
combination can become very
much greater than the capacity of (a) (b)
conductor A alone. C  z C.
Principle of a capacitor
Q. 34. Explain the effect of an dielectric on the capacitance of an

isolated charged parallel-plate capacitor. ( 3 marks )
Hence, show that if a dielectric of relative permittivity (dielectric
constant) k completely fills the space between the plates, the capacitance
increases by a factor k. ( 1 mark )
Ans. Consider a parallel-plate capacitor without a dielectric, of
plate area A, plate separation d and capacitance C0, charged to a potential
difference V0 and then isolated.
Suppose the charges on its conducting plates are Q and  Q, Fig. (a).
The surface density of free charge is
Q
 ... (1)
A
If A is very large and d is very small, the electric field in the region
between the plates is almost uniform, except near the edges. The magnitude
of the electric field intensity is
V0  Q
E0    ... (2)
d e0 e0A
Without the dielectric, the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is,
Q eA
by definition, C0   0 ... (3)
V0 d
Now, suppose a dielectric slab of permittivity e and thickness t (t  d)
is introduced in the space between, and parallel to, the charged plates,
Fig. (b). A polarization charge  Qp appears on the exterior surface of the
+Q –Q +Q – Qp + Qp – Q
k
lE0 lE0
lEp
lE0
V0 t
d d
(a) (b)
lE0, V : Electric field and p.d. between plates without dielectric,

lEp : Electric field within the dielectric, k : Dielectric constant,
V : P.d. between plates with dielectric,
+ Q, – Q : Free charges on the plates,
+ Qp , – Qp : Bound polarization charges
Parallel-plate capacitor (a) without dielectric (b) with dielectric

dielectric nearer to the positive plate while a polarization charge  Qp

appears on its opposite face. Since the capacitor was isolated after charging,
the free charge Q on the plates is the same as earlier. Within the dielectric,
the induced field lEp due to the polarization charges is opposite to the
applied field. The net electric field within the dielectric lE is less than the
applied field. In magnitude,
EE0 Ep ... (4)
By definition, the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the
e E
dielectric, k  0 ... (5)
e0 E
Between the plates, the field within the dielectric of thickness t is
EE0/k, and that in the region (d – t) is E0. Therefore, the new potential
difference between the plates is
tE0 ( d – t )
E0 t
VE0 (d – t)  ... (6)
k k
( d – t )
V0 t
 V [from Eq. (2)]
d k
Let the capacitance with the dielectric be C. Since the free charge Q
remains the same,
Q Q d
C 
V V0
( d – t )
t
k
d
 CC0 ... (7)
( d – t )
t
k
Also from Eqs. (2) and (6),
(d – t )
Q t
V
e0A k
Q e0A
 C  ... (8)
V
( d – t )
t
k
Equations (7) and (8) give the capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric.
Special case : If the dielectric completely fills the space between the plates,
td. Therefore, from Eq. (7),
d d
CC0 C0 kC0 ... (9)
d/k
(d – d )
d
k
Thus, the capacitance increases by the factor of k.
Q. 35. State the principle of a potentiometer. ( 1 mark )
Ans. Principle of a potentiometer : The potential difference across
any length of a potentiometer wire is directly proportional to that length.
Q. 36. Explain the principle of a potentiometer. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a potentiometer consisting of a long uniform wire AB
of length L and resistance R, stretched on a wooden board and connected
in series with a cell of stable emf E and internal resistance r and a plug key
K as shown.
E r
I
K
l
A B
P
L
Principle of a potentiometer
As the steady current I passes through the wire from A to B, there is a

fall of potential along the wire from A to B.
E ER
I and VAB IR
Rr Rr
The potential difference (the fall of potential from the high potential
end) per unit length of the wire,
VAB ER

L (Rr)L
VAB
where k is constant as long as E, R and r are constant. The quantity
L
k represents the fall of potential per unit length of the wire, which is called
potential gradient along the wire.
Let P be any point on the wire between A and B. Let AP l . Then the
p.d. between A and P is
VAP kl  VAP  l
Thus, the p.d. across any length of the potentiometer wire is directly
proportional to that length. This is the principle of the potentiometer.
Q. 37. Explain the use of a potentiometer as a voltage divider.
( 2 marks )
V
Ans. A potential difference V is used to set up a potential gradient
L
across a potentiometer wire AB of length L, as shown. One end of a device
is connected to the higher potential terminal A and the other end to a sliding
contact P on the wire AB. For a uniform potential gradient, the voltage V
divides into VAP and VPB in proportion to their lengths l1 and l2. The p.d.
across the device is VAP  ( ) l1 so that, by using the slider, the p.d. across
V
L
the device can be changed from 0 to V.
E K R
V
P
A B
l1 l2
AB : Uniform wire of length L,
Device E : Source of stable emf,
VAP / VPB = l1 / l2
Potentiometer of a potential divider

Q. 38. Explain cyclotron motion and cyclotron formula. (2 marks)

Ans. Suppose a particle of mass m and charge q enters a region of
uniform magnetic field of induction lB. In the figure, lB points into the page.
The magnetic force lFm on the particle is always perpendicular to the velocity
of the particle, lv. Assuming the charged particle started moving in a plane
perpendicular to lB, its motion in the magnetic field is a uniform circular
motion, with the magnetic force providing the centripetal acceleration.
lv
lFm
q x
Bin
Charge q moving anticlockwise in a plane perpendicular to lB into the page
If the charge moves in a circle of radius R,

mv2
Fm  qvB 
R
 mv  p  qBR ... (1)
where p  mv is the linear momentum of the particle. Equation (1) is known
as the cyclotron formula because it describes the motion of a particle in a
cyclotron — the first of the modern particle accelerators.
Q. 39. State under what conditions will a charged particle moving
through a uniform magnetic field travel in (i) a straight line (ii) a
circular path (iii) a helical path. (1 mark each)
Ans.
(i) A charged particle travels undeviated through a magnetic field lB, if
its velocity lv is parallel or antiparallel to lB. In this case, the magnetic
force on the charge is zero.
(ii) A charged particle travels in a circular path within a magnetic field lB,
if its velocity lv is perpendicular to lB.
(iii) A charged particle travels in a helical path through a magnetic field lB,
if its velocity lv is inclined at an angle  to lB, 0    90°. In this
case, the component of lv parallel to lB is unaffected by the magnetic
field. The radius and pitch of the helix are determined respectively by
the perpendicular and parallel components of lv.
Q. 40. Explain with a neat labelled diagram how the magnetic
forces on a current loop produce rotary motion as in an electric motor.
( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a current-carrying rectangular loop ABCD, within a
uniform magnetic field lB as shown in the figure. Lead wires and commutator
are not shown for simplicity. The coil is free to rotate about a fixed axis.
Suppose the sides AB and CD are perpendicular to the field direction.
lF
C
4
1 B
D
3
I
I 2 – lF lB
A
x
Principle of a motor : Torque on a current loop in a magnetic field
The magnetic force on each segment acts at the centre of mass of that
segment. The direction of the force on each segment can be found using the
right hand rule for the cross product or from Fleming’s left hand rule.
The magnetic forces on the short sides AD and CB are, in general,
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and have the same line of action
along the rotation axis. Hence, these forces do not produce any torque. The
magnetic forces on the long sides AB and CD are also equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction but their lines of action are different. Hence, these
forces constitute a couple and tend to rotate the coil about the central axis.
A commutator (not shown) reverses the direction of the current

through the loop every half-rotation so that the torque always acts in the
same direction.
Q. 41. Explain what is meant by magnetic potential energy of a

bar magnet kept in a uniform magnetic field. Discuss the cases when
(1)   0° (2)   180° (3)   90°. (2 marks)
Ans. A magnet free to rotate in a uniform magnetic field lB aligns its
dipole moment M l with lB. Work must be done to rotate the magnet from
this equilibrium position. The work done is stored as the magnetic potential
energy, also called its orientation energy. In a finite angular displacement
from 0 to , the magnetic potential energy
 
U    () d   MB sin  d
0 0
  MB cos 
(1) When   0°, cos   cos 0°  1, U  MB. At this position, the
magnetic moment of the bar magnet is lined up with the field and its
magnetic potential energy is minimum. This is its most stable equilibrium
position.
(2) When 180°, cos cos 180°1, UMB. At this position,
the magnetic moment is antiparallel to the field and its magnetic potential
energy is maximum. This is its most unstable position.
(3) When 90°, cos cos 90°0, U0. At this position, the bar
magnet is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Its magnetic potential energy
is zero.
Q. 42. Explain the origin of paramagnetism. OR
Explain the origin of paramagnetism on the basis of atomic
structure. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Refer to the answer to Q. 21 of the Solved Model Question Paper
in Part 1.
Q. 43. Explain magnetic hysteresis in a ferromagnetic material.
OR
Explain the behaviour of a ferromagnetic material in an external
magneticfieldwiththehelpofamagnetichysteresiscycle. OR
Explain the behaviour of a ferromagnetic material through one

cycle of magnetization. (4 marks)
Ans. A large scale consequence of the magnetic behaviour of a
ferromagnetic under different applied magnetic fields can be observed by
placing an unmagnetized rod of the material inside a solenoid. A current
through the coil establishes the magnetizing field H, which we take as the
independent variable. By measuring the voltage induced in a test coil wound
alongside, we can determine changes in flux y, and hence changes in B inside
the rod. B is measured in tesla while H is measured in ampere per metre.
Knowing B and H, we can always compute magnetization M. Customarily,
B (rather than M), is plotted as a function of H.
Magnetic flux density, B
a
c O f Magnetizing field, H
e
d
a, d : Saturation magnetization;
b, e : Magnetic remanence at H = 0;
c, f : coercivity
Hysteresis cycle (loop)
Typical B – H plot during the following operations :

(1) Starting with an unmagnetized rod, B  0 and H0 (Point O), H
is increased until it has the value corresponding to point a : Here the rod
has reached its saturation magnetization and B remains constant even with
further increase in H. The lower part of the curve Oa is governed by domain
growth while the upper flattening part is governed by domain rotation.
(2) Reduce H to zero (point b) : The curve does not retrace itself, as
shown by the curve ab. This irreversibility is called hysteresis. It is largely
due to the domain boundary movements being partially irreversible. If the
current is simply switched off at this point, the rod will have a residual
magnetization as indicated by the non-zero value of B, called retentivity or
remanence, for H0. Essentially now B0M, i.e., the rod has acquired a
permanent magnetization.
(3) Reverse H and increase it in magnitude until it has the value
corresponding to point c : Here B is zero. The corresponding reverse
magnetizing field H is called coercivity.
(4) Increase H in reverse direction until saturation magnetization is
reached (point d).
(5) Reduce H to zero again (point e).
(6) Reverse the current once more until point a is reached again.
The process of taking the magnetic material once through the hysteresis
loop abcdefa is called hysteresis cycle.
Q. 44. Explain the concept of self induction. (2 marks)

Ans. Consider an isolated coil or circuit in which there is a current I.
The current produces a magnetic flux linked with the coil.
The magnetic flux linked with the coil can be changed by varying the
current in the coil itself, e.g., by breaking and closing the circuit (Fig.).
This produces a self-induced emf in the coil, called a back emf because it
opposes the change producing it. It sets up an induced current in the coil
itself in the same direction as the original current opposing its decrease
when the key K is suddenly opened. When the key K is closed, the induced
current is opposite to the conventional current, opposing its increase.
Einduced Einduced
Iincreasing Idecreasing
Key Key
pressed released
K K
(a) (b)
Concept of self induction

When the current through a coil changes continuously, e.g., by a time-

varying applied emf, the magnetic flux linked with the coil also goes on
changing.
The production of induced emf in a coil, due to the changes of current
in the same coil, is called self induction.
Q. 45. The total impedance of a circuit decreases when a capacitor

is added in series with L and R. Explain why. (2 marks) (Sept. ’21)
Ans. For an LR circuit, the impedance,
ZLRghR2X 2L
where XL is the reactance of the inductor.
When a capacitor of capacitance C and reactance XC is added in series with
L and R, the impedance,
ZLCRghR2(XLXC)2
because in the case of an inductor the current lags behind the voltage by a
phase angle of /2 rad while in the case of a capacitor the current leads the
voltage by a phase angle of /2 rad. The decrease in net reactance decreases
the total impedance (ZLCR  ZLR).
Q. 46. State Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain any
two characteristics of photoelectric effect on the basis of the equation.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Einstein’s photoelectric equation :
1
h y  mv2max ... (1)
2
where h Planck’s constant,   frequency of the incident electromagnetic
1
radiation, y  photoelectric work function, vmax and mv2max  the maximum
2
speed and maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons.
Explanation : (1) From the above equation we find that for
photoejection, h  y. That is, hmin  h0 must be equal to y . Hence,
photoelectric effect will be observed only if hh0 or  0. This shows
the existence of a threshold frequency 0 for which photoelectrons will be
just liberated, i.e., with zero kinetic energy, from a metal surface. Since
different metals differ structurally, the work function h0 and, therefore,
frequency 0 are different and characteristic of different metals.
(2) In this particle view of light, ‘ intensity of radiation’ stands for
the number of incident photons per unit surface area per unit time. As the
number of photons incident on a metal per unit surface area per unit time
increases, there is a greater likelihood of a photon being absorbed by any
electron. Therefore, photoejection and hence photoelectric current increases
linearly with the intensity of radiation ( 0 ).
1
(3) From Eq. (1), mv2max  h ( 0 ). This shows that the maximum
2
kinetic energy increases linearly with the frequency  of the incident photon
(0 ) and does not depend on the rate at which photons are incident on a
metal surface.
Q. 47. Explain the inverse linear dependence of stopping potential on
the incident wavelength in a photoelectric effect experiment. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Einstein’s photoelectric equation :
1
h  y  mv2max ... (1)
2
where hPlanck’s constant,
 frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation,
yphotoelectric work function,
1
vmax and mv2maxthe maximum speed and maximum kinetic energy of
2
emitted photoelectrons.
The stopping potential is the value of the retarding potential difference
that is just sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectrons emitted from
reaching the collector so that the photoelectric current in a photocell reduces
to zero.
If V0 is the stopping potential and e the magnitude of the electron charge,
1
mv2max  V0e ... (2)
2
so that,
hc
V0e  y ... (3)

where cthe speed of light in free space and

 the wavelength of the radiation incident on a metal surface.
1
Hence, it follows from Eq.(2) that as increases, V0 increases.

1
The plot of V0 verses is linear. This is because the energy associated

with a quantum of radiation (photon) is directly proportional to the
frequency of radiation and hence inversely proportional to the wavelength
of radiation.
Q. 48. Explain what you understand by the de Broglie wavelength
of an electron. (March ’22) (1 mark)
WillanelectronatresthaveanassociateddeBrogliewavelength ?
Justify your answer. ( 1 mark )
Ans. Under certain conditions an electron exhibits wave nature.
Waves associated with a moving electron are called matter waves or
de Broglie waves or Schrödinger waves. The de Broglie wavelength of
these matter waves is given by h/p, where h is Planck’s constant and p
is the magnitude of the momentum of the electron.
If an electron is at rest, its momentum would be zero, and hence
the corresponding de Broglie wavelength would be infinite indicating
absence of a matter wave. However, according to quantum mechanics/wave
mechanics, this is not possible.
Q. 49. What do you understand by the term wave-particle
duality ?Wheredoesitapply ? ( 2 marks )
Ans. Depending upon experimental conditions or structure of matter,
electromagnetic radiation and material particles exhibit wave nature or
particle nature. This is known as wave – particle duality.
It applies to all phenomena. The wave nature and particle nature are
linked by the de Broglie relation h/p , where  is the wavelength of
matter waves, also called the de Broglie waves / Schrödinger waves, p is the
magnitude of the momentum of a particle or quantum of radiation and h is
Planck’s constant.
Q. 50. Derive an expression for the de Broglie wavelength.

(2 marks) OR
Obtain an expression for the de Broglie wavelength of the waves
associated with material particles. (2 marks) (March ’22)
Ans. For the particle-like aspects of electromagnetic radiation, we
consider radiation to consist of particles whose motion is governed by the
wave propagation properties of certain associated waves.
To determine the wavelength of such waves, consider a beam of
electromagnetic radiation of frequency  whose quanta have energy E.
Eh, where h is the Planck constant.
For a quantum of radiation of momentum p, by Einstein’s theory,
Epc, where c is the speed of propagation of the radiation in free space.
c
 pch  p h

The wavelength  of the associated wave governing the motion of the
quanta is given by the relation c/.
h
 ph  
p
We assume that this equation holds also for material particles and
here  is the de Broglie wavelength.
h h
  
p mv
where m is the mass of the particle and v is the speed of the particle.
Q. 51. Explain the action of a capacitive filter with necessary
diagrams. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a simple capacitive filter added to a full-wave rectifier
circuit, Fig. (a). A capacitor is a charge storage device that it can deliver
later to a load.
In the first quarter cycle, the capacitor charges as the rectifier output
peaks. Later, as the rectifier output drops off during the second quarter
cycle, the capacitor discharges and delivers the load current. The voltage
across the capacitor, and the load, decreases up to a point B when the next
voltage peak recharges the capacitor again. To be effective, a filter capacitor
should be only slightly discharged between peaks. This will mean a small
voltage change across the load and, thus, small ripple. As shown in Fig. (b),
the capacitor supplies all the load current from A to B; from B to C, the
rectifier supplies the current to the load and the capacitor.
AC Full-wave C RL
rectifier
(a)
VLoad
A C E Ripple
Vp
B D F
Rectified
output
td tc Time
(b)
C : Filter capacitor, RL : Load resistance, VP : Peak dc voltage,
VLoad : Voltage across RL, tc and td : Charging and discharging times of C
(a) Capacitive filter at the output of a full-wave rectifier

(b) Waveform of filtered output
The discharging time constant of a filter capacitor has to be long as
compared to the time between the voltage peaks. For the same capacitor
used with a half-wave rectifier, the capacitor will have twice the time to
discharge, and the ripple will be greater. Thus, a full-wave rectifier is used
when a low ripple factor is desired.
Q. 52. Explain the forward and the reverse characteristic of a
Zener diode. OR
Draw the I-V characteristics of a Zener diode and explain the
same. ( 3 marks )
Ans. The forward bias region of a Zener diode is identical to that of
a regular diode. There is forward current only after the barrier potential
of the pn-junction is overcome. Beyond this threshold or cut in voltage,
there is an exponential upward swing. The typical forward voltage at room
temperature with a current of around 1 mA is around 0.6 V.
In the reverse bias condition the Zener diode is an open circuit and
only a small reverse saturation current flows as shown with change of scale.
IZ (mA)
Forward
IS : Reverse saturation characteristics
current
VZ : Zener voltage
VZ IS
V (volt)
0.7
IZ (min)
Slope
= 1/RZ
Breakdown
IZM
IZ (mA)
Reverse
characteristics
Zener diode characteristics

At the reverse breakdown voltage there is an abrupt rapid increase in the
current — the knee is very sharp, followed by an almost vertical increase in
current. The voltage across the Zener diode in the breakdown region is very
nearly constant with only a small increase in voltage with increasing current.
There is a minimum Zener current, IZ (min), that places the operating point
in the desired breakdown region. At some high current level, IZM , the power
dissipation of the diode becomes excessive beyond which the diode can be
damaged.
The I-V characteristic of a Zener diode is not totally vertical in the
breakdown region. This means that for slight changes in current, there will
be a small change in the voltage across the diode. The voltage change for a
given change in current is the resistance RZ of the Zener diode.
Q. 53. Explain how a Zener diode maintains constant voltage
across a load. OR
Explain the use of a Zener diode as a simple voltage regulator.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Principle : In the breakdown region of a Zener diode, for widely

changing Zener current, the voltage across the Zener diode remains almost
constant.
RS
I
Unregulated Zener Regulated

voltage V diode RL VZ voltage
(Reverse I IL
Z
current)
RS : Current-limiting resistance, RL : Load resistance

IZ : Current through the diode, IL : Load current
Zener diode as a voltage regulator
Electric circuit : The circuit for regulating or stabilizing the voltage

across a load resistance RL against change in load current and supply voltage
is shown in the figure. The Zener diode is connected parallel to load RL
such that the current through the Zener diode is from the n to p region. The
series resistance Rs limits the current through the diode below the maximum
rated value.
From the circuit, IIZ IL
and V IRs VZ
 ( IZ IL ) Rs VZ
Working : When the input unregulated dc voltage V across the Zener
diode is greater than the Zener voltage VZ in magnitude, the diode works
in the Zener breakdown region. The voltage across the diode and load RL is
then VZ. The corresponding current in the diode is IZ.
As the load current (I ) or supply voltage (V ) changes, the diode
current(IZ ) adjusts itself at constant VZ. The excess voltage V – VZ appears
across the series resistance Rs.
For constant supply voltage, the supply current I and the voltage drop
across Rs remain constant. If the diode is within its regulating range, an
increase in load current is accompanied by a decrease in IZ at constant VZ .
Since the voltage across RL remains constant at VZ , the Zener diode
acts as a voltage stabilizer or voltage regulator.
Q. 54. Define the following logic gates :

(1) AND(2) OR(3) NOT(4)NAND(5)NOR(6) XOR.
Give the logic symbol, Boolean expression and truth table of each.
( 3 marks each )
Ans. (1) The AND gate : It is a circuit with two or more inputs and
one output in which the output signal is HIGH if and only if all the inputs
are HIGH simultaneously.
Logic symbol : Truth table :
A Y Inputs Output
B
A B Y
Boolean expression :
0 0 0
Y A ∙ B
1 0 0
Fig. 1 : The AND gate
0 1 0
1 1 1
(2) The OR gate : It is a circuit with two or more inputs and one
output in which the output signal is HIGH if any one or more of the inputs
is HIGH.
A Y Inputs Output
B
A B Y
0 0 0
YAB
1 0 1
Fig. 2 : The OR gate
0 1 1
1 1 1
(3) The NOT gate or INVERTER : It is a circuit with one input

whose output is HIGH if the input is LOW and vice versa. The small invert
bubble on the output side of the inverter logic symbol, Fig. 3 and the over
bar ( — ) in the Boolean expression represent the invert function.
A Y Input Output
A Y
Boolean expression : 0 1
Y A 1 0
Fig. 3 : The NOT gate
(4) The NAND gate : It is a circuit with two or more inputs and one
output, whose output is HIGH if any one or more of the inputs is LOW; the
output is LOW if all the inputs are HIGH.
A Input Output
B Y
A B Y
Boolean expression : 0 0 1
Y A·B 1 0 1
Fig. 4 : The NAND gate 0 1 1
1 1 0
(5) The NOR gate : It is a circuit with two or more inputs and one
output, in which the output is HIGH if and only if all the inputs are LOW.
A Inputs Output
B Y
A B Y
Boolean expression : 0 0 1
Y A  B 1 0 0
Fig. 5 : The NOR gate 0 1 0
1 1 0
(6) The XOR (Exclusive OR) gate:It is a circuit with only two
inputs and one output in which the output signal is HIGH if and only if the
inputs are different from each other.

A Y Inputs Output
B
A B Y
0 0 0
YA{B
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
Assignments
1. State the law (or principle) of conservation of angular momentum
and explain it with a suitable example. OR
State and explain the principle of conservation of angular
momentum. Use a suitable illustration. (Ch. 1) ( 3 marks )
2. State any two properties of angle of contact. (Ch. 2)
(July ’22) (2 marks)
3. Explain (a) streamline flow (b) turbulent flow. (Ch. 2)
(3 marks)
4. Explain Bernoulli’s equation of fluid flow. (Ch. 2) (4 marks)
5. Explain spectral distribution of blackbody radiation. (Ch. 3)
( 2 marks )
1
6. State the characteristics of progressive waves. (2 mark each ) OR
State any two characteristics of a progressive waves.
7. Prove that all harmonics are present in the vibrations of the air
column in a pipe open at both ends. (Ch. 6) (4 marks)
8. Explain the construction of a plane wavefront using Huygens’
principle. (Ch. 7) (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
9. Explain what is optical path length. How is it different from the
actual path length ? OR
Explain optical path length and optical path difference. (Ch. 7)
( 3 marks )
10. Explain the magnetic dipole moment of a current loop. State its
magnitude and direction. (Ch. 10) (2 marks)
11. Explain the equivalence of the fields of a current-carrying circular
coil and a magnetic dipole. (Ch. 10) (3 marks)
12. Discuss magnetization of a magnetic material placed in a solenoid.
(Ch. 11) (3 marks)
13. Explain the origin of diamagnetism. OR
Explain the origin of diamagnetism on the basis of atomic
structure. (Ch. 11) (2 marks)
14. Explain the concept/phenomenon of mutual induction. OR
Explain and define mutual inductance of a coil with respect to
another coil. (Ch. 12) (3 marks)
15. What is de Broglie hypothesis ? Obtain the relation for de Broglie
wavelength. (Ch. 14) (July ’22) (3 marks)
16. Explain Rutherford’s model of the atom. (Ch. 15) ( 2 marks )
17. Explain Zener breakdown. (Ch. 16) (2 marks)
18. Explain why the emitter, base and collector of a BJT are doped
differently. (Ch. 18) ( 2 marks )
————
Question
DERIVATIONS – I
Set (Chapters 1 to 6)
6
Q. 1. Derive an expression for the maximum safe speed for a

vehicle on a curved horizontal road. State its significance. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a car of mass m taking a turn of radius r along a
horizontal ( level ) road. If s is the coefficient of static friction between the
car tyres and the road surface, the limiting force of friction is smg.
A car taking a circular turn on a level road
Then, the maximum safe speed vmax with which the car can take the
turn without skidding off is determined by the condition,
maximum centripetal force  limiting force of static friction
mv 2max
  smg  v 2max rs g  vmax  efrs g
r
Significance : The above expression shows that the maximum safe
speed depends critically upon friction which changes with the nature of
the surfaces and presence of oil or water on the road. If the friction is not
sufficient to provide the necessary centripetal force, the vehicle is likely to
skid off the road.
164
QUESTION SET 6 : DERIVATIONS – I 165
Q. 2. A road at a bend should be banked for an optimum or most

safe speed vo. Derive an expression for the required angle of banking. OR
Obtain an expression for the optimum or most safe speed with which
a vehicle can be driven along a curved banked road. Hence show that the
angle of banking is independent of the mass of a vehicle. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider a car taking a left turn along a road of radius r banked
at an angle  for a designed optimum or most safe speed vo . Let m be the
mass of the car. In general, the forces acting on the car are
(a) its weight mlg , acting vertically down
(b) the normal reaction of the road lN , perpendicular to the road surface
(c) the frictional force lfs along the inclined surface of the road.
At the optimum speed, frictional force is not relied upon to contribute
to the necessary lateral centripetal force. So, ignoring lfs , resolve lN into two
perpendicular components : N cos  vertically up and N sin  horizontally
towards the centre of the circular path. Since there is no acceleration in the
vertical direction, N cos  balances mg and N sin  provides the necessary
centripetal force.
Optimum (most safe) speed on a banked road

 N cos mg ... (1)
mvo2
and N sin  ... (2)
r
N sin  mvo2/r

N cos  mg
vo2 vo2
 tan    tan1 ( ) ... (3)
rg rg
Equation (3) gives the expression for the required angle of banking. It
shows that  depends upon vo , r and g. The angle of banking is independent
of the mass of a vehicle negotiating the curve. Also, for a given r and , the
recommended optimum speed is
vo  efrg tan  ... (4)
Q. 3. A banked circular road is designed for traffic moving at
an optimum or most safe speed vo. Obtain an expression for (i) the
minimum safe speed (ii) the maximum safe speed with which a vehicle
can negotiate the curve without skidding. ( 4 marks each )
Ans. Consider a car taking a left turn along a road of radius r banked
at an angle  for a designed optimum speed v. Let m be the mass of the car.
In general, the forces acting on the car are
(a) its weight mlg, acting vertically down
(b) the normal reaction of the road lN, perpendicular to the road surface
(c) the frictional force lfs along the inclined surface of the road.
If s is the coefficient of static friction between the tyres and road,
fs sN.
(i) For minimum safe speed : If the car is driven at a speed less than
the optimum speed vo, it may tend to slide down the inclined surface of the
road so that lfs is up the incline, as shown in figure.
Minimum safe speed on a banked road

Resolve lN and lfs into two perpendicular components : N cos  and

fs sin  vertically up; N sin  horizontally towards the centre of the circular
path while fs cos  horizontally outward. So long as the car takes the
turn without sliding down, the sum N cos fs sin  balances mg, and
N sin fs cos  provides the necessary centripetal force. If vmin is the
minimum safe speed without skidding,
mg N cos fs sin 
N (cos s sin ) ... (1)
mv2min
and N sin fs cos 
r
N (sin s cos ) ... (2)
 Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1),
v2min sin s cos  tan s
 
rg cos s sin  1 s tan 
 vmin  pq
rg (tan s)
... (3)
1 s tan 
Equation (3) gives the required expression for the minimum speed.
(ii) For maximum safe speed : Refer to the answer to Q. 27 of the
Solved Model Question Paper in Part 1.
Q. 4. Derive an expression for the angular speed of the bob of a
conical pendulum. ( 3 marks ) OR
Derive an expression for the frequency of revolution of the bob of
a conical pendulum. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider a conical pendulum of string length L with its bob of
mass m performing UCM along a circular path of radius r as shown in the
figure.
At every instant of its motion, the bob is acted upon by its weight ml g
and the tension lF in the string. If the constant angular speed of the bob is
, the necessary horizontal centripetal force is
Fc m2r
Fc is the resultant of the tension in the string and the weight. Resolve
lF into components F cos  vertically opposite to the weight of the bob
and F sin  horizontal. F cos  balances the weight. F sin  is the necessary
centripetal force.
 F sin m2r ... (1)
and F cos mg ... (2)

2r
tan 
g
Conical pendulum
From the diagram,
r r r
tan    ... (3)
OC h L cos 
r 2r
 
h g
g g
 2   ... (4)
h L cos 
The angular speed of the bob,
g g
ij ij ... (5)
h L cos 
is the required expression for .
[ Note : From Eq. (4), cos g / 2L. Therefore, as  increases, cos  decreases
and  increases. ]
If n is the frequency of revolution of the bob,
g
 2n ij
L cos 
1 g
 n ij ... (6)
2 L cos 
is the required expression for the frequency.
Q. 5. In the vertical circular motion of a body controlled by
gravity, prove that the difference between the extreme tensions (or
normal forces) depends only upon the weight of the body. (3 marks) OR
A small body is tied to a string and revolved in a vertical circle of
radius r. Prove that the difference in the tensions in the string at the
highest and the lowest points is 6 times the weight of the body.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a small body (or particle) of mass m tied to a string and
revolved in a vertical circle of radius r at a place where the acceleration due
to gravity is g. At every instant of its motion, the body is acted upon by two
forces, namely, its weight m lg and the tension lT in the string as shown in
the figure.
Vertical circular motion (schematic)

Let v2 be the speed of the body and T2 be the tension in the string at
the lowest point B. We take the reference level for zero potential energy to
be the bottom of the circle. Then, the body has only kinetic energy 12 mv22 at
the lowest point.

2
mv2
 T2   mg ... (1)
r
and the total energy at the bottom  KE  PE
1 1
 mv 2 0  mv 2 ... (2)
2 2 2 2
Let v1 be the speed and T1 the tension in the string at the highest point A.
As the body goes from B to A, it rises through a height h 2r.
2
mv 1
 T1   mg ... (3)
r
and the total energy at A  KE  PE
1 2
 mv 1 mg (2r) ... (4)
2
Then, from Eqs. (1) and (3),
2 2
mv 2 mv 1
T2 T1  mg (  mg)
r r
m 2 2
 (v v 1 )  2 mg ... (5)
r 2
Assuming that the total energy of the body is conserved, the total energy
at the bottom
 total energy at the top
Then, from Eqs. (2) and (4),
1 2 1 2
mv 2  mv 1 mg (2r)
2 2
2 2
 v 2 v 1  4 gr ... (6)
Substituting this in Eq. (5),
m
T2 T1  (4 gr)  2 mg
r
 4 mg 2 mg 6 mg
Therefore, the difference in the tensions in the string at the highest and
the lowest points depends only on the weight of the body and is equal to
6 times the weight of the body.
Q. 6. State and prove the theorem of parallel axis about moment
of inertia. ( 3 marks )
Theorem of parallel axis

Ans. Theorem of parallel axis : The moment of inertia of a body
about an axis is equal to the sum of (i) its moment of inertia about a parallel
axis through its centre of mass and (ii) the product of the mass of the body
and the square of the distance between the two axes.
Proof : Let ICM be the moment of inertia (MI) of a body of mass
M about an axis through its centre of mass C, and I be its MI about a
parallel axis through any point O. If the distance between the two axes is h,
then the theorem of parallel axis can be stated mathematically as
I  ICM  Mh2
Consider an infinitesimal volume element of mass dm of the body at a
point P. It is at a perpendicular distance CP from the rotation axis through C
and a perpendicular distance OP from the parallel axis through O.
The MI of the element about the axis through C is CP2 dm. Therefore, the
MI of the body about the axis through the CM is ICM   CP2 dm. Similarly,
the MI of the body about the parallel axis through O is I   OP2 dm.
Draw PQ perpendicular to OC produced as shown in the figure. Then,

from the figure,
I   OP2 dm
  (OQ2  PQ2) dm
  [(OC  CQ)2  PQ2] dm
  (OC2  2OC·CQ  CQ2  PQ2 ) dm
  (OC2  2OC·CQ  CP2) dm (B CQ2  PQ2  CP2)
  OC2 dm   2OC · CQ dm   CP2 dm
 OC2  dm  2OC  CQ dm   CP2 dm
Since, OC h is constant and  dm  M is the mass of the body,
I Mh2 2h  CQ dm  ICM
Now, from the definition of centre of mass, the integral  CQ dm is
mass M times a coordinate of the CM with respect to the origin C. Since C
is itself the CM, this coordinate is zero and so also the integral.
 I  ICM  Mh2
This proves the theorem of parallel axis.
Q. 7. State and prove the theorem of perpendicular axes.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Theorem of perpendicular axes : The moment of inertia of a
plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of
its moments of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes in its plane
and through the point of intersection of the perpendicular axis and the
lamina.
Theorem of perpendicular axes
Proof : Let Ox and Oy be two perpendicular axes in the plane of the

lamina and Oz, the axis perpendicular to its plane. If Ix , Iy and Iz are the
moments of inertia of the lamina about the x, y and z axes respectively,

then, the theorem of perpendicular axes can be stated mathematically as
Iz  Ix  Iy .
Consider an infinitesimal volume element of mass dm of the lamina
at the point P(x, y). The MI of the lamina about the z-axis is Iz  OP2 dm.
The element is at perpendicular distance y and x from the x- and y-axes
respectively. Hence, the moments of inertia of the lamina about the x- and
y-axes are respectively Ix   y2dm and Iy   x2 dm .
Since OP2  y2  x2,
Iz   OP2dm   ( y2  x2) dm
  y2 dm   x2 dm
 Iz  Ix  Iy
This proves the theorem of perpendicular axes.
Q. 8. State the expression for the moment of inertia of a thin
uniform disc about an axis perpendicular to its plane and through its
centre. Hence deduce the expression for its moment of inertia about a
tangential axis perpendicular to its plane. ( 2 marks )
Ans. (1) MI about the transverse symmetry axis : Consider a thin
uniform disc of radius R and mass M. The axis of rotation through its centre
C is perpendicular to its plane. C is also its centre of mass (CM).
The MI of the disc about the transverse symmetry axis is
1
ICM  MR2 ... (1)
2
(2) MI about a tangent perpendicular to its plane : Let I be its MI
about an axis parallel to the transverse symmetry axis and tangent to the
disc. Here, h  R distance between the two axes.
By the theorem of parallel axis,
I  ICM  Mh2 ... (2)
MR2 3
  MR2  MR2 ... (3)
2 2
Q. 9. Assuming the expression for the moment of inertia of a ring

about its transverse symmetry axis obtain the expression for its moment
of inertia about (1) a diameter (2) a tangential axis in its plane.
( 2 marks each )
Ans. Let M be the mass of a thin ring of radius R. Let ICM be the
moment of inertia (MI) of the ring about its transverse symmetry axis. Then,
ICM  MR2 ... (1)
(1) MI about a diameter : Let x and y-axes be along two perpendicular
diameters of the ring as shown in Fig. 1. Let Ix , Iy and Iz be the moments of
inertia of the ring about the x, y and z axes, respectively.
Fig. 1 : Rotations of a ring about its transverse

symmetry axis and a diameter
Both Ix and Iy represent the moment of inertia of the ring about its diameter
and, by symmetry, the MI of the ring about any diameter is the same.
 Ix  Iy ... (2)
Also, Iz being the MI of the ring about its transverse symmetry axis,
Iz  ICM  MR2 ... (3)
By the theorem of perpendicular axes,
Iz  Ix  Iy  2Ix ... (4)
2
 2Ix  MR
1
or Ix  MR2 ... (5)
2
(2) MI about a tangent in its plane : Let I be its MI about an axis in
plane of the ring, i.e., parallel to a diameter, and tangent to it, Fig. 2.
1
Here, h  R and ICM Ix  MR2.
2
I  Ix  Mh2
1 3
I MR2  MR2  MR2 ... (6)
2 2
Fig. 2 : Tangential rotation axis in the plane of a ring
Q. 10. Derive an expression for the angular momentum of a

rotating rigid body in terms of its angular velocity. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a rigid body rotating with a constant angular velocity l
about an axis through the point O and perpendicular to the plane of the
figure. As the body rotates, all the particles of the body perform uniform
circular motion about the axis of rotation with the same angular velocity l .
Suppose that the body consists of N particles of masses m1, m2, ..., mN,
situated at distances r1, r2, ..., rN , respectively from the axis of rotation.
As the body rotates, the particle of mass m1 revolves along a circle of
radius r1, with a linear velocity of magnitude v1  r1 .
The magnitude of the linear momentum (p1) of the particle is
p1  m1v1  m1r1
The angular momentum of the particle about the axis of rotation is by
definition,
A rigid body rotating with a uniform angular velocity

lL1  lr1  lp1

 L1 r1 p1 sin , where  is the smaller angle between lr1 and lp1.
In this case,   90°  sin   1  L1  r1 p1  r1m1r1  m1r12
Similarly, the angular momentum (L 2) of the particle of mass m2 is m2r22;
that of the particle of mass m3 is m3r32, etc.
The angular momentum of the body about the given axis is
L  L1  L2  ...  LN
 m1 r 21   m2 r22   ...  mN r2N 
 (m1 r21m2 r22...mN r2N ) 
N
 ( & mi r 2i ) 
i1
N
 L  I, where I  & mi r 2i  moment of inertia of the body about
i1
the given axis. In vector form,
lL  I l
Thus, angular momentum  moment of inertia  angular velocity.
Q. 11. Obtain an expression for the torque acting on a body
rotating with a uniform angular acceleration. ( 3 marks )
Ans. A torque on a body produces angular acceleration. Consider a
rigid body rotating about an axis passing through the point O and
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. Suppose that a torque l on the
body produces uniform angular acceleration l along the axis of rotation.
The body can be considered
as made of N particles with masses
m1, m2, ..., mN situated at distances
r1, r2, ..., rN respectively from the
axis of rotation. l is the same for
all the particles as the body is rigid.
Let lF1, lF2, ..., lF N be the external
forces on the particles.
The torque l1 , on the particle
of mass m1, is l1  lr1  lF1.
Torque acting on a body rotating with
a uniform angular acceleration
 1  r1F1 sin , where  is the smaller of the two angles between lr1
and lF1.
 1  r1F1 ( since, in this case,   90° )
Now, F1  m1 a1  m1 r1  ( B a1  r1) ... (1)
 1  r1 (m1 r1 )  m1r21 
 ... (2)
Similarly, 2  m2r 22 , ..., N  mN rN2 
 
The total torque on the body is
  1  2  ...  N
 m1r 21   m2r 22  ...  mN r 2N 
 (m1r 21  m2r22  ...  mN r 2N )  ... (3)
 ( & mi r 2i ) 
N
i1
 I ... (4)
N
where I  & mi r 2i is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis
i1
of rotation.
In vector form, l  I l
This gives the required relation. Angular acceleration l has the same
direction as the torque l and both of them are along the rotation axis.
Q. 12. Deduce an expression for the kinetic energy of a body
rolling on a plane surface without slipping. (2 marks) OR
Obtain an expression for the total kinetic energy of a rolling body in
1 k2
the form Mv2 1
2  R2. (2 marks) OR
Derive an expression for the kinetic energy when a rigid body is

rollingonahorizontalsurfacewithoutslipping.Hence,findthekinetic
energy of a solid sphere. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a symmetric rigid body, like a sphere or a wheel or a
disc, rolling on a plane surface with friction along a straight path. Its centre
of mass (CM) moves in a straight line and, if the frictional force on the body
is large enough, the body rolls without slipping. Thus, the rolling motion of
the body can be treated as translation of the CM and rotation about an axis
through the CM. Hence, the kinetic energy of a rolling body is
E EtranErot ... (1)
where Etran and Erot are the kinetic energies associated with translation of the
CM and rotation about an axis through the CM, respectively.
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the body. Let , k and I be the
angular speed, radius of gyration and moment of inertia for rotation about an
axis through its centre, and v be the translational speed of the centre of mass.
 v R and I Mk2 ... (2)
1 1
 Etran Mv2 and Erot I2 ... (3)
2 2
1 1 v2
 E Mv2 1 I2 Mv2 1 I
2 2 2 2 R2
I
 
1
 Mv2 1 ... (4)
2 MR2
Mk2 k2
   
1 1
 Mv2 1  Mv2 1 ... (5)
2 MR2 2 R2
Also, from Eq. (2),
k2
 R 
1 1
E M2R2 1  M2 (R2k2) ... (6)
2 2 2
Equation (4) or (5) or (6) gives the required expression.
For a solid sphere, k i j R so that I MR2

2 2
5 5
I 2
  ... (7)
MR 2 5
Substituting in Eq. (4),
E Mv2 (1 ) Mv2 (7)  7 Mv2

1 2 1
... (8)
2 5 2 5 10
Q. 13. Assuming the expression for the kinetic energy of a body

rolling on a plane surface without slipping, deduce the expression
for the total kinetic energy of rolling motion for (i) a ring (ii) a disc
(iii)ahollowsphere.Also,findtheratioofrotationalkineticenergyto
total kinetic energy for each body. (2 marks each)
Ans. For a body of mass M and radius of gyration k, rolling on a plane
surface without slipping with speed v, its total KE and rotational KE are
respectively
1
E Mv2 (1)
2
v2
and Erot I2 (Mk2) ( )
1 1 1
Mv2
2 2 R 2 2
I k2
where   2
 2.
MR R
(i) For a ring, I MR2, so that  1.
1
 E Mv2 (11) Mv2
2
1 1
and Erot Mv2  Erot / E
2 2
1 1
(ii) For a disc, I MR2, so that  .
2 2
 E Mv2 (1 ) 
1 1 3
Mv2
2 2 4
1 1
and Erot Mv2  Erot / E
4 3
2 2
(iii) For a spherical shell (hollow sphere), I MR2, so that  .
3 3
 E Mv2 (1 ) 
1 2 5
Mv2
2 3 6
1 2
and Erot Mv2 and Erot / E
3 5
Q. 14. A rigid body rolls down an inclined plane without slipping.

Derive the expressions for (i) the speed after rolling down a certain
vertical distance (ii) the acceleration along the plane. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a circularly symmetric rigid body, like a sphere or a
wheel or a disc, rolling with friction down a plane inclined at an angle  to
the horizontal. If the frictional force on the body is large enough, the body
rolls without slipping.
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the body. Let I be the
moment of inertia of the body for rotation about an axis through its
centre. Let the body start from rest at the top of the incline at a height h.
Rolling without slipping on an inclined plane
Let v be the translational speed of the centre of mass at the bottom of the
incline. Then, its kinetic energy at the bottom of the incline is
I
 
1 1
E Mv2 1  Mv2 (1) ... (1)
2 MR2 2
I
where  .
MR2
If k is the radius of gyration of the body,
I k2
I Mk2 and  
MR2 R2
From conservation of energy,
(KEPE)initial (KEPE)final ... (2)
1
 0Mgh Mv2 (1)0
2
1
 Mgh Mv2 (1) ... (3)
2
2gh
 v2
1
 v ij  ij
2gh 2gh
... (4)
1 1( k2/R2 )
Since h L sin ,
2gL sin 
vij ... (5)
1( k2/R2 )
Let a be the acceleration of the centre of mass of the body along the inclined
plane. Since the body starts from rest,
v2
v2 2aL  a ... (6)
2L
2gL sin  . 1 g sin  g sin 
 a   ... (7)
1 2L 1   1( k2/R2 )

Q. 15. Derive an expression for pressure exerted by a liquid
column. ( 3 marks )
Ans. At a point at depth h below the surface of a liquid of uniform
density , the pressure due to the liquid is due to the weight per unit area of
a liquid column of height h above that point.
In the given figure, to find the p0
pressure due to the liquid at point P,
consider the cylindrical liquid column,
of cross section A and height h, above
that point.
The weight of this liquid column A h
 volume  density  acceleration
due to gravity
 (Ah)()(g) P
 Pressure due to the liquid at depth h

weight of the liquid column p

cross sectional area
Ahg Fluid (density, )
 hg
A
If the free surface of the liquid is open to the atmosphere, the pressure
on the surface is the atmosphere pressure p0. Then, the absolute pressure
within the liquid at a depth h is
pp0 hg
Q. 16. Derive the relation between surface tension and surface
energy per unit area. ( 2 marks ) OR
Show that the surface tension of a liquid is numerically equal to
the surface energy per unit area. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Suppose a soap film is isothermally stretched over the area
enclosed by a U-shaped frame ABCD and a movable cross-piece PQ, as
shown in the figure. Let T be the surface tension of the soap solution and l,
the length of wire PQ in contact with the soap film.
The film has two surfaces. Hence, the net force on the wire PQ is 2T l.
Suppose that wire PQ is pulled outward very slowly through a distance
dx to the position PQ by an external force F 2T l.
Work done in stretching a soap film

The work done by the external force against the force due to the film is
W  applied force  displacement
 W  Fdx  2T l d x
Due to the displacement dx, the surface area of the film increases by
A  2ldx
Thus, the work done per unit surface area is
W 2T l d x
 T
A 2ldx
This work is stored in the unit surface area of the liquid in the form of
potential energy and is called the surface energy. Thus, the surface energy
per unit area of a liquid is equal to its surface tension.
Q. 17. Derive an expression for the excess pressure inside a liquid

drop. OR
Derive Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a small spherical liquid drop with a radius R. It has a
convex surface, so that the pressure p on the concave side (inside the liquid)
is greater than the pressure p0 on the convex side (outside the liquid). The
surface area of the drop is
A 4R2 ... (1)
Imagine an increase in radius by an infinitesimal amount dR from the
equilibrium value R. Then, the differential increase in surface area would be
dA 8R · dR ... (2)
The increase in surface energy would be equal to the work required to
increase the surface area :
dW T · dA 8TR dR ... (3)
We assume that dR is so small that the pressure
inside remains the same, equal to p. All parts of the
surface of the drop experience an outward force per
unit area equal to p  p0. Therefore, the work done
by this outward pressure-developed force against the
surface tension force during the increase in radius dR
is Infinitesimal increase dR
dW (excess pressure  surface area) · dR in the radius of a liquid drop
 (p  p0)  4R2 · dR ... (4)

From Eqs. (3) and (4),
(p  p0)  4R2 · dR 8TR dR
2T
 p  p0  ... (5)
R
which is called Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane (or Young-Laplace
equation in spherical form).
Q. 18. Derive an expression for capillary rise for a liquid having
a concave meniscus. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a capillary tube of radius r partially immersed into a
wetting liquid of density . Let the capillary rise be h and  be the angle of
contact at the edge of contact of the concave meniscus and glass.
Method 1 : (Using Laplace’s formula)

If R is the radius of curvature of the meniscus then from the figure,
rR cos .
Analysing capillary action using Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane
Surface tension T is the tangential force per unit length acting along
the contact line. It is directed into the liquid making an angle  with the
capillary wall. We ignore the small volume of the liquid in the meniscus.
The gauge pressure within the liquid at a depth h, i.e., at the level of the
free liquid surface open to the atmosphere, is
pp0 gh ... (1)
By Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane, this gauge pressure is
2T
pp0  ... (2)
R
2T 2T cos 
 hg 
R r
2T cos 
 h ... (3)
rg
Equation (3) gives the required expression.

Method 2 : (Using forces on the liquid column)
Analysing capillary action using forces on the liquid column

Surface tension T is the tangential force per unit length acting along
the contact line. It is directed into the liquid making an angle  with the
capillary wall. According to Newton’s third law of motion, the capillary
wall exerts an equal and opposite reaction lFT on the liquid. Thus, the
magnitude of the net force due to surface tension along the perimeter of the
solid-liquid interface within the capillary is
FT T 2r 2rT
The horizontal components FT sin  along the perimeter of the solid-
liquid interface of the meniscus add up to zero and the net upward force due
to surface tension along the perimeter,
FT cos  2rT cos  ... (1)
supports the weight of the liquid column of height h. Ignoring the small
volume of the liquid in the meniscus, the volume and weight of the liquid
column in the capillary is
Vr2h and mgVg (r2h) g ... (2)
So, at equilibrium, net upward force
 weight of liquid column (vertically down)
 2r T cos  (r2h) g
2T cos 
 h ... (3)
rg
Equation (3) gives the required expression. (Write any one method.)
Q. 19. Obtain an expression for conservation of mass starting
from the equation of continuity. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a fluid in steady or streamline flow, that is, its density is
constant. The velocity of the fluid within a flow tube, while everywhere
parallel to the tube, may change its magnitude. Suppose the velocity is lv1, at
point P and lv2 at point Q. If A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the tube
d
at these two points, the volume flux across A1, (V1)  A1v1 and that across
dt
d
A2, (V2)  A2v2
dt
By the equation of continuity of flow for a fluid,

A1v1  A2v2
d d
i.e., (V1)  (V2)
dt dt
If 1 and 2 are the densities of the fluid at P and Q, respectively, the
mass flux across A1,
d d
(m1)  (1V1)  A11v1
dt dt
d d
and that across A2, (m2)  (2V2)  A22v2
dt dt
Since no fluid can enter or leave through the boundary of the tube, the
conservation of mass requires the mass fluxes to be equal, i.e.,
d d
(m1)  (m2)
dt dt
i.e., A11v1  A22v2
i.e., Av  constant
which is the required expression.
Q. 20. Assuming the expression for the pressure exerted by an

3
idealgas,provethat(1)thekineticenergypermoleofthegas  RT
2
(2) the rms speed of a gas molecule, vrms  ef3RT / M0 . ( 3 marks )
Ans. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the pressure P exerted
by a gas is
1 1 M
P  v2rms  v2rms
3 3 V
1
 P V  mv2rms
3
where vrms is the root-mean-square (rms) speed of the gas molecules;
M, V and  are the mass, volume and density of the gas, respectively. If
there are n moles of the gas and M0 is the molar mass, MnM0 , so that
1
PV  nM0v2rms ... (1)
3
The equation of state of an ideal gas is
PV  nRT ... (2)
where T is the absolute temperature of the gas and R is the molar gas
constant.
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
1
nM0v2rms  nRT
3
 M0v2rms  3RT ... (3)
1 3
 M0v2rms  RT ... (4)
2 2
where the term on the left-hand side is the kinetic energy of one mole of
the gas.
3
 Kinetic energy per mole of the gas  RT ... (5)
2
From Eq. (3),
v2rms  3RT / M0
 vrms  ef3RT / M0 ... (6)
In Eq. (6), R and M0 are constant so that vrms  efT . Thus, the rms
speed of a gas molecule is directly proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature of the gas.
Q. 21. Prove that the average kinetic energy per molecule of an
3
ideal gas is kBT . OR
2
Give the interpretation of temperature according to the kinetic
theory of gases. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider n moles of an ideal gas in a container of volume V. If m
is the mass of a gas molecule and vrms is the root-mean-square speed of the
gas molecules then, by the kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by the gas is
1 Nm 2
P v rms ... (1)
3 V
where N is the number of molecules of the gas; N  nNA , where NA is the

Avogadro number.
 PV  Nmv2rms  N ( mv2rms )
1 2 1
... (2)
3 3 2
The equation of state of an ideal gas is
PV  nRT ... (3)
N ( mv2rms )  nRT
2 1

3 2
RT  ( ) RT 
1 3n 3 N/NA 3 R
 mv2rms  T ... (4)
2 2N 2 N 2 NA
The left-hand side is the average kinetic energy per molecule and
R
 kB , the Boltzmann constant.
NA
3
 Average KE per molecule  kB T ... (5)
2
Therefore, the average kinetic energy per molecule of an ideal gas is

directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
This equation is the relation between the average kinetic per molecule
of a gas and the absolute temperature which is the macroscopic parameter
of the gas. The absolute temperature of a gas is a measure of the average
kinetic energy per molecule of the gas. This result is called the kinetic
intepretation of temperature.
Q. 22. Derive Mayer’s relation between the molar specific heat
capacities of a gas at constant pressure and that at constant volume. OR
Using the first law of thermodynamics, show that for an ideal gas,
the difference between the molar specific heat capacities at constant
pressure and at constant volume is equal to the molar gas constant R.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a cylinder of volume V containing n moles of an ideal
gas at pressure P, fitted with a piston of area A. Suppose, the gas is heated
at constant pressure which raises its temperature by dT. The gas exerts a
total force FPA on the piston which moves outward a small distance dx,
as shown.
Expansion of a gas at constant pressure

The work done by the force in moving the piston is
dWFdxPAdxPdV ... (1)
where AdxdV is the increase in volume of the gas during the expansion.
dW is the work done by the gas on the surroundings as a result of the
expansion. If the heat supplied to the gas is dQP and the increase in its
internal energy is dE then, by the first law of thermodynamics,
dQP  dEdWdEPdV
If CP is the molar specific heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure,
dQPnCP dT.
 nCP dTdEPdV ... (2)
On the other hand, if the gas was heated at constant volume (instead of
at constant pressure) from the initial state such that its temperature increases
by the same amount dT, then dW0. Since the internal energy of an ideal
gas depends only on the temperature, the increase in internal energy would
again be dE. If dQV was the heat supplied to the gas in this case, by the first
law of thermodynamics and the definition of molar specific heat capacity at
constant volume (CV ),
dQV  dE  nCV dT ... (3)
nCP dT  nCV dT  PdV
P dV
 CP CV  ... (4)
n dT
The equation of state of an ideal gas is PVnRT. Therefore, at a constant
pressure,
PdVnR dT
dV nR
  ... (5)
dT P
P nR
CP CV  ·  R ... (6)
n P
This is Mayer’s relation between CP and CV.
Here, heat and work are expressed in the same units.
Q. 23. State the law of equipartition of energy and hence calculate
the molar specific heat of mono- and diatomic gases at constant volume
and constant pressure. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Law of equipartition of energy : The energy of the molecules
of a gas, in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T and containing large
number of molecules, is equally divided among their available degrees of
freedom, with the energy per molecule for each degree of freedom equal to
1
kB T, where kB is the Boltzmann constant. OR
2
The average energy associated with each quadratic term in the energy of a
molecule in a large sample of gas in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T
1
is kB T.
2
(i) Monatomic gas : Since an atom or a monatomic molecule can

have only translational motion, it has only three degrees of freedom. Hence,
the energy per molecule is 3 ( kB T)  kB T.
1 3
2 2
3 3
Therefore, the energy per mole is E  kB T NA  RT ... (1)
2 2
where NA is the Avogadro constant.
Therefore, the molar specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume is
dE 3 3
CV   NAkB  R
dT 2 2
where R is the universal gas constant.

By Mayer’s relation, CP CV R, where CP is the molar specific heat
capacity of the gas at constant pressure.
3 5
 CP CV R RR R
2 2
(ii) Diatomic gas : A rigid diatomic molecule has three translational
degrees of freedom and two rotational degrees of freedom, each contributing
a quadratic term to the energy. Hence, the energy per molecule of a gas of
rigid diatomic molecules is 3 ( kB T)  2 ( kB T) kB T.

1 1 5
2 2 2
5 5
Therefore, the energy per mole is E  kB T  NA  RT ... (2)
2 2
dE 5 5
 CV   NAkB  R and
dT 2 2
5 7
CP CV R RR R ... (3)
2 2
A soft (or non-rigid) diatomic molecule has, in addition, one frequency

of vibration which contributes two quadratic terms to the energy.
Hence, the energy per molecule of a soft diatomic molecule is
E 3 ( kB T) 2 ( kB T)  2 ( kB T)  kB T
1 1 1 7
2 2 2 2
Therefore, the energy per mole of a gas of soft diatomic molecules is
7 7
E  kB T NA  RT ... (4)
2 2
dE 7
In this case, CV   R and
dT 2
7 9
CP CV  R  RR R ... (5)
2 2
Q. 24. Derive an expression for the net rate of loss of heat per
unit area by a perfect blackbody in a cooler surroundings. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a perfect blackbody at absolute temperature T. We
assume its surroundings also to act as a perfect blackbody at absolute
temperature T0, where T0  T.
The power per unit area radiated from the surface of a blackbody at
temperature T is its emissive power Rb at that temperature. According to the
Stefan-Boltzmann law,
Rb T 4
where  is the Stefan constant.
At the same time, the body absorbs radiant energy from the
surroundings. The radiant energy absorbed per unit time per unit area by
the blackbody is T 40 .
Therefore, the net rate of loss of radiant energy per unit area by the
blackbody is  (T 4 T 40 ).
[ Note : If the body at temperature T has emissivity e  1, (i.e., it is not a perfect
4
blackbody) the net rate of loss of radiant energy per unit area is e  (T 4 T 0 ).]
Q. 25. Obtain an expression for the work done by a gas in an
isothermal process. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider n moles of a gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a
movable, light and frictionless piston. Let Pi , Vi and T be the initial pressure,
volume and absolute temperature respectively of the gas. Consider an
isothermal expansion (or compression) of the gas in which Pf , Vf and T are
respectively the final pressure, volume and absolute temperature of the gas.
Assuming the gas to behave as an ideal gas, its equation of state is
PVnRT constant as T constant,
R is the universal gas constant. The work
done by the gas,
Vf Vf
W s PdV  s
nRT
dV
V
Vi Vi
nRT (ln Vf – ln Vi )
P – V diagram for an
nRT ln ( f)
V
isothermal process
Vi
Q. 26. Obtain the expressions for the work done, change in
internal energy and heat supplied in an isobaric process in the case of
a gas. ( 3 marks )
Ans. A process at constant pressure is called an isobaric process.
Consider n moles of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a
movable, light and frictionless piston.
Consider an isobaric expansion (or
compression) of the gas in which the volume
of the gas changes from Vi to Vf and the
temperature of the gas changes from Ti to Tf
when the pressure (P ) of the gas is kept
constant. The work done by the gas,
Vf Vf
W s PdVP s dVP (Vf – Vi ) ... (1)

P – V diagram for
an isobaric process
Vi Vi
Now, PVi nRTi and PVf nRTf

 PVf – PVi nRTf – nRTi
 P (Vf – Vi) nR (Tf – Ti)
Hence, from Eq. (1), WnR (Tf – Ti ) ... (2)
The change in the internal energy of the gas,
 UnCV (Tf – Ti) ... (3)
where CV is the molar specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume.
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we have, the heat supplied to the gas,
Q  UW nCV (Tf – Ti ) nR (Tf – Ti )
n(CV R )(Tf – Ti)
 QnCP (Tf – Ti) ... (4)
where CP (CV R ) is the molar specific heat capacity of the gas at
constant pressure.
Q. 27. Show that the work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic
nR(Ti Tf )
process, in the usual notations, is W . ( 3 marks )
 1
Ans. An adiabatic process is one in which there is no exchange of
heat between the surroundings and the system. Consider n moles of an ideal
gas enclosed in an athermanous cylinder fitted with a movable frictionless
piston. Suppose the gas expands adiabatically from initial pressure and
volume, Pi and Vi to final pressure and volume, Pf and Vf .

For an adiabatic process, PV k (constant), so that
 
kPi Vi Pi Vi ... (1)
where  is called the adiabatic ratio. CP is the molar specific heat of the gas
at constant pressure and CV is the molar specific heat at constant volume.
The work done by the gas,
Vf Vf
W s PdV  s
k
dV ... (2)
V
Vi Vi
Vf
 1
k s V dVk ( )
 V f V
 1 Vi
Vi
(Vf )
k  1  1
 – Vi
(1 )
1   1   1
 W (Pf Vf Vf – Pi Vi Vi )
(1 – )
PfVf – PiVi PiVi – PfVf
  ... (3)
1  –1
Also, by the ideal gas equation,

PiVi nRTi and PfVf nRTf ... (4)
where Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures of the gas, and R is the
universal gas constant.
nRTi – nRTf nR (Ti – Tf )
 W  ... (5)
 1  1
[Note : CP – CV R. Therefore, from Eq. (5) above,
n(CP CV) (Ti – Tf ) n(CP CV) (Ti – Tf )

W  nCV (Ti – Tf ) ]
CP (CP – CV)
1
CV CV
Q. 28. Using the differential equation of linear SHM, obtain the

expression for (a) velocity (b) acceleration in SHM. ( 3 marks )
Ans. The differential equation of a linear SHM in scalar form is
d 2x k
 x0
dt 2 m
k
Let   2, a constant.
m
d 2x
2
  2x  0
dt
d 2x
 Acceleration, a   2x ... (1)
dt 2
The minus sign shows that the acceleration and the displacement have
dx
opposite directions. Writing v  as the velocity of the particle.
dt
d 2x dv dv dx dv dv
a 2
  .  .vv.
dt dt dx dt dx dx
Hence, Eq. (1) can be written as
dv
v  2x
dx
 vdv  2x dx
Integrating this expression, we get

v2 2x2
 C
2 2
where the constant of integration C is found from a boundary condition.
At an extreme position (a turning point of the motion), the velocity of
the particle is zero. Thus, v0 when xA, where A is the amplitude.
2A2 2A2
 0 C  C
2 2
v2 2x2 2A2
  
2 2 2
 v2  2(A2  x2)
 v   efA2  x2 ... (2)
This equation gives the velocity of the particle in terms of the
displacement, x. The velocity towards right is taken to be positive and that
towards left as negative.
Q. 29. From the definition of linear SHM, derive an expression
for the angular frequency of a body performing linear SHM. (2 marks)
Ans. When a body of mass m performs linear SHM, the restoring
force on it is always directed towards the mean position and its magnitude
is directly proportional to the magnitude of the displacement of the body
from the mean position. Thus, if lF is the force acting on the body when its
displacement from the mean position is lx,
lF m la  k lx
where the constant k, the force per unit displacement, is called the force
constant.
k
Let 2, a constant.
m
k
 Acceleration, a  x 2x
m
 The angular frequency,
k a
 ij ij
m x  
 efacceleration per unit displacement
Q. 30. Discuss analytically the composition of two linear SHMs of

the same period and along the same line. Find the resultant amplitude
 
when the phase difference is (1) zero (2) rad (3) rad (4)  rad.
3 2
( 4 marks ) OR
Discuss analytically the composition of two linear SHMs along
the same path and having the same period. Obtain the expression for
the resultant amplitude. Find the resultant amplitude when the phase
difference is

(i) zero (ii) rad. (July ’22) ( 4 marks )
2
Ans. Let a particle be subjected to two linear SHMs of the same period,
along the same line and having the same mean position, represented by
x1  A1 sin (t  ) and x2  A2 sin (t ),
where A1 and A2 are the amplitudes and  and  are the initial phases of the
two SHMs.
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement
of the particle at any instant t is the algebraic sum x  x1  x2.
 x  A1 sin (t  )  A2 sin (t  )
 A1 sin t cos A1 cos t sin A2 sin t cos A2 cos t sin 
 (A1 cos   A2 cos  ) sin t  (A1 sin   A2 sin  ) cos t
Let A1 cos   A2 cos   R cos  ... (1)
and A1 sin   A2 sin   R sin  ... (2)
 x  R cos  sin t  R sin  cos t
 x  R sin (t  ) ... (3)
Equation (3), which gives the displacement of the particle, shows that
the resultant motion is also linear simple harmonic, along the same line as
the SHMs superposed, with amplitude R  and initial phase  but having the
same mean position and the same period as the individual SHMs.
Amplitude of the resultant motion :
R2  R2 cos2  R2 sin2
R2  (A1 cos   A2 cos )2  (A1 sin   A2 sin  )2
 A21 cos2  A 22 cos2  2A1A 2 cos  cos  
A 21 sin2  A 22 sin2  2A1 A 2 sin  sin 
 A 21 (cos2   sin2)  A 22 (cos2  sin2) 

2A1A 2 (cos  cos   sin  sin )
2 2 2
 R  A1  A2  2A1 A 2 cos (  )
  R  ghA12  A 22  2A1 A 2 cos (  ) ... (4)
Initial phase of the resultant motion :
R sin  A sin   A 2 sin 
 tan   1
R cos  A1 cos   A 2 cos 
   tan1( )
A1 sin   A 2 sin 
... (5)
A1 cos   A 2 cos 
Now, consider Eq. (4) for R .
Case (1) : Phase difference,     0°
 cos (  )  1
  R   ghA12  A22  2A1A2  A1  A2
Case (2) : Phase difference,     /3 rad
  R   efA12  A 22 A1A2
1
 cos (  ) 
2
Case (3) : Phase difference,     /2 rad
 cos (  )  0
  R   ghA12  A22
Case (4) : Phase difference,      rad
 cos (  )  1
  R   ghA12  A22  2A1A 2   R   A1  A 2 
Q. 31. Obtain the expressions for the kinetic energy and potential
energy of a particle executing SHM. Hence deduce the expression for
total energy of the particle and show that the total energy is conserved.
( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider a particle of mass m performing linear SHM with
amplitude A. The restoring force acting on the particle is F  kx, where k
is the force constant and x is the displacement of the particle from its mean
position.
(1) Kinetic energy : At distance x from the mean position, the
velocity is
v   efA2 – x2
where  efk / m. The kinetic energy (KE) of the particle is
1 1
KE  mv2  m2 (A2 – x2)
2 2
1
 k (A2 – x2) ... (1)
2
If the phase of the particle at an instant t is t, where  is
initial phase, its velocity at that instant is
vA cos (t)
and its KE at that instant is
1 1
KE  mv2  m2A2 cos2(t)
2 2
1
 kA2cos2(t) ... (2)
2
Therefore, the KE varies with time as cos2.
(2) Potential energy : The potential energy of a particle in linear
SHM is defined as the work done by an external agent, against the restoring
force, in taking the particle from its mean position to a given point in the
path, keeping the particle in equilibrium.
Suppose the particle in the following figure is displaced from P1 to P2,
through an infinitesimal distance dx against the restoring force F as shown.
Potential energy of a particle in SHM

The corresponding work done by the external agent will be
dW  (  F )dx  kx dx. This work done is stored in the form of potential
energy. The potential energy (PE) of the particle when its displacement from
the mean position is x can be found by integrating the above expression
from 0 to x.
x 1
 PE   dW   kx dx  kx2 ... (3)
0
2
The displacement of the particle at an instant t being

xA sin (t)
its PE at that instant is

1 1
PE  kx2  kA2 sin2(t) ... (4)
2 2
Therefore, the PE varies with time as sin2.
(3) Total energy : The total energy of the particle is equal to the sum
of its potential energy and kinetic energy.
From Eqs. (1) and (2), total energy is
E  PE  KE
1 1
 kx2  k (A2 – x2)
2 2
1 1 1
 kx2  kA2  kx2
2 2 2
1 1
 E  kA2  m2A2 ... (5)
2 2
As m is constant, and  and A are constants of the motion, the total
energy of the particle remains constant (or is conserved).
Q. 32. Obtain the expression for the period of a simple pendulum
performing SHM. ( 3 marks ) OR
Deduce an expression for the period of a simple pendulum. State
the factors on which it depends. ( 4 marks ) OR
Show that the motion of the bob of a pendulum with small
amplitude is linear SHM. Hence obtain an expression for its period.
What are the factors on which its period depends ? ( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider a simple pendulum of length L , suspended from a rigid
support O. When displaced from its initial position of rest through a small
angle  in a vertical plane and released, it performs oscillations between
two extremes, B and C, as shown in the figure. At B, the forces on the bob
are its weight m lg and the tension lF1 in the string. Resolve m lg into two
components : mg cos  in the direction opposite to that of the tension and
mg sin  perpendicular to the string. mg cos  is balanced by the tension in
the string. mg sin  tends to restore the bob to the equilibrium position.
Restoring force, F   mg sin  ... (1)
If  is small and expressed in radian,
arc AB x
sin      
radius OB L
Simple pendulum
x
 F   mg   mg ... (2)
L
Since m, g and L are constant, F  (  x) ... (3)
Thus, the magnitude of the restoring force is proportional to the
magnitude of the displacement and the force is in the direction opposite
to that of displacement x of the bob from its mean position as indicated by
the minus sign. Hence, it follows that the motion of a simple pendulum is
linear SHM.
x x
Now, Fma mg mg  a g ... (4)
L L
a g
From Eq. (4), acceleration per unit displacement 

x

L
Period of SHM,
2 2 2
T
efacceleration per unit displacement efg / L
 

 T  2 i j
L
g
This expression shows that the period of a simple pendulum depends

upon the length of the pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity at the
place.
Q. 33. State the differential equation of angular SHM. Hence
derive an expression for the period of angular SHM in terms of (i) the
torsion constant (ii) the angular acceleration. ( 3 marks )
Ans. For the first part, refer to the answer to Q. 19 of the Solved
Model Question Paper in Part 1.
Also, from Eq. (2),
  pq

 
 mnangular acceleration per unit angular displacement
2 2
 T  ... (4)
 ef /
Equation (4) gives the expression for the period in terms of angular
acceleration.
Q. 34. Prove that under certain conditions a magnet oscillating in
uniform magnetic field performs angular SHM. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a bar magnet of magnetic moment , suspended
horizontally by a light twistless fibre in a region where the horizontal
component of the Earth’s magnetic
field is Bh. qm is the pole strength.
The bar magnet is free to rotate in
a horizontal plane. It comes to rest
in approximately the North-South
direction, along Bh. If it is rotated
in the horizontal plane by a small
displacement  from its rest position
( 0), the suspension fibre is
twisted. When the magnet is released,
it oscillates about the rest position in
angular or torsional oscillation.
The bar magnet experiences a
torque  due to the field Bh , which Restoring torque on a bar magnet
tends to restore it to its original angular by the horizontal component of
the Earth’s magnetic field
orientation parallel to Bh. For  small and expressed in radian, this restoring
torque is
 Bh sin Bh ... (1)
where the minus sign indicates that the torque is opposite in direction to
the angular displacement . Equation (1) shows that the torque (and hence
the angular acceleration) is directly proportional in magnitude of the
angular displacement but opposite in direction. Hence, for small angular
displacement, the oscillations of the bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field
are simple harmonic.
Q. 35. Obtain the expression for the period of a magnet in angular
simple harmonic oscillations in a uniform magnetic field.
( 4 marks )
Ans. Refer to the answer to Q. 34 above and continue :
d2
 II 2 ... (1)
dt
d2
where   the angular acceleration and I the moment of inertia of
dt2
the magnet about the axis of oscillation which is the transverse symmetry
axis of the bar magnet.
Therefore, the equation of motion of the bar magnet suspended horizontally
in the Earth’s magnetic field is
d2 Bh
  0 ... (2)
dt2 I
For this axis, the MI of a rectangular bar magnet of geometric length L and
width b is
L2 b2
I ... (3)
12
 From Eq. (2), the angular acceleration per unit angular displacement,
 B


 h
I
 The period of the oscillations,
 2 ij
2 I
T
ef / Bh

Q. 36. Explain analytically the formation of a stationary wave.
Whyisitcalledso ?Showthatnodesandantinodesareequallyspaced.
( 4 marks )
Ans. When two progressive waves having the same amplitude,
wavelength and speed propagate in opposite directions through the same
region of a medium, their superposition under certain conditions creates a
stationary interference pattern called a stationary wave.
Consider two simple harmonic progressive waves, of the same
amplitude A, wavelength  and frequency n  / 2, travelling on a string
stretched along the x-axis in opposite directions. They can be represented by
y1 A sin (tkx ) (along the x-axis) and ... (1)
y2 A sin (tkx ) (along the x-axis) ... (2)
where k 2 /  is the propagation constant.
By the superposition principle, the resultant displacement of the particle
of the medium at the point at which the two waves arrive simultaneously
is the algebraic sum
y  y1 y2  A [sin (tkx )  sin (tkx) ]
Using the trigonometrical identity,
sin C  sin D  2 sin ( ) cos ( ), we get

CD CD
2 2
y  2A sin t cos (  kx)
 2A sin t cos kx [B cos ( kx)  cos (kx) ]
 2A cos kx sin t ... (3)
 y  R sin t, ... (4)
where R  2A cos kx. ... (5)
Equation (4) is the equation of a stationary wave.
Stationary nature : The above equation shows that the resultant
disturbance is simple harmonic having the same period as that of the
individual waves and the amplitude R. R varies periodically with the
position x. The absence of the term,  kx in the sine function implies the
stationary nature, i.e., the resultant disturbance does not propagate along the
positive or negative x-axis. It follows that there is no energy transport in the
medium. Hence, it is called a stationary wave or a standing wave.
The absence of the term in t in the cosine function shows that each
particle vibrates with a fixed amplitude that varies only with the location (x )
of the particle.
Nodes and antinodes : The points at which the particles of the
medium are always at rest are called the nodes.
At nodes, R  0.
( B A  0 and k )
2x 2
 cos 0
 
2x  3 5 7
  , , , , ...,
 2 2 2 2
 3 5 7 
 x  , , , , ..., (2p 1) , ... ... (1)
4 4 4 4 4
where p 0, 1, 2, ... . Therefore, the distance between successive nodes is
  
[ 2 (p 1)  1 ]  (2p 1) 
4 4 2
The points at which the particles of the medium vibrate with the
maximum amplitude are called the antinodes.
At antinodes, R   2 A.
2x 2x
 cos 1   0, , 2 , 3 , ...
 
 3 p
 x  0, , , , ... , , ... (p 0, 1, 2, ...) ... (2)
2 2 2
Therefore, the distance between successive antinodes is
(p 1) ·  p 
 
2 2 2
 Distance between successive nodes distance between successive
antinodes   / 2.
From Eqs. (1) and (2), it can be seen that (i) the nodes and the
antinodes occur alternately and are equally spaced (ii) the distance between
a node and an adjacent antinode
    
 ( 2p 1 )  p  ( 2p 1 )  2p  .
4 2 4 4 4
Q. 37. Two organ pipes open at both ends have the same diameters
but different lengths. Show that the end correction at each end is
n l n2l2
e 1 1 , where the symbols have their usual meanings.
2(n2 n1)
( 2 marks )
Ans. Suppose two organ pipes, open at both ends and same inner
diameter d, have lengths l1 and l2. Then, the effective lengths of the air
columns are respectively
L1 l1  2 el1  0.6 d and
L2 l2  2 el2  0.6 d,
where e 0.3 d is the end correction for each open end.
The fundamental frequencies of the corresponding air columns are
v v
n1   and
2L1 2(l1  2 e)
v v
n2  
2L2 2(l2  2 e)
where v is the speed of sound in air.
 v 2n1( l1  2 e )  2n2(l2  2 e)
 n1l1  2n1en2l2  2n2e
 n1l1 n2l2  2(n2 n1) e
n l  n2l2
 e 1 1
2(n2 n1)
Q. 38. Explain the production of beats and deduce analytically
the expression for beat frequency. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider two sound waves of equal amplitude (A) and slightly
different frequencies n1 and n2 (with n1  n2) propagating through the same
part of the medium in the same direction. These waves can be represented
by the equations y1  A sin 2n1t and y2  A sin 2n2 t at x  0, where
y denotes the displacement of the particle of the medium from its mean
position.
By the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement
of the particle of the medium at the point at which the two waves arrive
simultaneously is the algebraic sum
y  y1  y2  A sin 2n1t  A sin 2n2t
Now, sin C sin D  2 sin ( ) cos ( )

CD C D
2 2
 y  2A sin [ 2 ( ) t ] ·cos [2 ( 1 )t]

n1  n2 n  n2
2 2
 2A cos [ 2 ( ) t ] ·sin [ 2 ( 1 ) t]
n1  n2 n  n2
2 2
Let R  2A cos [ 2 ( )t]

n1  n2 n1  n2
and n 
2 2
 y  R sin 2nt
The above equation shows that the resultant motion has amplitude  R 
which changes periodically with time. Period of beats is the period of
waxing (maximum intensity of sound) or the period of waning (minimum
intensity of sound).
The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the wave. It is maximum when  R  becomes maximum ( 2A) :
R  2A.
 cos [ 2 ( ) t ]  1
n1  n2
2
 2 ( ) t  0, , 2, 3, ...

n1  n2
2
1 2 3
 t  0, , , , ...
n1  n2 n1  n2 n1  n2
1
 Period of beats  period of waxing 
n1  n2
1
 Beat frequency   n1  n2
period of beats
[ Note : The intensity of sound is minimum (waning) when R 0.
 cos [ 2 ( ) t ]0
n1  n2
2
 2 ( ) t ,
n1  n2  3 5
, , ...
2 2 2 2
1 3 5
 t , , , ... ,
2 (n1  n2) 2 (n1  n2) 2 (n1  n2)
1
 Period of beats  period of waning 
n1  n 2
1
 Beat frequency  n1  n2
period of beats
Thus, waxing and waning occur alternately and the period of waning equals that of
waxing. ]
Assignments
1. Show that the minimum speed necessary for a motorcyclist riding
in horizontal circles in a well-of-death is given by v mnrg/ s.
(Ch. 1) (3 marks)
2. Using the principle of energy conservation, derive the expressions
for the minimum speeds of a particle at different locations along a
vertical circular motion controlled by gravity. (Ch. 1)
(Sept. ’21) (4 marks)
3. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a body rotating with
uniform angular speed (constant angular velocity). (Ch. 1)
(March ’22) (3 marks)
4. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a thin uniform
disc about its transverse symmetry axis. (Ch. 1) ( 3 marks )
5. Derive an expression for the pressure exerted by a gas on the basis
of kinetic theory of gases. (Ch. 3) (March ’22) ( 4 marks )
6. Assuming the expression for the pressure P exerted by an ideal
3
gas, prove that the kinetic energy per unit volume of the gas is P.
2
(Ch. 3) ( 2 marks )
7. Two organ pipes closed at one end have the same diameters but
different lengths. Show that the end correction at each end is
n l  n2l2
e 1 1 , where the symbols have their usual meanings.
n2  n 1
(Ch. 6) ( 2 marks )
————
Question
DERIVATIONS – II
Set (Chapters 7 to 16)
7

Q. 1. Derive the laws of refraction of light using Huygens’
principle. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a plane wavefront AB of monochromatic light
propagating in the direction AA incident obliquely at an angle i on a plane
refracting surface MN separating two optically transparent homogenous
mediums. Let v1 and v2 be the speeds of light in medium 1 (say, a rarer
medium) and medium 2 (a denser medium) respectively.
When the wavefront reaches MN at point A at t  0, A becomes a
secondary source and emits secondary waves in the second medium, while
ray BB reaches the surface MN at C at time t  T. Thus, BC  v1T. During
this time T, the secondary spherical wavelet originating at A covers a
distance v2T. Therefore, AE  v2T.
Refraction of light at a plane boundary between two media
209
With A as the centre, draw an arc of radius v2T in the denser medium.
It represents the secondary wavefront originating at A. Draw CE tangent to
the secondary wavefront. It is also tangent to all secondary wavelets emitted
by points between A and C.
As all the points on CE are in the same phase of wave motion, CE
represents the refracted wavefront in the denser medium. PP is the normal
to MN at A.
Ð AAP  Ð BACthe angle of incidence (i) and
Ð PAE  Ð ACE  the angle of refraction (r).
From ABC and AEC,
BC AE
sin i  and sin r 
AC AC
sin i BC/AC BC v1T v
     1
sin r AE/AC AE v2T v2
By definition, the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to
medium 1,
n2 v1
1 n2  
n1 v2
Here, n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2,
respectively.
n2 sin i
 
n1 sin r
 n1 sin i  n2 sin r ... (1)
This is Snell’s law of refraction.
Also, it can be seen from the figure, that the incident ray and the refracted
ray lie on the opposite sides of the normal and all three of them lie in the
same plane.
Thus, the laws of refraction of light can be deduced by Huygens’
construction of a plane wavefront.
If v1  v2 , i.e. n1  n2 , then r  i (bending of the refracted ray towards
the normal).
Q. 2. Derive conditions for occurrence of dark and bright fringes
on the screen. Derive a formula for the fringe width. OR
QUESTION SET 7 : DERIVATIONS – II 211
Obtain an expression for the path difference and fringe width of

the interference pattern in Young’s double-slit experiment. OR
Show that the fringe width is the same for consecutive bright and
dark bands. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Conditions for occurrence of dark and bright fringes on the
screen :
Consider Young’s double - slit experimental set up. Two narrow coherent
light sources are obtained by wavefront splitting as monochromatic light of
wavelength  issues out of two narrow and closely spaced parallel slits S1
and S2 of equal widths, as shown in the figure. The separation S1S2 d.
The interference pattern is observed on a screen placed parallel to the plane
of S1S2 and at considerable distance D (D z d) from the slits. OO is the
perpendicular bisector of segment S1S2.
P is any point on the screen at a distance y from O (y y D). The two
light waves from S1 and S2 reach P along paths S1P and S2P, respectively. If
the path difference (  l) between S1P and S2P is an integral multiple of ,
the two waves arriving there will interfere constructively producing a bright
fringe at P. On the contrary, if  l is a half-integral multiple of , there will
be destructive interference and a dark fringe will be produced at P.
Geometryofthedouble - slitexperiment(schematicdiagram)
From the right s PS2S2 and PS1S1,

(S2P)2  (S2S2)2  (PS2)2  (S2S2)2  (PO OS2)2
D2  ( y ) D2 y2 yd

d 2 d2
... (1)
2 4
and (S1P)2  (S1S1)2  (PS1)2  (S1S1)2  (PO OS1)2
D2  ( y ) D2 y2 yd

d 2 d2
... (2)
2 4
 (S2P)2  (S1P)2  2yd ... (3)
 (S2P  S1P)(S2P  S1P)  2yd
2yD
 (S2P  S1P)   l
(S2P  S1P)
In practice, D z y and D z d, so that S2P  S1P  2D
2yd yd
 Path difference,  l  ... (4)
2D D
Point P will be bright (maximum intensity), if the path difference,
d
 lyn n where n 0, 1, 2, 3...,
D
Point P will be dark (minimum intensity equal to zero), if
d 
ym  (2m 1) , where, m 1, 2, 3...,
D 2
For Point O, the path difference (S2O S1O)  0. Hence, point O will be
bright. It corresponds to the centre of the central bright fringe. On both sides
of O, the interference pattern consists of alternate bright and dark fringes
parallel to the slit for path difference n and ( m ) , respectively, as n

1
2
and m take values 1, 2, 3, ...... .
Let yn and yn  1, be the distances of the n th and (n 1)th bright fringes
from the central bright fringe.
yn d nD
 n  yn 
D d
yn  1 d (n 1) D
and  (n 1)   yn  1  ... (5)
D d
Hence, the distance between consecutive bright fringes, i.e., the fringe width,
D D
Wyn  1 yn  [(n 1) n]  ... (6)
d d
For successive dark fringes,
[m  ( m )] 
D 1 1 D
Wym  1 ym ... (7)
d 2 2 d
which is the same as in the case of bright fringes.
[Note : Phase difference corresponding to path difference l is
) l( )
2 2 yd
 y ( . Hence, in terms of phase difference, the condition for
  D
constructive interference is  yn n(2), where n 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., and that for destructive
interference is  ym ( m ) (2), where m 1, 2, 3, ... ]

1
2
Q. 3. In Young’s double-slit experiment, obtain an expression
for the intensity at a point P on the screen where the phase difference
between the two interfering waves is y. Hence explain the intensity
distribution in the interference pattern. ( 3 marks )
Ans. In Young’s double - slit experiment, suppose two interfering light
waves of equal amplitude arrive at a point P on the screen with a phase
difference y. Let their equations be
E1 E0 sin t and E2 E0 sin (t y) ... (1)
where E0 is the amplitude of the electric field vector.
By the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant electric field
at that point is the algebraic sum, EE1 E2
 E E0 sin tEo sin (t y)
E0 [sin t sin (t y)]
 2E0 sin (t y/2) cos (y/2) ... (2)
The amplitude of the resultant wave at P is
2E0 sin ( t )

y
... (3)
2
so that the intensity at that point,
I   2 E0 cos (y/2) 2
 I  4I0 cos2 (y/2) (as I0   E0 2 ) ... (4)
For yn n(2), where n 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., cos (y/2)  1 and there is a

constructive interference. So that the intensity is maximum at the centre of
a bright fringe, Imax  4I0.
For ym  ( m )(2), where m 1, 2, 3, ..., cos (y/2)  0 and there is a

1
2
destructive interference. So that the intensity is minimum at the centre of a
dark fringe, Imin 0.
Q. 4. Describe with a neat labelled ray diagram the Fraunhofer
diffraction pattern due to a single slit. Obtain the expressions for the
positions of the intensity minima and maxima. OR
Derive the conditions for bright and dark fringes produced due to
diffraction by a single slit. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
 illuminates a single slit of finite width a. On a screen some distance from
the slit, we observe a broad pattern of alternate dark and bright fringes. The
pattern consists of a central bright fringe, with successive dark and bright
fringes of diminishing intensity on both sides. This is called the diffraction
pattern of a single slit.
Consider a single slit illuminated with a parallel beam of monochromatic
light perpendicular to the plane of the slit. The diffraction pattern is obtained
on a screen at a distance D ( z a) from the slit and at the focal plane of the
convex lens.
Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit

We can imagine the single slit as being made up of a large number

of Huygens’ sources evenly distributed over the width of the slit. Then the
maxima and minima of the pattern arise from the interference of the various
Huygens’ wavelets.
So, consider the single slit as made up of two adjacent slits, each of
width a /2. Since the incident plane wavefronts are parallel to the plane
of the slit, all the Huygens sources at the slit will be in phase. They will
therefore be also in phase at the point P0 on the screen which is equidistant
from all the Huygens sources. At P0, then, we get the central maximum.
For the first minimum of intensity on the screen, the path difference
between the waves from the Huygens sources A and O (or O and B) is
/2, which is the condition for destructive interference. Suppose, the nodal
line OP for the first minimum subtends an angle 1 at the slit; 1 is very
small. With P as the centre and PA as radius, strike an arc intersecting PB
at C. Since D z a, the arc AC can be considered a straight line at right
angles to PB. Then, ABC is a right-angled triangle similar to OP0P and
Ð BAC1.
 BC a sin 1
 Difference in path length,
BC  PB  PA  (PB  PO)  (PO  PA)
 
  
2 2
 a sin 1 

 sin 1  1  (B 1 is very small and in radian) ... (1)
a
The other nodal lines of intensity minima can be understood in a
similar way. In general, then, for the mth minimum (m1, 2, 3, ...).
m
m  ...... (mth minimum) ... (2)
a
Between the above successive minima, the intensity rises to secondary

maxima when the path difference is odd-integral multiple of :
2
a sin m  (2m 1)  (m ) 

 1
2 2
i.e., at angles given by,
m  sin m  (m )
1 
... (mth secondary maximum) ... (3)
2 a
Q. 5. Derive the expressions for the distances of minima and

maxima from the central bright fringe for the Fraunhofer diffraction
due to a single slit. Hence find the width of the central maximum and
noncentral fringes. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Consider a single slit illuminated with a parallel beam of
monochromatic light perpendicular to the plane of the slit of width a. The
diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen at a distance D (z a) from the slit
and at the focal plane of the convex lens of focal length f.
Nodal lines for the mth intensity minimum subtends an angle m at the
slit such that
a sin m m ... (1)
where m 1,  2,  3, ... .
As the distance D z a, the angle m is very small. m is expressed in
radian.
y
 sin   tan    ... (2)
D
where y is the distance of a point on the screen from the centre of the
central bright fringe.
Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit

Let ymd and ymb be the distances of the mth dark point and the mth
bright point from the central bright point. At the mth dark point on either
side of the central bright point,
y 
md  md m ... (3)
D a
D
 ymd m ... (4)
a
At the mth bright point on either side of the central bright point,
 (m )
ymb 1 
mb  ... (5)
D 2 a
 ymb  ( m )
1 D
... (6)
2 a
Equations (4) and (6) respectively give the positions of the minima and
maxima from the centre of the diffraction pattern.
Width of the central maximum :
For m 1 in Eq. (4), the width of the central bright fringe is
2D
Wc  2y1d  ... (7)
a
The width of a noncentral bright or dark fringe is
D
Wnc  y(m  1) d  ymd  y(m  1) b  ymb  ... (8)
a
1
[Notes : (1) From Eqs. (7) and (8), Wnc  Wc . (2) If the lens is very close to the slit,
2
D  f, so that Wnc f / a and Wc  2f / a.]
outside a charged conducting sphere. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider an isolated spherical conductor A, of radius R and
carrying a charge Q, placed in a medium of permittivity e . Consider a point P
outside the conductor at a distance r from its centre. To find the electric
field intensity at P, we choose a spherical Gaussian surface S of radius r
through P and concentric with conductor A. A small element of this surface
containing P has an area dS as shown in the figure.
Electric field intensity at a point outside a charged conducting sphere
The charge Q is uniformly distributed over the outer surface of the

spherical conductor. Then, by symmetry, the electric field intensity at every
point on surface S is normal to the surface and has the same magnitude E.
If charge Q is positive, lE at every point on S is radially outward.
The charge on the sphere is Q  (4R2) ... (1)
The angle  between lE and dlS being zero for every surface element, the
electric flux through every element is
d  lE · dlS E dS
Therefore, the flux through the Gaussian surface S is
  < E dSE < dS ... (2)
< d S surface area of the sphere  4R 2
  E 4R2 ... (3)

Then, by Gauss’s theorem,
Q
  E 4R2 ... (4)
e
Q Q
 E  ... (5)
2
4er 4e0kr2
e
where e0 is the permittivity of free space and k is the relative permittivity
e0
(dielectric constant) of the surrounding medium.
(4R2) R2
 E  ... (6)
4er2 e r2
Equations (5) and (6) give the magnitude of the electric field intensity
at a point P outside a hollow spherical conductor. If the net charge Q
enclosed by the Gaussian surface is positive, lE is radially outward; if Q is
negative, lE is radially inward. Equation (5) shows that for a point outside a
hollow spherical conductor carrying a charge Q, the conductor behaves like
a point charge Q at its centre.
outside an infinitely long charged cylindrical conductor. ( 3 marks )
in Part 1.
Q. 8. A spherical shell, of radius b and carrying a charge Q, is
expanded to radius a. Find the work done by the electrical force in the
process. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a spherical conducting shell of radius r placed in a
medium of permittivity e. The mechanical force per unit area on the charged
conductor is
F 2
f 
dS 2e
where  is the surface charge density on the conductor. Given the charge
on the spherical shell is Q, Q/4r2. The force acts outward, normal to
the surface.
Suppose the force displaces a charged area element dS through a
small distance dx, then the work done by the force is
dWFdx ( dS ) dx
2
2e
During the displacement, the area element sweeps out a volume dVdS.dx.
4
Since V r3, dV 4r2dr
3
dV ( ) (4r2dr) 
2 1 Q 2 Q2 1
 dW  dr
2e 2e 4r2 8e r2
Therefore, the work done by the force in expanding the shell from radius
rb to ra is
a a
Q2
 12 dr Q [  1 ]  Q ( 1  1 )
2 2
W dW 
8e b r 8e r b 8e b a
This gives the required expression for the work done.
Q. 9. Using Coulomb’s law, obtain an expression for the electric

potential energy of a system of two isolated point charges in free space.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a test charge q0 in the electric field lE of a source
charge Q in free space. The electric force acting on the test charge,
q0lE, is a conservative force. When the test charge is moved in the field at
constant velocity by some external agent, the work done by the field on
the charge is equal to the negative of the work done by the external agent
causing the displacement. Suppose the external agent moves the test charge
without acceleration from a point B, at a distance r1 from Q, up to a
point A, at a distance r, as shown in the figure.
A test charge moved from a point B to

apointAinthefieldofacharge Q
Since the electric field surrounding a point charge is not uniform, the
electrostatic force on q0 increases as it approaches Q. Consequently, the
external agent has to exert on q0 a force of increasing magnitude. Because
of the variable force, we imagine the total displacement to be made up of a
large number of infinitesimal displacements dl x. The distance dx is so small
that, at an average distance x from Q, the Coulomb force lF on q0 has a
constant magnitude
1 Qq0
F
4e0 x2
over the distance dx. e0 is the permittivity of free space. The force lFext by
the external agent is equal and opposite to lF at every instant : lFext lF.
Therefore, the infinitesimal work dW done by the external agent for the
displacement dl x is
dWlFext · dl xFext dxFdx
1 Qq0
 dW  dx
4e0 x2
The work done by the external agent in moving the test charge from A to B
is the line integral of dW between the limits xr1 and xr.
xr
r
dW   ( ) dx
1 Qq0
W 
xr1 r1 4e0 x2
r
1 dx
 Qq0  2
4e0 r1 x
r
Qq0 [  ]
1 1

4e0 x r1
Qq0 [   ( )]
1 1 1

4e0 r r1
Qq0 (  )
1 1 1

4e0 r r1
U
where U  UA  UB is the change in the potential energy of the test charge
in moving it from B to A. Choosing the potential energy of q0 to be zero
when it is infinitely far away from Q, i.e., r1 , its potential energy at a
distance r from Q is
1 Qq0
U(r) 
4e0 r
Thus, the potential energy of a system of two point charges q1 and q2, a
distance r apart is
1 q1q2
U(r)  .
4e0 r
Q. 10. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a system of
two point charges. (3 marks)
Ans. The electric potential energy of a system of point charges at rest
in free space is defined as the work done by an external agent against the
electric force in assembling the charges by bringing them from infinity
to their locations in the configuration, always keeping the charges in
equilibrium.
Consider assembling a system of two point charges q1 and q2 at points
A and B, respectively, in a region free of external electric field. Let lr1 and lr2
be the position vectors of A and B, respectively, with respect to an arbitrary

reference frame.
A system of two isolated point charges
In the absence of charge q2, since there is no external electric field in

the region, no work is done in bringing the first charge q1 from infinity to
A, so W10. Subsequently, due to q1, the potential at B is
1 q1
VB 
4e0 r21
where r21   lr21 , lr21  lr2lr1 being the position vector of B with respect
to A. Consequently, the work done by an external agent in bringing q2 from
infinity to B in the electric field of q1 is
1 q1q2
W2  VB . q2 
4e0 r21
Hence, the total work done is
1 q1q2
W  W1W2  0
4e0 r21
1 q1q2

4e0 r21
Since the charges were always kept in equilibrium, the change in the
potential energy UfUi equals W.
Since the charges were brought from infinity where their potential
energy is assumed to be zero, Ui  0. Therefore, the potential energy of the

system of two point charges is
1 q1q2
U  Uf 
4e0 r21
Q. 11. Derive an expression for the effective capacitance of three
capacitors connected in series. (Sept. ’21) ( 3 marks )
Ans. In the series arrangement of capacitors, they are connected end
to end and a cell is connected across their combination as shown in the
figure.
Capacitors in series
Let C1, C2, C3 be the capacitances of the three capacitors connected in
series and Q, the charge on each capacitor. Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential
differences across the capacitors.
Now, charge  capacitance  potential difference
 Q  C1V1  C2V2  C3V3
Q Q Q
 V1  , V2  and V3 
C1 C2 C3
If V is the potential difference across the combination and C is the
equivalent capacitance of the combination, we have
Q Q
C  V
V C
But, V  V1  V2  V3
Q Q Q Q
   
C C1 C 2 C3
1 1 1 1
   
C C1 C2 C3
In general, if n capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, C3, ..., Cn are
connected in series, the equivalent capacitance (C) of the combination is
given by
1 1 1 1 1
    ...  .
C C1 C2 C3 Cn
Q. 12. Obtain an expression for the equivalent capacitance of

three capacitors connected in parallel. ( 3 marks )
Ans. In a parallel combination of
capacitors, the capacitors are connected
across a cell. Hence, the potential difference
( V ) across each capacitor is the same. Let C1,
C2, C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors
connected in parallel and C the equivalent
capacitance of the combination. The charge
Q supplied by the cell is distributed as Q1,
Q2 and Q3 on the capacitors.
Capacitors in parallel
charge
Since, capacitance  ,
potential difference
Q Q Q Q
C1 1 , C2 2 , C3 3 and C 
V V V V
 Q1  C1V, Q2  C2V, Q3  C3V and Q  CV
Now, Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
 CV  C1V  C2V  C3V
 C  C1  C2  C3
In general, if n capacitors are connected in parallel, C  C1  C2  ...  Cn
Q. 13. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel-plate
air/vacuumcapacitor. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a parallel-plate capacitor, consisting of two parallel
plates A and B separated by a distance d as shown in the figure. Let A
be the area of each plate. Plate B is connected to the Earth. Suppose

that the capacitor is connected to the terminals of a battery of potential
difference V. The battery transfers a charge  Q to the insulated plate A.
A charge  Q is induced on the near surface of the grounded plate B while
the  Q charge on the far side of B flows to the ground.
A parallel-plate capacitor
If the area A is very large and the distance between the plates is very
small, the electric field in the region between the plates is almost uniform,
except near the edges. The magnitude of the electric field E at a point
between the plates and the potential difference V between the plates are
related by E  V / d. Outside the capacitors, the electric fields due to the
two charged plates cancel out :
 
  0.
2e0 2e0

But, E  , where  is the surface charge density on the plates.
e0
 V
  ... (1)
e0 d
Q Q V
Now,    E  ... (2)
A e0A d
Q
The capacity (capacitance) of a capacitor is, by definition, C 
V
e0A
 C ... (3)
d
This gives the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor without a dielectric,
i.e., an air or vacuum capacitor.
1
Q. 14. Show that the energy of a charged capacitor is CV 2. Also,
2
express this in other forms. OR
Derive an expression for the energy stored in a charged capacitor.
Express it in different forms. ( 3 marks )
Ans. To charge a capacitor, an external agent has to do work against
the electrostatic forces due to the charges already present on the plates of the
capacitor.
Let C be the capacitance of the capacitor. Let Q and V be the final charge
and the potential difference respectively when the capacitor is charged. Let
q be the charge on the capacitor at some stage during the charging and v, the
corresponding potential difference between the plates. The work done by
an external agent in bringing additional small charge dq from infinity and
depositing it on the capacitor is
dW  potential difference  charge v dq
q q
But, C   v
v C
q
 dW  dq
C
The total work done in charging the capacitor is
Q
q dq 1 q 2 Q 1 Q 2
W   dW    [ ] 
0 C C 2 0 2 C
Now, Q  CV
1 1 1
 W  CV 2  ( CV ) V  QV
2 2 2
This work is stored in the form of potential energy, in the electric field
in the medium between the plates of the capacitor.
2
1Q 1 1
 Energy of a charged capacitor   CV 2  QV
2 C 2 2

Q. 15. Obtain the balancing condition in Wheatstone’s network.
( 3 marks )
Ans. Wheatstone’s network ( or bridge ) is a circuit for indirect
measurement of resistance by null comparison method by comparing with
a standard known resistance. It consists of four resistances P, Q, R and S

joined in a quadrilateral ABCD. A cell E is connected across one diagonal
AC and a galvanometer G across the other diagonal BD.
Wheatstone’s network
With the key K closed, currents pass through the resistors and, in
general, the galvanometer. One or more of the resistances is adjusted until
no deflection in the galvanometer can be detected. The bridge is then said
to be balanced.
Let I be the current drawn from the cell. At junction A, it divides into
a current I1 through P and a current I2 through S.
I I1  I2 ... (by Kirchhoff’s first law) ... (1)
At junction B, I1 divides into a current Ig through the galvanometer
and I1 Ig through Q. At junction D, I2 and Ig combine so that the
current through R is I2 Ig . The current leaving the junction C is
(I1 Ig)  (I2 Ig) I1 I2 I.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loops ABDA and BCDB gives
respectively
I1PIgGI2S 0 ... (2)
 (I1 Ig) Q (I2 Ig) RIgG 0 ... (3)
The bridge is balanced when the current through the galvanometer Ig0.
Therefore, the same current I1 passes through P and Q. Likewise the same
current I2 passes through S and R. From Eqs. (2) and (3), we get
I1PI2S ... (4)

and I1QI2R ... (5)
P S
Dividing Eq. (4) by Eq. (5),  (Condition of balance) ... (6)
Q R
Q. 16. Explain how a moving-coil galvanometer can be converted
into a voltmeter. Derive the necessary formula. ( 2 marks )
Ans. A moving-coil galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter
by increasing its effective resistance by connecting a high resistance Rs in
series with the galvanometer. The series resistance protects the meter and
increases the range of the meter.
Let G be the resistance of the galvanometer coil and Ig the current
required for full-scale deflection.
Let V be the maximum p.d. to be measured. Then, the series resistance
Rs should be such that the current Ig passes through the galvanometer when
the p.d. V is applied across the instrument.
A voltmeter is a modified galvanometer
In the series combination, the p.d. V gets divided across the

galvanometer and the resistance Rs :
V IgG  IgRs Ig ( G  R s)
V
 Rs  G
Ig
This gives the required value of the series resistance. The scale of the
galvanometer is then calibrated so as to read the potential difference in volt
directly.
Q. 17. For given positive ions in a cyclotron, obtain an expression

for the cyclotron frequency. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider positive ions of charge q and mass m injected in a
cyclotron. In the electric-field-free region inside a dee, the ions are acted
upon only by the uniform magnetic field. Hence, inside a dee the ions travel
in a semicircular path with a constant speed v, in a plane normal to the
magnetic field. If B is the induction of the magnetic field, the magnetic
force of magnitude qvB is the centripetal force. If r is the radius of the path,
mv2
 qvB
r
mv
 r ... (1)
qB
If t be the time spent in a dee by the ion to describe the semicircular path,
r  mv
t  
v v qB
m
 t ... (2)
qB
Thus, t is independent of r and v, i.e., it takes the ions exactly the same
time t to travel the semicircular paths inside the dees irrespective of the
radius of the path and the speed of the particle.
The period of revolution of an ion in its circular path is
2m
T 2t ... (3)
qB
The frequency of revolution,
1 qB
f  ... (4)
T 2m
is called the cyclotron frequency or the magnetic resonance frequency.
It is independent of r and v for a given ion species and remains constant so
long as the mass m is constant.
Q. 18. Show that for a given positive ion species in a cyclotron,
(i) the radius of their circular path inside a dee is directly proportional
to their speed (ii) the maximum ion energy is directly proportional to
the square of the magnetic induction. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Refer to the answer to Q. 17 above. Derive up to Eq. (2) and continue :
From Eq. (1), for given q, m and B, rv
qBr
Also, from Eq. (1), v ... (3)
m
If R is the maximum radius of the path, the same as the radius of the dee,
just before the ions are deflected out of the accelerator,
qBR
vmax  ... (4)
m
so that KEmax  mv 2max m ( )

1 1 q2B2R2
2 2 m2
q2B2R2
 (in joule) ... (5)
2m
q2B2R2
 (in eV)
2em
Thus, for a given ion species and dees of given radius,
KEmax  B2 ... (6)
Q. 19. Derive an expression for the magnetic force experienced
by a straight current-carrying conductor placed in a uniform magnetic
field. (3 marks)
Discuss the cases when the force is maximum and minimum.
(1 mark)
Ans. Consider a straight current-carrying conductor placed in a region
of uniform magnetic field of induction lB pointing out of the page, as shown
in the figure by the evenly placed dots. Let the length of the conductor
inside the field be l and the current in it be I.
In metallic conductors, electrons are the charge carriers. The direction
of conventional current is, however, taken to be that of flow of positive
charge which is opposite to the electron current.
Let dq be the positive charge passing through an element of the
conductor of length dl in time dt. dl l has the same direction as that of the
current. Then, I  dq/dt ... (1)
and drift velocity, lvd  dl l/dt ... (2)
Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
The magnetic force on the charge dq is

dl l
lfm  dq (lvdlB )  dq ( lB)
dt
 I (dl llB ) (B I  dq/dt)
The charge dq is constrained to remain within the conductor. Hence,
the conductor itself experiences this force. The force on the entire part of
the conductor within the region of the magnetic field is
lF  & lfm  I (& dl l)lB
 I ll lB ... (3)
In magnitude, F  I l B sin  ... (4)
where  is the smaller angle between l l and lB.
Case 1 : When the conductor is parallel to the magnetic field, l l is parallel
or antiparallel to lB according as the current is in the direction of lB or
opposite to it; then   0° or   180°, so that sin   0. Hence, in either
of these two cases, F  0.
Case 2 : The maximum value of the force is Fmax  I l B, when sin   1,
that is, when the conductor lies at right angles to lB (  90°).
Q. 20. Using Biot-Savart’s law, obtain the expression for the

magnetic induction near a straight infinitely long current-carrying
wire. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Suppose a point P is at a distance a from a straight, infinitely
long, wire carrying a current I, as shown in the figure. The incremental
l is
magnetic induction dlB at point P due to a current element I dl
l
dlB  ( )
0 I dl 6r
... (1)
4 r 2
where 6r is a unit vector along l r.

In magnitude,
dB ( 0 )
 I dl sin 
... (2)
4 r2
At point P, dlB is directed perpendicular
to the plane of the figure and into of
the page as given by the right hand
l
rule for the direction of dl 6r.
At point P, dlB has this same
direction for all the current elements
into which the wire can be divided.
Thus, we can find the magnitude of
the magnetic field produced at P by the
current elements in the lower half of
the infinitely long wire by integrating Magnetic induction near a current
in a straight, infinitely long wire
dB in Eq. (2), from 0 to .
Now consider a current element in the upper half of the wire, one that
is as far above P as I ldl is below P. By symmetry, the magnetic field
produced at P by this current element has the same magnitude and direction
l in figure. Thus, the magnetic field produced by the upper
as that from I dl
half of the wire is exactly the same as that produced by the lower half.
Hence, the magnitude of the total magnetic induction at P is
 
B   dB 2  dB
 0

0 I dl sin 
2 s ... (3)
4 0 r2
From the figure, r efl2 a2 .

a a
 sin  
r efl a2
2

 I dl a
 B 2 0 s
4 0 (l a ) efl a2
2 2 2

0 aI s
dl
 ... (4)
2 0 (l a2)3/2
2
l
2 0  2 [ 2 ]
 aI 1 l
4 a (l a2)1/2 l  0
0 2I  2I
 [1  0]  0 ... (5)
4 a 4 a
Q. 21. Show that currents in two long, straight, parallel wires
exert forces on each other. Derive the expression for the force per unit
length on each conductor. ( 4 marks )
Ans. When two currents pass in adjacent parallel straight conductors,
we may think of each of the currents as being situated in the magnetic field
caused by the other current. This results in a force on each conductor.
Consider two infinitely long, straight, parallel wires, each of length
l a distance s apart in vacuum, as shown in figure (a). The magnetic field
around the wire 1, carrying a current I1 has an induction of magnitude
B1  ( )
0 2I1
4 s
Force between two long parallel current-carrying conductors

Wire 2, with a current I2 in the same direction as I1, is situated in this

field. The direction of the field with induction lB1 at the position of wire 2,
given by the right hand [ grip ] rule, is perpendicular to the plane of the two
conductors, as shown. Hence, the force lF2 on wire 2 has a magnitude
F2 I2lB1  ( )
0 2I1I2l
... (1)
4 s
and is, by Fleming’s left hand rule, towards wire 1. Similarly, the magnetic
induction lB2 at the position of wire 1 has a magnitude
B2  ( )
0 2I2
4 s
and is also directed perpendicular to the plane of the wires. Hence, the force
lF1 on wire 1 has a magnitude
F1  I1lB2  ( )
0 2I1I2l
... (2)
4 s
directed towards wire 2. Thus, the two currents attract each other. lF1 lF2,
i.e., they are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Ampère found that the wires attracted each other when the currents in
them were in the same direction [Fig. (a)], and repelled each other when
they were in the opposite directions [Fig. (b)].
From the Eq. (2), the force per unit length acting on each wire is
( 0 ) 1 2
F  2I I
l 4 s
Q. 22. Using Ampère’s law, derive an expression for the magnetic

induction inside an ideal solenoid carrying a steady current. (3 marks)
Ans. An ideal solenoid is tightly wound and infinitely long. Let n be the
number of turns of wire per unit length and I the steady current in the solenoid.
For an ideal solenoid, the magnetic induction lB inside is reasonably
uniform over the cross section and parallel to the axis throughout the
volume enclosed by the solenoid; lB outside is negligible.
As an Ampèrian loop, we choose a rectangular path PQRS of length l
parallel to the solenoid axis. The width of the rectangle is taken to be
sufficiently large so that the side RS is far from the solenoid where lB 0.
The line integral of the magnetic induction around the Ampèrian loop in
sense PQRSP is
Magnetic induction inside an ideal current-carrying

solenoid and the Ampèrian loop
R S P
< lB · ldl  lB · ldl lB ·dl

l  lB ·dl
l  lB · ldl
Q
s s s s ... (1)
P Q R S
lB has the same magnitude inside and is parallel to side PQ. Hence, as
we go in the same direction as lB from P to Q, lB and dl
l are parallel so that
lB ·dl
l 
Q Q Q
s s B dl  B s dl  B l ... (2)
P P P
Along the paths Q  R and S  P, lB is perpendicular to ldl inside the

solenoid while lB  0 outside.
R P
 s lB ·dl
l s lB · ldl  0 ... (3)
Q S
Also lB  0 along side RS, so that

S
s lB · ldl  0 ... (4)

R
Thus, from Eqs. (1), (2), (3) and (4),

< lB · dl
l Bl ... (5)
The net current enclosed by the Ampèrian loop is

I encl  current through each turn  number of turns enclosed by the loop
I  nl  n l I ... (6)
By Ampère’s law, in free space,
< lB · ldl 0 I encl , where 0 is the permeability of free space.
Therefore, from Eqs. (5) and (6), B l 0 n l I
 B 0 nI ... (7)
Q. 23. Derive an expression for the torque acting on a magnetic
dipole placed in a region of uniform magnetic induction. Express it in
vector form. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a magnetic dipole consisting of two point poles of
pole strength m a distance 2l apart with its axis inclined at an angle  to a
uniform magnetic field of induction lB, as shown in the figure. The magnetic
force on the positive ( or north ) pole is mlB, while that on the negative ( or
south ) pole is mlB. These two forces, equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and separated by a finite distance, constitute a couple which tends
to line up the magnetic dipole moment with the field lB.
Torque on a bar magnet

The torque of the couple in the clockwise sense in the figure in
magnitude, is
  (mB) d
where d is the distance between the lines of action of the forces.
(B m  )
M
   (mB) 2l sin   MB sin 
2l
Expressed as a vector product,
l  lM  lB
The torque has a maximum magnitude, (m2l) B  MB, when sin   1,

i.e., when the magnet is perpendicular to the field. The torque vanishes
when the magnet is parallel to the field, where sin   0.
Q. 24. Derive the expression for the time period of angular
oscillationsofabarmagnetkeptinauniformmagneticfield. (3 marks)
l suspended
Ans. Consider a bar magnet of magnetic dipole moment M,
by a light twistless fibre in a uniform horizontal magnetic field lB in such a
way that it is horizontal and free to rotate in a horizontal plane. In the rest
l is parallel to lB.
position 0, M
If magnet is given a small angular displacement  from its rest position
and released, the magnet performs angular or torsional oscillations about
the rest position.
Let I be the moment of inertia of the bar magnet about the axis of
oscillation and  the angular acceleration. The deflecting torque (in
magnitude) is
d 2
d  I  I ... (1)
dt 2
However, the restoring torque tries to bring back the oscillating bar
magnet in the rest position. The restoring torque (in magnitude) is,
r  MB sin  ... (2)
The minus sign in Eq. (2) indicates that restoring torque is opposite in
direction to the angular deflection.
In equilibrium, both the torques balance each other. From Eqs. (1)
and (2),
d 2
I  MB sin  ... (3)
dt 2
For small , sin   . Thus, Eq. (3) can be written as
d 2 d 2
 ( )
MB
I  MB  ... (4)
dt 2
dt 2 I
Eq. (4) represents angular simple harmonic motion.
MB
Writing 2  , the angular frequency  of the motion is
I
  ij
MB
... (5)
I
The time period of oscillations of the bar magnet is
 2 ij
2 I
T ... (6)
 MB
Q. 25. Show that the orbital magnetic dipole moment of a
revolving electron is evr / 2. ( 2 marks )
Ans. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron of charge
e revolves around the positively charged nucleus in a uniform circular
motion. Let r, v and T be the orbital radius, speed and period of motion of
the electron. Then,
2r
T ... (1)
v
The orbital motion of the electron constitutes a loop of conventional current
I in the opposite sense of its revolution.
e ev
I  ... (2)
T 2r
Therefore, the magnetic dipole moment associated with this electronic
current loop has a magnitude
M0  current  area of the loop
ev 1
I (r2)  r2  evr ... (3)
2r 2
as required.
Q. 26. Obtain an expression for the orbital magnetic moment of
an electron rotating about the nucleus in an atom. ( 3 marks )
Multiplying and dividing the right hand side of the above expression by the
electron mass me,
e e
Mo  (mevr)  L ... (4)
2me 2me o
where Lo mevr is the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of
the electron. lMo is opposite to lLo .
 lMo   lL
e
... (5)
2me o
Q. 27. Obtain an expression for the Bohr magneton.

(Sept. ’21) (3 marks) OR
Derive an expression for the orbital magnetic moment of an
electron revolving around the nucleus in an atom. State the formula for
the Bohr magneton. (July ’22) (3 marks)
eh
For n  1, Mo 
4  me
eh
The quantity is a fundamental constant called the Bohr
4  me
magneton,  B.
Q. 28. Derive an expression for the power expended in pulling a
conducting loop out of a magnetic field. ( 3 marks )
Ans. When an external agent produces a relative motion between a
conducting loop and an external magnetic field, a magnetic force resists
the motion, requiring the applied force to do positive work. The work done
is transferred to the material of the loop as thermal energy because of the
electrical resistance of the material to the current that is induced by the
motion.
Derivation : Consider a rectangular wire loop ABCD of width l , with
its plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of induction lB . The
loop is being pulled out of the magnetic field at a constant speed v, as
shown in Fig. (a).
Fig. (a) A closed conducting loop pulled out of a magnetic field

at a constant velocity (b) Equivalent circuit
At any instant, let x be the length of the part of the loop in the magnetic
field. As the loop moves to the right through a distance dx v dt in time dt,
the area of the loop inside the field changes by dA  l dx  l v dt. And, the
change in the magnetic flux dm through the loop is
dm  B dA  B Lv dt ... (1)
Then, the time rate of change of magnetic flux is
dm B L v dt
 BLv ... (2)
dt dt
By Faraday’s second law, the magnitude of the induced emf is
d
 E  m BLv ... (3)
dt
Due to the motion of the loop, the free electrons (charge, e) in the wire
inside the field experience Lorentz force el v lB . In the wire AD, this
force moves the free electrons from A to D, making them travel in the
anticlockwise sense around the loop. Therefore, the induced conventional
current I is in the clockwise sense, as shown.
Figure (b) shows the equivalent circuit of the loop, where the induced emf
E is a distributed emf and R is the total resistance of the loop.
 E  BLv
 I  ... (4)
R R
Now, a straight current-carrying conductor of length L in a magnetic
field experiences a force
lF  I l L  lB
whose direction can be found using Fleming’s left hand rule.
Accordingly, forces lF2 and lF3 on wires AB and CD, respectively, are
equal in magnitude ( IxB ), opposite in direction and have the same line
of action. Hence, they balance each other. There is no force on the wire BC
as it lies outside the field.
The force lF1 on the wire AD has magnitude F1 ILB and is directed
towards the left. To move the loop with constant velocity l v, an external
force lF lF1 must be applied. Therefore, in magnitude,
BLv2
 F F1 ILB  · LB ... [ from (3) ]
R
B2L2v
 ... (5)
R
Because B, L and R are constants, a force of constant magnitude F is

required to move the loop at constant speed v.
Thus, the power or the rate of doing work by the external agent is
P lF · l vFv
B2L2v2
... (6)
R
Q. 29. Derive an expression for the energy stored in the magnetic
field of an inductor. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider an inductor of self inductance L connected in a circuit.
When the circuit is closed, the current in the circuit increases and so does
the magnetic flux linked with the coil. At any instant, the magnitude of the
induced emf is
di
eL
dt
The power consumed in the inductor is
di
P e i L · i
dt
The total energy stored in the magnetic field when the current increases
from 0 to I in a time interval from 0 to t can be determined by integrating
this expression :
t I I
1
Um   Pdt   Li di L  i di LI 2
2
0 0 0
which is the required expression for the stored magnetic energy.

Q. 30. Obtain an expression for the self inductance of a solenoid.
( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a long air-cored solenoid of length l, diameter d and N
turns of wire. We assume that the length of the solenoid is much greater than
its diameter so that the magnetic field inside the solenoid may considered to
be uniform, that is, end effects in the solenoid can be ignored. With a steady
current I in the solenoid, the magnetic field within the solenoid is
B0nI ... (1)
where nN / l is the number of turns per unit length. So the magnetic flux
through one turn is
m  BA0 nIA ... (2)
Hence, the self inductance of the solenoid,
Nm
L  ( nl ) 0 nA 0n2 lA 0n2 V ... (3)
I
d 2
0 n2 l ... (4)
4
where VlA is the interior volume of the solenoid. Equation (3) or (4)
gives the required expression.
Q. 31. Derive an expression for the self inductance of a narrow
air-cored toroid of circular cross section. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider a narrow air-cored toroid of circular cross section of
radius r, central radius R and number of turns N. So that, assuming r z R,
the magnetic field in the toroidal cavity is considered to be uniform, equal
to
 NI
B  0 0nI ... (1)
2R
N
where n  is the number of turns of the wire per unit length. The area
2R
of cross section, A  r2. The magnetic flux through one turn is
m  BA  0nIA ... (2)
Hence, the self inductance of the toroid,
Nm
L  ( 2Rn ) 0 nA 02Rn2A 0n2V ... (3)
I
0N2r2
 ... (4)
2R
where V 2 RA is the volume of the toroidal cavity. Equation (3) or (4)
gives the required expression.
Q. 32. Show that the mutual inductance for a pair of inductively
coupled coils / circuits of self inductances L1 and L2 is given by
M  KefL1L2 , where K is the coupling coefficient. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a pair of inductively coupled coils having N1 and N2
turns.
A current I1( t ) sets up a magnetic flux N11 ( t ) in coil 1 and induces
a current I2( t ) and flux N22 ( t ) in coil 2. Then, the self inductances of the
coils are
N11 N22
L1  and L2  ... (1)
I1 I2
and their mutual inductance is
N221 N112
M  ... (2)
I1 I2
where N112 and N221 are the flux linkages of coils 1 and 2, respectively.
If K is the coupling coefficient,
21 K1 and 12 K2 ... (3)
N2(K1) N (K2)
 M  1
I1 I2
 MKL1 KL2 ... (4)
2 2
 M K L1L2
 MKef L1L2 ... (5)
as required.
Q. 33. What is the average or mean value of an alternating emf ?

Obtain the expression for it. (2 marks)
Ans. The average or mean value of an alternating emf is defined as its
average value over half cycle (because the average value over one cycle is
zero) and is given as
T/2
 e0 sin t dt T/2
0 2 e0 s
eav   sin t dt
T/2 T 0
[ ]
2 e0 cos t T/2

T  0
[cos ( )(1) ] 
2 e0 2 T 2 e0
 (11)
T T 2 T
2 e0 2
 .2  e  0.6365 e0.
 0
( )T
2
T
Q. 34. What is the rms value of an alternating current ? Find

the relation between the rms value and peak value of an alternating
current that varies sinusoidally with time. (2 marks)
Ans. The root mean square (rms) value of an alternating current i is, by
definition,
½
[ ]
T
 i2 dt
0
irms
T
where T is the periodic time, i.e., time for one cycle.
T T
If ii0 sin t,  i2 dt s i02 sin2t dt

0 0
T T
s
1cos 2t
Now,  sin2t dt dt
0 0 2
T T
dt   ( )0
s
1 s
cos 2t T 1 sin 2t T
 dt 
0 2 0 2 2 2 2
T 1
  (sin 2T  sin 0)
2 4
[sin 2 ( ) T  0]
T 1 2
 
2 4 T
T 1 T
  [0  0] 
2 4 2
T
  i2 dt  i20 ( )
T
0 2
1
 irms  [ ] 
i20 2 i0 ipeak
  0.707 i0
2 e2 e2
Q. 35. Show that in an AC circuit containing a pure inductor, the
voltage is ahead of current in phase by /2rad. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Suppose a sinusoidally alternating emf, ee0 sin t, of peak
emf e0 and angular frequency  is applied to a pure inductor of large self
inductance L. As the current in the inductor grows, a back emf opposes the
applied emf. By Faraday-Lenz’s law, the back emf e induced in the coil is
di
e L ... (1)
dt
where i is the current in the inductor. Now, assuming the resistance of the
coil to be zero, Kirchhoff ‘s voltage law applied around the closed circuit
gives
di
ee 0  e eL ... (2)
dt
That is, the applied emf must at every instant be (almost) equal and opposite
to the back emf to maintain the alternating current.
di e e0 sin t
  
dt L L
  di  s 0
e sin t
dt
L
e0
 i  cos tK
L
where the integration constant must be time independent and have the
dimension of current. As e oscillates about zero, i also oscillates about zero,
i.e., the current has no dc or time-independent component. Hence, K 0.
 i  0 cos t   0 sin ( t )  0 sin ( t )

e e  e 
... (3)
L L 2 L 2
e0
Writing i0  in Eq. (3),
L
i  i0 sin ( t )

... (4)
2
i0 is the peak current. Comparing the expressions for i and e, we see that
the current and the applied emf are 90° out of phase. The emf leads the
current by /2 rad. Equation (3) also shows that the current is inversely
proportional to both the frequency of the emf and the inductance.
Fig. (a) : An AC source connected to a pure inductor (b) Phasor diagram

Q. 36. A sinusoidal alternating emf is applied to a pure inductor of

large self inductance. Obtain an expression for the inductive reactance.
( 4 marks )
e e
i0  0  0 L ... (5)
L i0
The quantity L is known as the inductive reactance of the coil and
has the same dimensions as resistance. It is denoted by XL ,
XL L 2fL
and represents the resistance offered by the inductor to the alternating
current through it.
Q. 37. A sinusoidally alternating emf, ee0 sin t, is applied to a
capacitor of capacitance C. Find the expression for the current i in the
capacitor. Plot graphs of e and i versust. ( 4 marks ) OR
Show that in an AC circuit containing a pure capacitor, the current
leads the emf in phase by /2rad.Henceobtainanexpressionforthe
capacitive reactance. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Suppose a sinusoidally alternating emf, ee0 sin t, of peak emf
e0 and angular frequency  is applied to a pure capacitor of capacitance C.
As the emf in the circuit grows, the plates of the capacitor get charged
to a potential difference Ve. As the alternating emf grows and falls in
consecutive half cycles, the capacitor is alternately charged and discharged.
Fig. 1 : (a) An AC source connected to a pure capacitor (b) Phasor diagram

From the definition of capacitance, the charge on the capacitor is
qCV ... (1)
Both q and V are functions of time. Therefore, the instantaneous current in
the circuit is
dq d d
i  (CV) C (e0 sin t) Ce0cos t ... (2)
dt dt dt
Writing i0 Ce0 in Eq. (2),
ii0 cos ti0 sin ( t )


... (3)
2
where i0 is the peak current. Comparing the expressions for i and e, we see
that the current and the applied emf are 90° out of phase. The current leads
the emf by /2 rad. Equation (3) also shows that the current is proportional
to both the frequency of the emf and the capacitance. Figure 2 shows graphs
of e and i versus t.
The peak current, i0 Ce0.
e 1
 0 ... (4)
i0 C
1
The quantity is known as the capacitative reactance of the
C
capacitor. It has the same dimensions as resistance. It is denoted by XC .
Fig. 2 : Graphs of e and i versus t for a purely capacitive AC circuit
1 1
XC  
C 2fC
and represents the resistance offered by the capacitor to the alternating
current.
Q. 38. Derive an expression for the impedance of an LCR circuit
connected to an AC source. State the formula for the phase difference.
OR
Obtain an expression for the impedance of a resistor, pure inductor

and capacitor connected in series across a source of alternating emf.
State the formula for the phase difference. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Suppose a sinusoidally alternating emf e, of peak value e0 and
angular frequency , is applied to a circuit containing a pure inductor
(inductance L), a capacitor (capacitance C ) and a resistor (resistance R), all
ideal and in series, as shown in Fig. (a).
The impedance Z of the circuit is defined as the effective resistance
offered to an alternating current. The quantity which is the same for all the
circuit elements in series is the current. Let the current at any instant be
ii0 sin t, where i0 e0 / Z is the peak current.
The voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship
with the current. The voltage across the resistor, eR iR, is in phase with i.
The voltage across the inductor, eL iXL , leads /2 rad on i. XL L is the
inductive reactance. The voltage across the capacitor, eC iXC , lags /2 rad
1
on i. XC  is the capacitive reactance. Since the current is the same for
C
all the circuit elements, this is the first phasor drawn — horizontal with the
arrow pointing to the right. Other phasors are then drawn in relation to this,
as shown in Fig. (b).
Fig. (a) : An LCR series circuit (b) Phasor diagram

It can be seen in the phasor diagram, the voltages, eL and eC are in
antiphase, i.e., they oppose each other, so that the magnitude e0 of the
vector sum of all three voltages is
e0  ef e 2R  (eL eC)2 ... (1)

i0 ef R  ( XL XC )
2 2
 Z 0  ef R2  ( XL XC )2
e
... (2)
i0
Z is the impedance of the series LCR circuit and represents the resistance
offered by the circuit to the alternating current. Equation (2) is the required
expression.
The phase difference y between the emf and current is given by
e eC XL XC
tan y L  ... (3)
eR R
Q. 39. An emf ee0 sin t applied to a series LCR circuit drives a
current ii0 sin ( ty) in the circuit. Deduce the expression for the
average power dissipated in the circuit. (4 marks)
Ans. Instantaneous power,
P  ei(e0 sin t) [i0 sin (ty)]
e0 i0 sin t (sin t cos y cos t sin y)
e0 i0 cos y sin2t  e0 i0 sin y sin t cos t
Average power over one cycle,
work done in one cycle
Pav 
time for one cycle
T
 P dt
0

T
T
 [e0 i0 cos y sin2t  e0 i0 sin y sin t cos t ] dt
0

T
T T
[cos y  sin2t dtsin y  sin t cos t dt]
e0 i0

T 0 0
T
( ) dt
T
s
1cos 2t
Now,  sin2t dt 
0 0 2
T T
dt   ( )
s
1 s
cos 2t T 1 sin 2t T
 dt
0 2 0 2 2 2 2 0

T 1
  (sin 2Tsin 0)
2 4
[sin 2 ( ) T0]
T 1 2
 
2 4 T
T 1 T
  [00] 
2 4 2
Also,
T 1 T
 sin t cos t dt   sin 2t dt
0
2 0
T
 [ ]
1 cos 2t
2 2 0
[cos 2 ( ) Tcos 0]  
1 2 1
 [11]  0
4 T 4
e0 i0 T e0 i0
Hence, Pav  cos y  cos y
T 2 2
e0 i0
. cos y
e2 e2

 erms irms cos y  erms irms ( )

R
Z
where the impedance Z  ghR2(XLXC)2 .
Q. 40. Deduce the expression for the resonant frequency of a
series LCR circuit. (3 marks)
Ans. Suppose a sinusoidally alternating emf e, of peak value e0 and
frequency f, is applied to a circuit containing an inductor of inductance L,
a resistor of resistance R and a capacitor of capacitance C, all in series,
Fig. (a). The inductive reactance, XL, and the capacitive reactance, XC , are
1
XLL and XC  ... (1)
C
where 2f.
The rms values irms and erms of current and emf are proportional to one
another.
erms
irms  ... (2)
Z
where Z ghR2(XLXC)2 the impedance of the circuit.
Fig. (a) An LCR series circuit (b) The variation of

the current near the resonant frequency
The impedance Z drops to a minimum at the frequency fr for which

the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal (and opposite, in a phasor
diagram); i.e., when
XL  X C ... (3)
1
or rL 
rC
1
or 2r 
LC
1
... (4)
efLC
 r 
where r  2fr .
1
 fr  ... (5)
2 efLC
At this frequency, ZR and the phase angle y0, i.e., the combination
behaves like a pure resistance, and the current and emf are in phase.
Q. 41. Explain electrical resonance in an LC parallel circuit.
Deduce the expression for the resonant frequency of the circuit.
(3 marks)
Ans. Consider a capacitor of capacitance C, and an inductor of large
self inductance L and negligible resistance, connected in parallel across a
source of sinusoidally alternating emf [Fig. (a)]. Let the instantaneous value
of the applied emf be
e  e0 sin t
Fig. (a) A parallel LC circuit. (b) Variations

of the current and impedance near the resonant frequency
Let iL and iC be the instantaneous currents through the inductor and

capacitor respectively.
As the current in the inductor lags behind the emf in phase by /2 radian,
sin (t – )  –
e0  e0
iL  cos t
XL 2 XL
where XL is the inductive reactance.
As the current in the capacitor leads the emf by a phase angle of /2
radian,
e0 e0
iC  sin (t  /2)  cos t
XC XC
where XC is the capacitive reactance.
The instantaneous current drawn from the source is
i  iL  iC  e0 ( – ) cos t
1 1
XC XL
If XL  XC , i  0. Thus, no current is drawn from the source if
XL  XC. In such a case, alternating current goes on circulating in the LC
loop, though no current is supplied by the source. This condition is called
parallel resonance and the frequency of ac at which it occurs is called the
resonant frequency (fr ).
The condition for resonance is
XL  XC
1 1
 r L 
efLC
 r 
rC
r 1
 Resonant frequency, fr 
2efLC

2
In practice, every inductor possesses some resistance and hence even

at resonance, some current is drawn from the source. Also, the resonant
frequency is different from that for zero resistance.
The resonance curve shows the variation of current (irms ) and
impedance with the frequency of the ac supply, Fig. (b). At resonance the
current supplied by the source is minimum and the impedance of the circuit
is maximum.
Q. 42. On the basis of the de Broglie hypothesis, obtain the

expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron
accelerated from rest through a p.d. V. ( 2 marks ) OR
Obtain the relation for de Broglie wavelength. (July ’22) ( 2 marks )
Ans. Consider an electron accelerated from rest through a potential
difference V. Let v be the final speed of the electron. We consider the
nonrelativistic case, v y c, where c is the speed of light in free space. The
kinetic energy acquired by the electron is
1 1
KE  mv2  ( mv)2 eV ... (1)
2 2m
where e and m are the electronic charge and (nonrelativistic) mass.
 ( mv )2  2meV
The momentum of the electron, pmv
 p2 (mv)2  2meV
 p  mv ef2meV ... (2)
The de Broglie wavelength () associated with the electron is given by
the de Broglie equation
h
 ... (3)
p
where h is Planck’s constant.
h
... (4)
ef2m e V



Q. 43. Derive an expression for the radius of the nth Bohr orbit in
an atom. Hence, show that the radius of the orbit is directly proportional
to the square of the principal quantum number. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider an electron revolving in the nth orbit around the
nucleus of an atom with the atomic number Z. Let m and e be the mass
and charge of the electron, r the radius of the orbit and v the linear speed
of the electron.
According to Bohr’s first postulate, centripetal force on the electron
 electrostatic force of attraction exerted on the electron by the nucleus.
mv2 1 Ze2
  · ... (1)
r 4e0 r2
where e0 is the permittivity of free space.
Ze2
 v2  ... (2)
4e0mr
According to Bohr’s second postulate, the orbital angular momentum
of the electron,
nh
mvr  ... (3)
2
where h is Planck’s constant and n is the principal quantum number which
takes integral values 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
nh
 v
2mr
n2h2
 v2  ... (4)
42m2r 2
Equating the right hand sides of Eqs. (2) and (4),
Ze2 n2h2
 2 2 2
4e0mr 4 m r
 r( ) n2
e0 h2
... (5)
mZe2
Since e0, h, Z, m and e are constants, it follows that r  n2, i.e., the
radius of a Bohr orbit of the electron in an atom is directly proportional to
the square of the principal quantum number.
[Note : Substituting for r in Eq. (2) and simplifying,

Ze2 1
v  v as Z, e, e0 and h are constants.]
2e0nh n
Q. 44. Derive an expression for the energy of an electron in an
atom. OR
Derive an expression for the energy of the electron in a stable
orbit in an atom. Hence, show that the energy is inversely proportional
to (i) the radius of the orbit (ii) the square of the principal quantum
number. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider the electron revolving in the nth orbit around the
nucleus of an atom (atomic number Z). Let m and e be the mass and the
charge of the electron, r the radius of the orbit and v, the linear speed of
the electron.
According to Bohr’s first postulate, centripetal force on the electron
 electrostatic force of attraction exerted on the electron by the nucleus
mv2 1 Ze2
  · ... (1)
r 4e0 r2
where e0 is the permittivity of free space.
1 Ze2
 Kinetic energy (KE) of the electron  mv2  ... (2)
2 8e0r
The electric potential due to the nucleus of charge Ze at a point at a
distance r from it is
1 Ze
V ·
4e0 r
 Potential energy (PE) of the electron
 charge on the electron  electric potential
1 Ze Ze2
 e  ... (3)
4e0 r 4e0r
Hence, the total energy of the electron in the nth orbit is
Ze2 Ze2
E KE  PE  
4e0r 8e0r
Ze2
 E  ... (4)
8e0r
This shows that the total energy of the electron in the nth orbit of the atom is
inversely proportional to the radius of the orbit, as e0 and Ze are constants.
e0h2n2
The radius of the nth orbit of the electron is r  ... (5)
mZe2
where h is Planck’s constant.
( 2 2)  
Ze2 mZe2 mZ2e4
En   ... (6)
8e0 e0h n 8e 02h2n2
This gives the expression for the energy of the electron in the nth Bohr
orbit. The minus sign in the expression shows that the electron is bound to
the nucleus by the electrostatic force of attraction.
As m, Z, e, e0 and h are constants, we get
1
En  2
n
i.e., the energy of the electron in a stationary energy state is discrete and is
inversely proportional to the square of the principal quantum number.
Q. 46. Using the expression for the energy of the electron in the
nth orbit of a hydrogen atom, obtain Bohr’s formula for a hydrogen
spectral line. ( 3 marks )
Ans. According to Bohr’s third postulate for the model of the
hydrogen atom, an atom radiates energy only when an electron jumps from
a higher energy state to a lower energy state, and the energy of the quantum
of electromagnetic radiation emitted in this process is equal to the energy
difference between the two states of the electron. This emission of radiation
gives rise to a spectral line.
The energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom, when it is in an orbit
with the principal quantum number n, is
me4
En   2 2 2
8e 0 h n
where m mass of electron, e electronic charge, h Planck’s constant
and e0  permittivity of free space.
Let Em be its energies corresponding to principal quantum numbers m
and n, respectively, n  m.
me4 me4
Em  – 2 2 2
and En  –
8e 0 h m 8e 02h2n2
Therefore, the energy radiated for the transition of the electron from
the higher energy state to the lower energy state is
Em  En  2 2 2  (  )
 me4 me4
8e 0 h m 8e 02 h2n2
( 2  2)
me4 1 1
 2 2
8e 0 h n m
This energy is emitted in the form of a quantum of radiation (photon) with
energy h, where  is the frequency of the radiation.
 Em  En  h
 2 3 ( 2  2)
E  En me4 1 1
  m
h 8e 0 h n m
c
The wavelength of the radiation is  , where c is the speed of

radiation in free space.
1 
The wave number,    .
 c
   2 3 ( 2  2)R ( 2  2)
1 me4 1 1 1 1
 8e 0 h c n m n m
where R ( ) is called the Rydberg constant.

me4
8e 02 h3 c
This expression gives the wave number of the radiation emitted and
hence that of a line in hydrogen spectrum.
Q. 47. State the law of radioactive decay. Hence derive the relation
NN0e t, where the symbols have their usual meanings. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Law of radioactive decay : At any instant, the rate of
radioactive disintegration is directly proportional to the number of nuclei of
the radioactive element present at that instant.
Derivation : Let N0 be the number of nuclei present at time t 0 and N the
number of nuclei present at time t.
dN
From the law of radioactive decay, N
dt
dN
  N ... (1)
dt
where  is a constant of proportionality called the radioactive decay constant
or the disintegration constant. It is a constant for a particular radioactive
element. The minus sign indicates that N decreases as t increases. Equation (1)
is the differential form of the law.
dN
  dt ... (2)
N
Integrating Eq. (2),
N t t
s
dN s s
 dt   dt
N
N 0 0
0
 loge N loge N0  t
 loge ( )  t
N
... (3)
N0
N
  et
N0
 N  N0 et ... (4)

This is the exponential form of the law of radioactive decay. It shows that
the number of nuclei present decreases exponentially with time.
Q.48.Define half - life of a radioactive element and obtain the
relationbetweenhalf - lifeanddecayconstant. (2 marks)
Ans. The half-life of a radioactive element is defined as the average
time interval during which half of the initial number of nuclei of the element
disintegrate.
Let N0 be the number of nuclei of a radioactive element present at
time t  0 and N, the number of nuclei present at time t. From the law of
radioactive decay,
N  N0et
where  is the decay constant of the element.
N0
If T1/2 is the half-life of the element, then, N  when t  T1/2
2
N0
  N0eT
2
1
  eT
2
 2  eT
 loge 2  T1/2
loge 2 2.303 log10 2 2.303  0.3010

 T1/2   
  
0.693
 T1/2 

This is the relation between the half-life and the decay constant of a
radioactive element.
Q. 49. Derive the relation between the average life or mean life of
aradioactivespeciesandthehalf - life. (2 marks)
Ans. Let N0  number of nuclei present at time t  0 and   decay
constant of a radioactive species.
 dN    Ndt .  The number of nuclei decaying between time t and t  dt
is N0et dt. The life time of these nuclei is t. The average life or mean life
of a radioactive species is denoted by  and is, by definition,

s tN0et dt
1

N0
0

  s tet dt 
1

0
0.693
Now, T1/2

where T1/2 is the half-life of the radioactive species.
1 T1/2
  
 0.693
is the required relation.
Q. 50. What are the  and parametersforatransistor ?Obtain

a relation between them. ( 3 marks ) OR
Define dc and dc. Obtain the relation between them.
(July ’22) ( 3 marks )
Ans. The dc common-base current ratio or current gain ( dc ) is defined
as the ratio of the collector current (IC ) to the emitter current (IE ).
I
dc  C
IE
The dc common-emitter current ratio or current gain ( dc ) is defined
as the ratio of the collector current to the base current (IB ).
I
dc  C
IB
Since the emitter current IE IB IC ,
IE IB
 1
IC IC
1 1
  1
dc dc
Therefore, the common-base current gain in terms of the common-
dc
emitter current gain is dc 
1 dc
Or, the common-emitter current gain in terms of the common-base
dc
current gain is dc 
1 dc
Assignments
1. With the help of a neat diagram, explain the reflection of light on a
plane reflecting surface. (Ch. 7) (March ’22; July ’22) ( 3 marks )
2. In Young’s double-slit experiment, a glass slide of refractive index
ng and thickness b is placed in front of one of the slits. What
happens to the interference pattern and fringe width ? Derive an
expression for the positions of the bright fringes in the interference
pattern. (Ch. 7) (3 marks)
3. Obtain an expression for the electric field intensity at a point

outside a uniformly charged thin infinite plane sheet. (Ch.8)
(3 marks)
4. Obtain the relation between the magnitude of electric field
intensity and electric potential. (Ch.8) (2 marks)
5. Obtain an expression for the electric potential at a point due to an
isolated point charge. (Ch.8) (4 marks)
6. Derive an expression for the electric potential at a point due to a
short electric dipole. Hence, write the expression for the electric
potential at a point (i) on the dipole axis (ii) on the dipole
equator. (Ch.8)(4 marks)
7. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a system of two
point charges in an external field. (Ch.8) (3 marks)
8. Explain the conversion of a moving-coil galvanometer into an
ammeter. Obtain the necessary formula. (Ch. 9)
(Sept. ’21) ( 2 marks )
9. Derive an expression for the net torque on a rectangular current-
carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic field with its rotation
axis perpendicular to the field. (Ch.10) (3 marks)
10. Using Ampère’s law, obtain an expression for the magnetic
induction near a current-carrying straight, infinitely long wire.
(Ch.10)(2 marks)
11. Using Ampère’s law, derive an expression for the magnetic
induction inside an ideal toroid carrying a steady current.
(Ch.10)(3 marks)
12. Determine the motional emf induced in a straight conductor
moving in a uniform magnetic field with constant velocity. OR
Derive an expression for the emf e induced in a conductor of
length l moving in a uniform magnetic field B with uniform
velocity v along x-axis. (Ch.12)(March ’22) (3 marks)
13. Determine the motional emf induced in a straight conductor

rotating in a uniform magnetic field with constant angular velocity.
(Ch.12)(3 marks)
14. Show that the angular speed of an electron in the nth Bohr orbit
me4
is  2 3 3 and the corresponding frequency of the revolution
2e 0 h n
me4
of the electron isf  . (Ch. 15) ( 2 marks )
4e 02h3n3
————
Question
Set DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
8
Note : Write any two meaningful contradistinctive points that

distinguish the two concepts by means of contrasting qualities. Write
one point extra.
Q. Distinguish between : ( 2 marks each )
(1) Uniform circular motion and nonuniform circular motion.

Ans. Uniform circular motion
Nonuniform circular motion
(UCM)
1. A particle in UCM moves in a 1. For a particle in nonuniform
circle or circular arc at constant circular motion in a plane, its
linear speed and constant angular linear speed and angular speed
velocity. both change with time.
2. The tangential and angular 2. The tangential and angular
accelerations are zero. accelerations are non-zero.
3. The net linear acceleration is 3. The net linear acceleration, being
centripetal, i.e., radially inward. the resultant of the radial and
tangential accelerations, is not
radial.
4. The magnitudes of centripetal 4. The magnitudes of the centripetal
acceleration and the centripetal acceleration and the centripetal
force are constant. force are not constant.
263
(2) Centripetal force and centrifugal force.
Ans. Centripetal force Centrifugal force

1. Centripetal force is the force 1. The centrifugal tendency of the
required to provide centripetal particle, in its accelerated (non-
acceleration to a particle so that it inertial) frame of reference,
moves in a circular path. is explained by assuming a
centrifugal force acting on it.
2. At every instant, it is directed 2. At every instant, it is directed
radially towards the centre of the radially away from the centre of
circular path. the circular path.
3. It is a real force arising from 3. It is a pseudo force since it is the
gravitational or electromagnetic effect of the acceleration of the
interaction between matter. reference frame of the revolving
particle.
(3) Streamline flow and turbulent flow.
Ans. Streamline flow Turbulent flow

1. The steady flow of a fluid, with 1. It is a non-steady irregular fluid
velocity less than certain critical flow with a velocity greater than
velocity, is called streamline or certain critical velocity.
laminar flow.
2. In a streamline flow, the velocity 2. In a turbulent flow, the velocity
of a fluid at a given point is of a fluid at any point does not
always constant. remain constant.
3. Streamlines do not change and 3. Streamlines and flowtubes
never intersect. change continuously.
4. The fluid flow is laminar over 4. Fluid particles still move in
a surface, and is in the form of general towards the main
coaxial cylinders through a pipe. direction as before. But now all
sorts of secondary motions cause
eddies or vortices.
QUESTION SET 8 : DISTINGUISH BETWEEN 265
(4) Simple pendulum and a conical pendulum.
Ans. Simple pendulum Conical pendulum

1. The oscillations of the bob are in 1. The bob performs UCM in a
a vertical plane. horizontal plane and the string
traces out a cone of constant
semivertical angle.
2. The energy of the bob transfers 2. The gravitational PE of the bob
back and forth between kinetic being constant may be taken to
energy and potential energy, be zero. The total mechanical
while its total mechanical energy energy remains constant and is
remains constant. entirely kinetic.
3. The period depends on the length 3. The period depends on the length
of the string and the acceleration of the string, the acceleration
due to gravity. T 2efL/g due to gravity and cosine of the
semivertical angle.
T 2efL cos /g
(5) Free vibrations and forced vibrations.
Ans. Free vibrations Forced vibrations

1. Free vibrations are produced 1. Forced vibrations are produced
when a body is disturbed from its by an external periodic force.
equilibrium position and released.
2. The frequency of free vibrations 2. The frequency of forced
depends on the body and is called vibrations is equal to that of the
its natural frequency. external periodic force.
3. The energy of the body remains 3. The energy of the body is
constant only in the absence of maintained constant by the
friction, air resistance, etc. external periodic force.
(6) Forced vibrations and resonance.

Ans. Forced vibrations Resonance
1. Forced vibrations are produced 1. Resonance is produced by an
by an external periodic force of external periodic force whose
any frequency. frequency is equal to the natural
frequency of the body, or nearly so.
2. The frequency of vibrations is, in 2. For low damping, the frequency
general, different from the natural of vibrations is nearly the same as
frequency of the body. the natural frequency of the body.
3. The amplitude of vibrations is 3. The amplitude of vibrations is
usually very small. large.
4. Vibrations stop in a short time 4. Vibrations continue for relatively
when the external force is long time even after the external
removed. force is removed.
(7) Progressive and stationary waves.
Ans. Progressive waves Stationary waves
1. Progressive waves are produced 1. Stationary waves are produced
when a disturbance is created in due to interference, under certain
the medium. conditions, between two identical
progressive waves travelling in
opposite directions.
2. They continuously travel away 2. They do not move in any direction
from the source and transport and hence do not transport energy
energy through the medium. through the medium.
3. Every particle vibrates with the 3. Amplitude of vibration is different
same amplitude. for different particles.
4. Phase changes from particle to 4. All the particles in the same loop
particle. have the same phase, while the
particles in adjacent loops are in
opposite phase.
5. Every particle of the medium is 5. There are some particles of the
set into vibrations by these waves. medium which do not vibrate at
all.
(8) Harmonics and overtones.

Ans. Harmonics Overtones
1. The lowest allowed natural 1. The higher allowed frequencies of
frequency of vibration vibration above the fundamental
(fundamental) of a string (or are called overtones.
air column) and all its integral
multiples are called harmonics.
2. The lowest allowed natural 2. Above the fundamental, the first
frequency (fundamental), n, is allowed frequency is called the
called the first harmonic. The first overtone which may be either
second harmonic is 2n, the third the second or third harmonic.
harmonic is 3n, ... and so on. Depending on the system, the pth
overtone corresponds to (p 1)th
or (2p 1)th harmonic.
(9) Stationary waves and beats.
Ans. Stationary waves Beats

1. Stationary waves are formed due 1. Beats are formed due to
to interference, under certain interference between two
conditions, between two identical progressive waves which need
progressive waves travelling in not be travelling in opposite
opposite directions. directions.
2. Interfering waves must have the 2. Interfering waves must have
same frequency. slightly different frequencies.
3. At a given point, the amplitude is 3. At a given point, the amplitude
constant. changes with time.
4. Nodes and antinodes are 4. There is waxing and waning of
produced. resultant intensity.
5. The resultant wave does not 5. The resultant wave travels in the
travel in any direction. forward direction.
6. There is no energy transport 6. There is energy transport through
through the medium. the medium.

(10) Interference and diffraction.
Ans. Interference Diffraction

1. The term interference is used to 1. The term diffraction is used to
characterise the superposition of characterise the superposition of
a few coherent waves ( say, two ). a large number of waves coming
from different parts of the same
wavefront.
2. Double-slit interference fringes 2. In single-slit diffraction pattern,
are all of equal width. only the non-central maxima are
of equal width which is half of
that of the central maximum.
3. In double-slit interference, bright 3. In diffraction, successive non-
fringes are of equal intensity. central maxima decrease rapidly
in intensity.
(11) Electric field intensity and electric potential.

Ans. Electric field intensity Electric potential
1. Electric field intensity is a vector 1. Electric potential is a scalar
quantity associated with an quantity associated with an
electric field. electric field.
2. It is the electric force per unit 2. It is the work per unit charge
positive charge placed at a point which must be done by an
in an electric field. Its magnitude external agent against the electric
at a point is equal to the negative force to bring an infinitesimal
of the potential gradient at that positive charge from infinity to
point. a given point in an electric field,
without acceleration.
3. Its SI unit is the newton per 3. Its SI unit is the volt.
coulomb or the volt per metre.
(12) Volt and electronvolt.
Ans. Volt Electronvolt

1. The volt is the SI unit of 1. The electronvolt is a non-SI unit
electric potential ( or potential of energy.
difference ).
2. If one joule per coulomb of 2. It is the increase in the kinetic
work is done by an external energy of a particle carrying a
agent against the electric force in charge equal to the elementary
moving an infinitesimal charge charge e when it is accelerated
from one point to another keeping through a potential difference of
the charge in equilibrium, the one volt.
potential difference between the
two points is called one volt.
3. 1 V  1 J/C. 3. 1 eV  1.602  10 19 J.
(13) Series and parallel combinations of capacitors.

Ans.
Series combinations of capacitors Parallel combinations of capacitors
1. The capacitors are connected end 1. The capacitors are connected
to end and a cell is connected between two common points and
across the combination. a cell is connected across the
combination.
2. Equivalent capacitance is less 2. For several capacitors of given
than the smallest capacitance capacitances, the equivalent
in series. For several capacitors capacitance of their parallel
of given capacitances, the combination is maximum.
equivalent capacitance of their
series combination is minimum.
3. All capacitors in the combination 3. The same voltage is applied to
have the same charge but their all capacitors in the combination,
potential differences are in the but the charge stored in the
inverse ratio of their capacitances. combination is distributed in
proportion to their capacitances.
Chapter 9. Current Electricity

(14) Potentiometer and voltmeter. (March ’22)
Ans. Potentiometer Voltmeter
1. A potentiometer is used to 1. A voltmeter can be used to
determine the emf of a cell, measure the potential difference
potential difference and internal and terminal voltage of a cell.
resistance. But it cannot be used to measure
the emf of a cell.
2. Its accuracy and sensitivity are 2. Its accuracy and sensitivity
very high. are less as compared to a
potentiometer.
3. It is not a portable instrument. 3. It is a portable instrument.
4. It does not give a direct reading. 4. It gives a direct reading.
Chapter 11. Magnetic Materials

(15) A paramagnetic material and a ferromagnetic material.
Ans. Paramagnetic material Ferromagnetic material

1. A material whose atoms possess a 1. A material whose atoms /
net magnetic moment that are all molecules possess a net magnetic
randomly oriented in the absence moment which interact strongly
of an external magnetizing field through exchange interaction
is called a paramagnetic material. forming domains, each of which
is spontaneously magnetized
to saturation, is called a
ferromagnetic material.
2. It gets weakly magnetized when 2. It gets strongly magnetized
placed in an external magnetic even when placed in a weak
field but its magnetization magnetic field and retains some
becomes zero when the external magnetization after the external
magnetic field is removed. magnetic field is removed.
3.  m is small and positive,  r is 3.  m and  r are positive and very
slightly greater than 1. high.
(16) A ferromagnetic material and a diamagnetic material.

Ans. Ferromagnetic material Diamagnetic material
1. A material whose atoms/ 1. A material whose atoms/

molecules possess permanent molecules do not possess a net
magnetic moment which interact magnetic moment in the absence
strongly through exchange of an external magnetic field is
interaction to form magnetic called a diamagnetic material.
domains, each of which is
magnetized to saturation, is called
a ferromagnetic material.
2. It gets strongly magnetized in the 2. In an external magnetic field, it
direction of the field even when gets weakly magnetized in the
placed in a weak magnetic field direction opposite to the field but
and retains some magnetization its magnetization becomes zero
after the external magnetic field when the external magnetic field
is removed. is removed.
3. m and  r are positive and very 3. m is small and negative.  r is
high. slightly less than 1.
(17) Electromagnet and permanent magnet.

Ans. Electromagnet Permanent magnet
1. Magnetic field of an electromagnet 1. Magnetic field is retained for a
is retained till there is passage long period of time.
of electric current through the
solenoid or coil.
2. The strength of an electromagnet 2. The strength of a permanent
depends on the magnitude of magnet depends upon the nature
the current through the solenoid of the material of which it is
and the number of turns per unit made.
length of the solenoid.
3. For a good electromagnet, the 3. For a good permanent magnet,
retentivity and coercivity of the the retentivity and coercivity of
core material should be low. the material should be high.
4. It is usually made of soft 4. It is usually made of hard

ferromagnetic material. ferromagnetic material.
5. Poles of an electromagnet can 5. Poles of a permanent magnet
be reversed by reversing the cannot be reversed.
direction of electric current.
Chapter 12. Electromagnetic Induction
(18) Step-up and step-down transformers.
Ans. Step-up transformer Step-down transformer
1. The output voltage is more than 1. The output voltage is less than
the input voltage. the input voltage.
2. The number of turns of the 2. The number of turns of the
secondary coil is more than that secondary coil is less than that of
of the primary coil. the primary coil.
3. The output current is less than the 3. The output current is more than
input current. the input current.
4. The primary coil is made of 4. The secondary coil is made of
thicker copper wire than the thicker copper wire than the
secondary coil. primary coil.
(19) Resistance and reactance.
Ans. Resistance Reactance
1. Resistance is the property of 1. Electrical power is not dissipated
a circuit element due to which in a circuit element by Joule
electrical power is dissipated in heating due to its reactance.
the element by Joule heating. The energy is stored — in the
electric field of a capacitor
or the magnetic field of an
inductor — and transferred back
to the supply.
2. Resistance of a circuit element 2. Reactance of a circuit element
is independent of the frequency depends on the frequency of the
of the applied alternating emf applied alternating emf.
unless the frequency is very high.
(20) Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Ans. Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. It is a nuclear reaction in which 1. In nuclear fusion, lighter atomic

a heavy nucleus of an atom, such nuclei (of low atomic number)
as that of uranium, splits into two fuse to form a heavier nucleus
or more fragments of comparable (of higher atomic number).
size.
2. Nuclear fission occurs either 2. Very high temperatures above of
spontaneously or as a result of 107 K, are required to carry out
bombardment of a neutron on the nuclear fusion.
nucleus (induced fission).
3. Controlled induced fission chain 3. Nuclear fusion reactions in the
reaction is used in a nuclear interior of stars are the source of
reactor to generate electricity. their energy output and the means
of synthesis of higher elements
like carbon, nitrogen and silicon
from hydrogen and helium.
(21) Light emitting diode and photodiode.
Ans. Light emitting diode Photodiode

1. It is a forward biased pn-junction 1. It is a special purpose reverse
diode formed from a compound biased pn-junction diode.
semiconductor.
2. It emits light due to direct 2. It generates charge carriers in
radiative recombination of excess response to photons and high
electron-hole pairs. energy particles.
3. The intensity of the emitted light 3. The photocurrent in the external
is directly proportional to the circuit is proportional to the
diode forward current. intensity of the incident radiation.
————
Question
Set SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
9
Q. 1. Doweneedabankedroadforatwo-wheeler ?Explain.

(2 marks)
Ans. When a two-wheeler takes a turn along an unbanked road, the
force of friction is the centripetal force. The two-wheeler leans inward to
counteract a torque that tends to topple it outward. But, friction cannot be
relied upon to provide the necessary centripetal force on all road conditions.
Secondly, the friction results in wear and tear of the tyres. On a banked road
at a turn, any vehicle can negotiate the turn without depending on friction
and without straining the tyres.
Q. 2. In a vertical circular motion, is zero speed possible at the top
(uppermostpoint)?Underwhatcondition(s) ? (2 marks)
Ans. In a nonuniform vertical circular motion, e.g., that of a small
body attached to a string or the loop-the-loop manoeuvres of an aircraft or
motorcycle, the body must have some minimum speed to reach the top and
complete the circle. In this case, the motion is controlled only by gravity and
zero speed at the top is not possible.
However, in a controlled vertical circular motion, e.g., that of a small
body attached to a rod or of a giant wheel (Ferris wheel) ride, the body or the
passenger seat can have zero speed at the top, i.e., the motion can be brought
to a stop.
Q. 3. On what factors does the frequency of conical pendulum
depend?Isitindependentofsomefactors ? (2 marks)
Ans. The frequency of a conical pendulum, of string length L and
semivertical angle , is
ij
1 g
n
2 L cos 
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the place.
274
QUESTION SET 9 : SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 275
From the above expression, we can see that

(i) n  eg
1
(ii) n 
eL
1
(iii) n  (if  increases, cos  decreases and n increases)
efcos 
(iv) The frequency is independent of the mass of the bob.
Q. 4. What can you infer if a uniform ring and a uniform disc
have the same radius of gyration? (2 marks)
Ans. The radius of gyration of a thin ring of radius Rr about its
transverse symmetry axis is
kr  ef ICM /Mr  ef R 2r Rr
The radius of gyration of a thin disc of radius Rd about its transverse
symmetry axis is
kd  ef ICM / Md  ij
2
Md Rd / 2 1
Rd
ef2

Md
Given kr kd ,
Rd or, equivalently, Rd  e2 Rr .
1
Rr 
ef2
Q. 5. What is the work done in blowing a soap bubble of
radius r? (2 marks)
Ans. Let T be the surface tension of a soap solution.
The initial surface area of soap bubble  0
The final surface area of soap bubble  2  4r2
 The increase in surface area  2  4r2
The work done in blowing the soap bubble is
W  surface tension  increase in surface area
T 2  4r2  8r2T
Q. 6. Why two or more mercury drops form a single drop when
brought in contact with each other? (3 marks)
Ans. A spherical shape has the minimum surface area-to-volume
ratio of all geometric forms. When two drops of a liquid are brought in
contact, the cohesive forces between their molecules coalesce the drops into
a single larger drop. This is because, the volume of the liquid remaining the
same, the surface area of the resulting single drop is less than the combined
surface area of the smaller drops. The resulting decrease in surface energy
is released into the environment as heat.
Proof : Let n droplets each of radius r coalesce to form a single drop
of radius R. As the volume of the liquid remains constant,
volume of the drop  volume of n droplets
4 4
 R3 n r3
3 3
 R3 nr3  Ref
3
nr
Surface area of n droplets n 4r2
Surface area of the drop  4R2 n2/3  4r2
 The change in the surface area
 surface area of drop — surface area of n droplets
 4r2 (n2/3 n)
Since the bracketed term is negative, there is a decrease in surface area
and a decrease in surface energy.
Q. 7. State the conditions for concavity and convexity of a liquid
surface where it is in contact with a solid. (2 marks)
Ans. For a molecule in the liquid surface which is in contact with
a solid, the forces on it are largely (i) the solid-liquid adhesive force lFA,
normal and into the solid surface and (ii) the liquid-liquid cohesive force lFC
at nearly 45° with the horizontal.
If lFC y lFA or if FC < mn2 FA , the contact angle is correspondingly zero
or acute and the liquid surface is concave with the solid.
If FC > mn2 FA , the contact angle is obtuse and the liquid surface curves
down, i.e., convex, with the solid.
Q. 8. Explain the effect of impurity on the angle of contact (or
surface tension of a liquid). ( 2 marks )
Ans. Effect of impurity :
(i) The angle of contact or the surface tension of a liquid increases with
dissolved impurities like common salt. For dissolved impurities, the angle
of contact (or surface tension) increases linearly with the concentration of
the dissolved materials.
(ii) It decreases with sparingly soluble substances like phenol or

alcohol. A detergent is a surfactant whose molecules have hydrophobic
and hydrophilic ends; the hydrophobic ends decrease the surface tension of
water. With reduced surface tension, the water can penetrate deep into the
fibres of a cloth and remove stubborn stains.
(iii) It decreases with insoluble surface impurities like oil, grease or
dust. For example, mercury surface contaminated with dust does not form
perfect spherical droplets till the dust is removed.
Q. 9. What do you mean by viscous drag ? What causes viscous
draginfluids? (3 marks)
Ans. When a fluid flows past a solid surface, or when a solid body
moves through a fluid, there is always a force of fluid friction opposing the
motion. This force of fluid friction is called the drag force or viscous drag.
In liquids, the viscous drag is due to short range molecular cohesive
forces while in gases it is due to collisions between fast moving molecules.
For laminar flow in both liquids and gases, the viscous drag is proportional to
the relative velocity between the layers, provided the relative velocity is
small. For turbulent flow, the viscous drag increases rapidly and is proportional
to some higher power of the relative velocity.
Q. 10. State the applications of Bernoulli’s principle. (2 marks)
Ans. Applications of Bernoulli’s principle :
(1) Venturi meter : It is a horizontal constricted tube that is used to
measure flow speed in a gas.
(2) Atomizer : It is a hydraulic device used for spraying insecticide,
paint, air perfume, etc.
(3) Aerofoil : The aerofoil shape of the wings of an aircraft produces
aerodynamic lift.
(4) Bunsen’s burner : Bernoulli effect is used to admit air into the
burner to produce an oxidising flame.
Q. 11. A solar cooker and a pressure cooker both are used to cook
food. Treating them as thermodynamic systems, discuss the similarities
and differences between them. (2 marks)
Ans. Solar cooker and pressure cooker treated as thermodynamic systems :
Similarities :
(1) Heat must be added to both the systems.
(2) Internal energy (temperature) of the systems increases.
Differences :
(1) A solar cooker is an open thermodynamic system while a pressure
cooker is a closed system.
(2) The contents of a solar cooker are at normal or surrounding pressure
and the food is cooked at the normal boiling point of water. In the case of a
pressure cooker, the increase in pressure increases the boiling point of water
thereby cooking the food faster.
Q. 12. A mixture of fuel and oxygen is burned in a constant-
volume chamber surrounded by a water bath. It was noticed that the
temperature of water is increased during the process. Treating the
mixtureoffuelandoxygenasthesystem,(a) hasheatbeentransferred?
(b) has work been done ? (c) What is the sign of U ? (2 marks)
Ans. (a) Heat has been transferred from the chamber to the water bath.
(b) No work is done by the system (the mixture of fuel and oxygen)
as there is no change in its volume.
(c) There is an increase in the temperature of water. Therefore, U is
positive for water.
For the system (the mixture of fuel and oxygen), U is negative.
Q. 13. Draw P – V diagrams to illustrate that the work done by a
system depends on the process even when the initial and final states are
the same. (2 marks)
Ans. In the given diagram, the initial
state of a gas is A  (Vi , Pi ) and the final
state of the gas is B  (Vf, Pf ). Path 1
corresponds to an isothermal process. Path 2
corresponds to the combination of an
isobaric process AC and isochoric process
CB. Path 3 corresponds to the combination
of an isochoric process AD and isobaric Different ways to
process DB. The work done by the gas (W) change a system
in each case is the area under the respective curve, different in each case.
Q. 14. Define a reversible process. What is an irreversible

process? (2 marks)
Ans. A reversible process is one which is performed in such a way
that, at the end of the process, both the system and its local surroundings can
be restored to their initial states, without producing any change in the rest
of the universe. A process may be reversible if it takes place quasistatically
and without dissipative effects.
A process which does not fulfill the requirements of reversibility is
said to be an irreversible process. In this case, the system and the local
surroundings cannot be restored to their initial states without affecting the
rest of the universe. All natural processes are irreversible.
Q. 15. What are the limitations of the first law of thermodynamics ?
Ans. Limitations of the first law of thermodynamics : There can
be thermodynamic processes which are consistent with the first law but not
observed in nature.
(1) According to first law of thermodynamics, heat and work are
interconvertible. But, the law does not tell us whether a particular process
can or cannot occur. For example, we see a net transfer of energy (heat)
from a hot body to a cold body but never the other way.
(2) The law does not rule out total (i.e., 100 %) conversion of heat into
work or work into heat. However, this is impossible in practice. For example,
it is impossible to design a heat engine that can completely convert heat into
work, i.e., no heat engine is 100 % efficient. Similarly, it is impossible to
remove heat from a system without doing some work on the system, i.e., the
coefficient of performance of a refrigerator can never be infinite.
(3) Diffusion of two dissimilar inert gases is an irreversible process.
For example, we never see the reverse process of a gaseous mixture
separating into separate chambers, although such a process would not
violate the first law.
Q. 16. For a particle performing linear SHM, show that its
2A
average speed over one oscillation is , where A is the amplitude

of SHM. OR
Show that the average speed of a particle performing SHM in one

2
oscillation is  maximumspeed. (2 marks)

Ans. During one oscillation, a particle performing SHM covers a total
distance equal to 4A, where A is the amplitude of SHM. The time taken to
cover this distance is the period ( T ) of SHM.
distance covered in one oscillation
Average speed 
time taken for one oscillation
4A
 vav 
T
2
But T 

where  is a constant related to the system.
 2A
 vav  4A  
2 
But A maximum speed
2
 Average speed   maximum speed

Q. 17. Represents graphically the displacement, velocity and
acceleration against time for a particle performing linear SHM when it
starts from the mean position. (3 marks)
Ans. Consider a particle performing SHM, with amplitude A and period
T  2/ starting from the mean position towards the positive extreme
position where  is the angular frequency. Its displacement from the mean
position (x), velocity (v) and acceleration (a) at any instant are
x  A sin t  A sin ( t) ( B  )
2 2
T T
 A cos t  A cos ( t)
dx 2
v
dt T
a   – 2A sin t   2A sin ( t)

dv 2
dt T
as the initial phase   0.
Using these expressions, the values of x, v and a at the end of every
quarter of a period, starting from t  0, are tabulated as follows.
t 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T
t 0 /2  3/2 2
x 0 A 0 –A 0
v A 0 – A 0 A
a 0 – 2A 0 2A 0
Using the values in the table we can plot graphs of displacement,

velocity and acceleration with time.
Graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration with time for a particle

in SHM starting from the mean position


Q. 18. What is end correction ? State the cause of end correction.
How is it estimated ? (3 marks )
Ans. When sound waves are sent down the air column in a narrow
closed or open pipe, they are reflected at the ends — without phase reversal
at an open end and with a phase reversal at a closed end. Interference
between the incident and reflected waves under appropriate conditions sets
up stationary waves in the air column. Thus, the stationary waves have an
antinode at an open end.
However, because air molecules in the plane of an open end are not
free to move in all directions, reflection of the longitudinal waves takes
place slightly beyond the rim of the pipe at an open end. The distance of the
antinode from the open end of the pipe is called end correction. According
to Reynolds, the distance of the antinode from the rim is approximately
30% of the inner diameter of a cylindrical pipe. This distance must be taken
into account in accurate determination of the wavelength of sound. Hence,
this distance is called the end correction.
Therefore, if d is the inner diameter of a cylindrical pipe, an end
correction e 0.3 d for each open end must be added to the measured
length of the pipe. If l is the measured length, the effective length of the air
column in the case of a pipe closed at one end is l 0.3 d , while that for a
pipe open at both ends is l 0.6 d.
Q. 19. Explain any two applications of beats. (2 marks)
Ans. Applications of beats :
(1) Listening for beats – or rather, their absence – is the usual method
of tuning musical instruments and in the determination of the frequency
of a musical note.
(2) Ultrasonic calls of bats and dolphins may be detected by
superimposing a sound of different frequency to produce audible beats.
(3) In music, beats are used to produce a low frequency sound (a grave
tone). Two notes whose difference in frequency is equal to the desired low
frequency are used for this purpose. When two notes are nearly in tune, the
beats are slow. But as the beat frequency increases to 20 Hz or more, the beats
may ultimately merge into a continuous tone known as a difference tone.
(4) (i) Speed of a moving object can be determined using a Doppler

RADAR. Radio waves from the RADAR are reflected off a moving object,
such as an aeroplane. The superposition of the incident and reflected waves
produces beats. The frequency of beats helps to determine the speed of the
aeroplane.
The same principle is used in speed guns used by traffic police to
determine the speed of cars on a highway.
(ii) In medicine, a Doppler ultrasound test (sonography) uses reflected
sound waves to evaluate blood flow through the major arteries and veins of
the arms, legs and neck. It can show blocked or reduced blood flow because
of narrowing of the major arteries. Duplex (or 2D) Doppler, Colour Doppler
and Power Doppler are different techniques of the same test.
Q. 20. State the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference of light. (2 marks)
Ans. (1) Constructive interference (brightness) : There is
constructive interference at a point and the brightness or intensity is
maximum there, if the two waves of light of the same frequency arrive
at the point in phase, i.e., with a phase difference of zero or an integral
multiple of 2 radians.
A phase difference of 2 radians corresponds to a path difference ,
where  is the wavelength of light.
 Phase difference  0, 2, 4, 6, ... rad n (2) rad
or path difference  0, , 2, 3, ..., etc.  n
where n  0, 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
(2) Destructive interference (darkness) : There is destructive
interference at a point and the point is the darkest ( the intensity of light is
minimum, i.e., zero ) if the two waves of light of the same frequency and
intensity arrive at the point in opposite phase, i.e., with a phase difference
of an odd-integral multiple of  radians. A phase difference of  radians
corresponds to a path difference  /2, where  is the wavelength of light.
 Phase difference , 3, 5, ... rad  (2m 1)  rad

or path difference  /2, 3/2, 5/2, ... , etc.  (2m 1)
2
where m 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
Q. 21. State any two conditions for obtaining a steady and distinct
interference pattern. (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
Ans. Conditions for a steady and distinct ( sharp ) interference pattern :
(1) The two light sources must be coherent.
(2) The two light sources should be monochromatic.
(3) The two light sources should be of equal brightness.
(4) The two light sources should be narrow.
(5) The interfering light waves should be in the same state of
polarization.
(6) The two light sources should be closely spaced and the distance
between the screen and the sources should be large.
Q. 22. State the properties of conductors in electrostatic
conditions. (2 marks)
Ans. Properties of a charged conductor in electrostatic conditions :
(1) Net electric field inside the conductor is zero.
(2) Net electric field just outside the conductor is normal to its surface
at every point.
(3) Electric potential inside the conductor is constant and equal to that
on its surface.
(4) Excess charges reside only on the surface of the conductor but,
for a conductor of arbitrary shape, the surface charge density at a point is
inversely proportional to the local curvature of the surface.
Q. 23. Whatiselectrostaticshielding ?WhatisaFaradaycage ?
(2 marks)
Ans. The use of a conducting box to protect sensitive instruments
from stray electric fields, or the use of a conducting wire cage to protect a
person near a high-voltage installation or from lightning strike, is called
electrostatic shielding.
The hollow conductor or the conducting wire cage that shields its
interior from external electric fields is called a Faraday cage or Faraday
shield.
Q. 24. What do you mean by a polar molecule and a nonpolar
molecule ? Give one example of each. ( 2 marks )
Ans. A polar molecule is one with a permanent electric dipole moment

that arises from the finite separation of the centres of the net positive charge
and the net negative charge in the molecule, even in the absence of an
external electric field.
Examples : Gaseous hydrogen halides (HF, HCl, etc.); NH3, NO2,
N2O, water molecules; all heteronuclear diatomic molecules (with any
covalent bond between two different atoms).
A nonpolar molecule is one which does not have a permanent
electric dipole moment because in the absence of an external electric field,
the centres of the net positive charge and the net negative charge in the
molecule coincide.
Examples : H2, CO2, N2, polyethylene, polystyrene.
Q. 25. A metal sheet is introduced between the plates of a charged
parallel-plate capacitor. What is its effect on the capacitance of the
capacitor ? (2 marks)
Ans. Suppose the parallel-plate capacitor has capacitance C0, plates of
area A and separation d. Assume the metal sheet introduced has the same
area A.
Case (1) : Finite thickness t. Free electrons in the sheet will migrate
towards the positive plate of the capacitor. Then, the metal sheet is attracted
towards whichever capacitor plate is closest and gets stuck to it, so that its
potential is the same as that of that plate. The gap between the capacitor
plates is reduced to d – t, so that the capacitance increases.
Case (2) : Negligible thickness. The thin metal sheet divides the gap
into two of thicknesses d1 and d2 of capacitances C1e0 A/d1 and C2e0 A/d2
in series. Their effective capacitance is
C1C2 eA eA
C  0  0 C0
C1 C2 d1 d2 d
i.e., the capacitance remains unchanged.
Q. 26. A capacitor has some dielectric between its plates and the
capacitor is connected to a DC source. The battery is now disconnected
and then the dielectric is removed. State whether the capacitance, the
energy stored in it, the electric field, charge stored and voltage will
increase, decrease or remain constant. (2 marks)
Ans. Assume a parallel-plate capacitor, of plate area A and plate

separation d is filled with a dielectric of relative permittivity (dielectric
ke A
constant) k. Its capacitance is C 0 ... (1)
d
If it is charged to a voltage (potential) V, the charge on its plates is
QCV.
Since the battery is disconnected after it is charged, the charge Q on its
plates, and consequently the product CV, remain unchanged.
On removing the dielectric completely, its capacitance becomes from
Eq. (1),
e0 A1
C  C ... (2)
d k
that is, its capacitance decreases by the factor k. Since CV CV, its new
voltage is
C
V VkV ... (3)
C
so that its voltage increases by the factor k. The stored potential energy,
1
U QV, so that Q remaining constant, U increases by the factor k.
2
The electric field, EV/d, so that E also increases by a factor k.
Q. 27. What are the disadvantages of a potentiometer (over a

voltmeter)? (2 marks)
Ans. Disadvantages of a potentiometer over a voltmeter :
(1) The use of a potentiometer is an indirect measurement method
while a voltmeter is a direct reading instrument.
(2) A potentiometer is unwieldy while a voltmeter is portable.
(3) Unlike a voltmeter, the use of a potentiometer in measuring an
unknown emf requires a standard source of emf and calibration.
Q. 28. State the function of the shunt in modifying a galvanometer
to an ammeter. ( 12 mark each )
Ans. Functions of the shunt in an ammeter :
(1) It lowers the effective resistance of the ammeter.
(2) It shunts off a larger fraction of the line current, thus protecting the
sensitive meter movement of the basic galvanometer.
(3) With a shunt of proper value, a galvanometer can be modified into
an ammeter of practically any desired range.
Q. 29. State the functions of the series resistance in modifying a
galvanometer into a voltmeter. ( 12 mark each )
Ans. Functions of the high series resistance in a voltmeter :
(1) It increases the effective resistance of the voltmeter.
(2) It drops off a larger fraction of the measured potential difference,
thus protecting the sensitive meter movement of the basic galvanometer.
(3) With a resistance of proper value, a galvanometer can be modified
to a voltmeter of any desired range.
Q. 30. State under what conditions will a charged particle moving
through a uniform magnetic field travel in (i) a straight line (ii) a
circular path (iii) a helical path. (1 mark each)
Ans.
(i) A charged particle travels undeviated through a magnetic field lB, if
its velocity lv is parallel or antiparallel to lB. In this case, the magnetic force
on the charge is zero.
(ii) A charged particle travels in a circular path within a magnetic field
lB, if its velocity lv is perpendicular to lB.
(iii) A charged particle travels in a helical path through a magnetic
field lB, if its velocity lv is inclined at an angle  to lB, 0    90°. In
this case, the component of lv parallel to lB is unaffected by the magnetic
field. The radius and pitch of the helix are determined respectively by the
perpendicular and parallel components of lv.
Q. 31. What is the gyromagnetic ratio of an orbital electron ? State
its dimensions and the SI unit. (2 marks) OR
Whatisthegyromagneticratio ?Writethenecessaryformula.
Ans. The ratio of the magnitude of the orbital magnetic moment to
that of the orbital angular momentum of an electron in an atom is called its
l o is the orbital magnetic moment of the electron

gyromagnetic ratio o. If M
with orbital angular momentum lLo ,
Mo e
o  
Lo 2me
where e and me are the electronic charge and electron mass, respectively.
[charge] [T I]
Dimensions : [o]    [M1TI].
[mass] [M]
SI unit : The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg).
Q. 32. What is a diamagnetic material ? Give two examples.
(2 marks)
Ans. A material which is weakly repelled by a magnet and whose
atoms / molecules do not possess a net magnetic moment in the absence of
an external magnetic field is called a diamagnetic material.
A diamagnetic material placed in a uniform magnetic field acquires a
small net induced magnetic moment directed opposite to the field.
Examples : Bismuth, copper, gold, silver, antimony, mercury, water,
air, hydrogen, lead, silicon, nitrogen, sodium chloride.
Q. 33. What is a paramagnetic material ? Give two examples.
(2 marks)
Ans. A material which is weakly attracted by a magnet and whose
atoms possess a net magnetic moment with all atomic magnetic moments
randomly directed in the absence of an external magnetic field but are
capable of being aligned in the direction of the applied magnetic field is
called a paramagnetic material.
Examples : Aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese, sodium,
calcium, magnesium, lithium, tungsten, niobium, copper chloride, oxygen.
Q. 34. If a copper disc swings between the poles of a magnet,
the pendulum comes to rest very quickly. Explain the reason. What
happenstothemechanicalenergyofthependulum ? (2 marks)
Ans. As the copper disc enters and leaves the magnetic field, the
changing magnetic flux through it induces eddy current in the disc. In both
cases, Fleming’s right hand rule shows that opposing magnetic force damps
the motion. After a few swings, the mechanical energy becomes zero and
the motion comes to a stop.
Joule heating due to the eddy current warms up the disc. Thus, the
mechanical energy of the pendulum is transformed into thermal energy.
Q. 35. The total impedance of a circuit decreases when a capacitor
is added in series with L and R. Explain why. (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
Ans. The impedance of an LR circuit is
ZLR ef R2  X 2L
where X L is the reactance of the inductor.
When a capacitor of reactance XC is added to the circuit in series, the
impedance of the LCR circuit is
ZLCR  efR2 (XL  XC)2
where  XL  XC  is the net reactance of the inductor and capacitor because
the current lags behind the voltage in phase by /2 rad in the inductor
while the current leads the voltage in phase by /2 rad in the capacitor. The
decrease in the net reactance decreases the total impedance, i.e., ZLCR  ZLR .
Q. 36. State the characteristics of a series LCR resonant circuit.
(2 marks)
Ans. Characteristics of a series LCR resonantcircuit:
(1) Resonance occurs when inductive reactance XL (  2f L ) equals
capacitive reactance XC ( ). Resonant frequency, fr 

1 1
.
2f C 2efLC
(2) Impedance is minimum and the circuit is purely resistive.
(3) Current is maximum.
(4) Frequencies, other than the resonant frequency ( fr ) are rejected.
Since, only fr is accepted, it is called an acceptor circuit.
Q. 37. In photoelectric effect, an increase in the intensity of the
incident radiation does not change the maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons. Explain what happens to the extra energy of the
incident radiation. (2 marks)
Ans. When electromagnetic radiation with frequency greater than the
threshold frequency is incident on a metal surface, there is emission of
electrons. It is observed that the number of electrons emitted per second

is far less than the number of photons incident per second, i.e., not every
incident photon is effective in liberating an electron. The photons that are
not effective in liberation of electrons are reflected (or scattered) or absorbed
resulting in a rise in the temperature of the metal surface. The maximum
kinetic energy of a photoelectron depends on the frequency of the incident
radiation and the threshold frequency for the metal. It has nothing to do
with the intensity of the incident radiation. The increase in intensity results
in increase in the number of electrons emitted per second.
Q. 38. State any two limitations of Bohr’s atomic model.
Ans. Bohr’s atomic model cannot explain
(1) the relative intensities of spectral lines even in the hydrogen
spectrum
(2) the atomic spectra of many-electron atoms of higher elements
(3) the Zeeman effect and Stark effect, and associated molecular
bonding.
Q. 39. Show that the frequency of the first line in the Lyman
series is equal to the difference between the limiting frequencies of the
Lyman and Balmer series. (3 marks)
Ans. For the first line in the Lyman series,
R ( 2  2 ) R ( 1 ) 
1 1 1 1 3R
L1 1 2 4 4
c 3Rc
 L1   , where  denotes the frequency, c the speed of light in
L1 4
free space and R the Rydberg constant.
For the Lyman series limit,
R ( 2  ) R
1 1 1
L 1 
c
 L  Rc
L
For the Balmer series limit,
R (  ) 
1 1 1 R
B 2 2  4
c Rc
 B  
B 4
Rc 3Rc
 L B Rc  L1
4 4
Hence the result.
Q. 40. State any two advantages of a full-wave rectifier. (2 marks)

Ans.
(1) A full-wave rectifier rectifies both halves of each cycle of the ac
input.
(2) Efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is twice that of a half-wave
rectifier.
(3) The ripple in a full-wave rectifier is less than that in a half-wave
rectifier.
Ripple factors for a full-wave and half-wave rectifiers are respectively,
0.482 and 1.21.
Q. 41. Why do we need filters in a power supply? (2 marks)
Ans. A rectifier — half-wave or full-wave — outputs a pulsating dc
which is not directly usable in most electronic circuits. These circuits
require nearly pure dc as produced by batteries. Unlike pure dc waveform
of a battery, a rectifier output has an ac ripple riding on a dc waveform.
The circuit used in a dc power supply to remove the ripple is called
a filter. A filter circuit can produce smoother waveform that approximates
the waveform produced by a battery. The most common technique used for
filtering is a capacitor connected across the output of a rectifier.
Q. 42. State any four advantages of a photodiode. (2 marks)
Ans. Advantages of a photodiode :
(1) Quick response to light and hence high operational speed.
(2) Excellent linear response over a wide dynamic range.
(3) Low cost.
(4) Wide spectral response.
(5) Compact, lightweight, mechanically rugged and long life.
Q. 43. State the principle and any two uses of a solar cell.
(2 marks)
Ans. Principle : A solar cell works on the photovoltaic effect in
which an emf is produced between the two layers of a pn-junction as a
result of irradiation.
Uses of solar cells :
(1) A solar cell array consisting of a set of solar cells is used during
daylight hours to power an electrical equipment as well as to recharge
batteries which can then be used during night.
(2) Solar cell arrays are used to power electrical equipment on a
satellite as well as at remote places on the Earth where electric power lines
are absent.
(3) Large-scale solar power generation systems linked with commercial
power grid.
(4) Independent power supply systems for radar detectors, monitoring
systems, radio relay stations, roadlights and roadsigns.
Assignments
1. Explain the effect of temperature on the angle of contact
(or surface tension of a liquid). (Ch. 2) (2 marks)
2. What is a barometer ? Explain the use of a simple mercury
barometer to measure atmospheric pressure. (Ch. 2) (3 marks)
3. Write a note on free expansion in thermodynamic process.
(Ch. 4) (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
4. Show that a linear SHM is the projection of a uniform circular
motion on its diameter. (Ch. 5) (3 marks)
5. Show that the total energy of a particle performing linear SHM
is directly proportional to (1) the square of the amplitude (2) the
square of the frequency. (Ch. 5) (2 marks)
6. Represent graphically the variations of KE, PE and TE of a
particle performing linear SHM with respect to its displacement.
(Ch. 5) (2 marks)
7. Plot the graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration against

time for a particle performing linear SHM starting from the
positive extreme position. (Ch. 5) (3 marks)
8. Give any two applications of resonance. (Ch. 6) ( 2 marks )
9. Give any two disadvantages of resonance. (Ch. 6) (2 marks)
10. Draw neat labelled diagrams for the modes of vibration of an air
column in a pipe when it is (a) open at both ends (b) closed at
one end. (Ch. 6) (3 marks)
11. Prove that a pipe of length 2L open at both ends has the same
fundamental frequency as a pipe of length L closed at one end.
(Ch. 6) (2 marks)
12. Two organ pipes open at both ends and of same length but different
diameters produce sounds of different frequencies. Why? (Ch. 6)
(2 marks)
13. The pth overtone of an organ pipe open at both ends has a
frequency n. When one end of the pipe is closed, the qth overtone
(2q 1) n
has a frequency N. Show that N . (Ch. 6) (2 marks)
2(p 1)
14. When two tuning forks of slightly different frequencies are
sounded together to produce beats, what is the effect on the beat
frequency if the prongs of the tuning fork with higher frequency
are (i) waxed a little (ii) filed a little ? (Ch. 6) (2 marks)
15. State any two advantages of a potentiometer over a voltmeter.
(Ch. 9) (Sept. ’21) ( 2 marks )
16. What is the gyromagnetic ratio of an orbital electron ? State its
dimensions and the SI unit. (Ch. 11) (2 marks)
17. What is a ferromagnetic material ? Give two examples.
(Ch. 11) (2 marks)
18. Write a short note on domains in a ferromagnetic material.
(Ch. 11) (2 marks)
19. State the characteristics of a parallel LC resonant circuit.
(Ch. 13) (2 marks)
————
Question
Set EXPERIMENTSANDDIAGRAMS
10
Chapter 3. Kinetic theory of Gases and Radiation
Q. 1. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of Fery’s blackbody.

(2 marks) (Sept. ’21)
Ans.
Fery’s blackbody
Q. 2. Explain the use of a sonometer to verify (i) the law of length

(ii) the law of tension (iii) the law of linear density. ( 2 marks each )
Ans. (i) Verification of the law of length : According to this law,
1
n , if T and m are constant. To verify this law, the sonometer wire of
L
given linear density m is kept under constant tension T.
The length of the wire is adjusted for the wire to vibrate in unison
with tuning forks of frequencies n1, n2, n3,... . Let L1, L2, L3, ... be the
corresponding resonating lengths of the wire. It is found that, within
experimental errors,
n1L1 n2L2 n3L3  ... . This implies that the product nL constant, which
verifies the law of length.
294
QUESTION SET 10 : EXPERIMENTS AND DIAGRAMS 295
(ii) Verification of the law of tension : According to this law,

n efT, if L and m are constant. To verify this law, the vibrating length L
of the sonometer wire of given linear density m is kept constant.
A set of tuning forks of different frequencies is used. The tension in the
wire is adjusted for the wire to vibrate in unison with tuning forks of
frequencies n1, n2, n3, ... . Let T1, T2, T3, ... be the corresponding tensions.
n1 n n
It is found that, within experimental errors,  2  3  ... .
efT1 efT2 efT3
n
This implies  constant, which verifies the law of tension.
efT
(iii) Verification of the law of linear density : According to this law,

1
n  , if T and L are constant. To verify this law, two wires having
efm
different linear densities m1 and m2 are kept under constant tension T.

A tuning fork of frequency n is used. The lengths of the wires are
adjusted for the wires to vibrate in unison with the tuning fork. Let L1 and
L2 be the corresponding resonating lengths of the wires. It is found that,
within experimental errors, L1efm1  L2efm2. This implies Lefm constant.
1
According to the law of length of a vibrating string, n .
L
1
 n , which verifies the law of linear density.
efm
Q. 3. Describe Young’s experiment to observe the interference of

light. State any two points of importance of the experiment. ( 4 marks )
Ans. Young’s double-slit experiment :
(1) A monochromatic light source S is placed at the focus of a convex
lens so that the light refracted by the lens are plane wavefronts. They pass
through an opaque screen AB with two closely-spaced slits, nearly equally
narrow. A screen PQ is placed at a large distance from AB and parallel to
it, as shown in the figure.
Since cylindrical wavefronts issuing out of S1 and S2 are derived from

the same source S by wavefront splitting, their phase difference is either
zero or constant. Hence, two slits S1 and S2 serve as coherent sources.
(2) The waves from the two sources interfere constructively at points
where they meet in phase — a crest of one wave superposed on the crest
of the other wave, or where the troughs of the two waves superpose. Such
points, shown by dots, lie along lines (the antinodal lines). The point on the
screen along such a line has maximum intensity and are bright.
(3) The waves from the two sources interfere destructively at points
where they meet in opposite phase — a crest of a wave superposed on the
trough of the other wave. Such points, shown by circles, lie along lines
(the nodal lines). The point on the screen along such a line has minimum
intensity and are dark.
(4) Since S1 and S2 are slits, the alternate bright and dark regions
of interference on the screen are in the form of bands called fringes. The
pattern of bright and dark fringes on the screen is called interference pattern.
Importance of the experiment :
(1) It was the first experiment in which the interference of light was
observed.
(2) It showed that light is propagated in the form of waves.
(3) It allowed the determination of the wavelength of monochromatic
light.
Q. 4. Describe the construction of a metre bridge. ( 1 mark )
Explain with a neat circuit diagram, how you will determine an
unknown resistance using a metre bridge. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Construction of a metre bridge : A rectangular wooden board
has three thick copper strips along its three edges. A uniform resistance
wire, one metre long, is soldered to the two end copper strips and stretched
over a metre scale between the strips. The two gaps between the end-strips
and the centre strip are for introducing the unknown resistance X and a
variable known resistance R. The common point of X and R, junction B, is
connected through a centre-zero galvanometer to a pencil jockey. A cell of
emf E, in series with a rheostat Rh and a plug key K, is connected across AC.
The metre bridge

Working : Keeping a suitable resistance R in the resistance box, key

K is closed to pass a current through the circuit.
The jockey is tapped along the wire to locate the equipotential point D
when the galvanometer shows zero deflection. The bridge is then balanced
and point D is called the null point and the method is called as null
deflection method. Distances LX and LR of the null point from the two ends
of the wire are measured.
According to the principle of Wheatstone’s network,
X resistance of the wire of length LX RAD
  ... (1)
R resistance of the wire of length LR RDC
L L
RAD   X and RDC   R ... (2)
A A
where  is the resistivity of the material of the wire and A is the area of
cross section of the wire.
X LX /A LX
  
R LR /A LR
LX
 XR ... (3)
LR
As R, LX and LR are known, the unknown resistance X can be calculated.
Q. 5. Describe Kelvin’s method to determine the resistance of a
galvanometer by using a metre bridge. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Circuit : The metre bridge circuit for Kelvin’s method of
determination of the resistance of a galvanometer is shown in the figure.
The galvanometer whose resistance G is to be determined, is connected in
one gap of the metre bridge. A variable known resistance R is connected in
the other gap. The junction B of the galvanometer and the resistance box
is connected directly to a pencil jockey. A cell of emf E, a key (K) and a
rheostat (Rh) are connected across AC.
Working : Keeping a suitable resistance R in the resistance box and
maximum resistance in the rheostat, key K is closed to pass the current.
The rheostat resistance is slowly reduced such that the galvanometer shows
about 2 / 3rd of the full-scale deflection.
Kelvin’s metre bridge circuit for the measurement of galvanometer resistance
On tapping the jockey at end-points A and C, the galvanometer

deflection should change to opposite sides of the initial deflection. Only
then will there be a point D on the wire which is equipotential with point
B. The jockey is tapped along the wire to locate the equipotential point D
when the galvanometer shows no change in deflection. Here, point D is
called the balance point and Kelvin’s method is thus an equal deflection
method. At this balanced condition,
G resistance of the wire of length LG

R resistance of the wire of length LR
where LG  the length of the wire opposite to the galvanometer and
LR  the length of the wire opposite to the resistance box.
If   the resistance per unit length of the wire,
G LG LG LG
   GR
R  LR LR LR
The quantities on the right hand side are known, so that G can be calculated.
Q. 6. Describetheuseofapotentiometertocomparetheemf sof
twocellsbythedirectmethod( i.e.,connectingthemseparately ).
( 3 marks )
in Part 1.
Q. 7. Describetheuseofapotentiometertocomparetheemf sof

two cells by the sum and difference method. ( 3 marks )
Ans. A battery of stable emf E is used to set up a potential gradient
V / L, along the potentiometer wire, where V  p.d. across total length L of
the wire. The positive terminal of cell 1 of emf E1 is connected to the higher
potential terminal A of the potentiometer; the negative terminal is connected
to the galvanometer through the reversing key. The other terminal of the
galvanometer is connected to a pencil jockey. Cell 2 of emf E2 is connected
across the remaining two opposite terminals of the reversing key. E1 should
be greater than E2, and E should be greater than E1 E2.
Inserting two plugs in the reversing key in positions 1 – 1, the two cells
assist each other so that the net emf is E1  E2. The jockey is tapped along
the wire to locate the null point D. If the null point is a distance l1 from A,
E1  E2  l1 ( V / L )
Comparisonoftwoemf ‘susingapotentiometer( sumanddifferencemethod )
For the same potential gradient, the plugs are now inserted into position
2 – 2. The emf E2 then opposes E1 and the net emf is E1  E2. The new null
point D is, say, a distance l2 from A and
E1  E2  l2 ( V / L )
E  E2 l1 E1 l1  l2
 1  or 
E1  E2 l2 E2 l1  l2
The experiment is repeated for different potential gradients using the
rheostat.
Q. 8. Describe with the help of a neat circuit diagram how you

will determine the internal resistance of a cell using a potentiometer.
Derive the necessary formula. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Principle : A cell of emf E and internal resistance r, which is
connected to an external resistance R, has its terminal potential difference V
less than its emf E, and
E Rr r
 1  ( when R , V  E )
V R R
EV
 r R
V
Working : A battery of stable emf E  is used to set up a potential
gradient VAB /L along the potentiometer wire, where VAB  p.d. across total
length L of the wire AB. The positive terminal of the cell of emf E and
internal resistance r is connected to the higher potential terminal A of the
potentiometer; the negative terminal is connected through a centre-zero
galvanometer to a pencil jockey. A resistance box R with a plug key K in
series is connected across the cell.
Internal resistance of a cell using a potentiometer
Firstly, key K is kept open; then, effectively, R . The jockey is

tapped on the potentiometer wire to locate the null point D. Let the null
length AD l, so that
E( VAB / L ) l
With the same potential gradient, and a small resistance R in the

resistance box, key K is closed. The new null length ADl1 for the
terminal p.d. V is found : V ( VAB / L ) l1
E l E  V l  l1 l
  or   1
V l1 V l1 l1
 r  R ( 1)
EV l
Now, r  R
V l1
R, l and l1 being known, r can be calculated. The experiment is repeated
either with different potential gradients or with different values of R.
Q. 9. Describe Faraday’s magnet and coil experiment. What

conclusion can be drawn from the experiment ? ( 3 marks )
Ans. Faraday’s magnet and coil experiment :
(1) The terminals of a copper coil of several turns are connected to a
sensitive galvanometer.
Faraday’s magnet-coil experiment
(2) A bar magnet is moved swiftly towards the coil with its N-pole
facing the coil. As long as the magnet is in motion, the galvanometer shows
a deflection [ Fig. (a) ].
(3) If the magnet is now moved swiftly away from the coil, again the
galvanometer shows a deflection, but now in the opposite direction.
(4) The galvanometer shows a deflection when the experiment is
repeated with the S - pole of the magnet facing the coil [ Fig. (b) ]. However,
the effect of bringing the S - pole towards the coil is the same as that of
taking the N-pole away from the coil and vice versa.
(5) The same results are obtained when the magnet is held still and the
coil is moved towards or away from the magnet.
Conclusion : A current is induced in an electric circuit whenever
the magnetic flux linked with the circuit keeps on changing as a result of
relative motion of a magnet and the circuit.
Q. 10. With a neat, labelled schematic diagram, explain the
experimental setup for photoelectric effect. (Sept. ’21) ( 3 marks )
Ans. Apparatus : A photoelectric cell G consists of the emitting
electrode E (emitter) of the material being studied and the collecting
Apparatus to study the characteristics of photoelectric effect

electrode C (collector). The electrodes are sealed in an evacuated glass

envelope provided with quartz window W that allows the passage of UV
radiation and visible light. Monochromatic light of variable frequency from
a suitable source S (such as a carbon arc) passes through a pair of polarizers
P (permitting a change in the intensity of radiation) and falls on the emitter.
The electric circuit, as shown in the figure allows the collector
potential to be varied from positive through zero to negative with respect to
the emitter, and permits the measurement of potential difference and current
between the electrodes. When the collector is made negative, the voltmeter
is connected in reverse.
Q. 11. With a neat labelled diagram, describe the Davisson and
Germer experimental setup. State the importance of the experiment.
(4 marks)
Ans. Davisson and Germer experiment (1927) :
The experimental arrangement, as shown in the figure, consists of an
electron gun, a crystal holder and an electron detector enclosed in a vacuum
chamber. In the electron gun, electrons emitted by a heated metallic filament
(cathode) are accelerated by a potential difference V between the cathode
and the anode, and emerge through a small hole in the anode. The electron
The Davisson and Germer experiment

gun directs a narrow collimated beam of electrons at a nickel crystal.

Scattered electrons are detected by a movable detector.
The angle y between the incident and scattered beams is the scattering
angle. Polar graphs of the number of scattered electrons as a function of
angle y are plotted for different values of the accelerating voltage.
Importance of the experiment :
The Davisson and Germer experiment directly indicated the wave
nature of material particles – electrons in this case – and quantitatively
verified the de Broglie hypothesis for the existence of matter waves.
Q. 12. Draw a neat labelled circuit diagram to study the

characteristics of a transistor in common-emitter configuration.
( 2 marks )
Ans.
Investigating the characteristics of an npn transistor
Assignments
1. Describe Faraday’s coil-coil experiment. What conclusion can be
drawn from the experiment ? (Ch. 12) (3 marks)
2. Write a neat labelled diagram, describe the Geiger - Marsden
experiment. (Ch. 15) (3 marks)
————
Question
... INSTRUMENTS : CONSTRUCTION ...
Set
AND WORKING
11

Q. 1. Describe the use of a biprism for obtaining two coherent
sources of light. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Fresnel’s biprism is a single prism having an obtuse angle of
about 178° and the other two angles of about 1° each. The biprism acts as
a combination of two thin prisms of refracting angle of about 1° when a
monochromatic source in the form of an illuminated narrow slit is aligned
parallel to the refracting edge of the biprism. Cylindrical wavefronts of light
from the slit falls on the biprism. The two halves of the biprism split every
wavefront such that the light appears to come from two sources S1 and S2.
These two virtual sources act as two coherent sources as they are derived
from the same wavefront. The two split wavefronts, appearing to come
Fresnel’s Biprism (Schematic diagram)

from S1 and S2 interfere under appropriate conditions and form interference
fringes on a screen, far away from the biprism.
Q. 2. State the principle of working of the Van de Graaff generator.
Describe its construction with a neat labelled diagram. (3 marks)
Ans. Principle of working : The Van de Graaff generator works
on the principles of corona or point discharge, that the charge on hollow
306
QUESTION SET 11 : INSTRUMENTS : CONSTRUCTION ... 307
conductor resides entirely on its outer surface and that the charge supplied
to an insulated conductor increases its potential.
A, B : Spray combs, C : Conductor, I : Ion source,

M : Motor driven roller, S : Insulating support column,
T : Target, V : Pressurised vessel, AT : Accelerator tube,
MB : Metal base, CC : Charge-conveying insulating belt
The Van de Graaff generator

Construction : A hollow spherical conductor C is supported and
insulated from the ground by a tower of ceramic insulators. A long, vertical,
endless belt made of special insulating paper or fabric ( rubberised silk ) is
continuously driven by an electric motor from the ground up to the inside

of the conductor (See figure). Near the ground, the belt passes close to a
spraycomb A which is connected to a high-voltage source. The spraycomb
consists of a set of sharp needle points. Another spraycomb collector B is
connected inside conductor C at the top. The entire apparatus is usually
enclosed in a pressurized vessel containing a gas such as nitrogen or Freon.
Housed inside the assembly is an evacuated tube through which
positively charged particles may be accelerated from a source at the same
potential as the conductor C to a target at the ground potential.
Q. 3. Explain the basic construction of a pivoted-type moving-coil
galvanometer with a neat labelled diagram. (2 marks)
Ans. A table galvanometer consists of a coil of a large number of turns
of fine insulated copper wire wound on a light rectangular aluminium frame.
The coil has a pointer attached and is pivoted between cylindrically concave
pole pieces of a strong horseshoe permanent magnet. The coil swings freely
around a cylindrical soft iron core fitted between the pole pieces. The
A table galvanometer (Schematic diagram)

deflection of the coil depends on the current passing through the galvanometer
(or the potential difference across it). The deflection of the coil is arrested
by a spiral spring and is read with the pointer on a scale.
A galvanometer can be used as an ammeter or a voltmeter with a
suitable modification.
Q. 4. State the principle of working of a cyclotron. Describe the
construction with a neat labelled diagram. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Principle of working : The cyclotron uses the principle of
synchronous acceleration to accelerate charged particles which describe a
spiral path at right angles to a constant magnetic field and make multiple
passes through the same alternating p.d., whose frequency is the same as
the frequency of revolution of the particles.
The cyclotron (schematic diagram)

Construction of the cyclotron : Two hollow D-shaped chambers that
are open at their straight edges form the electrodes. They are called the
dees. The dees are separated by a small gap, as shown in the figure, and a
high-frequency (106 Hz to 107 Hz) alternating p.d. (of the order of 104 V to
105 V) is applied between them. The whole system is placed in an evacuated
chamber between the poles of a large and strong electromagnet (B  1 T to 2 T).
The ions to be accelerated are produced in an ion source; a hydrogen
tube gives protons, heavy hydrogen or deuterium gives deuterons while
helium gives -particles, etc. The positive ions are injected near the centre
and are accelerated each time they cross the gap between the dees. At the
edge of one of the dees, an electrostatic deflector at negative potential
deflects the spiralling particles out of the system to strike a target.
Q. 5. With the help of neat diagram, describe the working of a
moving-coil galvanometer. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Consider a rectangular coil – of length l, breadth b and N turns –
carrying a current I suspended in a uniform magnetic field of induction lB.
The magnetic forces on the horizontal sides of the coil have the
same line of action and do not exert any torque. The magnetic forces on
the vertical sides constitute a couple and exert a deflecting torque. If the
plane of the coil is parallel to lB, the magnitude of the deflecting torque is
maximum equal to
d NIAB ... (1)
where Alb is the area of each turn of the coil. This torque rotates the coil.
Top view of radial magnetic field

In a moving-coil galvanometer, the coil swings in a radial magnetic
field produced by the combination of the cylindrically concave pole pieces
and the soft-iron core. Hence, the plane of the coil is always parallel to
the field lines, as shown in the figure. Therefore, the deflecting torque is
constant and maximum as given by Eq. (1).
In a pivoted-type galvanometer, the rotation of the coil twists the

helical springs which exert a restoring torque on the coil. The restoring
torque is proportional to the angle of twist .
r C ... (2)
where C is the torque constant of the springs. C depends on the dimensions
and the elasticity of the springs.
The coil eventually comes to rest in the position where the restoring
torque equals the deflecting torque in magnitude. Therefore, in the
equilibrium position,
r  d
 C NIAB ... (3)
  ( )I
NAB
 I
C
since N, A, B and C are constant. Thus, the deflection of the coil is directly
proportional to the current in it.
Q. 6. Briefly describe the construction of a simple ac generator.
Obtain an expression for the emf induced in a coil rotating with a
uniformangularvelocityinauniformmagneticfield.Showgraphically
the variation of the emf with time (t). OR
Describe the construction of a simple ac generator and explain its
working. (4 marks)
Ans. AC generator construction : A simplified diagram of an ac
generator is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of many loops of wire wound on an
armature that can rotate in a magnetic field. When the armature is turned by
some mechanical means, an emf is generated in the rotating coil.
Consider the coil to have N turns, each of area A, and rotated with
a constant angular speed  ― about an axis in the plane of the coil and
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field lB, as shown in the figure. The
frequency of rotation of the coil is f  /2.
Working : The angle  between the magnetic field lB and the area
of the coil lA at any instant t is t (assuming 0° at t0). At this
position, the magnetic flux through the coil is
mNBl · lANBA cos NBA cos t
Fig.1:Coilofanacgeneratorrotatinginauniformmagneticfield
As the coil rotates, the changing magnetic flux induces an emf in the
coil given by
dm d
e   (NBA cos t)
dt dt
d
 NBA (cos t)  NBA sin t
dt
 ee0 sin t, where e0NBA.
Therefore the induced emf varies as sin t and is called sinusoidally
alternating emf. In one rotation of the coil, sin t varies between 1 and 1
and hence the induced emf varies between e0 and e0 . The maximum
value e0 of an alternating emf is called the peak value or amplitude of the emf.
Fig. 2 : Variation of emf with time

The sinusoidal variation of emf with time t is shown in Fig. 2. The emf
changes direction at the end of every half rotation of the coil. The frequency
of the alternating emf is equal to the frequency f of rotation of the coil. The
1
period of the alternating emf is T .
f
Q. 7. Describe the construction and working of a transformer

with a neat labelled diagram. (3 marks)
Ans. Construction : A transformer consists of two coils, primary and
secondary, wound on two arms of a rectangular frame called the core as
shown in the figure.
(1) Primary coil : It consists of an insulated copper wire wound on
one arm of the core. Input voltage is applied at the ends of this coil.
In a step-up transformer, thick copper wire is used for primary coil. In
a step-down transformer, thin copper wire is used for primary coil.
Parts of a step-up transformer

(2) Secondary coil : It consists of an insulated copper wire wound
on the other arm of the core. The output voltage is obtained at the ends of
this coil.
In a step-up transformer, thin copper wire is used for secondary coil.
In a step-down transformer, thick copper wire is used for secondary coil.
(3) Core : It consists of thin rectangular frames of soft iron stacked
together, but insulated from each other. A core prepared by stacking thin
sheets rather than using a single thick block helps reduce eddy currents.
Working : When the terminals of the primary coil are connected to a
source of an alternating emf (input voltage), there is an alternating current
through it. The alternating current produces a time-varying magnetic field

in the core of the transformer. The magnetic flux associated with the
secondary coil thus varies periodically with time according to the current in
the primary coil. Therefore, an alternating emf (output voltage) is induced
in the secondary coil.
Q. 8. Draw a neat block diagram of a dc power supply and state
the function of each part. OR
With the help of a block diagram, explain the scheme of a power
supply for obtaining dc output voltage from ac line voltage. (3 marks)
Ans. A consumer electronic system called a dc power supply produces
a fairly constant dc voltage from ac supply voltage. The figure shows a
functional block diagram of the circuits within a power supply.
Block diagram of dc power supply with waveforms at each stage
The ac supply voltage is usually stepped-down by a transformer and its

secondary voltage is converted to a pulsating dc by a diode rectifier. By the
superposition theorem, this rectifier output can be looked upon as having
two different components : a dc voltage (the average value) and an ac
voltage (the fluctuating part). The filter circuit smooths out the pulsating dc.
It blocks almost all of the ac component and almost all of the dc component
is passed on to the load resistor. Figure shows the filtered output for a
rectified full-wave dc. The only deviation from a perfect dc voltage is the
small ac load voltage called ripple. A well-designed filter circuit minimizes
the ripple. In this way, we get an almost perfect dc voltage, one that is
almost constant, like the voltage out of a battery.
The regulation of a power supply is its ability to hold the output steady
under conditions of changing input or changing load. As power supplies
are loaded, the output voltage tends to drop to a lower value. Nowadays,
an integrated circuit (IC) voltage regulator is connected between a filter

and the load resistor, especially in low-voltage power supplies. This device
not only reduces the ripple, it also holds the output voltage constant under
varying load and ac input voltage.
Q. 9. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the use of two junction
diodes as a full-wave rectifier. Draw the input and output voltage
waveforms. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Electric circuit : The alternating voltage to be rectified is
applied across the primary coil ( P1P2 ) of a transformer with a centre-tapped
secondary coil (S1S2). The terminals S1 and S2 of the secondary are connected
to the two p-regions of two junction diodes D1 and D2, respectively. The
centre-tap T is connected to the ground. The load resistance RL is connected
across the common n-regions and the ground.
Fig. 1 : Full-wave rectifier circuit
Working : A full-wave rectifier rectifies both halves of each cycle of

an alternating voltage.
During one half cycle of the input, terminal S1 of the secondary is
positive while S2 is negative with respect to the ground ( the centre-tap
T ). During this half cycle, diode D1 is forward-biased and conducts, while
diode D2 is reverse-biased and does not conduct. The direction of current IL
through RL is in the sense shown.
During the next half cycle of the input voltage, S2 becomes positive
while S1 becomes negative with respect to T. Diode D2 now conducts
sending a current IL through RL is the same sense as before while D1 does

not conduct. Thus, the current through RL is in the same direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional, for both halves or the full-wave of the input. This is called
full-wave rectification.
The output voltage has a fixed polarity but varies periodically with
time between zero and maximum. Fig. 2 shows the input and output voltage
waveforms.
Ripple frequency : The pulsating dc output voltage of a full-wave
rectifier has twice the frequency of the input.
Fig. 2 : Voltage waveforms for a full-wave rectifier (a) input (b) output
Q. 10. Explain the construction of a photodiode with a neat

diagram. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Construction : A photodiode consists of an n-type silicon
substrate with a metal electrode back contact. A thin p-type layer is grown
over the n-type substrate by diffusing a suitable acceptor dopant. The area
of the p-layer defines the photodiode active area. An ohmic contact pad is
deposited on the active area. The rest of the active area is left open with a
protective antireflective coating of silicon nitride to minimize the loss of
photons. The non-active area is covered with an insulating opaque SiO2
coating.
(a) Planar photodiode (b) Circuit symbol

Depending on the required spectral sensitivity, i.e., the operating
wavelength range, typical photodiode materials are silicon, germanium,
indium gallium arsenide phosphide (InGaAsP) and indium gallium arsenide
(InGaAs), of which silicon is the cheapest while the last two are expensive.
Q. 11. Explain the principle of operation of a photodiode with a
neat diagram. ( 2 marks )
Ans. Working : In a semiconductor diode, photons or particles with
energies greater than or equal to band gap energy EG can transfer electrons
from the valence band into the conduction band.
Planar photodiode
A photodiode is operated in the reverse bias mode which results in a

wider depletion region. When operated in the dark (zero illumination), there
is a reverse saturation current due solely to the thermally generated minority
charge carriers. This is called the dark current.
When exposed to radiation of energy h  EG (in the range near-
UV to near-IR), electron-hole pairs are created in the depletion region.
The electric field in the depletion layer accelerates these photogenerated
electrons and holes towards the n side and p side, respectively, constituting a
photocurrent I in the external circuit from the p side to the n side. Due to the
photogeneration, more charge carriers are available for conduction and the
reverse current is increased. The photocurrent is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light. It is independent of the reverse bias voltage.
Q. 12. Explain the I-V characteristics of a photodiode. ( 2 marks )
Ans. When a Si photodiode is operated in the dark (zero illumination),
the current versus voltage characteristics observed are similar to the curve
of a rectifier diode as shown by curve  in the figure. This dark current in
Si photodiodes range from 5 pA to 10 nA.
The I-V characteristics of a photodiode showing dark current

and photocurrent for increasing illuminance
When light is incident on the photodiode, the curve shifts to  and

increasing the incident illuminance (light level) shifts this characteristic
curve still further to  in parallel. The magnitude of the reverse voltage
has nearly no influence on the photocurrent and only a weak influence on
the dark current. The normal reverse currents are in tens to hundreds of
microampere range.
The almost equal spacing between the curves for the same increment
in luminous flux reveals that the reverse current and luminous flux are
almost linearly related. The photocurrent of the Si photodiode is extremely
linear with respect to the illuminance. Since the total reverse current is the
sum of the photocurrent and the dark current, the sensitivity of a photodiode
is increased by minimizing the dark current.
Q. 13. Describe with a neat labelled diagram the construction and
working of a solar cell. ( 3 marks )
Ans. Construction : A simple pn-junction solar cell consists of a
p-type semiconductor substrate backed with a metal electrode back contact.
A thin n-layer (less than 2.5 m, for silicon) is grown over the p-type
substrate by doping with suitable donor impurity. Metal finger electrodes
are prepared on top of the n-layer so that there is enough space between the
fingers for sunlight to reach the n-layer and, subsequently, the underlying
pn-junction.
Sectional view of a solar cell

Working : When exposed to sunlight, the absorption of incident
radiation ( in the range near-UV to infrared) creates electron-hole pairs in
and near the depletion layer.
Consider light of frequency  incident on the pn-junction such that

the incident photon energy h is greater than the band gap energy EG of
the semiconductor. The photons excite electrons from the valence band to
the conduction band, leaving vacancies or holes in the valence band, thus
generating electron-hole pairs.
The photogenerated electrons and holes move towards the n side and
p side, respectively. If no external load is connected, these photogenerated
charges get collected at the two sides of the junction and give rise to a
forward photovoltage. In a closed-circuit, a current I passes through the
external load as long as the solar cell is exposed to sunlight.
Q. 14. Explain the working of a junction transistor with a neatly
labelled circuit diagram. ( 4 marks )
Ans. For normal operation of a junction transistor, the emitter-base
junction is always forward biased and the collector-base junction is always
reverse biased. Figure shows the biasing of the junctions for an npn transistor
connected as an amplifier with the common-base configuration, that is, the
base lead is common to the input and output circuits. The emitter-base
junction is forward biased by the battery VBB while the collector-base junction
is reverse biased by the battery VCC. VBB should be greater than the emitter-
base barrier potential (the threshold voltage). The arrows of the various
currents indicate the direction of current under normal operating conditions
(also called the active mode).
Active mode biasing of an npn transistor and transistor action.

Shaded regions show the depletion regions under biasing conditions.
Since the emitter-base junction is forward biased, majority carriers

electrons in the n+ emitter are injected into the base and holes (majority
carriers in the p-type base) are injected from the base into the emitter. Under
the ideal-diode condition, these two current components constitute the total
emitter current IE .
The emitter is a very heavily doped n-type region. Hence, the current
between emitter E and base B is almost entirely electron current from E into
B across the forward biased emitter junction.
The p-type base is narrow and the hole density in the base is very low.
Therefore, virtually all the injected electrons (more than 95 %) diffuse right
across the base to the collector junction without recombining with holes.
Since the collector junction is reverse biased, the electrons on reaching the
collector junction are quickly swept by the strong electric field there into the
n-type collector region, where they constitute the collector current IC .
In practice, about 1 % to 5 % of the holes from the emitter recombine

with holes in the base layer and cause a small current IB in the base lead.
Therefore, IE  IB  IC  IC .
Therefore, carriers injected from a nearby emitter junction can result in a

large current flow in a reverse biased collector junction. This is the transistor
action, and it can be realized only when the two junctions are physically
close enough to interact as described.
If a pnp transistor is used, the battery connections must be reversed

to give the correct bias. The conduction process is similar but takes place
instead by migration of holes from emitter to collector. A few of these holes
recombine with electrons in the base.
Assignments
1. With a neat labelled diagram, explain the construction and working
of a sonometer. (Ch. 6) ( 3 marks )
2. Describe the working and uses of the Van de Graaff generator with
a neat labelled diagram. (Ch. 8) (4 marks)
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier. Explain its
working. What is the frequency of ripple in its output ? ( 3 marks )
OR
With the help of a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of a
half-wave rectifier. (Ch. 16) (March ’22) (3 marks)
4. Describe with a neat diagram the construction of an LED.
(Ch. 16) (2 marks)
5. Explain the working of an LED. (Ch. 16) (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
6. Draw a neat circuit diagram of a transistor CE-amplifier and
explain its working. (Ch. 16) (3 marks)
————
Question
SOLVED PROBLEMS – I
Set
(Chapter 1 to 6)
12
Revise all formulae.

Read a problem carefully and identify the appropriate formula(e).
Rearrange the formula such that the unknown quantity appears by
itself on the left hand side of the equation.
Before substituting the values, check their units and convert them
to standard metric / SI units, if necessary. Substitute the values,
simplify, show log calculations and write the answer with the
appropriate unit.
Data : (1)  3.142 (2) g 9.8 m/s2 (3) Atmospheric pressure at
NTP  101.3 kPa (4) R 8.314 J/mol·K (5) kB  1.38  1023 J/K
(6) NA  6.022  1023 mol1 (7)   5.67  108 W/m2·K4
(8) Wien’s constant, b 2.898  103 m·K

1. A body is tied to one end of a string and revolved in a horizontal
circleofradius50cmataconstantangularspeedof20rad/s.
Find its (i) linear speed (ii) centripetal acceleration. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : r 50 cm  0.5 m,  20 rad/s
(i) The linear speed, vr 20  0.5 10m/s
(ii) The centripetal acceleration, ac v (20)(10) 200m/s2
2. To simulate the acceleration of large rockets, astronauts are seated
in a chamber and revolved in a circle of radius 9.8 m. What angular
speed is required to generate a centripetal acceleration 8 times the
acceleration due to gravity ? ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : r 9.8 m, g 9.8 m/s2, a  8g
Centripetal acceleration  2r
 2r  8 g  9.8 2  8 (9.8)  2  8
 The required angular speed,   e8  2 e2  2.828rad/s
323
3. The angular position of a rotating object is given by

 (t)  (1.55 t2  7.75t 2.87) rad, where t is measured in second.
(i) When is the object momentarily at rest ? (ii) What is the
magnitude of its angular acceleration at that time ? ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data :  (t)  (1.55 t2  7.55 t 2.87) rad
The angular speed of the object as a function of time is
d d
 (t)   (1.55 t2  7.75 t 2.87)
dt dt
 2 (1.55 t)  7.75  (3.10 t 7.75) rad/s
(i) When the object is momentarily at rest,  3.10 t 7.75  0
7.75
 t 2.5 s
3.10
(ii) The magnitude of the angular acceleration is
d d
  (3.10 t 7.75) 3.10rad/s2 (constant)
dt dt
4. What is the tangential acceleration of a flywheel of diameter 60 cm
whenitslowsdownuniformlyattherateof0.25rad/s2 ?
VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : The tangential acceleration of the flywheel,
at r  (  0.25) (0.3)   0.075m/s2
5. Acoinisplacedonastationarydiscat1mfromthedisc’scentre.
At time t 0s, the disc begins to rotate with a constant angular
acceleration of 2 rad/s2 around a fixed vertical axis through its
centre and perpendicular to its plane. Find the magnitude of the
linear acceleration of the coin at t 1.5s.Assumethecoindoesnot
slip. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : r 1 m,  2 rad/s2, 0  0, t 1.5 s
at r (2)(1)  2 m/s2
Angular speed at t 1.5 s,
0 t 0  (2)(1.5)  3 rad/s
 ar 2r (3)2(1)  9 m/s2.
The required linear acceleration is,
a  efa 2r a 2t  ef92  22  ef85 9.22m/s2
QUESTION SET 12 : SOLVED PROBLEMS – I 325
6. A flywheel rotating at 15 rps slows down to 5 rps in 50 rotations.

Find its angular acceleration. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : f0  15 Hz, f 5 Hz,  50 rot  50  2 rad
2 20 (2f )2  (2f0)2
The angular acceleration,  
2 2
42 (52  152) 2
  (  200)
2 (100 ) 100
 4  3.142 12.568rad/s2
7. A wheel, starting from rest, turns through 360 rad with a constant
angular acceleration of 5 rad/s2. (i) What is its final angular
velocity ? (ii) How much time did it take to turn through 360
radians ? (3 marks)
2
Solution : Data : 0  0,  360 rad,  5 rad/s
(i) 2  20  2  2 ( B 0  0)
 2(5)(360)  3600
 The final angular velocity, 60rad/s
1 1
(ii) 0 t t2  t2 ( B 0  0)
2 2
2 2(360)
 t2    144
 5
 The required time interval, t12 s
8. A wheel is set into rotation with uniform angular acceleration. If it
attainsafrequencyof2rot/sin8seconds,calculatethetimetaken
by it for the last complete rotation. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : 0  0,  2 rps, t 8 s
Angular acceleration () being constant, the average angular speed,
0 0  2
av    1 rps
2 2
 The angular displacement of the wheel in 8 s,
av ·t 1  8  8 revolutions
0 2  0 1
   rev/s2
t 8 4
1 1
0t t2  t2 (B 0  0)
2 2
For 2  7 rev, 7  ( ) t 22
1 1
2 4
 t 22 56  t2  ef56  2ef14  2 (3.742)  7.484 s

Hence, the time for the last, i.e., the 8th revolution, is
tt2  8  7.484 0.516 s
9. A body of mass 100 g is tied to one end of a string of length 4 m and
whirled in a horizontal circle. Find the maximum frequency with
which the body can be whirled if the string breaks under a tension
of 50 kg wt. (2 marks)
2
Solution : Data : m  100 g  0.1 kg, r  4 m, g 9.8 m / s ,
F  50 kg wt  50  9.8 N  490 N
The maximum centripetal force that can be applied is equal to the
breaking tension.
 m2max rFmax
 m (42 f 2max ) rFmax
 The maximum number of revolutions per second,
f max  ij  pq
Fmax 490
5.569 Hz
2
4 mr 4  (3.142)2  0.1  4
[Note : To find v max , use the expression mv 2max / r for the centripetal force. ]
10. The coefficient of static friction between a coin and a gramophone
discis0.5.Theradiusofthediscis8cm.Initially,thecentreofthe
coin is  cm away from the centre of the disc. At what minimum
frequencywillitstartslippingfromthere ?Bywhatfactorwillthe
answerchangeifthecoinwasinitiallyalmostattherim ?
[Take g2m/s2] (3 marks)
Solution : Data : s  0.5, r1  cm 102 m, r2  8 cm  8  102 m,
g2 m/s2
To revolve with the disc without slipping, the necessary centripetal
force must be less than or equal to the limiting force of static friction.
 m2r  s mg  2r  s g
 42f 2min r  s g (B  2 f ) ... (1)
 For rr1,
2 s g
f min, 1 
42r1
(0.5)(2) 100 25
 2
 
4 ( 10 ) 2
8 2
 f min, 1  ij
25 5
 rps
2 ef2
5
The coin will start slipping when the frequency is rps.
ef2
2 1
From Eq. (1), f min 
r
since s and g are constant.
 ij  ij  f min, 2  ij
f min, 2 r1  
 f min, 1
f min, 1 r2 8 8
The minimum frequency in the second case will be ij times that


8
in the first case.
11. During a stunt, a cyclist is undertaking horizontal circles inside a
cylindrical well of radius 6.05 m. If the friction coefficient is 0.49,
what minimum speed should the stunt artist maintain ? The mass
of the artist is 50 kg. If she / he increases the speed by 20%, how
much will the force of friction be ? ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : r 6.05 m, s  0.5, g 9.8 m / s2, m 50 kg,
 v 20 % of v
vmin  ij
rg 6.05  9.8
ij
s 0.49
 ef6.05  20  ef121 11m / s

This is the required minimum speed.
So long as the cyclist is not sliding, at every instant, the force of static
friction is
fs mg (50)(9.8) 490 N
12. A circular race course track of radius of 500m is banked at
tan1 0.2. The coefficient of static friction between the tyres of a
vehicle and the road surface is 0.25. Determine the speed limits
with10%margin. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : r 500 m,  tan 0.2, s  0.25, g 9.8 m/s2
1
(i) On the banked track, the maximum speed of the vehicle without
slipping (skidding) is
 pq
rg (s  tan ) 500  9.8(0.25  0.2)
vmax ij
1 s tan  1  (0.25)(0.2)
500  9.8(0.45) 2205
ij ij  48.18 m/s
1  0.05 0.95
The allowed maximum speed should be 10% lower (with 10 %
margin). Therefore, the vmax, allowed  90 % of vmax
 0.9  48.18 43.36m/s
(ii) Since tan   s , vmin  0 (i.e., a vehicle can be brought to a halt
without sliding down).
13. Part of a racing track is designed to have a radius of curvature
of72m.Ifthemaximumspeedlimitforthevehiclesis216kmph,
with what angle should the road be tilted ? What height will its
outer edge be with respect to the inner edge if the track is 10 m
wide ? [ g  10m/s2 ] ( 3 marks )
5
Solution : Data : r 72 m, vo  216 km/h,216 60 m/s, w10 m,
18
2
g 10 m/s
v2o (60)2 3600
tan    5
r g 72  10 720
 The required angle of banking,  tan1 5 78°4

h
sin 
w
 h w sin  (10) sin 78°4 10  0.9805
9.805 m
This gives the required height.
14. Astringoflength0.5mcarriesabobofmass0.1kgatitsend.If
this is to be used as a conical pendulum of period 0.4s,calculate
the angle of inclination of the string with the vertical and the
tension in the string. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : L 0.5 m, m 0.1 kg, T 0.4  s, g 9.8 m/s2
(i) Period, T 2 ij
L cos 
g
gT 2 9.8 (0.4)2 9.8 0.162

 cos    
42L 42  0.5 22
 9.8 0.08  0.784
 The inclination of the string with the vertical,
 cos1 0.784 38° 22
mg 0.1  9.8
(ii) The tension in the string, F  1.25 N
cos  0.784
15. Apendulum,consistingofalightstringoflength20cmandabob
of mass 100 g, is set up as a conical pendulum. Its bob revolves at
75 rpm. Calculate the kinetic energy and the increase in gravitational
potential energy of the bob. [Take g  2 m/s2] (4 marks)
75 5
Solution : Data : L0.2 m, m0.1 kg, n  rps, g2 m/s2, 210,
60 4
1 4
T  s  0.8 s
n 5
T 2 ij
L cos  L cos 
 T 2  42
g g
gT 2 2(0.8)2
 hL cos    0.16 m
42 42
0.16
 cos   0.8
0.2
  cos1 0.8  36°52
v2 rg tan  (L sin ) (g) tan 36°52
 (0.12) (9.8) (0.7500)  0.882
1 1
The KE of the bob  mv2  (0.1) (0.882) 0.0441J
2 2
The increase in gravitational PE,

 PE mg (Lh )
 (0.1) (9.8) (0.2  0.16) 0.0392J
16. An object of mass 1 kg, tied to one end of a string 100 cm long, is
whirled in a vertical circle. What is the minimum speed required at
thelowestpositiontocompletethecircle ? (2 marks)
Solution : Data : m 1 kg, r 1 m, g 9.8 m/s2
The minimum speed of the object at the lowest position is
v ef5rg  ef5  1  9.8  ef49 7m/s
17. A stone of mass 100g, attached to a string of length 50 cm, is
whirled in a vertical circle by giving it a velocity of 7 m/s at the
lowest point. Find the velocity at the highest point. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : m 0.1 kg, rl 0.5 m, v2  7 m / s, g 9.8 m / s2
1
The total energy at the bottom, Ebot  KE  PE  mv 22  0
2
1 2
 ( 0.1 ) (7)  2.45 J
2
1
The total energy at the top, Etop  KE  PE  mv 21 mg (2 r)
2
1
 (0.1) v 21  (0.1) (9.8) (2  0.5)
2
 0.05 v 21  0.98
 By the principle of conservation of energy, Etop Ebot
 0.05 v 21  0.98  2.45
2.45  0.98 147
 v 21    29.4
0.05 5
 The required velocity, v1  ef29.4 5.422m / s
18. A small body tied to a string is revolved in a vertical circle of
radius r such that its speed at the top of the circle is ef2 gr . Find
the minimum and maximum kinetic energies of the body.
[Take m 0.1kg,r 1.2m,g 10m/s2] (2 marks)
Solution : Data : vtop  ef2gr, m 0.1 kg, r 1.2 m, g 10 m/s2
The body has minimum KE at the top and maximum KE at the bottom.
1 1
 KEmin  mv2top  (0.1)(2 gr)
2 2
 (0.1)(10)(1.2) 1.2 J
1
Total energy at the top, E  KE  PE  mv2top  mg (2r)
2
1
 m (2 gr)  2 mgr 3 mgr
2
We assume total energy to be conserved and take the reference level
for zero potential energy to be the bottom of the circle.
1 1
 KEmax  mv2bot  m (6 gr)  3 mgr
2 2
 3(0.1)(10)(1.2) 3.6 J
19. A wheel is rotating at 60 rotations per minute. If 480J of energy
is required to double its rotational speed, calculate the moment of
inertia of the wheel. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : f1  60 rpm  1 Hz, f2  2 f1  2 Hz, W 480 J
1 1
Erot  I2  WErot  I ( 22  21 )
2 2
1
 W I [ (2f2 )2  (2f1 )2 ]  22I ( f 22 f 21 )
2
W 480 80 80
 I 2 2 2
 2  2 8.104 kg·m2
2 ( f 2 f 1 ) 2 (4  1)  (3.142)2
This is the moment of inertia of the wheel.
20. A thin uniform rod 1m long has mass 1kg. Find its moment of
inertia and radius of gyration for rotation about a transverse axis
through a point midway between its centre and one end. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : M 1 kg, L 1 m
Let ICM and I be the respective moments of inertia of the rod about a
transverse axis through its centre, and a parallel axis midway between
its centre and one end.
ML2 L
Then, ICM  and h 
12 4
I  ICM  Mh2
ML2 ML2 4ML2  3ML2
  
12 16 48
7 7
 ML2  (1) (1)2  0.1458 kg·m2
48 48
If k is the radius of gyration of the rod about the parallel axis,
7
I  Mk2  Mk2  ML2
48
 k  ij L  ij  1  0.3818 m
7 7
48 48
21. Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform disc of mass 10 kg
and radius 60 cm about an axis perpendicular to its length and
passing through its centre. VSA (March ’22) ( 1 mark )
Solution : The MI of the disc,
1 1 0.36
 MR2  (10) (0.6)2  10   1.8 kg.m2
2 2 2
22. A dumbbell is prepared by using a uniform rod of mass 60 g and
length 20 cm. Two identical solid spheres, each of mass 25 g and
radius 10 cm, are at the two ends of the rod. Calculate the moment
of inertia of the dumbbell for rotation about an axis passing through
its centre of mass and perpendicular to the length. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : Msph  25 g, Rsph  10 cm, Mrod  60 g, Lrod  20 cm
The MI of a solid sphere about its diameter is
2
Isph, CM  Msph R2sph
5
The distance of the rotation axis (transverse symmetry axis of the
dumbbell) from the centre of sphere, h 20 cm.
The MI of a solid sphere about the rotation axis,
Isph  Isph, CM  Msph h2
For the rod, the rotation axis is its transverse symmetry axis through
CM. The MI of a rod about this axis,
1
Irod  Mrod L2rod
12
Since there are two solid spheres, the MI of the dumbbell about the
rotation axis is
I  2Isph I
 2Msph ( R2sph  h2) 
2 1
Mrod L2rod
5 12
 2(25) [ (10)2  (202) ] 

2 1
(60)(20)2
5 12
 50 (40  400)  5 (400)  22000  2000
24000 g·cm2
23. The surface density of a uniform disc of radius 10 cm is 2 kg/m2.
Find its MI about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to its plane. (July ’22) (2 marks)
2
Solution : Data : R  0.1 m,   2 kg/m
M
Surface density,   2  M    R2
R
1 1
The MI of the disc, I  MR2  (  R2)(R2)
2 2
1 1
   R 4  (3.142)(2)(10 1)4 3.142  104 kg.m2
2 2
24. The radius of gyration of a disc about its transverse symmetry axis
is 2 cm. Determine its radius of gyration about a diameter.
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : kCM  2 cm
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the disc. Let ICM and kCM be
the MI and radius of gyration of the disc about its transverse symmetry
axis. Let I and k be the MI and radius of gyration of the disc about its
diameter. Then
MR2 MR2
ICM  Mk2CM and I  Mk2
2 4
2 2
R R
 k2CM  and k2 
2 4
k2 R2 2 1
   
k2CM 4 R2 2
 e2 1.414 cm
k2CM kCM 2
 k2   k 
2 ef2 ef2
25. An automobile engine develops 62.84 kW [of power] while rotating
ataspeedof1200rpm.Whattorquedoesitdeliver ?
VSA (July ’22) ( 1 mark )
1200 rpm
Solution : f   20 Hz
60 s
   2  f  2 (20)  40  rad/s
P 
P 62.84  103 20  103
 The torque delivered,      500 N.m
 40  3.142 40
26. Theangularmomentumofabodychangesby80kg · m2/swhenits
angularvelocitychangesfrom20rad/sto40rad/s.Findthechange
in its kinetic energy of rotation. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : 1  20 rad/s, 2  40 rad/s
If I is the MI of the body, its initial angular momentum is I1 and final
angular momentum is I2.
Change in angular momentum  I2  I1  I(2 1)
 80  I (40  20)
 I  4 kg·m2
1 1
Initial KE of the body is I12 and final KE is I 22 .
2 2
1 1 1
Change in KE  I22  I12  I (22 12)
2 2 2
1
  4  (1600  400)  2400 J
2
27. A flywheel of mass 4 kg and radius 10 cm, rotating with a uniform
angularvelocityof5rad / s,issubjectedtoatorqueof0.01N·mfor
10 seconds. If the torque increases the speed of rotation, find the
change in its angular momentum. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : M  4 kg, R  10 cm  0.1 m, 1  5 rad/s,
  0.01 N·m, t  10 s
MR2 4  0.01
I   0.02 kg·m2
2 2
 0.01
   0.5 rad/s2
I 0.02
The final angular velocity of the flywheel,
2  1  t
 5  0.5  10  10rad/s
The change in its angular velocity 2  1  5rad/s

The change in its angular momentum
 I2  I1  I ( 2  1 )  0.02  5  0.1 kg·m2/s
28. A potter’s wheel is set into rotation at 100 rpm. It is in the form of
a disc of mass 10 kg and radius 0.4 m. A lump of clay (to be treated
as a particle) of mass 1.6 kg falls and adheres to the wheel at a
distance x from its centre. Calculate x if the wheel now rotates at
80 rpm. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : f1100 rpm, f280 rpm, M10 kg, R0.4 m, m1.6 kg
1 1
I1Iwheel MR2 (10) (0.4)20.8 kg·m2
2 2
The MI of the wheel and the lump of clay is
I2Iwheel  mx2
By the law of conservation of angular momentum, I11 I22
 I1(2f1 ) I2(2f2 )
f f
 I2 Iwheel  mx2  1 I1  1 Iwheel
f2 f2
 mx2 ( 1 1) Iwheel  (  1 )(0.8)

f 100
f2 80
 (  1)(0.8)  0.2 kg·m2

5
4
0.2 1 1
 x2    x m 0.3536m
1.6 8 ef8
29. Twowheels,eachofmomentofinertia4kg·m2, rotate side by side

attherateof120rpmand240rpminoppositedirections.Ifboth
the wheels are coupled by a light shaft so that they now rotate with
a common angular speed, find this new rate of rotation. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : I 4 kg·m2, f1  120 rpm, f2  240 rpm
l 1 and 
Initially, the angular velocities of the two wheels ( l 2 ) and,
therefore, their angular momenta ( lL1 and l L2 ) are in opposite directions.
 The magnitude of the total initial angular momentum
  L1  L2   I1  I2 ( B I1 I2 I )
 2 I ( f2 f1 ) ... (1)
After coupling onto the same shaft, ignoring the moment of inertia of
the shaft, the total moment of inertia is 2I. Let  2f be the common
angular speed.
 The magnitude of the total final angular momentum  2I· 4I·f
... (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2), by the principle of conservation of angular
momentum,
4If 2I ( f2 f1 )
f2 f1 240  120
 f  60 rpm
2 2
This is their new rate of rotation.
30. A ring and a disc roll down an inclined plane through the same
height. Compare their speeds at the bottom of the plane.
VSA (1 mark)
vdisc ef( 4/3 ) gh
 pq
4
efgh
Solution : In the usual notation, 
vring 3
31. A spherical shell and a uniform solid sphere roll down the same
inclined plane. Compare their accelerations. VSA (1 mark)
Solution : The ratio of the accelerations, in the usual notation,
3
ashell g sin  21
 5   0.84
asphere 5
g sin  25
7
32. Asolidsphereofmass1kgrollsonatablewithlinearspeed2m/s,
finditstotalkineticenergy. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : M 1 kg, v 2 m/s
The total kinetic energy of a rolling body,
k2
 
1
E Mv2 1
2 R2
For a solid sphere, k2 2 R2
5
 
1 2 1 7
 E Mv2 1   Mv2
2 5 2 5
7 7 74
 Mv2 122  2.8 J
10 10 10
7
33. Starting from rest, a solid sphere rolls down a distance of L  m
3
along an incline that falls by 3 every 5 along the plane. Find its
acceleration along the plane. Hence find its velocity after it has
travelled the distance L. (3 marks)
7 3
Solution : Data : L  m, sin   , g  9.8 m/s2
3 5
2
The MI of a solid sphere, I  MR2  Mk2
5
2
k 2
 
R2 5 3
9.8 
g sin  5 9.8  3
Acceleration, a   
2
1  (k /R ) 2 2 7
1
5
 4.2m/s2
Since the body started from rest, v22aL
 v  mn2aL  pqn2(4.2)   mn2  2  0.7  7  2mn4.9

7
3
 2 2.214  4.428m/s
34. Find the pressure 2000 m below the surface of the ocean if the
pressure at the sea level is one atmosphere.
[Densityofseawater  1030kg/m3] (2 marks)
Solution : Data : h 2000 m,  1030 kg/m3, p0  1.013  105 Pa,
g 9.8 m/s2
Absolute pressure at a depth,
pp0 hg (1.013  105)  (2000) (1030) (9.8)
 (1.013  105)  (201.8  105) 202.813  105 Pa
 20.2813MPa
35. The surface areas of the input and output pistons of a hydraulic lift
are 30 cm2 and 1500 cm2,respectively.Aforceof25Nisappliedto
the input piston. Find the force on the output piston.
VSA (1 mark)
Solution :
F1 F2
  The force on the output piston,
A1 A2
A2 1500
F2  F1 25   25  50 1250N  1.25kN
A1 30
36. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 4 cm.
Thesurfacetensionofthesoapsolutionis25  103N/m.
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : r 4 cm  4 102 m, T 25  103 N/m
Initial surface area of the soap bubble  0
Final surface area of the soap bubble24r2
 Increase in surface area  2  4r2
The work done  surface tension  increase in surface area
T 2  4r2
25  103  2  4  3.142  (4  102 )2
1.005  103 J
37. Compare the amount of work done in blowing two soap bubbles of
radii in the ratio 4 : 5. (Sept. ’21) ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : r1 : r2  4 : 5
W  8  r2T  W  r2 (for same T )
 ( 1)  ( ) 
W1 r 2 4 2 16

W2 r2 5 25
38. A soap film is formed when a rectangular wire frame of area
2 cm2 cm is dipped into a soap solution and taken out. If the area
ofthefilmisincreasedto3cm  3cm,calculatetheworkdonein
theprocess.[Surfacetensionofthesoapfilmis3  102N/m]
(2 marks)
2
Solution : Data : A122 cm 410 4
m , A233 cm 9104 m2,
2 2
T 3  102 N/m
As the film has two surfaces, the work done is
W 2T(A2 A1)
 2(3  102)(9  104  4  104)
 3.0  105J  30J
39. A drop of mercury of radius 0.2 cm breaks into 8 droplets of the

same size. Find the work done if the surface tension of mercury is
485.5dyn/cm. (3 marks)
Solution : Let R be the radius of the drop and r the radius of each droplet.
Data : R 0.2 cm, n 8, T 485.5 dyn/cm
As the volume of the liquid remains constant,
volume of n droplets  volume of the drop
4 4
 n r3  R3
3 3
R3 R R R
 r3   r
efn ef8
 
n 3 3 2
Surface area of the drop  4R2

Surface area of n droplets n 4R2
 The increase in the surface area
 surface area of n droplets surface area of the drop
R2
 4 (nr2 R2)  4 (8  R2)
4
 4 (2  1) R2  4R2
 The work done  surface tension  increase in surface area
T 4R2  485.5  4  3.142  (0.2)2
 244.1ergs
40. If the surface tension of a liquid is 70 dyn / cm, what is the total
energyofthefreesurfaceoftheliquiddropofradius0.1cm?
VSA (1 mark)
22
Solution : E  4r2T 4   (0.1)2  70  88  102  10 8.8 ergs
7
41. Twenty seven droplets of water, each of radius 1 mm, coalesce into
a single drop. Find the change in surface energy. [Surface tension
ofwateris0.072N/m] (3 marks)
Solution : Data : r  1 mm  10 m, T  0.072 N/m
3
Let R be the radius of the single drop formed due to the coalescence
of 27 water droplets.
Volume of 27 droplets  volume of the single drop
as the volume of the liquid remains constant.
4 4
 27  r3  R3
3 3
3 3
 27r  R  3r  R
Surface area of 27 droplets  27  4r2
Surface area of single drop  4R2
 Decrease in surface area  27  4r2 4R2
 4 (27r2 R2)  4 [ 27r2 (3r)2 ]
 4  18r2 72r2
The decrease in surface energy
 0.072  72r2  0.072  72  3.142  ( 103)2  1.629  105 J
42. The surface tension of water at 0 °Cis75.5dyn / cm.Calculatethe
surface tension of water at 25 °C. [ forwater  2.7  103/°C ]
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : T0 75.5 dyn / cm,  0.0027 / °C,  25 °C
T  T0 (1 )  75.5 (1  0.0027  25)
 75.5 (1  0.0675)  75.5  0.9325
 70.39dyn / cm
This is the surface tension of water at 25 °C.
43. An air bubble of radius 0.2 mm is situated just below the
water surface. Calculate the gauge pressure. Surface tension of
water  7.2  102N/m. VSA (1 mark)
Solution : Data : R 2  104 m, T 7.2  102 N/m
2T
The gauge pressure inside the bubble 
R
2 (7.2  102)
  7.2  102 720 Pa
2  10 4
44. Whatistheexcessofpressureinsideasoapbubbleofradius3cm
ifthesurfacetensionofthesoapsolutionis30dyn/cm?
VSA ( 1 mark )
4T 4  30
Solution : Excess of pressure, pp0   40dyn/cm2
R 3
45. Find the pressure difference between the inside and outside of a
spherical water drop of radius 2 mm if the surface tension of water
is 73  10 3N/m. (July ’22) (2 marks)
Solution : Data : R 2  103 m, T 7.3  102 N/m

The excess pressure inside the water drop,
2T 2 (7.3 102)
p  p0   73 Pa
R 2  103
46. Calculate the rise of water in a clean glass capillary tube of radius
0.1 mm when dipped into water of surface tension 7  102 N/m.
[Angleofcontactbetweenwaterandglass  0,densityofwater
 1000kg/m3, g 9.8m/s2] (2 marks)
Solution : Data : r 0.1 mm  1  104 m,  0°,
T 7  102 N/m,  103 kg/m3, g 9.8 m/s2
cos  cos 0°  1
2T cos  2  (7  102 )  1 1
Capillary rise, h  3   0.1429 m
rg 10  (1  10 ) 9.8 7
4
47. Calculate the density of paraffin oil, if within a glass capillary

tube of radius 0.25 mm dipped into paraffin oil of surface tension
0.0245N/m, the oil rises to a height of 2cm. [Angle of contact of
paraffinoilwithglass  28° ] (2 marks)
Solution : Data : r 0.25 mm  2.5  104 m, T 0.0245 N/m,
h 2 cm  2  102 m,  28°, g9.8 m/s2
hrg
T
2 cos 
2T cos  2  0.0245  cos 28°
  
hrg 2  102  2.5  104  10
0.0245  0.8829
  882.9kg/m3
2.5 9.8 106
This is the density of paraffin oil.
48. The tube of a mercury barometer is 1cm in diameter. What
correction due to capillarity is to be applied to the barometric
reading if the surface tension of mercury is 485.5 dyn/cm and the
angle of contact of mercury with glass is 130° ?
[Densityofmercury  13600kg/m3 ] ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : d 1 cm, T 485.5 dyn/cm,  130°,
 13600 kg/m3  13.6 g/cm3, g9.8 m/s2 980 cm/s2

hrg 2T cos 
T  h
2 cos  rg
d
r  0.5 cm, cos 130°   0.6428
2
2485.5(0.6428) 9710.6428
 h  103   0.0936 cm
0.5  13.6 980 13.6  490
 The correction due to capillarity  0.0936 cm
49. A horizontal force of 1 N is required to move a metal plate of area
102 m2withavelocityof2  102m/s,whenitrestsonalayerof
oil1.5  103 m thick. Find the coefficient of viscosity of oil.
(3 marks)
Solution : Data : F1 N, A102 m2, v02102 m/s, y1.5103 m
dv 2  102 40
Velocity gradient,   s1
dy 1.5  103 3
dv
Viscous force, F 
dy
 The coefficient of viscosity is
F

A(dv/dy)
1N 30
  7.5 Pa.s
(10 2 2
m ) (40/3 s )
1 4
50. Calculate the viscous force acting on a raindrop of diameter 1 mm,

fallingwithauniformvelocityof2m / sthroughair.Thecoefficient
ofviscosityofairis1.8  105N · s/m2. (2 marks)
Solution : Refer to the answer to Q. 10 of the Solved Model Question Paper
in Part 1.
51. With what terminal velocity will an air bubble, 0.4 mm in diameter,
riseinaliquidofviscosity0.1N · s/m2 and specific gravity (relative
density)0.9?Densityofairis1.29kg/m3. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : d0.4 mm, 0.1 Pa·s, L0.910 kg/m 900 kg/m3,
3 3
air  1.29 kg/m3, g 9.8 m/s2

Since the density of air is less than that of oil, the air bubble will
rise up through the liquid. Hence, the viscous force is downward. At
terminal velocity, this downward viscous force is equal in magnitude
to the net upward force.
Viscous force  buoyant force  gravitational force
4
 6rvt  r3 (L – air) g
3
 The terminal velocity,
2r2g (L – )
vt 
9
2(2  104)2(9.8)(900 – 1.29) 8  9.8 898.7
  108
9 (0.1) 0.9
 7.829  104m/s  0.7829mm/s(upward)
52. A horizontal water pipe with an inside diameter 5 cm has a nozzle
of diameter 1 cm at the outlet. How would the speed of the water at
the outlet compare with that of the steady flow in the pipe ?
VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : By the equation of continuity, the ratio of the speed at the outlet
to that within the pipe is
v2 A1
  ( 1 )   25
d 2 5
v1 A2 d2 1
53. Calculate the total energy per unit mass possessed by water at a
point where the pressure is 104 N/m2, the velocity is 0.02 m /s and
the height of the water level from the ground is 0.1 m. Density of
water1000kg /m3. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : p  104 Pa, v  0.02 m /s, y  0.1 m,   1000 kg /m3,
g  9.8 m /s2
The total energy per unit mass of water
p 1
  v2  gy
 2
104 Pa 1
 3  (210  2 m /s)2 (9.8 m /s2) (0.1 m)
10 kg / m3 2
 10 0.0002  0.98  10.9802J/kg

54. A water tank has a hole a distance x below the free surface of water
in the tank. If the radius of the hole is 2 mm and the velocity of
effluxis11m /s,findx. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : r  2 mm, v  11 m /s, g  9.8 m /s 2
By Torricelli’s law of efflux, the velocity of efflux,

v  ef2 gx
v2 (11 m /s)2
 x 
2g 2 (9.8 m /s2)
121
  6.173 m
19.6
55. With what velocity does water start flowing out of an orifice
in a tank with initial gauge pressure 4105 N/m2 ? [Density of
water  1000kg/m3] (3 marks)
Solution : Data : pp0  4105 Pa,   103 kg/m3
If the orifice is at a depth h from the water surface in a tank, the gauge
pressure there is
pp0  hg ... (1)
By Torricelli’s law of efflux, the velocity of efflux,
v  ef2gh ... (2)
Substituting for h from Eq. (1),
v  ij2g .  ij
p  p0 2 (pp0)
g 
 ij  20 e2  28.28m/s
2 (4105)
103
56. Two vessels A and B are filled with the same gas where the volume,
temperature and pressure in vessel A are twice those in vessel B.
Calculate the ratio of the number of molecules of the gas in vessel
A to that in vessel B. VSA (1 mark)
Solution : PVNkBT
The required ratio of the number of molecules,
NA PA VA TB
 ( ) ( ) ( )  (2) (2) ( )  2
1
NB PB VB TA 2
57. The pressure exerted by a certain mass of enclosed gas at 300 K is

5  104N/m2.Whatwillbethepressureexertedbythegasat600K
if the volume of the gas is kept constant ? VSA (1 mark)
P2 T2 600
Solution : For constant volume, P  T    2
P1 T1 300
 P2  2P1  2  5  104 105N/m2
is the required pressure.
58. If the rms speed of oxygen molecules at STP is 460m/s,determine
the rms speed of hydrogen molecules at STP. [Molar mass of
oxygen32g/mol,molarmassofhydrogen2g/mol] (2 marks)
Solution : Data : v1rms (oxygen)  460 m/s, same temperature,
M01 (oxygen)  32103 kg/mol, M02 (hydrogen)  210[3 kg/mol
vrms  ij
3RT
M0
The rms speed of oxygen molecules, v1rms  ij
3RT
M01
and that of hydrogen molecules, v2rms  ij

3RT
M02
v2rms
 ij  ij  ef16  4
M01 32103

v1rms M02 2103
 v2rms  4 v1rms  4460  1840m/s
This is the rms speed of hydrogen molecules at STP.
59. Calculate the rms speed of helium atoms at 127°C. [ Density of
heliumatNTP  0.1785kg/m3 ]- (3 marks)
Solution : Data :  0.1785 kg/m3, P 1.013  105 N/m2, T0 273 K,
T (273  127)  400 K
The rms speed of helium atoms at NTP,
v0rms  ij  ij
3P 3  1.013  105
 1305 m/s
 0.1785
 ij
vrms
Since rms speed  mnT for a given gas,
T
v0rms T0
 The rms speed of the helium atoms at 300 K,
vrms  v0 rms ij  1305 ij

T 400
 1580m/s
T0 273
60. Find the kinetic energy of 5 litres of a gas at STP, given the standard
pressureis1.013  105N/m2. (2 marks)
5 2 3
Solution : Data : P 1.013  10 N/m , V 5 L  5  10 3
m
3
E  PV
2
3
 (1.013  105) (5  103)
2
 7.5  1.013  102 J 7.597  102 J
This is the required energy.
61. Thekineticenergyof1kgofoxygenat300Kis1.169  105 J. Find
thekineticenergyof2kgofoxygenat500K. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : M1  1 kg, M2  2 kg, T1  300 K, T2  500 K,
kinetic energy ( K1 )  1.169  105 J
3 RT
Kinetic energy of a given mass (m) of gas  · M
2 M0
3 RT 3 RT
 K1  · 1 M1 and K2  · 2 M2
2 M0 2 M0
K2 T2 M2 500 2 10
     
K1 T1 M1 300 1 3
10 10
 K2  K1  (1.169  105) 3.897  105 J
3 3
This is the required kinetic energy.
62. What is the kinetic energy per unit volume of the gas if the gas
pressure is 105N/m2 ? VSA ( 1 mark )
3
Solution : Kinetic energy per unit volume of the gas  P
2
3
  105 1.5  105N/m2
2
63. The difference between the two molar specitre heats of a gas is
9000J/kg.K. If the ratio of the two specific heats is 1.5, calculate
the two molar specific heats. (March ’22) (2 marks)
Solution : [Important note : The unit J/kg.K and the magnitude of the
difference indicate that the quantities are the principal specific heats
and not molar specific heats.]
Data : SP SV  9000 J/kg.K,   1.5
S
  P  1.5  SP  1.5SV
SV
 SP SV  1.5SV SV  9000
9000
 SV   18000J/kg.K
0.5
 SP  1.5  18000  27000J/kg.K
64. A body of surface area 100 cm2radiatesenergy3000Jin10minutes
at a certain constant temperature. The radiant power of a perfect
blackbodymaintainedatthesametemperatureis2500W/m2. Find
the radiant power and emissivity of the body. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : A 100 cm2  100  104 m2  102 m2, Q 3000 J,
t 10 minutes  10  60 s  600 s, Rb  2500 W/m2
(i) The radiant power of the body,
Q 3000
R 
At (10 )(600)
2
5  102W/m2
(ii) The emissivity of the body,
R 500
e  0.2
Rb 2500
65. Calculate the wavelength in ängstrom at which the emissive power
is maximum for a blackbody heated to 3727 °C. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : T 3727 °C  3727  273  4000 K,
b 2.898  103 m·K
mTb
 The peak wavelength,
b 2.898  103
m    7.245  107 m7245 Å
T 4000
66. Calculate the energy radiated in half a minute by a blackbody of
surface area 200 cm2 when it is maintained at 127 °C.
[Given :   5.7  108W/m2·K4 ] (July ’22) ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : t half a minute  30 s, A 200 cm2  2  102 m2,

T 273  127  400 K,   5.7  108 W/m2·K4
The energy radiated, Q AT 4t
 (5.7  108 ) (2  102 ) (400)4 (30)
 (5.7) (256) (60) (102) 875.5 J
67. A 60 watt electric bulb loses its energy entirely by radiation from
the surface of its filament. If the surface area of the filament is
4cm2 and its coefficient of emission is 0.4, calculate the temperature
of the filament. ( 3 marks )
2 2
Solution : Data : A 4 cm  4  10 4
m , e 0.4, P 60 W,
2 4
  5.67  10 8
W / m ·K
PdQ / dt  eA  T 4
( dQ / dt) 60
 T4 
eA 0.44104  5.67108
 Filament temperature,
60 1/4
T( ) 1603 K
0.4  4  104  5.67  108
68. Compare the rates of emission of heat by a blackbody maintained
at 727 °C and at 227 °C, if the blackbody is surrounded by an
enclosure (black) at 27 °C. What would be the ratio of its rates of
loss of heat in the two cases ? (3 marks)
Solution : Data : T1  273  727  1000 K, T2  273  227  500 K,
T0  273  27  300 K
dQ
The rate of emission of heat,  AT 4
dt
We assume that the surface area A is the same for the two bodies.
4
( )
(dQ / dt)1 T1 T1 4
 
(dQ / dt)2 T 42 T2
( )  24 16
1000 4
500
dQ
The rate of loss of heat,  A (T 4 T 40)
dt
4 4
(dQ / dt)1 T 1 T 0
 
(dQ / dt)2 T 42 T 40
1012  81  108 (10000  81)  108
 
625  108  81  108 544  108
9919
 18.23
544
69. A small blackened solid copper sphere of radius 2.5 cm and
absorption coefficient 0.9 is placed in an evacuated chamber.
The temperature of the chamber is maintained at 27 °C. At what
rate must energy be supplied to the copper sphere to maintain its
temperature at 127 °C ? (3 marks)
Solution : Data : r 2.5 cm  2.5  102 m, a 0.9, T027327300 K,
T 273  127  400 K,  5.67  108 W/m2·K4
Emissivity, ea 0.9
The rate at which energy must be supplied is
e A (T 4 T 40 ) e(4r2)( T 4 T 40 )
 (0.9)(4  3.142)(5.67  108)(2.5  102)2(4004  3004)
 3.142  5.67  22.5  104(42  32)(42  32)
 3.142  5.67  22.5  104(25  7)
 3.142  5.67  22.5  175  104
7.014 W
70. An ideal gas, taken through an isothermal process, does 2000 J of
work. Find the heat supplied to the gas. VSA (1 mark)
Solution :  U 0 (isothermal process). Hence, the heat supplied,
Q UW 0  2000 2000 J
71. A system releases 125 kJ of heat while 104 kJ of work is done on
the system. Calculate the change in the internal energy.
(July ’22) (2 mark)
Solution : Data : Q  125 kJ, W  104 kJ
UQW  125 kJ ( 104 kJ)
 ( 125  104) kJ  21 kJ
This is the change (decrease) in the internal energy.
72. Two moles of a gas expand isothermally at 300 K. If the initial

volume of the gas is 23 L and the final volume is 46 L, find the
work done by the gas on its surroundings. [ R 8.314J/mol·K ]
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : n 2, T 300 K, Vi  23 L  23  103 m3,
Vf  46 L  46  103 m3, R 8.314 J/mol·K
The work done by the gas on its surroundings,
W nRT ln ( f)  2.303 nRT log10 ( f)
V V
Vi Vi
 (2.303) (2) (8.314) (300) log10 ( )

46  103
23  1093
 (4.606) (8.314) (300) log10 (2)
 (4.606) (8.314) (300) (0.3010) 3458J
73. The initial pressure and volume of a gas enclosed in a cylinder
are respectively 2105N/m2 and 6103 m3. If the work done in
compressing the gas at constant pressure is 150 J, find the final
volume of the gas. (March ’22) (2 marks)
5 2 3
Solution : Data : P210 N/m , Vi610 3
m , W 150 J
W
WP (Vf  Vi)  Vf Vi 
P
W (  150)
 Vf  Vi 6103 
P (2105)
6103  0.7510 3  5.25  103 m3
This is the final volume of the gas.
74. A monoatomic gas at 27 °Cisadiabaticallycompressedto80 %of
its initial volume. Find the final temperature of the gas. (2 marks)
5
Solution : Data : Vf0.8 Vi , Ti27273 300 K,  (monoatomic gas)
3
1 1
TiVi TfVf
 Tf Ti ( Vi )
1
 300 (1.25)5/31  300 (1.25)2/3
Vf
 (300) (1.161) 348.3 K (348.3  273)°C 75.3 °C
is the final temperature of the gas.
75. An ideal monoatomic gas is adiabatically compressed so that its

finaltemperatureistwiceitsinitialtemperature.Whatistheratio
ofthefinalpressuretoitsinitialpressure? (3 marks)
Solution : Data : Tf2 Ti, 5/3 (monoatomic gas)
 
PiVi PfVf in an adiabatic process
nRT
PVnRT  V
P
nRTi nRTf
 Vi and Vf 
Pi Pf
 
 Pi ( )  Pf ( )
nRTi nRTf
Pi Pf

Pi 1
Tf  Pf   1
( ) ( )  ( ) ( )
1  1  Tf
 Pi Ti  Pf Tf
Ti Pf Ti Pi
5/31 2/3
Pf Pf
 2 ( ) ( )
5/3 5 2 Pf
 log 2 log
Pi Pi 3 3 Pi
 0.3010  log ( )  (2.5) (0.3010)log ( )

5 2 Pf Pf

3 3 Pi Pi
 0.7525  log ( )
Pf Pf
 antilog 0.75255.656
Pi Pi
This is the ratio of the final pressure (Pf) to the initial pressure (Pi) .
76. 0.5 mole of a gas at a temperature of 450 K expands isothermally
from 3L to 9L. (a) What is the work done by the gas? (b) How
much heat is supplied to the gas ? [ R  8.319J/mol·K ]
Solution : Data : n  9.5 mol, T  450 K, Vi 3 L, Vf 9 L,
R 8.319 J/mol·K
(a) The work done by the gas,
V
W  nRT ln f
Vi
V
 2.303 nRT log10 f
Vi
9
 2.303 (0.5) (8.319) (450) log10
3
 2.303  8.319  225  0.4771

 2.057 kJ
(b) In an isothermal process,  U  0
 The heat supplied to the gas,
Q   U  W  0  W  2.057 kJ
77. A gas is adiabatically cooled from 27 °C to  45.6 °C. In the

process, the pressure of the gas drops from 100 kPa to 50 kPa. Find
the adiabatic ratio for the gas. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : Pi  100 kPa, Pf  50 kPa, Ti  27 °C  300 K,
Tf   45.6 °C   45.6  273  227.4 K
Tf Pi
( ) ( )
 1
Ti Pf
Tf Pi
  log ( )  ( 1 ) log ( )
Ti Pf
  log ( )  ( 1 ) log 2

227.4
300
  log (0.758)  (1 ) log 2

  (1.8797)  (1 ) (0.3010)
  (0.1203)  (1 ) (0.3010) [ 1·8797   1  0.8797 ]
 0.3010
 
  1 0.1203
 0.1203   0.3010  0.3010
 0.3010  0.1807 
0.3010
   1.665
0.1807
Thus, the adiabatic ratio for the gas, 1.665 (  ).

5
3
78. A system is taken through a hypothetical thermodynamic cycle as

shown. Calculate the work done along each path. (4 marks)
Solution : Data : From the figure, PAPB6105 Pa,

PCPD2105 Pa, VAVD2 L, VBVC6 L, 1 L103 m3
(i) The work done along the path A  B (isobaric process),
WABPA (VB VA)
(6105 Pa) (6  2) (103 m3)2.4103 J
(ii) WBCzero (isochoric process).
(iii) The work done along the path C  D (isobaric process),
WCDPC (VD – VC)
(2105 Pa) (2  6) (103 m3)   8102 J
(iv) WDAzero (isochoric process).
79. What is the thermal efficiency of a heat engine if in one cycle the
workoutputis3000Jandtheheatinputis10000J?
VSA (1 mark)
W 3000
Solution : Thermal efficiency of a heat engine  out  0.330%
Qin 10000
80. In one cycle, a heat engine rejects 80% of the energy absorbed
from the hot reservoir to the cold reservoir. Calculate the efficiency
of the engine. VSA (1 mark)
Solution : Data : QC  0.8 Q H
W QH QC QC
The efficiency of a heat engine,    1
QH QH QH
   1  0.8 0.2 20 %
81. In a refrigerator, in one cycle, the external work done on the

working substance is 20% of the energy extracted from the cold
reservoir. Find the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
VSA (1 mark)
Solution : Data : W 0.2 QC
QC 1
The coefficient of performance of the refrigerator,   5
W 0.2
82. TheefficiencyofaCarnotcycle/engineis75%.Ifthetemperature
of the hot reservoir is 727 °C, calculate the temperature of the cold
reservoir. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : 75%0.75, TH(273  727) K1000 K
TC TC
1   1  
TH TH
 TCTH (1 – )1000 (1  0.75)
250 K(250  273) °C
  23 °C
This is the temperature of the cold reservoir.
83. A body of mass m tied to a spring performs SHM with period
2 seconds. If the mass is increased by 3m, what will be the period
ofSHM ? VSA (1 mark)
Solution : T 2 ij  ij  ij  e4  2
m T2 m2 m 3m

k T1 m1 m
 T2  2T1  2  2  4 seconds is the required period of SHM.
d 2x
84. In SI units, the differential equation of an SHM is 2  36x.
dt
Find its frequency and period. (2 marks)
Solution :
d 2x
 36x
dt 2
Comparing this equation with the general equation,
d 2x
2
 2x
dt
we get, 2  36   6 rad/s  2f
 6 6
 The frequency, f   0.9548 Hz and the
2 2(3.142) 6.284
1 1
period, T  1.047 s
f 0.9548
85. A needle of a sewing machine moves along a path of amplitude
1
4cm with frequency 5 Hz. Find its acceleration s after it has
30
crossed the mean position. (2 marks)
1
Solution : Data : A 4 cm  4  102 m, f 5 Hz, t s
30
 2 f 2 (5)  10 rad/s
Therefore, the magnitude of the acceleration,
a2x 2A sin t
 (10)2 (4  102)

 102 sin  10 (9.872)(0.866) 34.20m/s2
3
86. At what distance from the mean position is the speed of a particle
performing SHM half its maximum speed ?
[Given:PathlengthoftheSHM  10cm] (2 marks)
1
Solution : Data : v vmax , 2A 10 cm
2
 A 5 cm
vefA2 x2 and vmax A
efA2 x2 
1 A
Since v vmax ,
2 2
A2 A 2
3A2
 A2 x2   x2 A2  
4 4 4
e3
 x A 0.866  5  4.33 cm
2
This is the required displacement.
87. A particle performing linear SHM has maximum velocity of
25cm/sandmaximumaccelerationof100cm/s2. Find its period of
oscillations. (March ’22) (2 marks)
Solution : Data : vmax  25 cm/s , amax  100 cm/s
2 2
vmax   A and amax  2A

2A
 amax  
A
100
   4 rad/s
25
2  2   3.142
 Period, T      1.571 s
 4 2 2
88. A particle performing linear SHM of period 2 seconds about the
mean position O has a speed of be3m/swhenatadistanceb from
O. If the particle is moving away from O at that instant, find the
time required by the particle to travel a further distance b.
(3 marks)
Solution : Data : T 2 s, vbe3 m/s at xb
2 2
    1 rad/s
T 2
vmnA2  x2
 At xb, b e3  (1) efA2 b2
 3b2 A2 b2  A 2b
 Assuming the particle starts from the mean position, its displacement
is given by
xA sin t 2b sin t
If the particle is at xb at tt1,
1 
b 2b sin t1  t1  sin1  s
2 6
Also, with period T 2 s, on travelling a further distance b the

particle will reach the positive extremity at time t2  s.
2
 The time taken to travel a further distance b from xb is
  
t2 t1    s
2 6 3
89. Describe the state of oscillation of a particle if the phase angle of
25
SHM is rad. (2 marks)
4
25
Solution : Data :  rad
4
25  
  6  3 (2) rad  rad
4 4 4
The first term indicates that the particle has completed 3 oscillations.
The second term indicates that the displacement of the particle in the
 1
4th oscillation is A sin A, where A is the amplitude of the
ef2

4
SHM, and moving towards the positive extreme.
90. Two parallel SHMs represented by x1  5 sin (4t /3) cm and
x2  3 sin (4t /4) cm are superposed on a particle. Determine
the amplitude and epoch of the resultant SHM. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : x1  5 sin (4t ) A1 sin (t),


3
x2  3 sin (4t ) A2 sin (t)


4
 
 A1  5 cm, A2  3 cm,  rad,  rad
3 4
(i) Resultant amplitude,
R  efA12 A22  2A1A2 cos ()
 pq(5)2  (3)2  2(5)(3) cos (  )

 
3 4
pq25  9  30 cos  ef34  30(0.9659)


12
 ef34  28.98 ef62.987.936 cm
(ii) Epoch of the resultant SHM,
A1 sin A2 sin 
  tan1
A1 cos A2 cos 
5 sin (/3)  3 sin (/4)
 tan1
5 cos (/3)  3 cos (/4)
5 (0.866)  3 (0.7071) 4.33  2.1213

 tan1  tan1
5 (0.5)  3(0.7071) 2.5  2.1213
 tan1 1.396 54°23

91. An SHM is given by the equation x [8 sin (4t)  6cos(4t )] cm.
Find its amplitude and period. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : x [8 sin (4t)  6 cos (4t)] cm
x 8 sin (4t)  6 cos (4t)
 8 sin (4t)  6 sin ( 4t  )


2
Thus, x is the superposition of two parallel SHMs of the same period :
x  x1  x2, where
x1 8 sin (4t) cm A1 sin (t ) and
x2 6 sin (4t  ) cm A2 sin (t )


2

 A1 8 cm, A2 6 cm,  4 rad/s,  0,  rad
2
(1) Resultant amplitude,
 R  efA12  A22 2A1A2 cos ()
 ef(8)2  (6)2  2  8  6 cos (0 /2)
 ef100 10 cm
2 2 1
(2) Period, T    s
 4 2
92. The potential energy of a particle in SHM is 2  104 J at the
extreme positions. What will be its potential energy when the
particle is midway between the mean and extreme position ?
VSA (1 mark)
1 1
Solution : PEmax  kA2  2  104 J, PE  kx2.
2 2
PE  PEmax  ( ) 
x 1 x 2 2  104
Therefore, at  , 5  105 J
A 2 A 4
93. The total energy of a particle of mass 0.1 kg performing SHM is
0.2 J. Find its maximum speed and period if the amplitude is 2 cm.
(3 marks)
Solution : Data : m  0.1 kg, E  0.2 J, A  2 cm  2 102 m
(i) The total energy of the particle,
1
E  KEmax  mv2max
2
 vmax  ij  ij
2E 2  0.2
 2m/s
m 0.1
2
(ii)   , A  vmax  2 m/s
T
2A
  2 m/s
T
 The period of SHM of the particle,
2A
T  A  3.142  2 102  0.06284 s
2
94. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum increases by 20 %
when the length of the pendulum is increased by 44 cm. Find its
(i) initial length (ii) initial period of oscillation at a place where
gis9.8m/s2. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Let T and L be the initial period and length of the pendulum.
Let T1 and L1 be the final period and length.
Data : T1  T 0.2 T 1.2 T, L1  L 0.44 m
 T  2 ij , T1  2 ij
L L1
g g
 ij  ij
T L 1 L
 
T1 L1 1.2 L  0.44
Squaring and cross-multiplying, we get
L  0.44  1.44 L  0.44 L  0.44
0.44
 L 1 m
0.44
 T  2 ij  2  3.142  ij  2.007 s
L 1
g 9.8
95. A clock regulated by a seconds pendulum keeps correct time.
During summer, the length of the pendulum increases to 1.005 m.
How much will the clock gain or lose in one day? (2 marks)
2
Solution : Data : L  1.005 m, g  9.8 m/s
L
T  2ij
g
 2  3.142  ij  6.284 ij
1.005 1.005
 2.012 s
9.8 9.8
The period of a seconds pendulum is 2 seconds. Hence, the

given pendulum clock will lose 2.012  2  0.012 s in 2.012 s during
summer.
24  3600  0.012
 Time lost in 24 hours  s  515.3 s
2.012
96. A simple pendulum of length 100 cm performs SHM. Find the
restoring force acting on its bob of mass 50 g when its displacement
from the mean position is 3 cm. [g 10m/s2] VSA (1 mark)
Solution : Data : L100 cm, m50 g5102 kg, x3 cm, g10 m/s2
Restoring force, F mg sin mg
 (5  102)(10) ( )  0.015N
3
100
97. Find the change in length of a seconds pendulum if the acceleration
due to gravity at the place changes from 9.75 m/s2 to 9.8 m/s2.
[Take 2  10] VSA (1 mark)
Solution : Data : g1  9.75 m/s2, g2  9.8 m/s2
g
Length of a seconds pendulum, L 2

g2 g1 9.8  9.75 0.05
 The change in length, L2 L1   
 2 10 10
 0.005 m
 The length of the seconds pendulum must be increased by
0.005m  5mm.
98. A 20 cm wide thin circular disc of mass 200 g is suspended from
a rigid support by a thin metal wire. By holding the rim of the
disc, the wire is twisted through 60° and released. It now performs
angular oscillations of period 1 second. Calculate the maximum
restoring torque generated in the wire under undamped conditions.
[Take 3  31] (2 marks)

Solution : Data : R 10 cm  0.1 m, M 0.2 kg, m  60°  rad,
3
T 1 s, 3  31
The MI of the disc about the rotation axis (perpendicular through its
centre) is
1 1
I MR2 (0.2)(0.1)2  103 kg.m2
2 2
The period of torsional oscillation, T 2 ij

I
c
I
 The torsion constant, c 42
T2
The magnitude of the maximum restoring torque,
max cm  (42 )( )

I 
2
T 3
 2  (31) ( 2 )
4 3 I 4 103

3 T 3 1
 41.33  103 0.04133 N.m
99. Find the number of oscillations performed per minute by a magnet
oscillating in the plane of a uniform field of 1.6  105 Wb/m2.
The magnet has moment of inertia 3  106 kg·m2 and magnetic
moment 3 A.m2. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : B 1.6  105 T, I 3  106 kg·m2,  3 A·m2
The period of oscillation, T 2 ij

I
Bh
 The frequency of oscillation is
ij
1 B
f
2 I
 The number of oscillations per minute
ij  ef16 
60 3(1.6  105) 60 120
 60 f 38.19 per minute
2 3  10 6
2 3.142
100. Write the equation of a simple harmonic progressive wave of
amplitude 0.01 m and frequency 100 Hz travelling along the
positive x-axiswithaspeedof50m/s. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : A  0.01 m, n  100 Hz, v  50 m / s
Equation of a wave travelling in the positive direction of the x-axis is
y  A sin 2n ( t  )  0.01 sin 2 (100) ( t )
x x
v 50
0.01 sin 4 ( 50t  x ) metre
OR
v 50
   0.5 m
n 100
 Equation of the wave travelling along the positive x-axis is
y  A sin 2 (  )  0.01 sin 2 ( )
t x t x

T  0.01 0.5
0.01 sin 2 ( 100t 2 x ) 0.01 sin 4 (50tx)
with all quantities in SI units.
101. A simple harmonic progressive wave has frequency 25Hz and
wavelength 4m. If the phase difference between motions of two
particles is (/10)rad,whatisthecorrespondingpathdifference?
VSA (1 mark)
 4 
Solution : Path difference   phase difference   0.2 m
2 2 10
102. Awaveoffrequency500Hzistravellingwithaspeedof350m/s.
What is the phase difference between two displacements at a
certainpointattimes1.0msapart ? VSA (1 mark)
v 350
Solution :    0.7 m
n 500
In t 1.0 ms  0.001 s, the path difference is the distance covered
xvt 350  0.001  0.35 m
2 2
 Phase difference  x  0.35  rad
 0.7
103. The equation of a simple harmonic progressive wave is
y  4 sin  (  ). Find the displacement and velocity of a
t x
0.02 75
particle at 50 cm from the origin and at 0.1 second. (All quantities
are expressed in CGS units.) ( 3 marks )
Solution : Refer to the answer to Q. 22 of the Solved Model Question
Paper in Part 1.
x
104. The equation of a stationary wave is y 0.04 sin 200t cos ,
0.3
with all quantities in SI units. What is the speed of the waves
superposed? VSA (1 mark)
2x
Solution : Comparing the given equation with y 2A cos sin 2nt,

n 100 Hz and  0.6 m
 The speed of the waves superposed, vn (100) (0.6) 60m/s
105. The equation of a stationary wave is y 0.05 sin 200t cos x,
with all quantities in SI units. What is the maximum speed of a
particle at an antinode ? VSA (1 mark)
Solution : Comparing the given equation with y 2A cos kx sin t,
the amplitude at an antinode  2A 0.05 m and  200 rad/s.
 The required maximum speed, vmax  (2A)  200 (0.05)
10m/s
106. Find the distance between two successive antinodes in a stationary
wave on a string vibrating with frequency 32 Hz. [ Speed of
wave  48m/s ]. (Sept. ’21) ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : n  32 Hz, v  48 m/s
vn 
v 48 3
 Wavelenth,     m
n 32 2
 1 3 3
Distance between two antinodes      0.75 m
2 2 2 4
107. The fundamental frequency of air column in a pipe closed
at one end is 300Hz. What is the frequency of the (i)second
overtone (ii) third harmonic ? (Ignore the end correction.)
VSA (1 mark)
Solution : In a pipe closed at one end, the frequency of
(i) the second overtone  5n 5(300) 1500 Hz
(ii) the third harmonic  3n 3(300) 900 Hz
108. The fundamental frequency of air column in a pipe open at
both ends is 200Hz. What is the frequency of the (i)second
harmonic (ii) third overtone? (Ignore the end correction.)
VSA (1 mark)
Solution : In a pipe open at both ends, the frequency of
(i) the second harmonic  2n 2 (200) 400 Hz
(ii) the third overtone  4n 4 (200) 800 Hz
109. Stationarywavesintheaircolumninsideapipeoflength50cm
and closed at one end have three nodes and three antinodes. What
is the wavelength ? VSA (1 mark)

Solution : Here, L 5
4
4L 4  50
 Wavelength,   40 cm
5 5
110. Find the frequency of the third overtone of an air column vibrating
in a pipe closed at one end. The length of the pipe is 30 cm and the
inner diameter of the pipe is 2 cm. The speed of sound in air at
roomtemperatureis350m/s. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : L 30 cm  0.3 m, v 350 m/s, d 2 cm  2  102 m.
For the pipe closed at one end,
v
fundamental frequency, n
4 ( L 0.3d )
The frequency of the third overtone  7n
7v 7  350
 
4 ( L 0.3d ) 4 (0.3  0.3  2  102)
7  175 7  175
 
2 (0.3  0.006) 2  0.306
2002 Hz
111. A pipe open at both the ends has a fundamental frequency of
600 Hz. The first overtone of a pipe closed at one end has the same
frequency as the first overtone of the open pipe. How long are the
twopipes?[Speedofsoundinair  330m / s ]
(July ’22) ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : Open pipe, nO  600 Hz, nC, 1 nO, 1 (first overtones),
v  330 m/s
For an open pipe, the fundamental frequency,
v
nO 
2LO
 The length of the open pipe is

v 330
LO   0.275 m
2nO 2  600
For the open pipe, the frequency of the first overtone is
2nO  2  600  1200 Hz
For the pipe closed at one end, the frequency of the first overtone
3v
is .
LO
3v
By the data,  1200
4L
3  330
 LC  0.206 m
4  1200
The length of the pipe open at both ends is 27.5 cm and the length
of the pipe closed at one end is 20.6 cm.
112. Two pipes closed at one end, 51 cm and 52 cm long, produce 3 beats
per second when they are sounded together in their fundamental
modes. Ignoring the end correction, calculate the speed of sound
in air. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : L1  0.51 m, L2  0.52 m, beat frequency  3 Hz
Since L1  L2, n1  n2
 Beat frequency n1 n2  3 Hz
v v
n1  and n2 
4L1 4L2
v 1
(  )3
1

4 L1 L2
 The speed of sound in air,
12 L1 L2 12 (0.51)(0.52)
v   12  51  0.52 318.3m/s
L2 L1 0.52  0.51
113. The consecutive overtones of an air column closed at one end are
405Hz and 675Hz respectively. Find the fundamental frequency
of a similar air column but open at both ends. ( 3 marks )
Solution : For the air column closed at one end, let
L  the length of the air column,
nC  the fundamental frequency,

nq , nq 1  the frequencies of the qth and (q 1)th overtones, where
q 1, 2, 3, ...
Since only odd harmonics are present as overtones,
nq  (2q 1) nC and nq 1  [2(q 1)  1] nC
 (2q 3) nC
Data : nq  405 Hz, nq 1  675 Hz
n q 1 2q 3 675 5
   
nq 2q 1 405 3
Solving for q, q 1
Therefore, the two given frequencies correspond to the first and second
overtones, i.e., the third and fifth harmonics.
 3nC  405 Hz  nC  135 Hz
This is the fundamental frequency of the air column closed at one end.
The fundamental frequency (nO) of an air column of same length but
open at both ends is double that of the air column closed at one end
(ignoring the end correction).
 nO  2nC  2  135 270 Hz
This is the fundamental frequency of a similar air column but open at
both ends.
114. A stretched sonometer wire is in unison with a tuning fork of
frequency 440 Hz. What will be the frequency of the wire if,
keeping the tension constant, the vibrating length of the wire is
increasedby10%? VSA (1 mark)
n2 L1 L1
Solution :  
n1 L2 1.1 L1
440
 The new frequency of the wire, n2  400 Hz
1.1
115. The fundamental note of a stretched sonometer wire is 256 Hz.
Keeping the stretching force constant and reducing the length of
the wire by 10 cm, the frequency becomes 320 Hz. Calculate the
original length of the wire. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : n1256 Hz, T and m constant, L2L110 cm,
n2320 Hz
1 n2 L1
n  
L n1 L2
320 L1 L1 320
   
256 L1  10 10 320  256
320
 L1  10   10  5 50 cm
64
This is the original length of the wire.
116. Two wires of the same material, having lengths in the ratio 2 : 1
and diameters in the ratio 3 : 1 are subjected to tensions in the
ratio 1 : 4. Find the ratio of their fundamental frequencies.
( 2 marks )
Solution : Let n1, L1, T1, m1, r1 and 1 be the fundamental frequency,
vibrating length, tension, mass per unit length, radius and density
of the first wire respectively and let n2, L2, T2, m2, r2 and 2 be the
corresponding quantities of the second wire.
ij 1 and n2  ij 2
1 T 1 T
 n1 
2L1 m 1 2L2 m 2
 ij 
n1 L2 T1 m2

n2 L1 T2 m1
2
Now m1  r 21 1 and m2  r2 2
2
m2 r 2  2
 
m1 r 21 1
 1  2 ij 1  22  2
2
n L T r 
n2 L1 T2 r 1 1
  ij 1  2
L2 r2 T 

L1 r1 T2 1
L1 2 r1 3 T1 1 1
Data :  ,  ,  ,  1 (same material)
L2 1 r2 1 T2 4 2
Substituting these values in the above relation,
n1 1 1 1 1
   ij  1
n2 2 3 4 12
117. Two wires of the same material and cross section are stretched on
a sonometer. One wire is loaded with 15 N and the other with 60 N.
The vibrating length of the first wire is 60 cm and its fundamental
frequency of vibration is the same as that of the second wire.
Calculate the vibrating length of the other wire. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : m1 m2 m, L1  60 cm  0.6 m, T1  15 N, T2  60 N
ij 1 and n2  ij 2
1 T 1 T
n1 
2 L1 m 2 L2 m
But, n1 n2
ij 1 ij 2
1 T 1 T

2 L1 m 2 L2 m
T2
L2 ij  L1
T1
 0.6  e4  0.6
60
ij 1.2 m
15
The vibrating length of the second wire is 1.2 m.
118. A sonometer wire, under a tension of 39 N, vibrates in unison with
a tuning fork of frequency 384 Hz. Find the beat frequency when
the tension in the wire is reduced by 1 N. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : T1  39 N, n1  384 Hz, T2  39  1  38 N
ij
1 T
n
2l m
 l and m remaining unchanged,
n2 T
ij 2
n1 T1
n2 38
 ij  0.9872
384 39
 n2  384  0.9872  379.0 Hz
 n1 n2  384  379  5 Hz
 The number of beats produced in two seconds  2  5 10
119. Two tuning forks C and D give four beats per second, the frequency
of C being 480 Hz. When fork D is filed a little, again four beats
per second are produced. Calculate the frequency of fork D before
and after filing. ( 2 marks )
Solution : The frequency of tuning fork C is 480 Hz. Let n be the frequency
of tuning fork D. Since the forks produce 4 beats per second when
sounded together,
n  480  4 or 480  n  4
 n  484 Hz or 476 Hz
When the prongs of tuning fork D are filed a little, its frequency
increases. Let n be its frequency after filing : n  n.
It is given that the beat frequency is again 4 beats per second.
If n was 484 Hz, n will be more than 484 Hz and the beat frequency
should increase. Hence, n  484 Hz.
 n  476 Hz and n  484 Hz.
 The frequency of tuning fork D before and after filing are
476 Hz and 484 Hz, respectively.
120. A set of 12 tuning forks is arranged in the increasing order of
frequencies. Each fork produces Y beats per second with the
previous one. The last is an octave of the first. The fifth fork has a
frequency of 90 Hz. Find Y and the frequency of the first and the
last tuning forks. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : n i1  ni  Y, n12  2n1, n5  90 Hz
n2  n1  Y beats / s  n2  n1  Y beats / s
Similarly, n3  n2  Y  n1  Y  Y
 n3  n1  2Y  n1  ( 3  1 ) Y
 nx  n1  ( x  1 ) Y
Similarly, n12  n1  ( 12  1 ) Y  n1  11 Y
 n12  2n1  n1 11 Y  n1  11 Y
Also, n5  n1  ( 5  1 ) Y  n1  4 Y
 n5  11 Y  4 Y  15 Y
B n5  90 Hz  15 Y  90
 Y6
 The frequency of the first fork, n1  11Y beats/s  11  6 beats/s
66 Hz and the frequency of the last fork, n12  2n1  2 (66)132 Hz.
83 83
121. Two sound notes have wavelengths m and m in air. These
170 172
notes when sounded together produce 8 beats per second. Calculate
the speed of sound in air and the frequencies of the two notes.
( 3 marks )
83 83
Solution : Data : 1  m, 2  m, beat frequency with each other
170 172
 8 Hz
Let n1 and n2 be the corresponding frequencies and v the speed of
sound in air.
 v n11  n22 But 1 2  n1  n2  n2  n1 8 Hz
v v
 v[ ]8
172 170 2
  8   v 8
2 1 83 83 83
 v4  83 332m / s
v 170
 n1  332   4  170 680 Hz
1 83
 n2  n1 8  680  8 688 Hz
Assignments
1. A motorcyclist (treated as a point mass) is to undertake horizontal
circles inside the cylindrical wall of a well of inner radius 4 m.
The coefficient of static friction between the tyres and wall is 0.2.
Calculate the minimum speed and period necessary to perform
this stunt. ( Ch.1 )(Sept. ’21) ( 2 marks ) (Ans. 14 m/s, 1.795 s )
2. Three point masses 1 kg, 2 kg and 4 kg are fixed at the vertices
A, B and C, respectively, of an equilateral triangle of side 20 cm.
Find the MI of this system about an axis along the median of the
triangle through A. ( Ch.1 ) ( 2 marks ) ( Ans. 0.06 kg·m2 )
3. A disc of moment of inertia 20 kg·m2 is rotated about its
transverse symmetry axis at 120 rpm by an electric motor of power
62.84 watts. When the motor is switched off, how many rotations
does it complete before coming to rest ? (Ch. 1)
(3 marks) (Ans. 50.27 rotations)
[ Hint : Power, P . Retardation,  r / I P / 2 f I ]
4. Calculate the mean free path of a gas molecule if the molecular

diameter is 5 Å and the number of molecules per unit volume of
the gas is 21024 per m3. Compare it with molecular diameter.
( Ch.3)(3 marks) (Ans. 4502 Å, 900.4)
5. Show that the rms velocity of an oxygen molecule is e2 times
that of a sulphur dioxide molecule at STP. ( Ch.3)(2 marks)
6. Calculate the ratio of the mean square speeds of molecules of a
1
gas at 30 K and 120 K. ( Ch.3) (2 marks) (Ans. )
4
2 2
7. The emissive power of a sphere of area 0.02 m is 0.5 kcal s m .
1
What is the amount of heat radiated by the spherical surface in

20 seconds ? ( Ch.3) VSA (1 mark) ( Ans. 0.2 kcal)
8. The difference between two molar specific heats of a gas is
6000 J/kg·K. If the ratio of the specific heats is 1.4, calculate the
molar specific heat at constant volume. [ R  8.319 SI unit ]
( Ch.3)(2 marks) (Sept. ’21) (Ans. 15 kJ/kg·K)
9. Find the principal specific heats of helium and hence the
universal gas constant. [ CP 20.81 J/mol·K, CV 12.5 J/mol·K.
M0 (He)4103 kg/mol. ( Ch.3)( 3 marks )
(Ans. (i) 5.203  103 J/kg·K (ii) 3.125 103 J/kg·K
(iii) 8.312 J/mol·K)
10. The coefficient of performance of a room air conditioner is 3.
If the rate of doing work is 2 kW, find the heat current. ( Ch.4)
(1 mark) (Ans. 6 kW)
11. The potential energy of a particle performing linear SHM is
0.12x2 joule. If the mass of the particle is 20 g, find the frequency
of SHM. (Ch. 5) (2 marks) (Ans. 1.581 Hz)
[Hint : PE  m2x2  m (42f 2 ) x2]

1 1
2 2
12. The total energy of a body of mass 2 kg performing SHM is 40 J.
Find its speed while crossing the centre of the path. (Ch. 5)
(2 marks) (Ans. 6.324 cm/s)
[Hint : vmax  ij ]
2E
m
13. At what distance from the mean position is the kinetic energy
of a particle performing SHM of amplitude 8 cm, three times its
potential energy ? (Ch. 5) (2 marks) (Ans. x  4 cm)
[Hint : Given, KE  3PE, k (A2 x2)  3 ( kx2 ) ]

1 1
2 2
14. The equation of a simple harmonic progressive wave is given by
y  0.05 sin  ( 20t  ) , where all quantities are in SI units.

x
6
Calculate the displacement of a particle at 5 m from the origin
and at the instant 0.1 second. (3 marks)
Also find the phase difference between two particles separated by
5
5 m. (Ch. 6) ( 1 mark ) (Ans.  0.025 m, rad )
6
15. Two sound waves of the same frequency, equal to 540 Hz, travel
at a speed of 330 m/s. What is the phase difference between the
waves at points which are 3.5 m from one source and 3 m from
the other if the sources are in phase ? (Ch. 6)
(3 marks) (Ans. 1.64 rad)
16. A pipe closed at one end can produce overtones at frequencies
640 Hz, 896 Hz and 1152 Hz. Calculate the fundamental frequency
of the pipe. (Ch. 6) (3 marks) (Ans. 128 Hz)
17. A metal wire of length 20 cm and diameter 0.2 mm is stretched
by a load of 2 kg wt. If the density of the material of the wire is
7.8 g / cm3, find the fundamental frequency of vibration of the
wire. (Ch. 6) (2 marks) (Ans. 706.9 Hz)
82 82
18. The wavelengths of two sound waves in air are m and m.
173 171
They produce 9 beats per second when sounded together.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air. (Ch. 6)
(Sept. ’21) (3 marks) (Ans. 369 m/s)
————
Question
SOLVED PROBLEMS – II
Set
(Chapter 7 to 16)
13
Data : (1)  3.142 (2) h  6.63  1034 J·s (3) c 3  108 m/s
(4) e  1.6  1019 C (5) e0  8.85  10 12 C2/N·m2
1
(6)  9  109 N·m2/C2 (7) 0  4  107 T·m/A
4e0
(8) me  9.11  1031 kg (9) mp  1.67  1027 kg
(10) 1 u  1.66  1027 kg  931.5 MeV/c2
(11) NA6.0221023 mol1

1. The speed of a certain light is greater than its speed in glass by
3 4
 108 m/s. The refractive index of water is . Find the speed of
8 3
light in the glass. (2 marks)
3 4
Solution : Data : vw vg   108 m/s, nw  , c 3  108 m/s
8 3
c c 3c
vw   
nw 4/3 4
3
vw vg   108
8
  108  (  )  108
3 3(3  108) 3 9 3
 vg  vw   108 
8 4 8 4 8
15
  108 1.875  108m/s
8
This is the speed of light in glass.
2. If the wavelength of a monochromatic beam of light in air is 5000 Å,
whatisitswavenumberinSIunitsinglassofrefractiveindex1.5 ?
VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : ang  a
g
1 ang 1.5
 The wave number in glass, g    3106 m1
g a 5  107
373
3. Determine the change in wavelength of light during its passage from

air to glass, if the refractive index of glass with respect to air is 1.5
andthefrequencyoflightis3.5  1014 Hz. ( 2 marks )
14 8
Solution : Data : n 1.5,  3.5  10 Hz, c 3  10 m/s
c 3  108
a    8.571  107 m  8571 Å
 3.5  1014
a a 8571
n  g    5714 Å
g n 1.5
 The change in wavelength, ag857157142857 Å
4. For a glass plate (refractive index, 1.6) as a polarizer, what is
the angle of incidence at which reflected light will be completely
polarized ? VSA (1 mark)
Solution : tan ip n  The polarizing angle, ip  tan1 n
 tan1 1.6  58°
5. The wavelength of a certain light in air and in glass are 6400 Å and
4000 Å, respectively, Find the Brewster angle for the glass.
VSA (1 mark)
a 6400
Solution : tan ip ng    1.6
g 4000
 The Brewster ( or polarizing ) angle, ip  tan1 1.6  58°
6. Unpolarized light with intensity Io is incident on two polaroids. The
axisofthefirstpolaroidmakesanangleof50° with the vertical, and
the axis of the second polaroid is horizontal. What is the intensity of
thelightafterithaspassedthroughthesecondpolaroid ? (2 marks)
Solution : Data : 1  50°, 2  90°
According to Malus’s law, when the unpolarized light with intensity I0 is
incident on the first polarizer, the intensity of the transmitted polarized
light is I1  I0 / 2.
Subsequently, the intensity of the light transmitted by the second
polarizer is
I2  I1 cos2  ( ) cos2 
I0
2
QUESTION SET 13 : SOLVED PROBLEMS – II 375
The angle between the axes of the two polarizers is

  2  1  90°  50°  40°
 I2  ( ) cos2 40°  (0.7660)2  0.2934 I0

I0 I0
2 2
7. InYoung’sdouble – slitexperiment,theratiooftheintensitiesofthe
maxima and minima in an interference pattern is 36 : 9. What is the
ratio of the intensities of the two interfering waves ? (3 marks)
I 36
Solution : Data : max 
Imin 9
 ( 10 )
Imax E E20 2
Imin E10 E20
 ( ) 
2
E10 E20 36 E10 E20 6 2
  
E10 E20 9 E10 E20 3 1
 ( 10 )  ( ) 
E10 21 3 I1 E 2 3 2 9
   
E20 21 1 I2 E20 1 1
 The ratio of the intensities of the two interfering waves is 9 : 1.
8. The intensity of the light coming from one of the slits in Young’s
experiment is twice the intensity of the light coming from the other
slit. What will be the approximate ratio of the intensities of the
bright and dark fringes in the resulting interference pattern ?
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : I1 : I2  2 : 1
If E10 and E20 are the amplitudes of the interfering waves, the ratio of
the maximum intensity to the minimum intensity in the fringe system is
 ( 10 ) ( )
Imax E E20 2 r 1 2
Imin E10 E20 r 1
E10
where r .
E20
 ( 10 ) r2  e2
I1 E 2 I1
  rij
I2 E20 I2
e2  1 2
( ) ( )  (5.83)2
Imax 2.414 2

Imin e2  1 0.414
 33.99  34
 The ratio of the intensities of the bright and dark fringes in the
resulting interference pattern is 34 : 1.
9. In Young’s double-slit experiment using light of wavelength 5000 Å,
what phase difference corresponds to the 11th dark fringe from the
centre of the interference pattern ? VSA (1 mark)
Solution : The required phase difference is (2m 1)  rad
 (2  11  1)  rad 21 rad
10. In Young’s experiment, the wavelength of monochromatic light
used is 6000Å. The optical path difference between the rays
from the two coherent sources are 0.0075mm and 0.0015mm at
points P and Q, respectively, on the screen and on opposite sides
of the central bright band. How many bright and dark bands are
observed between points P and Q ? (3 marks)
Solution : Data : 1  7.5  106 m, 2  1.5  106 m,  6  107 m

For point P : Let p be an integer such that p 1.
2
21 2  7.5  106 150
 p    25
 6  107 6
 The path difference 1 is an odd integral multiple of  / 2 :

1  ( 2 m 1 ) , where m is an integer.
2
 2m 1  25  m 13
 Point P is on the 13th dark band.

For point Q : Let q be an integer such that q 2.
2
2 2 2  1.5  106 30
 q   5
 6  107 6

 The path difference 2 is an odd integral multiple of :
2

2  (2n 1 ) , where n is an integer.
2
 2n 1  5  n 3
 Point Q is on the 3rd dark band.
Between points P and Q, excluding the bands at these points,

thenumberofdarkbands 12  2 14 and
the number of bright bands ( including the central bright band )
 12  2  1 15
11. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are 0.5 mm apart and
interference is observed on a screen placed at 1.0 m from the slits.
Itisfoundthatthe9thbrightfringeisat8.835mmfromthe2nd
dark fringe on the same side of the interference pattern. Find the
wavelength of light used. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : d 0.5 mm  5  10 4
m, D 1.0 m,
y9 y 2  8.835 mm  8.835  10 3
m
( on the same side of the centre of the interference pattern )
nD
yn  ... (bright fringe)
d
(2m 1)D
ym  ... (dark fringe)
2d
9D (2  2  1)D
 y9 y2  
d 2d
9D 3d (18  3)D 15D
   
d 2d 2d 2d
2d (y9 y2)
 The wavelength of light used,  
15D
2  5  104  8.835  103

15  1.0
5.89  107m 5890 Å
12. Plane wavefronts of light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident on two
slits on a screen perpendicular to the direction of light rays. If the
total separation of 10 bright fringes on a screen 2 m away is 2 cm,
find the distance between the slits. (March ’22) (2 marks)
7
Solution : Data :   6  10 m, 10W  2 cm, D  2 m
3
 W  0.2 cm  2  10 m
D
W
d
 D (6  10 7)(2)
 Slit separation, d   3
 6  104 m 0.6 mm
W 2  10
[Note :  4000 Å and rest of the data the same as above in July ’22.
Ans. 0.4 mm]
13. The optical path of a ray of light of a given wavelength travelling
a distance of 3 cm in flint glass having refractive index 1.6 is the
same as that on travelling a distance of x cm through a medium
having refractive index 1.25. Determine the value of x. (2 marks)
Solution : Let dfg and dm be the distances by the ray of light in the flint
glass and the medium respectively. Also, let nfg and nm be the refractive
indices of the flint glass and the medium respectively.
Data : dfg  3 cm, nfg  1.6, nm  1.25,
Optical path nm dm nfg dfg
nfg dfg 1.6  3
 dm    3.84 cm
nm 1.25
Thus, x cm  3.84 cm  x 3.84
14. Monochromatic light from a narrow slit illuminates two narrow
slits 3mm apart, producing an interference pattern with bright
fringes0.15mmapartonascreen75cmawayfromtheslits.Find
the wavelength of the light. How will the fringe width be altered
if (a) the distance of the screen from the slits is doubled (b) the
separation between the slits is doubled ? ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : d 3 mm  3  10 3
m, W 0.15 mm  1.5  104 m,
D 75 cm  0.75 m
Wd 1.5  104  3  103
(i) The wavelength of light,  
D 0.75
 6  107 m 6000 Å
D D
(ii) Fringe widths, W  and W 
d d
W  D
  2 (by the data)
W D
 W  2W 2  1.5  104  3  104 m
0.3 mm (is the new fringe width in the first case.)
D D
(iii) W  and W 
d d
W d 1
   (by the data)
W d 2
W 1.5  104
 W    0.75  104 m
2 2
0.075 mm (is the new fringe width in the second case.)
15. In a biprism experiment, the fringe width is 1.4mm with light
of wavelength 6000 Å. What will be the fringe width if light of
wavelength5400Åisused,withnootherchangeintheexperimental
setup ? VSA (1 mark)
W 2 2
Solution : 
W 1 1
W1  ( ) 1.4
2 5400
 The new fringe width, W2 
1 6000
 0.9  1.4 1.26 mm
16. In a biprism experiment using light of wavelength 500 nm, the
fringe width is 1.5 mm when the focal plane of the eyepiece is
1.2 m from the slit. The fringe width changes by 0.25 mm when the
eyepiece is moved towards the slit by 0.2 m, with no other change in
the experimental setup. Find the distance between the two virtual
sources. (2 marks)
Solution : Data :  500 nm  5  107 m, D1  1.2 m,
D2  1.2  0.2  1 m
D
W
d
Since D2  D1, W2  W1  W1 W2  0.25 mm  0.25  103 m

and W1 W2  (D1 D2 )
d
 (D1 D2 ) (5  107)(0.2)
 d   5  0.8  104
W1 W2 0.25  10 3
 4  104m  0.4mm
This is the distance between the two virtual sources.
17. In Fraunhofer diffraction by a narrow slit, a screen is placed at a

distance of 2 m from the lens to obtain the diffraction pattern. If
the slit width is 0.2 mm and the first minimum is 5 mm on either
side of the central maximum, find the wavelength of light.
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : D 2 m, y1d  5 mm  5  103 m, a2  104 m
D
ymd  m
a
y1d a
  (B m 1)
D
5  103  2  104
 5  107m 5000 Å
2
This is the wavelength of light.
18. What must be the ratio of the slit width to the wavelength of light
for a single slit to have the first diffraction minimum at 45.0° ?
(2 marks)
Solution : Data :  45°, m 1
a sin m for m 1, 2, 3... (minima)
Here, m 1 (First minimum)
 a sin 45°  (1) 
a 1
  1.414 is the required ratio.
 sin 45°
19. The semivertical angle of the cone of the rays of light incident on
the objective of a microscope is 20°. If the wavelength of incident
light is 6000Å, calculate the smallest distance between two points
which can be just resolved. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : imax  20°,  6  107 m, n 1 (air)
Numerical aperture, NA n sin imax  1  sin 20°  0.3420
The limit of resolution (for illuminated objects),
 6  107
d min   8.772  107 m
2NA 2  0.3420
The limit of resolution (for self-luminous objects),
1.22
dmin   1.22  8.772  107  1.053  106 m
2NA
20. What is the resolving power of a telescope if the diameter of the

objective of the telescope is 1.22m and the wavelength of light is
5000Å? VSA (1 mark)
D
Solution : Resolving power of the telescope 
1.22 
1.22 10  106
  2  106 rad1
1.22  5  107 5
[Note : The angular limit of resolution (i.e., angular separation is
1.22  1
   5  10 7 rad.]
D 2  106
21. A hollow metal sphere of diameter 20 cm carries a charge of 2  C.
Calculate the electric field intensity (i) just outside the sphere (ii) at
a point outside the sphere at a distance of 10 cm from the surface of
the sphere. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : R 10 cm  0.1 m, q 2  10  6 C, r1 R0.1 m,
r2  20 cm  0.2 m, 1/4  e0  9  109 N·m2/C2
1 q
(i) Just outside the sphere : E1 
4 e 0 r 21
2  106
 (9  109)  18  105N/C
(0.1)2
1 q
(ii) At a point outside the sphere : E2 
4  e 0 r 22
2  10 6
 (9  109)  4.5  105N/C
2
(0.2)
22. A metal sphere having charge density 5 nC / m2 and radius 25 cm is
placed in air. Find the electric field intensity at a point 1 m from its
centre. (3 marks)
Solution : Data :   5  109 C / m2, R 0.25 m, r1 m,
e 0 8.85  1012 F/m
Q Q
Surface charge density,   
A 4r2
Q  R2
E 
4  e r2 e r2
As the sphere is situated in air, e  e 0
( ) ( ) 
 R 2 5  10 9 0.25 2 5  103
 E  0.0625
e0 r 8.85  1012 1 8.85
5  62.5 312.5
   35.31N/C
8.85 8.85
23. The electric field intensity just outside a long charged metal
cylinder in air is 100V / m.What is the surface charge density on
thecylinder ? VSA ( 1 mark )

Solution : E
ke0
  ke0E (1)(8.85  1012)(100) 8.85  1010C / m2
This is the required surface charge density.
24. A long cylindrical conductor of radius 2cm carries a charge of
5C/mandiskeptinamediumofdielectricconstant10.Findthe
electricfieldintensityatapoint1mfromtheaxisofthecylinder.
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : R  2 cm,  5  106 C/m, k 10,
1
r 1 m,  9  109 N·m2/C2
4e0
Electric field intensity,
 2
E  
2ke0r 4e0kr
(9  109)  2(5  106)
  9  103N/C
10  1
lE is directed outward.
25. The charge per unit area on an infinite plane conductor in vacuum
is 3.54  C/m2. Find the electric field at any point outside the
conductor. VSA (1 mark)

Solution : Electric field intensity, E 
2e0
3.54  10 6 3.54  10 6
  12
  11
 2  105N/C
2(8.85  10 ) 1.77  10
26. What is the electric potential at the centre of a square of side 1 m

ifpointcharges1  108C, 2  108C,3  108Cand2  108
C are placed at the corners of the square ? (3 marks)
Solution : Data : q1 1  108 C, q2  2  108 C, q3 3  108 C,
q4 2  108 C, 1/4e0  9  109 N · m2/C2
The distance of the point of intersection O of the diagonals, from each
charge is e2 / 2  1/e2 m.
 r 1/e2 m
The electric potential at a distance
r from a charge q is
1 q
V (a scalar quantity)
4e0 r
The total electric potential at O is
V  V1  V2  V3  V4
1
 (q  q2  q3  q4)
4e0 r 1
Fig.
(9109 N· m2/C2)
[(1232)108 C ]
(1/e2 m)

 360e2 509.2 V
27. The electric potential at a pointA in an electric field is 150 J/C.
Find the work done in bringing a test charge 1.6  1019C from
infinity to A. VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : Work done, W  qo  V  qo ( V  0 )
3
 (1.6 10 19)(150)  1.6   10 17  2.4  1017 J
2
[Note : At a point at infinity, the electric potential is defined to be zero.]
28. The electric potential due to a dipolar molecule of electric dipole

moment 6  1030 C · m at a point along the axis of the dipole is
1 V. Find the distance of the point from the centre of the dipole.
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : p 6  1030 C · m, V 1 V,  0° (axial point),
1/4e 0  9  109 N · m2/C2
Electric potential,
1 p cos 
V
4e0 r2
(6  1030 C · m) cos 0°
 1 V(9109 N · m2/C2)
r2
 r2 54  1021  5.4  1020
 The distance, r  ef5.4  1020
2.324  1010m  2.324Å
29. One hundred and twenty five small mercury drops, each carrying
a charge of 0.5 C and of diameter 0.1 m, coalesce to form a larger
drop. Calculate the potential at the surface of the larger drop.
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : n 125, q 0.5  106 C, d 0.1 m
The radius of each small drop, rd/2  0.05 m
Assuming the volume of the larger drop to be equal to the volume
of the n smaller drops, the radius of the larger drop is
Ref3
n ref
3
125 (0.05)  5  0.05  0.25 m
The charge on the larger drop,
Qnq 125  (0.5  106) C
 The electric potential of the surface of the larger drop,
1 Q 125  (0.5  106)
V  (9  109) 
4e0 R 0.25
 9  125  2  103 2.25  106 V
30. Two charges of magnitudes 5 nC and  2 nC are placed at points
(2 cm, 0, 0) and (20 cm, 0, 0) respectively, in a region of space where
there is no external field. Find the electrostatic potential energy of
the system. (Sept. ’21) (3 marks)
Solution : Data : q1  5  109 C, q2   2  109 C,
r  x2  x1  20 cm  2 cm  18 cm  0.18 m,
1/4  e0  9  109 N·m2/C2
The electrostatic potential energy of the system of two charges,
1 q1q2
U
4  e0 r
(5  109 )(  2  109 )
 (9  109)   5  10 7 J
0.18
  0.5  J
31. Threecharges q, Qand q are held equal distance apart on
a straight line. If the electric potential energy of the system of the
three charges is zero, then what is the ratio Q : q ? (2 marks)
Solution :
Three charges equispaced on a straight line
In figure, the line joining the charges is shown as the x-axis with the
origin at the Q charge. Let q1 Q, and q2 q3 q. Let the
two q charges be at ( a, 0) and (a, 0), since the charges are given
to be equidistant.
 r21 r31a and r32  2a
The total electric potential energy of the system of three charges is
( )
1 q1q2 q1q3 q2q3
U3   
4e0 r21 r31 r32
[ ] [  ]
1 ( q)Q Q( q) ( q)( q) 1 2qQ q2
  
4e0 a a 2a 4e0 a 2a
Given : U3  0
2qQ q2 Q 1
   
a 2a q 4
This is the required ratio.
32. An electric dipole consists of two unlike charges of magnitude
2  C, 4 cm apart. When placed in an external eletric field of
105 N/C it aligns with the field. Find (i)the maximum torque the
dipole can experience in the field (ii) the work done by an external
agent to turn the dipole through 180°. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : q  2  106 C, 2l  4 cm  4  10 2 m, E  105 N/C,

 0  0,  1  180°
(i)   pE sin 
  max  pE  q (2l) E (for   90°)
 (2  10 6
)(4  102)(105)  8  103 N.m
(ii) The work done by an external agent,
W  pE (cos 00  cos  1)
 (8  103)(cos 0° cos 180°)  (8  103) (1  1)
 16  103 J  16 mJ
33. The equivalent capacitance of n identical capacitors in series
is C1. What will be the equivalent capacitance of their parallel
combination ? VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : The equivalent capacitance of the series combination is
1 n
given by  , where C is the capacitance of each capacitor.
C1 C
 CnC1
The equivalent capacitance of their parallel combination,
C2 nCn2C1
34. Threecapacitorsofcapacities8F,8Fand4F are connected in
series and a potential difference of 120 volts is maintained across
the combination. Calculate the charge on the capacitor of capacity
4F. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : C1  8 F, C2  8 F, C3  4 F, V  120 V
Let Cs  equivalent capacity of the series combination of the capacitors
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 112 4 1
         
Cs C1 C2 C3 8 8 4 8 8 2
 Cs  2 F  2 106 F
In series combination, the charge on each capacitor is the same. It is
given by Q  CsV
 Qs Q  2  10 6  120
 2.4  104 coulomb  240 C
Thechargeonthe4 F capacitor is 2.4104C  240C.
35. A parallel-plate air capacitor has a capacitance of 4F. What
will be its new capacitance if (i) the distance between the plates is
reduced to half the initial distance (ii) a slab of dielectric constant 5
isintroducedfillingtheentirespacebetweenthetwoplates ?
(3 marks)
Solution : Data : C1 4 F, d2 d1/2, k1  1 (air), k2  5
Ake0
C
d
(i) With air as the dielectric,
Ak1e0 Ak e C2 d1
C1  and C2  1 0  
d1 d2 C1 d2
 The new capacitance when the plate separation is reduced,
d1
C2 C1 ·  4  2 8 F
d2
(ii) With the plate separation d  d1,
Ak1e0 Ak e C 2 k2
C1  and C 2  2 0  
d1 d1 C1 k1
 The new capacitance when a dielectric slab is introduced
between the plates,
k
C 2 C1 · 2 4  5 20 F
k1
36. A parallel-plate air capacitor with plate separation 3 mm has a
capacitance of 20  F. What will be its capacitance if a dielectric of
dielectric constant 2, 1 mm thick and having the same area as the
plates is inserted symmetrically between the plates ? (3 marks)
Solution : Data : C0  20  F, d  3 mm, t  1 mm, k  2
Ae Ae0
C0  0 and C 
d t
dt
k
C d 3 6
   
C0 t 1 5
dt 31
k 2
6 6
 C  C0   20  24  F
5 5
37. A 2 F capacitor is connected to a 10V battery. What is the
electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor ? VSA (1 mark)
1
Solution : The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor CV 2
2
1
  2  106  (10)2 104 J
2
38. Theelectrostaticenergyof4  106 J is stored in a capacitor at 100 V.
What is the charge on the capacitor ? VSA ( 1 mark )
1
Solution : U  QV
2
2U 24106
 The charge on the capacitor, Q  8108 C
V 100
39. A parallel-plate air capacitor has rectangular plates, each of size
40cm  10cm,separatedby1mm.Ifachargeof1010 C is given
to the capacitor, calculate the potential difference and electric field
between the plates. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : Q 1010 C, l 40 cm, b 10 cm, d 1 mm  103 m,
e0  8.85  1012 C2 / N·m2, k 1 (air)
Area of the plates, Alb40  10  400 cm2  0.04 m2
i(i) The capacitance of the capacitor,
Ake0 0.04  1  8.85  1012
C 
d 103
 3.54  1010 F
The potential difference between the plates,
Q 1010 1
V   0.2825 V
C 3.54  10 10 3.54
(ii) The electric field between the plates,
V 0.2825
E   282.5N/C
d 103
40. In a parallel-plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate
has an area of 6  103 m2 and the separation between the plates
is 2 mm.
(i) Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. (2 marks)
(ii) If this capacitor is connected to 100 V supply, what would be

the charge on each plate ? (1 mark)
(iii) How would charge on the plates be affected if a 2 mm thick
mica sheet of k 6 is inserted between the plates while the
voltage supply remains connected ? (1 mark)
2
Solution : Data : k 1 (air), A 6  10 3
m , d 2 mm  2  103 m,
V 100 V, t 2 mm d, k1  6, e0  8.85  1012 F/m
(i) The capacitance of the air capacitor,
e 0A (8.85  1012)(6  103)
C0  
d 2  103
 26.55  1012 F 26.55 pF
(ii) Q0 C0V (26.55  1012)(100)  26.55  1010 C 2.655 nC
(iii) The dielectric of relative permittivity k1 completely fills the space
between the plates ( B td), so that the new capacitance is
Ck1C0.
With the supply still connected, V remains the same.
 QCVkC0VkQ0  6 (2.655 nF) 15.93 nC
Therefore, the charge on the plates increases six fold.
41. A 6 F capacitor is charged by a 300 V battery. If the capacitor
is disconnected from the battery and connected across another
uncharged 3F capacitor, what is the energy lost in the form of
heat and radiation ? ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : C 6 F  6  106 F C1, V 300 V, C2  3 F
The electrostatic energy in the capacitor
1 1
 CV 2  (6  106)(300)2
2 2
 3  10  9  104 0.27 J
6
The charge on this capacitor,

Q  CV (6  106)(300)  1.8 mC
When two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are connected in
parallel, the equivalent capacitance C
C1 C2  6  3  9 F  9  106 F
By conservation of charge, Q 1.8 mC.
Q2
 The energy of the system 
2C
(1.8  103)2 18  108

   0.18 J
2(9  106) 106
The energy lost  0.27  0.18 0.09 J

42. Find the ratio of the potential differences that must be applied
across the parallel and series combination of two capacitors C1 and
C2 in the ratio 1 : 2, such that the energy stored in the two cases is
the same. (3 marks)
C1 1
Solution : Data :  , U1 (for parallel) U2 (for series)
C2 2
C1 1

C2 2
 C2  2C1
For the parallel combination of C1 and C2,
Cp C1 C2  3C1
and charged to a potential V1, the energy stored is
1 3
U1  CpV 21 C1V 21
2 2
For the series combination of C1 and C2,
C1C2 2C 21
2
Cs    C1
C1 C2 3C1 3
and charged to a potential V2, the energy stored is
1 1
U2  CsV 22  C1V 22
2 3
3 1
 For U1 U2 , C1V 21  C1V 22
2 3
 ( 1) 
2
V 2
V2 9
V1 e2 1.414
   0.471
V2 3 3
This is the required ratio.
43. Two cells of emfs 4 V and 2 V having internal resistances 1  and

2  are connected in parallel so as to send currents in the same
direction through a 5  external resistance. Find the current
through the external resistance. (March ’22) (3 marks)
Solution :
Let I1 and I2 be the currents drawn from the cells as shown in the figure.
The current through the 2  resistance will be (I1 I2) [ Kirchhoff’s
current law ].
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop ABCDEFA, we get
 5(I1 I2)  1(I1)  4  0
 6I1  5I2  4 ... (1)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop BCDEB, we get
 5(I1 I2)  2(I2)  2  0
5I1  7I2  2 ... (2)
Multiplying Eq. (1) by 5 and Eq. (2) by 6, we get
30I1  25I2  20 ... (3)
and 30I1  42I2  12 ... (4)
Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (3), we get
8
 17I2  8  I2   A
17
The minus sign shows that the direction of current I2 is opposite to that
assumed. Substituting this value of I2 in Eq. (1), we get
6I1  5 ( )  4
8
17
40 108 18
 6I1  4    I1  A
17 17 17
18 8 10
Current through the 2 resistance I1I2   A.It is in
17 17 17
the direction as shown in the figure.
44. Fourresistances5,5,8and10 form a Wheatstone network.
Find the resistance which connected across the 10  resistance will
balance the network. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data R1  5 , R2  5 , R3 8 , R4  10   X
Let X be the resistance to be connected across, i.e., in parallel with, the
10  resistance.
1 1 1 10 X
    R4 
R4 10 X 10 X
R R
At balance, 1  3
R2 R4
RR 58
 R4  2 3  8 
R1 5
10 X
 8  10 X 80  8 X  2X 80 
10 X
 X 40 
45. Two diametrically opposite points of a metal ring are connected to
two terminals of the left gap of a metre bridge. A resistance of 22 
is connected in the right gap. If the null point is obtained at 45 cm
from the left end, find the resistance of the metal ring. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : R 22 , LX 45 cm
 LR  100 LX 100  45  55 cm
Let X be the resistance of the metal ring.
 The resistance of each half of the metal ring X/2. Therefore,
the resistance in the left gap is the effective resistance of the parallel
combination of X/2 and X/2.
( X/2 ) ( X/2 ) X 2 / 4 X
RP   
X/2 X/2 X 4
1 1 1 2 4 X
[ OR      RP  ]
RP X/2 X/2 X/2 X 4
RP LX X / 4 45 9 X
At balance,       18 
R LR 22 55 11 4
 X 4  18  72 
The resistance of the metal ring is 72 .
46. A uniform wire is cut into two pieces such that one piece is twice
as long as the other. The two pieces are connected in parallel in the
left gap of a metre bridge. When a resistance of 20  is connected
in the right gap, the null point is obtained at 60 cm from the right
end of the bridge wire. Find the resistance of the wire before it was
cut into two pieces. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Let Rw be the resistance of the wire before it was cut in two. Let
L1, L2 and X1, X2 be the lengths and resistances of the two pieces.
X1 L1
 Rw X1  X2 and  ( and A being the same)
X2 L2
Data : L1 2L2, R 20  (in the right gap), LR 60 cm
X1 L1
 LX 100 LR 40 cm, and  2
X2 L2
Since the pieces are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance is
X1X2 X1 X1 1
Xp     X1 ... (1)
X1  X2 X1 21 3
1
X2
And, with the bridge balanced,
Xp LX

R LR
LX 40 40
 Xp R 20    ... (2)
LR 60 3
1 40
X1   X1 40 
3 3
1
 X2  X1 20 
2
 The original resistance of the wire is
Rw X1  X2 40  20 60 
47. A potentiometer wire 1.5 m long has a resistance of 10 . It is

connected in series with a cell of emf 4 V and internal resistance
5 . Calculate the potential drop per centimetre of the wire.
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : L  1.5 m, R  10 , E  4 V, r  5 
ER
Potential gradient, k 
(R  r) L
4  10 40 8
   
(10  5) 1.5 15  1.5 3  1.5
16
  1.778 V/m
9
 1.778  10 2 V/cm
The potential drop per centimetre of the wire is 0.0178 V/cm.
48. A potentiometer wire, 4 m long and resistance 10 , is connected in
series with a resistance of 1988  and a cell of emf 2 V and internal
resistance 2 . What is the potential gradient along the wire?
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : L  4 m, Rwire  10  , Rext  1988  , E  2 V, r  2 
Potential gradient,
ERwire (2)(10) 5
k  
(Rwire  r  Rext ) L (10  2  1988)(4) 2000
2.5  103V / m
49. A potentiometer wire has a resistance per unit length of 0.1  / m.If
a cell of emf 1.5 V balances against a length of 300 cm of the wire,
whatisthecurrentinthepotentiometerwire ? VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : The current in the wire,
V V / L E / l 1.5 1
I     5 A
R R/L R/L 3 0.1
50. When two cells of emfs E1 and E2 are connected in series so as to
assist each other, the balancing length of the combination is 3.2 m.
When the two cells are connected in series so as to oppose each
other, the balancing length is 0.7 m. Compare the emfs of the two
cells. (July ’22) (2 marks)
Solution : Data : l1  3.2 m, l2  0.7 m

The effective emf of the two cells assisting each other  E1  E2 and
that for opposing each other  E1  E2, assuming E1 > E2.
E  E2 l1 E l l 3.2  0.7 3.9 39
 1   1 1 2  
E1  E2 l2 E2 l1 l2 3.2  0.7 2.5 25
51. The emf of a cell is balanced by a length of 320 cm of a
potentiometer wire. When the cell is shunted by a resistance of
50 , the balancing length is reduced by 20 cm. Find the internal
resistance of the cell. (Sept. ’21) ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : l1  320 cm, l2  320  20  300 cm, R  50 
The internal resistance of the cell is
rR ( )  50 ( )
l1 l2 320  300 10

l2 300 3
52. A voltmeter has a resistance of 1000 . What will be its reading
whenitisconnectedacrossacellofemf2Vandinternalresistance
10  ? ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : RV  1000 , E 2 V, r 10 
Let I be the current drawn from the cell. Going around the closed
circuit and applying Kirchhoff ‘s voltage law,
E  IRV Ir 0
E 2 2 1
 I   A A
RV r 1000  10 1010 505
The voltmeter measures the terminal p.d. V of the cell.
V  IRV (or V  E  Ir )
1
  1000 1.98 V
505
53. A galvanometer of resistance 100  gives a full scale deflection for

a current of 2 mA. How will you use it to measure (i) current up to
2A(ii)voltageupto10V ? ( 2 marks each )
Solution : Data : G  100 , Ig  2 mA  2103 A, I  2 A, V  10 V
GIg 100  2  103 2  101 101
(i) S    
I  Ig 2  2  103 1.998 0.999
 S  0.1001  (using the reciprocal table)
A resistance of 0.1001  should be connected in parallel to the
coil of the galvanometer to measure current up to 2 A.
[OR To increase the range of the ammeter by a factor
I 2
p 
Ig 2  103
G 100
 1000, the required shunt is S   0.1001  ]
p 1 999
V 10
(ii) Rs  G  100  5000  100  4900 
Ig 2  103
A resistance of 4900  should be connected in series with the
coil of the galvanometer to measure voltage up to 10 V.
54. Find the value of the shunt which when connected across a
galvanometer of resistance 99.5  will allow 0.5% of the main
current to pass through the galvanometer. ( 2 marks)
Solution : Data : G 99.5 , Ig  0.005 I
I 1
 p   200
Ig 0.005
G 99.5 99.5 1
 The required shunt is S      0.5 
p  1 200  1 199 2
55. A voltmeter of resistance 500  can measure a maximum voltage of
5 V. How can it be made to measure a maximum voltage of 100 V ?
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : G 500 , Vg  5 V, V 100 V
V
To increase the range of the voltmeter by a factor p , a
Vg
resistance Rs should be connected in series with it.
Rs G (p 1)  500 (  1 ) 9500 

100
5
56. The magnetic field and electric field in a region in space are l BB6i
and lEE6i. A particle of charge q moves into the region with
velocity vl v^j. Find the magnitude and direction of the Lorentz
force on the charged particle if q 1 C, B 1 T, E 3 V/m and
v 4m/s. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : q 1 C, B 1 T, E 3 V/m, v 4 m/s
The Lorentz force on the charged particle is
lF m q (lE l v lB )
q [ E6i (v 6j B 6i )] q [E6ivB( 6k)]
 (1)[3 6i  4 6k]  3 6i 4 6k N
Therefore, lFm is in the y 0 plane (i.e., in the xz plane).

 Fm  ef32  42 5 N
If lFm makes an angle  with the x-axis,
 tan1 (  )  53°8
4
3
l m is at an angle of 53°8 to the x-axis towards the

Therefore, F
z-axis.
57. Inacyclotron,amagneticfieldof1.4Wb / m2 is used to accelerate
protons. What should be the time interval in which the electric
field between the dees should be reversed ? [ Mass of the proton
 1.67  1027 kg, charge on the proton1.6  1019C ]( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : B 1.4 Wb / m2, m 1.67  1027 kg, q 1.6  1019 C
2m
T
qB
T m (3.142)(1.67  1027)
t  
2 qB (1.6  1019) (1.4)
2.342  108 s
This is the required time interval.
58. In a cyclotron, protons are to be accelerated. The radius of its dee

is 60 cm and its oscillator frequency is 10 MHz. What is the kinetic
energy of the accelerated protons ? (2 marks)
Solution : Data : R 0.6 m, f 107 Hz, mp  1.67  1027 kg,
e 1.6  1019 C, 1 eV  1.6  1019 J
qB q2B2R2
f and KE 
2mp 2mp
q2B2 q2B2
 f 2   22f 2mp
42m2p 2mp
 KE  22f 2mpR2
 2  9.872  (107)2(1.67  10927)(0.6)2
11.87  1013
11.87  1013J eV
1.6  1019
 7.419  106 7.419 MeV
59. A straight current-carrying conductor 30 cm long carries a current
of 5 A. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction 0.2 T,
with its length making an angle of 60° with the direction of the
field. Find the force acting on the conductor. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : l 30 cm  0.3 m, I 5 A, B 0.2 T,  60°
The magnitude of the force on the conductor,
F  I  lll B I l B sin 
(5 A) (0.3 m) (0.2 T) sin 60°
 0.3  0.866 0.2598 N
The direction of the force is given by the cross product rule.
60. The rectangular coil in a moving-coil galvanometer has 50 turns,
eachoflength5cmandbreadth3cm,andissuspendedinaradial
magneticfieldof0.05Wb/m2. The twist constant of the suspension
fibre is 1.5  109 N·m/degree. Calculate the current through the
coil which will deflect it through 30°. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : N  50, C 1.5  109 N·m/degree, B 0.05 Wb/m2,
A lb 5 cm  3 cm  15 cm2  15  104 m2,  30°
NIAB  C
C
 The current through the coil, I 
NAB
1.5  109  30 3  105
  1.2  105 A
50  15  104  0.05 5  0.5
61. A circular wire loop of radius 9.2 cm carries a current of 2.3 A.

Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the
loop. (Sept. ’21) (3 marks)
2
Solution : Data : R9.210 m, I 2.3 A,  0  4   10  7 T·m/A
The magnitude of the magnetic induction,
 0 I (4   10  7)(2.3) 
B    10  5
2R 2(9.2  10 )
 2 2
3.142
  10  5 1.571  10  5 T
2
62. Currents of equal magnitude pass through two long parallel wires
separated by 2 cm. If the force per unit length on each of the wires is
4102N/m,calculate the current in each wire. (July ’22) (3 marks)
F
Solution : Data : I1I2I, s210 2 m, 4102 N/m
l
F ( ) ( )
0 2I1I2l 0 2I 2l
4 s 4 s
F s
 I 2
l 2(0/4)
2  102
 (4  102)  4  103
2  10 7
 I ef40  10220mn10 A63.24 A

63. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance of 3 cm
from a very long straight wire carrying a current of 6 A.
(March ’22) ( 3 marks )
2
Solution : Data : a310 m, I 6A.
The magnetic induction,
0 I 0 2I 2(6)
B   107  4  105 T
2a 4 a 3  102
64. A solenoid of length  m and 5 cm in diameter has winding of 1000

turns and carries a current of 5 A. Calculate the magnetic field at
its centre along the axis. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : L 3.142 m, N 1000, I 5 A, 0  4 107 T.m / A
B 0 nI 0 ( ) I
N
L
 (4 107) ( ) (5) 

1000 20  3.142  104
3.142 3.142
 2  103 T
65. A toroid of central radius of 10 cm has windings of 1000 turns. For
a magnetic field of 5  102 T along its central axis, what current
is required to be passed through its windings ? (2 marks)
Solution : Data : Central radius, r 10 cm  0.1 m, N 1000,
B 5  102 T, 0  4 107 T.m/A
0 NI 0 2NI
B 
2r 4 r
2(1000) I 50
 5 102  107   I 25 A
0.1 2
This is the required current.
66. Abarmagnetofmoment7.5A · m2 experiences a torque of magnitude

1.5  104N · mwhenplacedinclinedat30° in a uniform magnetic
field. Find the magnitude of the magnetic induction of the field.
(2 marks)
Solution : Data : 7.5 A · m2,   1.5  104 N · m,  30°
 B sin 
 The magnitude of the magnetic induction,
 1.5  104 N · m
B 
 sin  (7.5 A · m2) sin 30°
2  105
 4  105T( 40T)
1/2
67. A bar magnet of moment of inertia 5  10  5 kg.m2 performs 20
angular oscillations per minute in a horizontal plane about a vertical
axis perpendicular to its length and passing through its centre of
mass. Given the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is
36  T, find the magnetic moment of the magnet. (3 marks)
20 1
Solution : Data : I 5  10  5 kg·m2, n  Hz, Bh  3.6  10  5 T
60 3
1
 T 3 s
n
T 2  pq
I 4  2I
 T2
MB MB
4  2I 4(3.142)2(5  10  5)
 The magnetic moment, M  
T 2B (3)2(3.6  10  5 )
(3.142)2  5
  6.094 A.m2
8.1
68. An electron in an atom is revolving around the nucleus in a circular
orbitofradius5.3  1011m,withaspeedof2  106m/s.Findthe
resultant orbital magnetic moment and angular momentum of the
electron. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : r 5.3  1011 m, v 2  106 m/s, e 1.6  1019 C,
me  9.1  1031 kg
The orbital magnetic moment of the electron is
1 1
Mo  evr (1.6  1019) (2  106) (5.3  1011)
2 2
8.48  1024A·m2
The angular momentum of the electron is
Lo mevr
 (9.1  1031) (2  106) (5.3  1011)
 96.46  1036 9.646  1035kg·m2/s
69. The revolution of the electron in the first Bohr orbit of a hydrogen
atom constitutes a current loop of area 8.8  1021 m2. If the
frequency of revolution is 6.6  1015 Hz, calculate the equivalent
magnetic moment and the orbital angular momentum.
[o  8.795  1010C/kg] (3 marks)
Solution : Data : A 8.8  1021 m2, f 6.6  1015 Hz, e 1.6  1019 C,
o  8.795  1010 C/kg
The equivalent magnetic moment,
MIAefA (1.6  1019) (6.6  1015) (8.8  1021)
 1.6  48  1.219.293  1024 A.m2
Mo
Gyromagnetic ratio, o 
Lo
 The orbital angular momentum,
Mo 9.293  1024
Lo   1.056  1034kg·m2/s
o 10
8.795  10
70. If the magnetic moment of an electron revolving in an orbit of
radius 0.5 Å is 9  1024A·m2 then find the linear momentum of
the electron in that orbit. [ e/m 1.76  1011C/kg ] ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : r 5  1011 m, Mo  9  1024 A·m2,
e/m 1.76  1011 C/kg
1 1 e
Orbital magnetic moment, Mo  evr ( mv ) r
2 2m
 The linear momentum,
2M 1 2( 9  1024)
mv o 
r ( e/m) ( 5  1011)( 1.76  1011 )
2.046  1024kg·m/s
71. The magnetic moment of an electron revolving in a circular orbit
of radius 2.2 Å is 5.024  1024A·m2. Calculate the frequency of
revolution of the electron in that orbit. ( 2 marks )
2
Solution : Data : r 2.2  10 10
m, Mo  5.024  10 24
A·m ,
e 1.6  1019 C,  3.142
Orbital magnetic moment,
1 1 1
Mo  evr  er2  e ( 2f )r2
2 2 2
 The frequency of revolution,
Mo (5.024  1024)
f 
er2 (3.142)(1.6  1019)(2.2  1010)2
50.24
  1014 2.065  1014 Hz
3.142  1.6 (2.2)2
72. The magnetic susceptibility of annealed iron at saturation is 5500.

Find the permeability of annealed iron at saturation. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : m  5500, 0  4 107 T · m/A
Permeability, 0 (1 m)
 The permeability of annealed iron at saturation is
 (4  3.142  107) (1  5500)
 4  3.142  5.501  104
6.914  103T · m/A
73. Whenaplateofmagneticmaterialofsize10cm  0.5cm  0.2cm
is placed in a magnetizing field of 0.5  104 A/m, a magnetic
momentof5A·m2 is induced in it. Find the magnetic induction in
the rod. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : l 10 cm, b 0.5 cm, h 0.2 cm, H 0.5  104 A·m1,
M 5 A·m2
The volume of the plate,
V 10  0.5  0.2  1 cm2  106 m2
B0 (HMz) 0 (H )

M
V
The magnetic induction in the plate,
 B  4 107 ( 0.5  104  6 ) 6.290 T

5
10
74. The susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is  at 27° C.Atwhat
temperature will its susceptibility be  / 3? (2 marks)

Solution : Data : m1 , T1  27° C  300 K, m2 
3
B0
By Curie’s law, Mz C
T
Since Mz mH and B0 0H
0H 0
mHC  m C
T T
1  T
 m   m1  2
T m2 T1
m1 
 T2  T1  3  300  900 K 627 °C
m2 
This is the required temperature.
75. A paramagnetic gas has 2.01026 atoms/m3 with atomic magnetic

dipolemomentof1.5  1023A·m2 each. The gas is at 27° C.(a) Find
the maximum magnetization intensity of this sample. (b) If the gas
iskeptinauniformmagneticfieldof3T,isitpossibletoachieve
saturation magnetization ? Why ? (4 marks)
N
Solution : Data :  2.0  1026 atoms/m3,  1.5  1023 A·m2,
V
T 27  273  300 K, B 3 T, kB  1.38  1023 J/K,
1 eV  1.6  1019 J
(a) The maximum magnetization of the material,
N
Mz   (2.0  1026) (1.5  1023) 3  103A/m
V
(b) The maximum orientation energy per atom is
Umax B cos 180° B
4.5  1023
 (1.5  1023) (3) J  eV  2.8  104 eV
1.6  1019
The average thermal energy of each atom,
3
E kBT
2
where kB is the Botzmann constant.
 E  1.5(1.38  1023)(300)
6.21  1021
 6.21  1021 J  3.9  102 eV
1.6  1019
Since the thermal energy of randomization is about two orders
of magnitude greater than the magnetic potential energy of
orientation, saturation magnetization will not be achieved at 300 K.
76. A rod of magnetic material of cross section 0.25 cm2 is placed in a
magnetizingfieldofintensity4000A/m.Themagneticfluxpassing
through the rod is 25106 Wb. Find the relative permeability and
magnetic susceptibility of its material and the magnetization of the
rod. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : A0.25 cm22510 6 m2, H4000 A·m 1,
2510 6 Wb
Magnetic induction is
 25  106
B   1 Wb/m2
A 25  106
(a) B0 r H
 The relative permeability of the material,
B 1
r  
0H 4  3.142  107  4000
10000
  198.91 199
50.272
(b) r  1 m
 The magnetic susceptibility of the material,
m r  1  199  1 198
M
(c) m  z
H
The magnetization of the rod,
Mz mH 198  4000 7.92  105A/m
77. Find the percentage increase in the magnetic induction B when the
space within a current-carrying toroid is filled with aluminium.
Themagneticsusceptibilityofaluminiumis2.1  105. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : m2.1105, positive, since aluminium is paramagnetic
Let B and B0 be the magnetic inductions inside a toroid with and
without aluminium core. Then,
B0 0H and B 0 ( 1 m ) H
where H magnetic field strength and 0  permeability of free space.
The percentage increase in the magnetic induction within the
toroid due to the aluminium core
B B  B0  H
 100  100 0 m 100 m  100
B0 B0 0H
 (2.1  105 )  100 2.1  103%
78. A search coil having 2000 turns with area 1.5 cm2 is placed in a
magnetic field of 0.60 T. The coil is moved rapidly out of the field in a
timeof0.2s.Calculatetheinducedemfinthesearchcoil.(2 marks)
Solution : Data : N 2000, Ai  1.5  104 m2, Af  0, B0.6 T, t 0.2 s

Initial flux, N i NBAi  2000 (0.6) (1.5  104)
 0.18 Wb
Final flux, Nf  0, since the coil is withdrawn out of the field.
 m   i
Induced emf, e N  N f
t t
0  0.18
 e  0.9 V
0.2
79. The magnetic flux through a loop varies according to the relation
  8t2  6tC, where C is a constant,  is in milliweber and t is
in second. What is the magnitude of the induced emf in the loop at
t 2seconds? ( 2 marks )
2
Solution : Data : t 2 s,   8t 6t  C, where C is a numerical constant
and  is in milliweber (mWb)
d
The magnitude of the induced emf, e 
 dt 
d
 e (8t2 6t  C)  16t 6  0
dt
 (16  2)  6  32  6 38mV  38  103 V
80. An aircraft of wing span of 50 m flies horizontally in the Earth’s
magnetic field of 6  105T at a speed of 400 m/s. Calculate the
emf generated between the tips of the wings of the aircraft.
VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : The magnitude of the induced emf,
 e Blv (6  105) (400) (50) 1.2V
81. A metal disc of radius 30 cm spins at 20 rps about its transverse
symmetry axis in a uniform magnetic field of 0.20T. The field is
parallel to the axis of rotation. Calculate (a) the area swept out per
second by the radius of the disc (b) the flux cut per second by a
radius of the disc (c) the induced emf between the axle and rim of
the disc. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : R 0.3 m, f 20 rps, B 0.2 T
(a) The area swept out per unit time by a given radius
 ( the frequency of rotations )( the area swept out per rotation )
 (20)(3.142  0.09) 5.656 m2 per second
(b) The time rate at which a given radius cuts magnetic flux
d m
  B f ( r2 )  (0.2)(5.656)  1.131Wb / s
dt
d
(c) The magnitude of the induced emf,  e  m 1.131 V
dt
82. A conducting rod 10 cm long is being pulled along horizontal,
frictionlessconductingrailsataconstantspeedof5m/s.Therails
are shorted at one end with a metal strip. There is a uniform
magnetic field of strength 1.2T out of the page in the region in
which the rod moves. If the resistance of the rod is 0.5, what is
the power of the external agent pulling the rod ? Assume that the
resistance of the rails is negligibly small. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : l 0.1 m, B 1.2 T, v 5 m/s, R 0.5 

(Blv )2 (1.2  0.1  5)2
Power, P  0.72W
R 0.5
83. Anemfof2Visinducedinaclosely-woundcoilof50turnswhen
the current through it increases uniformly from 0 to 5A in 0.1s.
(a) What is the self inductance of the coil ? (b) What is the magnetic
fluxthrougheachturnofthecoilforasteadycurrentat5A?
( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : e 2 V, N 50, Ii  0, If  5 A, t 0.1 s
(a) The rate of change of current,
dI If Ii 5  0
   50 A/s
dt t 0.1
e
Self inductance, L
dI / dt
2
 L 0.04H  40mH
50
(b) N m LI
LI 0.04  5
 m   0.004Wb  4mWb
N 50
This is the magnetic flux through each turn.
84. Acoilofselfinductance3Handresistance100 carries a steady
currentof2A.(a) Whatistheenergystoredinthemagneticfield
of the coil ? (b) What is the energy per second dissipated in the
resistance of the coil ? ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : L 3 H, R 100 , I 2 A
(a) Magnetic energy stored,
1 1
Um  LI 2 (3) (2)2 6J
2 2
(b) Power dissipated in the resistance of the coil,
P  I 2R (2)2( 100 ) 400 W
85. Asolenoidof1000turnsiswoundwithwireofdiameter0.1cmand
has a self inductance of 2.4  105 H. Find (a) the cross-sectional
area of the solenoid (b) the magnetic flux through one turn of the
solenoid when a current in it is 3 A. ( 4 marks )
Solution : Data : N 1000, D 0.1 cm, L 2.4 105 H, I 3 A,
0  4 107 H/m
The number of turns per unit length,
1
n  1 mm1  103 m1
1 mm
and the length of the solenoid, lND 1000  0.1  100 cm  1 m
L0n2lA
(a) The area of cross section of the solenoid,
L 2.4  105 24 
A 2
   105
0n l 3 2
(4  10 )(10 ) (1)
7 4
6  10 m2 5
(b) Magnetic flux through one turn,

m BA ( 0nI ) A
 (4  107)(103)(3)(6  105)
72  109 Wb
86. An emf of 96.0 mV is induced in the windings of a coil when the

currentinanearbycoilisincreasingattherateof1.20A/s.What
is the mutual inductance of the two coils?
(March ’22; July ’22) ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data :  e2  9.6  10 2
V, dI1 / dt 1.2 A/s
dI1
 e2 M
dt
Mutual inductance,
 e2  9.6  102
M   8  102 H80 mH
dI1 / dt 1.2
87. A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the
current in one coil changes from 0 to 10 A in 0.2 s, what is the
change of flux linkage with the other coil ? VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : Data : M 1.5 H, I1 i  0, I1 f  10 A, t 0.2 s
The flux linked per unit turn with the second coil due to current I1 in
the first coil is
21 M I1
Therefore, the change in the flux due to change in I1 is
 21 M (I1) M (I1 f I1 i )  1.5 (10  0)
15 Wb.
88. The primary and secondary coils of a transformer each have
inductance of 200  106 H. The mutual inductance between the
windingsis4  106 H.Whatpercentageofthefluxfromonecoil
reaches the other ? ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : LP LS  2  104 H, M 4  106 H
MK ef LP LS
The coupling coefficient is
M 4  106 4  106
K 2  102
efLP LS ef(2  104)2
 
2  104
Therefore, the percentage of flux of the primary coil reaching the
secondary coil is 0.02  100 % 2 %.
89. The primary of a transformer has 40 turns and works on 100V
and 100W. Find the number of turns in the secondary to step up
the voltage to 400V. Also calculate the current in the secondary
and primary. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : NP  40, VP  100 V, PP100 W, VS400 V
(i) VS  NS
VP NP
400
 NS NP VS  NS  40   160
VP 100
This is the number of turns in the secondary coil.
(ii) Assuming PS PP  100 W,
VS IS  100 W
100
 IS  100  0.25 A
VS 400
This is the current in the secondary coil.
100
(iii) VP · IP PP  IP  PP  1 A
VP 100
This is the current in the primary coil.
90. If the effective current in a 50 cycle AC circuit is 5 A, what is the

peak value of current ? What is the current (1/600) s after it was
zero ? (2 marks)
1
Solution : Data : f 50 Hz, irms  5 A, t  s
600
The peak value of the current,
i0  irms e2 (5)(1.414)7.07 A
1
At t s, the current is
600
i i0sin (2ft )  7.07 sin [ 2(50) ( )]

1
600
 7.07 sin ( )  (7.07)(0.5) 3.535 A


6
91. Find the time required for a 50 Hz alternating current to change its
value from zero to the rms value. (2 marks)
i0 i 1
Solution : Data : f 50 Hz, i 
ef2 i0 ef2

ii0 sin t
i 1 
 sin t   t 2ft rad
i0 ef2 4
1 1 1 1000  103
 t    2.5  103 s
8 f 8(50) 400 400
This is the required time.

92. An AC circuit consists of a pure inductor of inductance 2 H.
The sinusoidal current in the circuit has amplitude 0.25 A and
frequency60Hz.Calculatetheeffectivepotentialdifferenceacross
the inductor. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : L 2 H, i0  0.25 A, f 60 Hz
L 2fL
The effective potential difference across the inductor,
i0 i0 mn2
VL Lirms L  2fL  2 f L i0  2 f L i0 (0.7071)
ef2 ef2 2
 2(3.142)(60)(2)(0.25)(0.7071)  3.142  60  0.7071
133.3V
93. When 100V dc is applied across a coil, a current of 1A passes
throughit.When100Vacoffrequency50Hzisappliedtothesame
coil, only 0.5 A current passes through it. Calculate the resistance,
impedance and self-inductance of the coil. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : Vdc100 V, idc  1 A, Vrms 100 V, f50 Hz, irms0.5 A
(i) The resistance of the coil,
Vdc 100
R  100
idc 1
(ii) The impedance of the coil,
V 100
Z  rms  200 
irms 0.5
Z 2  R2  X 2L
 X 2L  Z 2  R 2 (200)2  (100)2  3  104
 XL  e3  102  173.2 
XL L ( 2f )L
 The self-inductance of the coil,
X 173.2
L L  0.5512H
2f 2  3.142  50
94. A 15.0 F capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the
capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit.
If the frequency is doubled, what will happen to the capacitive
reactance and the current ? (1 mark each)
Solution : Data : C  15 F  15106 F, Vrms  220 V, f  50 Hz,
1
The capacitive reactance 
2f C
1 100100
 6
  212.2 
2(3.142)(50)(1510 ) (3.142)(15)
Vrms 220
irms    1.037 A
capacitive reactance 212.2
ipeak  irms e2  (1.037)(1.414)  1.466 A
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance will be halved
and the current will be doubled.
95. A 25 F capacitor, 0.1H inductor and 25 resistor are connected
in series with an ac source of emf e  220sin314t volt. What is the
expression for the instantaneous value of the current ? ( 4 marks )
Solution : Data : C 25 F  25  106 F, L 0.1 H, R 25 ,
e 220 sin 314t volt
Comparing e 220 sin 314t volt with ee0sin t, we get
e0  220 V,  314 rad/s
Inductive reactance,
XL L 314  0.1  31.4 
and capacitive reactance,
1 1 400
XC     127.4 
C 314  25  10 6 3.14
Since, XCXL , the reactance of the circuit is capacitive and is equal to

XC  XL  127.4  31.4  96 
Impedance, Z  ef R2  (XC  XL )2
 ef(25)2  (96)2  ef625  9216  ef9841
 99.20 
e 220
Peak current, i0  0   2.218 A
Z 99.2
XC  XL 96
tan y     3.84
R 25
 y   75° 24  75.4°   1.316 rad
i.e., the applied emf lags behind the current by 1.316 rad or the current
leads the emf by 1.316 rad.
The instantaneous value of the current is
ii0 sin ( t y  )
 i2.218sin( 314 t1.316 )ampere
96. A 25 Fcapacitor,a0.1Hinductoranda25 resistor are connected
inserieswithanacsourceofpeakemf310Vandfrequency50Hz.
Calculate the rms current in the circuit and the phase angle between
the emf and the current. [ 3.14] (4 marks)
Solution : Data : C25 F  2510 6
F, L0.10 H, R25 , e0310 V,
f 50 Hz,  3.14
XL  2fL 2(3.14)(50)(0.1)  31.4 
1 1 400
XC     127.4 
2f C 2  3.14  50  25  10 6
3.14
Since, XC  XL , the reactance is capacitive and its magnitude is
XXC  XL  127.4  31.4  96 
2
Z2 R2  ( L )  (25)2  (96)2  9841 2
1
C
 Impedance, Z ef9841 99.2 
e 310
Peak current, i0  0  A
Z 99.2
i0 310  0.7071
 irms  2.21A
ef2

99.2
R 25
cos y    0.2520
Z 99.2
 Phase angle between the emf and the current,
y  cos1(0.2520)  75.4° 1.316 rad
97. A coil of resistance 5  and self inductance 4 H is connected in
series with a variable capacitor across a 10 Vrms , 50 Hz supply.
Atwhatcapacitancewillresonanceoccur ?Findthecorresponding
current. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : R5 , L4 H, Erms10 V, f 50 Hz
Let C be the capacitance of the capacitor at resonance.
(i) At resonance,
1
L
C
1 1 1
 C  
2 2 2 2
L (2f ) L 4 f L
1 1
 
4  (3.142)2  (50)2  4 4  9.872  2500  4
 2.532  10 F  2.532F
6
(ii) At resonance, the current ( Irms ) is maximum and it is given by

E 10
Irms  rms   2 A
R 5
98. A 100 F capacitor is charged with a 50 V supply. Then the supply
is removed and the capacitor is connected across an inductance,
as a result of which 5 A current passes through the inductance.
Calculate the value of the inductance. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : C 100 F  100  106 F 104 F, V 50 V, i 5 A
1
The energy stored in the electric field in the capacitor  CV 2
2
1
The energy stored in the magnetic field in the inductor  Li2
2
2
1 1 V
Here, CV 2  Li 2  LC
2 2 i2
 LC ( )  104 ( )  104  102

V 2 50 2
i 5
102 H
This is the value of the inductance.
99. What is the energy of a photon (quantum of radiation) of frequency

6  1014Hz ? VSA (1 mark)
Solution : The energy of the photon, h (6.63  1034 ) (6  1014 )
3.978  1019J
100. If the total energy of radiation of frequency 1014 Hz is 6.63 J,
calculate the number of photons in the radiation.
VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : Enh, where h is the energy of a photon in a radiation of
frequency  and n is the number of photons in the radiation.
E 6.63
 n  1020
h (6.63  1034)(1014)
101. In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the graph

of stopping potential against frequency of incident radiation is
4.15  1015V·s.FindthevalueofPlanck’sconstant. (2 marks)
Solution : Data : Slope  4.15  10 V·s, e 1.6  10
15 19
C
 V0  ( )  0
h h
V0ehh0
e e
h
 Slope 
e
 Planck’s constant,
h slope e (4.15  1015)(1.6  1019) 6.64  1034J·s
102. Ifinaphotoelectricexperiment,thestoppingpotentialis1.5volts,
what is the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron?
VSA (1 mark)
Solution : The required kinetic energy, 12 mv 2max VS e (1.5 )(1.6  1019 )
2.4  1019 J
103. What is the photoelectric work function for a metal if the threshold
wavelengthforthemetalis3.315  107 m? VSA (1 mark)
Solution : The photoelectric work function for the metal 

hc (6.63  1034 ) (3  108 )
 6  1019 J
0 3.315  107
104. In a photoelectric experiment, the photocurrent becomes zero
with a retarding potential of 0.8V when the wavelength of the
incidentradiationis495nm.Ifthesourceofincidentradiationis
changed,thestoppingpotentialis1.2V.Find(i)theworkfunction
of the cathode metal (ii) the wavelength of the second source.
(4 marks)
Solution : Data : V0  0.8 V,  495 nm  4.95  107 m, V0 1.2 V,
h 6.63  1034 J·s, e 1.6  1019 C, c 3  108 m/s
hc
(i) V0eh y  y

The work function,
hc
y V0e (in joule)

hc
 V0 (in electronvolt)
e
(6.63  1034)(3  108) 19.89

  0.8   0.8
(1.6  10 19
)(4.95  10 )
7 1.6  4.95
 2.512  0.8 1.712 eV

hc hc
(ii) V0e y   V0e  y
 
The wavelength of the second source,
hc

e(V0 y)
where y is in electronvolt.
(6.63  1034)(3  108) 19.89
     107
(1.6  10 19
)(1.2  1.712) 1.6  2.912
 4.27  107m 427nm

105. The photoelectric work function for a metal is 4.2 eV. Find the
threshold wavelength. (March ’22) (2 marks)
Solution : Data : y04.2 eV, c310 m/s, h6.631034 J·s,
8
e  1.61019 C
y0 4.2 eV 4.21.61019 J  6.721019 J
hc
Work function, y0 
0
hc
 Threshold wavelength, 0 
y0
 34
(6.63  10 ) (3  108) 19.89  1026
 0  
6.72 1019 6.72 1019
 2.959107m  2959Å
106. The threshold wavelength for silver is 3800 Å. Calculate the
maximum kinetic energy in eV of photoelectrons emitted when
ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 2600 Å falls on it. ( 3 marks )
Solution : Data : 0  3800 Å 3.8  107 m,
 2600 Å 2.6  107 m, h 6.63  1034 J.s, c 3  108 m / s,
e 1.6  1019 C
According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted electrons,
KEmax h h0
 hc (  )
1 1
 0
 (6.63  1034)(3  108) ( )

107 107

2.6 3.8
 19.89  1019 ( )
3.8  2.6 19.89  1.2  1019
J
2.6  3.8 2.6  3.8
19.89  1.2  1019

 eV
2.6  3.8  1.6  1019
19.89  1.2
 1.510 eV
2.6  3.8  1.6
107. Radiation of wavelength 450 nm is incident on a metal having

work function 2.0 eV. In the presence of a magnetic field lB, the
most energetic photoelectrons emitted perpendicular to lB move
along a circular path of radius 20 cm. What is the magnitude of
the magnetic field ? (4 marks)
Solution : Data :  450 nm  4.5  107 m,
y  2.0 eV  2  1.6  1019 J  3.2  1019 J, h 6.63  1034 J·s,
c3108 m/s, r20 cm0.2 m, e1.61019 C, m9.111031 kg
1 hc
KEmax  mv 2max  y
2 
(6.63  1034)(3  108)
  3.2  1019
4.5  10 7
 4.42  1019  3.2  1019

 1.22  1019 J
p2
KE 
2m
pmax  mvmax  ef2m(KEmax)

 ef2(9.11  1031)(1.22  1019)  ef9.11  2.44  1050
 4.715  1025 kg·m/s
Centripetal force  magnetic force
mv2max
 Bevmax
r
pmax 4.715 4.715
 B   105 1.473  105 T
re (0.2)(1.61019) 3.2
This is the magnitude of the magnetic field.
108. Calculate the minimum energy required to take an electron from

the ground state to the first excited state in hydrogen atom.
VSA (Sept. ’21) ( 1 mark )
1 E1
Solution : En   E2 
n 2 4
Taking E1   13.6 eV, we get

13.54
E2     3.4 eV
4
 E2  E1  3.385  (  13.54)  13.540  3.385 10.2 eV
This is the required energy.
109. Determine the maximum angular speed of an electron moving in
a stable orbit around the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : m 9.1  1031 kg, e 1.6  1019 C,
e 0  8.85  1012 C2/N·m2, h 6.63  1034 J·s
Angular speed of an orbital electron in a hydrogen atom (Z 1) is
mZ 2e4 me4
 
2e20 h3n3 2e20 h3n3
1
 
n3
Therefore, angular speed is maximum for n 1.
me4
 max 
2e20 h3
3.142 (9.11031)(1.6  1019)4

2 (8.851012)2(6.631034)3
3.142 (9.1)(1.6)4  10107
 4.104  103  1019
2 3
2(8.85) (6.63)  10 126
4.104  1016rad/s
110. An electron in a hydrogen atom stays in its second orbit for 108 s.
How many revolutions will it make around the nucleus in that
time ? (2 marks)
 31  19
Solution : Data : Z1, m9.110 kg, e1.610 C,
 12 2 2  34
e08.8510 C /N·m , h6.6310 J·s, n2, t108 s
The periodic time of the electron in a hydrogen atom,
4e20h3n3
T
me4
Here, n2
(4)(8.85  1012)2(6.63  1034)3(8)

 T
(9.1  1031)(1.6  1019)4
(4)(8.85)2(6.63)3(8)
 1019  1.2251015 s
(9.1)(1.6)4
Let N be the number of revolutions made by the electron in time t.
Then, tNT.
t 108
 N   8.163106
T 1.225  1015
111. Calculate the radius of the first Bohr orbit in the hydrogen atom.
Hence calculate the radius of the second orbit. ( 3 marks )
2 2
Solution : Data : e0  8.85  10 12
C /N· m , e  1.610 19
C,
h  6.63  10 34
J.s, m  9.1  10 31
kg
The radius of a Bohr orbit in a hydrogen atom (Z 1),
e0 h2n2 e0 h2
r 2
 r1  (for n  1)
me me2
8.85  1012  (6.63  1034)2

 r1 
3.142  9.1  1031  (1.6  1019 )2
8.85  (6.63)2  1080

3.142  9.1  2.56  1069
 5.315 10 11m  0.5315Å
112. Calculate the energy of the electron in the ground state of the
hydrogen atom. Express it in joule and in eV. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : m  9.1  1031 kg, e  1.6  1019 C,
h  6.63  1034 J·s, e0  8.85  1012 C2/N·m2
The energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit is
1 me4
En  –
n2 8e02h2
For the ground state, n  1.
( 9.11031 ) (1.61019)4
 E1  1
8 (8.851012)2 (6.631034)2
 2.165  1018 J
2.165  1018J   13.53eV
1.6  1019 J/eV
113. An electron is orbiting in the 5th Bohr orbit. Calculate the ionization
energyforthisatom,ifthegroundstateenergyis  13.6eV.
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : E1  13.6 eV, n1 1, n5 5, E 0 eV
The energy of the electron in the nth Bohr orbit,
 5 ( 1 )
1 E n 2
En  2
n E1 n5
 E5  ( )  E1  ( ) (  13.6)
n1 2 1
2
n5 5
13.6 13.6  4 54.4

     0.544 eV
25 25  4 100
 Ionization energy E  E5  0  (  0.544) 0.544 eV
114. The potential energy of the electron in the first Bohr orbit in
the hydrogen atom is  27.2eV. What is its kinetic energy and
binding energy in the same orbit ? VSA (1 mark)
potential energy (  27.2)
Solution : Kinetic energy    13.6 eV
2 2
binding energy  total energy
  (potential energy  kinetic energy)
  (  27.2  13.6) 13.6 eV
115. Find the value of Rydberg’s constant if the energy of electron in
thesecondorbitinhydrogenatomis  3.4eV. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : n 2, E2  3.4 eV   3.4 ( 1.6  10 19
)J
Rch
En  
n2
n2 En
 Rydberg’s constant, R  
ch
(2)2 ( 5.44  1019 ) 21.76
   107
( 3  108 )( 6.63  1034 ) 19.89
1.094  107 m1
116. Determine the shortest wavelengths of the Balmer and Paschen
series. Given the limit for the Lyman series is 912 Å.
(March ’22) (3 marks)
Solution : Data : L  912 Å
For hydrogen spectrum,  RH ( 2 2 )

1 1 1
 n m
 RH ( 2  )  RH
1 1 1
 ... (1)
L 1 
as n1 and m
 RH (  ) 
1 1 1 RH
... (2)
B 4  4
 RH (  ) 
1 1 1 RH
... (3)
Pa 9  9
B R
 H 4
L RH/4
 B4L(4)(912)3648 Å
This is the shortest wavelength of the Balmer series.
Pa R
 H 9
L RH/9
 Pa9L(9) (912)8208 Å
This is the shortest wavelength of the Paschen series.
117. Given the atomic mass of the isotope of iron 56Fe is 55.93 u, find
its nuclear density. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : A56, m 55.93 u  55.931.6610 kg,27
R0 1.2  1015 m
Nuclear radius, R  R0 A1/3
4 4
Nuclear volume, V  R 3  R 30 A
3 3
 The nuclear density of the isotope 56Fe,
m m 3m
  
V 4 3
 R03 A 4 R0 A
3
3 (55.93  1.66  1027)
 2.29  1017kg/m3
15 3
4 (3.142) (1.2  10 ) (56)
118. Given the nuclear radius of 16O is 3.024 fm, find that of 235
U.
( 2 marks )
1
[Hint : 2  ( 2 )3 ]
R A
Ans. 7.406 fm
R1 A1
119. Find the rest mass energy of a proton in MeV.
[mp  1.673  1027kg,1eV  1.602  1019 eV] (2 marks)
8
Solution : Data : mp  1.673  10 27
kg, c 3  10 m/s,
1 eV  1.602  10 19
J
6
 1 MeV  10  1.602  1019  1.602  1013 J
The rest mass energy of a proton,
E  mp c2 (1.673  1027) (3  108)2 J
1.673  9  1011
 MeV
1.602  1013
939.9 MeV
120. The half-life of a radioactive species is 3.2 days. Calculate its
decay constant (per day). (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
Solution : Data : T1/2  3.2 days
The decay constant of the radioactive species is
0.693 0.693
   0.2165perday
T1/2 3.2
121. The decay constant of a radioactive material is 4.33  104 per
year. Calculate its half-life period. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data :  4.33  10 4
y1
The half-life of the radioactive material

0.693 0.693
T  1600 years
 4.33  104
233 1
122. Protactinium 91 Pa decays to th of its initial quantity in 62.7
5
days. Calculate its decay constant and half-life. (3 marks)
N 1
Solution : Data :  , t 62.7 d
N0 5
N
 0 5
N
The decay constant of 23931 Pa,

2.303 N 2.303
 log10 0  log10 5
t N 62.7
2.303
  0.6990 2.568  102 d1
62.7
0.693 0.693
The half-life of 23931 Pa, T   26.99 d
 2.568  102
123. The half-life of 90Sr is 28 years. Determine the disintegration rate

of 5 mg sample of 90Sr. ( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : M0  90 g, T1/2  28 y, M 5 mg  5  103 g,
NA  6.022  1023 mol1
Number of atoms in 5 mg of 90Sr is
M 5  103
NNA  (6.022  1023)  3.346  1019
M0 90
The disintegration rate of the sample
0.693 0.693
NN  (3.346  1019)
T1/2 28
8.279  1017disintegrations/y
8.279  1017
 disintegrations/s
3.156  107
2.623  1010disintegrations/second
124. What is the amount of 60 27
Co necessary to provide a radioactive
source of strength 10.0 mCi, its half-life being 5.3 ?
[1mCi  3.7  107dis/s ](3 marks)
Solution : Data : A 10 mCi  10  3.7  107  3.7  108 dis/s,
T1/25.3 years(5.3)(3.156107) s, M060 g, NA6.0221022 mol1
0.693 0.693
Decay constant,    4.142  109 s1
T1/2 5.3  3.156  10 7
Activity, AN
A 3.7  108
 N   8.933  1016 atoms
 4.142  109
Mass of Avogadro number of atoms of 60Co is 60 g.
Therefore, the required mass of 60Co is

NM0 (8.933  1016)(60) 8.933  6
M    106
NA 6.022  1023 6.022
8.902  106g 8.902g
125. A sample of charcoal has a carbon-14 decay rate of 6.00
disintegrations per minute per gram. Determine the age of the
sample. The decay rate of carbon-14 in fresh wood today is 13.6
counts per minute per gram, and the decay constant of carbon-14
is3.84  1012 per second. (3 marks)
Solution : Data : At  6 min1 g1, A0  13.6 min1 g1,
 3.84  1012 s1, 1 y  3.156  107 s
At A0et
A A
 t ln 0  2.303 log 0
At At
2.303
 t (log A0  log At)

2.303
 (log 13.6  log 6)
3.84  1012
2.303  1012
 (1.1335  0.7782)
3.84
2.303  0.3553
  1012 s
3.84
2.303  35.53
  1010  6.753  103 y
3.84  (3.156  107 s/y)
The age of the given wood sample is 6753 years.
126. Disintegration rate of a sample is 1010 per hour at 20 hours from
the start. It reduces to 6.3109 per hour after 30 hours. Calculate
its half life and the initial number of radioactive atoms in the
sample. (4 marks)
At
 (t2 t1)  2.303 log10 ( t1 )
e 1
t
A
[Hint : 1  t e(t2 t1).
At2 e 2 At2
0.693 A
(2.303)(10  9.7993). T1/2 . N0 0, where
 
A0 At1et1  1010e20 ]
Ans. 14.99 h, N0  5.452  1011.
127. In a common-base configuration, the emitter current is 6.28 mA
and collector current is 6.20 mA. Determine the common base dc
current gain. VSA ( 1 mark )
Solution : Data : IE  6.28 mA, IC  6.20 mA
I 6.20
Common-base current gain, dc  C   0.9873
IE 6.28
128. The common-base dc current gain of a transistor is 0.967. If the
emitter current is 10 mA, what is the value of base current ?
( 2 marks )
Solution : Data : dc  0.967, IE  10 mA
dc  IC and IE IB IC

IE
The collector current, IC dc IE  0.967  10  9.67 mA
Therefore, the base current, IB IE  IC  10  9.67 0.33 mA
Assignment
1. The width of a plane incident wavefront is found to be doubled
on refraction in a denser medium. If it makes an angle of 69° with
the normal, calculate the refractive index of the denser medium.
(Ch. 7) (3 marks) (Ans. 1.34 )
2. At a point on the two-slit interference pattern obtained using a
source of green light of wavelength 5500 Å, the path difference
is 4.125 m. Is the point at the centre of a bright or dark fringe ?
Hence, find the order of the fringe. (Ch. 7) (2 marks) ( Ans. 8 )
3. In a biprism experiment, the slit is illuminated by light of
wavelength 4800 Å. The distance between the slit and biprism is
20 cm and that between the biprism and eyepiece is 100 cm. If
the distance between the virtual sources is 2.4 mm, determine the
distance between the 4th bright band on one side and the 4th dark
band on the other side of the central band.
(Ch. 7) (3 marks) (Ans. 1.8 mm)
4. In a biprism experiment, the distance between two coherent sources

is 0.5 mm and that between the slit and eyepiece is 1.2 m. The
slit is successively illuminated by red light of wavelength 6550 Å
and green light of wavelength 5240 Å. It is found that the nth
red bright band coincides with the ( n 1 )th green bright band.
Calculate the distance of this band from the central bright band.
(Ch. 7) ( 3 marks ) (Ans. 6.288 mm )
5. A parallel-plate air capacitor has plates of area 6 cm2 and plate
separation 3 mm. Calculate its capacitance.
(Ch. 8) (March ’22) ( 3 marks ) (Ans. 1.77 pF )
6. A charge 6 C is placed at
the origin and another charge
5 C is placed on the y-axis
at A  (0, 6.0 m).
(a) Calculate the net electric
potential at P  (8.0 m, 0).
(b) Calculate the work done in

bringing a proton from infinity to the point P. (Ch. 8) ( 3 marks )
(Ans. (a) 2.25 kV, (b)  3.6  10  16 J  2.25 keV)
7. The resistance of a 4 m long potentiometer wire is 4 . What
resistance must be connected in series with the wire and a cell of
emf 2 V having internal resistance 2  to get a potential drop of
0.1 V/m along the wire ? (Ch. 9) (3 marks) (Ans. 14  )
8. An electron is accelerated from rest through 86 V and then enters
a region of uniform magnetic induction of magnitude 1.5 T. What
is the maximum value of the magnetic force the electron can
experience ? (Ch. 10) (3 marks)
(Ans. 1.319 pN) [Hint : 12 mev2 eV, Fm evB ]
9. A rectangular coil of 10 turns, each of area 0.05 m2, is suspended
freely in a uniform magnetic field of induction 0.01 T. A current
of 30 A is passed through it. (i) What is the magnetic moment
of the coil ? (ii) What is the maximum torque experienced by the
coil ? (Ch. 10) (2 marks) (Ans. 15 A · m2, 1.5  107 N · m)
10. A circular loop of radius 9.7 cm carries a current 2.3 A. Obtain

the magnitude of the magnetic field (a) at the centre of the loop
(2 marks) (b) at a distance of 9.7 cm from the centre of the loop
but on the axis. (Ch. 10) (3 marks) (Ans. 14.9 T, 5.267 T)
11. Calculate the induced emf between the ends of an axle of a
railway carriage 1.75 m long travelling on level ground with a
uniform velocity of 50 kmph. The vertical component of Earth’s
magnetic field (Bv) is 5  105 T. (Ch. 12) (2 marks)
(Ans. 1.215 mV) [Hint :  e Bv ( lv ) ]
12. A metal rod 1 /ef m long rotates about one of its ends in a
plane perpendicular to a magnetic field of induction 4103 T.
Calculate the number of revolutions made by the rod per second
if the emf induced between the ends of the rod is 16 m V.
(Ch. 12) (2 marks) (Ans. f 4 rps)
d m d dA
[Hint : e   (AB) B B f A]
dt dt dt
13. A toroid of circular cross section of radius 0.05 m has 2000
windings and a self inductance of 0.04 H. What is (a) the current
through the windings when the energy in its magnetic field is
2106 J (b) the central radius of the toroid ? (Ch. 12) (4 marks)
2Um 0N2r2
(Ans. 0.01 A, 0.157 m) [Hint : Iij , L ]
L 2R
14. A coaxial cable, whose outer radius is five times its inner radius,
is carrying a current of 1.5 A. What is the magnetic field energy
stored in a 2 m length of the cable ? (Ch. 12)
(2 marks) (Ans. 7.24107 J)
[Hint : Um  ( ) I l ln with  5 (given) ]

0 2 b b
4 a a
15. The mutual inductance of two coils is 10 mH. If the current in

one of the coil changes from 5 A to 1 A in 0.2 s, calculate the
emf induced in the other coil. Also calculate the induced charge
flowing through the coil if its resistance is 5 .
(Ch. 12) (2 marks) (Ans. 0.2 V, 8mC)
I1 e
[Hint : e21  M ,  Q2 I2t 2  t ]
t R2
16. A plane coil of 10 turns is tightly wound around a solenoid of
diameter 2 cm having 400 turns per centimetre. The relative
permeability of the core is 800. Calculate the mutual inductance.
(Ch. 12) (2 marks)
(Ans. 0.1264 H) [Hint : Mutual inductance, Mk0R2nN ]
17. A light bulb is rated 100 W for 220 V AC supply of 50 Hz.
Calculate (a) the resistance of the bulb (b) the rms current
through the bulb. (Ch. 13) (2 marks)
(Ans. (a) 0.4545 A; (b) 484  )
18. A dc ammeter and an ac hot-wire ammeter are connected to a circuit
in series. When a direct current is passed through the circuit, the dc
ammeter shows 6A. When a pure alternating current is passed, the
ac ammeter shows 8 A. What will be the reading of each ammeter
if the direct and alternating currents pass simultaneously through
the circuit ? (Ch. 13) (3 marks)
(Ans. The dc ammeter will read 6 A
and the ac ammeter will read 10 A.)
19. An alternating emf e200 sin 314.2 t volt is applied between the
terminals of an electric bulb whose filament has a resistance of
100  . Calculate the following : (a) RMS current (b) Frequency
of the AC signal (c) Period of the AC signal.
[Ans. (a) 1.414 A (b) 50 Hz (c) 0.02 s]
20. A 0.1 H inductor, a 25  10  6 F capacitor and a 15  resistor are

connected in series to a 120 V, 50 Hz AC source. Calculate the
resonant frequency. (Ch. 13) (March ’22) ( 2 marks )
(Ans. 100.7 Hz)
21. A 1000 mH inductor, 36  F capacitor and 12  resistor are
connected in series to a 120 V/50 Hz AC source. Calculate
(i) the impedance of the circuit at resonance (ii) the current at
resonance (iii) the resonant frequency. (July ’22) (3 marks)
(Ans. (i) 12  (ii) 10 A (iii) 26.52 Hz)
22. Two particles have the same de Broglie wavelength and one is
moving four times as fast as the other. If the slower particle is an
-particle, what are the possibilities for the other particle ?
(Ch. 14) (2 marks) (Ans. A proton or a neutron)
23. What is the speed of a proton having de Broglie wavelength of
0.08 Å? (Ch. 14) (2 marks) (Ans. 4.957  104 m/s)
24. The de Broglie wavelengths associated with an electron and a
proton are same. What will be the ratio of (i) their momenta
(ii) their kinetic energies? (Ch. 14)
(2 marks) (Ans. (i) 1, (ii) 1836)
25. The photoelectric work function for a metal is 5 eV. Calculate the
threshold frequency for the metal. (Sept. ’21) (2 marks)
(Ans. 1.207  1015 Hz)
26. The work functions for potassium and caesium are 2.25 eV and
2.14 eV respectively. Will the photoelectric effect occur for either
of these elements (i) with incident light of wavelength 5650 Å
(ii) with light of wavelength 5180 Å ? (3 marks)
(Ans. (i) Photoelectric effect will occur for caesium, but not for
potassium, (ii) Photoelectric effect will occur in both the cases)
27. Photocurrent recorded in the microammeter in an experimental
setup of photoelectric effect vanishes when the retarding potential
is more than 0.8 V if the wavelength of incident radiation is 4950 Å.
If the source of incident radiation is changed, the stopping potential
turns out to be 1.2 V. Find the work function of the cathode

material and the wavelength of the second source. (4 marks)
(Ans. y0  2.738  10  19 J  1.71 1 eV,   4.270  10  7
m  4270 Å.)
28. Find the ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths of an electron and a
proton when both are moving with the (a) same speed, (b) same
kinetic energy (c) same momentum. State which of the two will
have the longer wavelength in each case. (4 marks)
(Ans. (a)  e >  p (b)  e >  p (c)  e p)
29. Calculate the frequency of revolution of the electron in the second
Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom. The radius of the orbit is 2.14 Å
and the speed of the electron in the orbit is 1.09106 m/s.
(Ch. 15) (2 marks) (Ans. 8.1051014 Hz)
30. A photon of energy 12.75 eV is absorbed by an electron in the

ground state of a hydrogen atom and raises it to an excited state.
Find the quantum number of this state. (Ch. 15) (2 marks)
(Ans. 4)
31. Compute the ratio of longest wavelengths of the Lyman and
Balmer series in hydrogen atom. (July ’22) (Ch. 15) (2 marks)
 5
(Ans. L  )
 B 27
32. The half-life of a nuclear species is 1.386 years. Calculate its
decay constant per year. (Ch. 15) (July ’22) (1 mark)
(Ans. 0.5 per year)
210
33. The half-life of 84
Po is 138 d. Find the time required for 75% of
210
the initial number of radioactive nuclei of 84
Po to disintegrate.
(Ch. 15) (1 mark) (Ans. 276 d)
210
34. The half-life of Pb is 22.3 y. How long will it take for its
82
activity to reduce to 30% of the initial activity ?
(Ch. 15) (3 marks) (Ans. 38.75 y)
35. A sample of carbon obtained from any living organism has

a decay rate of 15.3 decays per gram per minute. A sample of
carbon obtained from very old charcoal shows a disintegration
rate of 12.3 disintegrations per gram per minute. Determine the
age of the old sample given the decay constant of carbon to be
3.8391012 per second. (Ch. 15) (3 marks) (Ans. 1802 years)
36. The isotope 57Co decays by electron capture to 57Fe with a half-
57
life of 272 d. The Fe nucleus is produced in an excited state,
and it almost instantaneously emits gamma rays. (a) Find the
mean lifetime and decay constant for 57Co. (3 marks) (b) If the
activity of a radiation source 57Co is 2.0 Ci now, how many 57Co
nuclei does the source contain? (1 mark) (c) What will be the
activity after one year? (Ch. 15) (2 marks)
(Ans. (a) mean lifetime  3.391107s
decay constant 2.949108 s1
(b) 2.509  1012 nuclei, (c) 0.7886 Ci)
37. Before the year 1900 the activity per unit mass of atmospheric
14
carbon due to the presence of C averaged about 0.255 Bq per
14
gram of carbon. (a) What fraction of carbon atoms were C?
(b) An archaeological specimen containing 500 mg of carbon,
shows 174 decays in one hour. What is the age of the specimen,
assuming that its activity per unit mass of carbon when the
specimen died was equal to the average value of the air? The
half-life of 14 C is 5730 years. (Ch. 15) (4 marks)
12
(Ans. (a) 3.0156  10 (b) 8023 years)
————
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Part 3
FOR PRACTICE
Time : 3 Hours] [ Total Marks : 70
General Instructions :
The question paper is divided into four sections.
1. Section A : Q. No. 1 contains ten multiple choice type questions carrying
one mark each. Q. No. 2 contains eight very short answer type questions
carrying one mark each.
2. Section B : Q. No. 3 to 14 contain twelve short answer type questions
carrying two marks each. (Attempt any eight)
3. Section C : Q. No. 15 to 26 contain twelve short answer type questions
carrying three marks each. (Attempt any eight)
4. Section D : Q. No. 27 to 31 contain five long answer type questions carrying
four marks each. (Attempt any three)
5. Use of logarithmic tables is allowed. Use of a calculator is not allowed.
6. Figures to the right indicate full marks.
7. For each multiple choice type question, it is mandatory to write the correct
answer along with its alphabet, e.g., (a).../ (b) .../ (c) .../ (d) ... . No mark(s)
shall be given if only the correct answer or the alphabet of the correct answer
is written. Only the first attempt will be considered for evaluation.
8. Physical constants :
(1)  3.142 (2) g  9.8 m/s2 (3) c  3  108 m/s
(4) e 08.85  10 12 C2/N.m2 (5) 0  4 10 7 T.m/A
(6) e  1.6  10 19 C (7) me  9.1  10  31 kg
(8) m (alpha)  6.645  10  27 kg (9) m (proton)  1836 me
 34
(10) h6.63 10 J·s (11) 1 eV  1.6  10  19 J
SECTION – A
Q. 1. Select and write the correct answer for the following multiple
choice type questions : [10]
(i) The coefficient of performance of a Carnot refrigerator is given
by K
(a) TC/(TH – TC) (b) (TH – TC)/TC
(c) TH/(TH – TC) (d) (TH – TC)/TH. (1)
433
(ii) In a purely inductive circuit, Pav

e0i0 e0i0 e0i0
(a) (b) (c) zero (d) . (1)
e2 2 
(iii) The electric potential at a point on the axis of an electric dipole

of dipole moment of magnitude p and at a distance r from the
dipole centre is
1 p 1 p 1 2p 1 p
(a) (b) (c) (d) . (1)
4 e0 r 4  e0 r 2 4 e0 r2 4 e0 r3
(iv) In Young’s double-slit experiment, the interference pattern is
observed on a screen parallel to the plane of the slits. On covering
one of the two slits with a thin uniform glass slide,
(a) the fringe width decreases
(b) the fringe width increases
(c) the pattern on the screen shifts towards the covered slit
(d) the pattern on the screen shifts towards the uncovered slit. (1)
(v) The kinetic energy per molecule of a gas at temperature T is
RT
(a) 3 RT (b) 3 kBT (c) 2 RT (d) 3 . (1)
2 2 3 2 M0
(vi) The CGS unit gauss is equal to
(a) 10 mT (b) 1 T (c) 10  T (d) 100  T. (1)
(vii) A circularly symmetric body of radius R and radius of gyration
k rolls without slipping along a flat surface. Then, the fraction of
its total energy associated with rotation is
k2 k2 R2 R2
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) (d) . (1)
R k  R2 k2 k2  R2
(viii) For light of wavelength 500 nm, the resolving power of a
telescope of aperture 488 cm is
(a) 8  108 (b) 8  107 (c) 8  106 (d) 0.8  106 (1)
r
(ix) Two steel marbles, of radii r and , are released in a highly
2
viscous liquid. The ratio of the terminal velocity of the larger
marble to that of the smaller is
1 1
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) (d) . (1)
2 4
MODEL QUESTION PAPER FOR PRACTICE 435
(x) A stretched string of length 50 cm vibrates in four segments when

stationary waves are formed on it. If the wave speed is 16 m/s, its
frequency of vibration is
(a) 28 Hz (b) 32 Hz (c) 64 Hz (d) 128 Hz. (1)
Q. 2. Answer the following questions : [8]
(i) How will decreasing the current through a potentiometer wire
affect the null point ? (1)
(ii) State Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow. (1)
(iii) State the equation that relates the threshold wavelength (0), the
wavelength of incident radiation () and the maximum speed of
a photoelectron (vmax ). (1)
(iv) Both the input terminals of a NOR gate are shorted. Write the
Boolean expression for the output of the gate. (1)
(v) What is the effect of mass and amplitude on the period of a
simple pendulum ? (1)
1
(vi) If the number of nuclei of a radioactive substance becomes
e
times the initial number in 10 days, what is the decay constant
of the substance ? (1)
(vii) What is the emf induced across a metal rod, 1.8 m long, which
is moved at a constant 50 kmph in a plane normal to a uniform
magnetic field of induction 50  T ? (1)
(viii) Calculate the radius of gyration of a thin uniform disc of radius
60 cm about a tangential axis perpendicular to its plane. (1)
SECTION – B
Attempt any eightofthefollowingquestions: [16 ]
Q. 3. Distinguish between centripetal force and centrifugal force.
(State any two points of distinction.) (2)
Q. 4. State and explain the principle of a capacitor. (2)
Q. 5. What is a cyclic process ? Explain with a diagram. (2)
Q. 6. Show graphically how the number of nuclei ( N ) of a radioactive
element varies with time (t). (2)
Q. 7.
Draw neat labelled diagrams for the second and third harmonic
modes of vibration of an air column in a pipe open at both ends. (2)
Q. 8.
Explain the use of a potentiometer as a voltage divider. (2)
Q. 9.
State the two forms of the second law of thermodynamics. (2)
A bar magnet of magnetic moment 2 A·m2 and moment of
Q. 10.
inertia 2  10  5 kg·m2 oscillates in a uniform magnetic field
with period 0.1 s. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field ? (2)
Q. 11.
The intensity of the light coming from one of the slits in
Young’s experiment is 21% more than the intensity of the light
coming from the other slit. What is the ratio of the intensities of
the bright and dark fringes in the resulting interference pattern ? (2)
Q. 12.
A glass capillary of radius r can support a water column of
weight 36   N. Find r if the surface tension of the soap
solution is 0.072 N/m.(2)
Q. 13.
Find the time required for a 50 Hz alternating current to change
from zero to its rms value. (2)
Q. 14.
A metal cube of side 2 cm emits 672 J of heat in 100 s at a
certain temperature. Calculate its emissive power (radiant
power) at that temperature. (2)
SECTION – C
Attempt any eight of the following questions : [24 ]
Q. 15.
Obtain an expression for the path difference and fringe width
in the interference pattern of Young’s double-slit experiment. (3)
Q. 16.
Explain ferromagnetism on the basis of the domain theory. (3)
Q. 17.
Show that waxing and waning in the phenomena of beats occur
periodically.(3)
Q. 18.
Explain the term inductive reactance. Show graphically
variation of inductive reactance with the frequency of the
applied alternating emf. (3)
Q. 19.
State and prove the theorem of perpendicular axes for moment
of inertia. (3)
Q. 20.
Derive an expression for the motional emf induced in a straight
conductor rotating in a uniform magnetic field with constant
angular velocity. (3)
MODEL QUESTION PAPER FOR PRACTICE 437
Q. 21.
Derive Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane. (3)
Q. 22.
Calculate the energy of the electron in the ground state of the
hydrogen atom. Express it in joule and eV. (3)
Q. 23.
Find the radius of the circular path traced by an alpha particle
accelerated to 10 MeV on entering a magnetic field of 2 T. (3)
Q. 24.
An electric dipole has opposite charges of magnitude
2  10  15 C separated by 0.2 mm. It is placed in a uniform
electric field of 1 kN/C. (i) Find the magnitude of the dipole
moment. (ii) What is the torque on the dipole when the dipole
moment is at 60° with respect to the field? (3)
Q. 25.
A large solenoid has a self inductance of 20 H. What induced
emf opposes shutting it off when the full current of 100 A
though it is switched off in 80 ms.(3)
Q. 26.
A uniform wire is cut into two pieces such that one piece is
twice as long as the other. The two pieces are connected in
parallel in the left gap of a metre bridge. When a resistance of
20  is connected in the right gap, the null point is obtained at
60 cm from the right end of the bridge wire. Find the resistance
of the wire before it was cut. (3)
SECTION – D
Attempt any three of the following questions : [12 ]
Q. 27.
Derive Mayer’s relation between the molar specific heat of a
gas at constant pressure and that at constant volume. (4)
Q. 28.
What is a filter in a dc power supply ? Explain the action of a
capacitive filter with necessary diagrams. (4)
Q. 29.
Draw a neat labelled diagram of the construction of a cyclotron. (2)
The efficiency of a Carnot cycle/engine is 75%. If the
temperature of the hot reservoir is 727 °C, calculate the
temperature of the cold reservoir. (2)
Q. 30.
Obtain the expressions for the kinetic energy of a particle
executing SHM in terms of (i) its displacement (ii) its phase. (2)
Find the frequency of linear SHM of a particle of mass 20 g if
its potential energy at displacement x is given by 0.09  2x2 joule.(2)
Q. 31. Explain what you understand by the de Broglie wavelength

of an electron. Will an electron at rest have an associated de
Broglie wavelength ? Justify your answer. (2)
The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron
and a proton are same. What will be the ratio of (i) their
momenta (ii) their kinetic energies ? (2)
ANSWERS
1 p
Q. 1. (i) (a) TC / (TH TC) (ii) (c) zero (iii) (b)
4  e0 r 2
(iv) (c) the pattern on the screen shifts towards the covered slit
k2
(v) (b) 3 kBT (vi) (d) 100  T (vii) (b) 2
2 k  R2
(viii) (c) 8106 (ix) (a) 4 (x) (c) 64 Hz.
1
Q. 2. (vi) 0.1 day (vii) 1.25 mWb/s (viii) 0.735 m
Q. 10. 4  10  3 T 4 mT
Q. 11. 441 : 1
Q. 12. 0.25 mm
Q. 13. 2.5  10  3 s
Q. 14. 2800 W/m2
Q. 22. 2.168  10  18 J   13.55 eV
Q. 23. 0.2278 m  22.78 cm
Q. 24. 4  10  19 C·m, 3.46  10  16 N·m
Q. 25. 25  103 V 25 keV
Q. 26. 60 
Q. 29. 23 °C
Q. 30. 1.5 Hz
KE (electron)
Q. 31. 1,  1836.
KE (proton)
————
ALL THE BEST Hardik D0211job

NOTES
439
NOTES
440
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STD.

★ Navneet Bhavan, Bhavani Shankar Road, Dadar (West),

1. (a) Theory / Written examination (3 hours) : 70 marks

2. Question paper pattern for the theory / written examination :

Multiple Choice Q. 1. [(i) to (x)] – 10 10

B Short Answer Questions Q. 3. to Q. 14. 8 out of 16 24

C Short Answer Questions Q. 15. to Q. 26. 8 out of 24 36

D Long Answer Questions Q. 27. to Q. 31. 3 out of 12 20

2. Mechanical properties of fluids 5 7

3. Kinetic theory of gases and Radiation 5 7

10. Magnetic fields due to electric current 4 6

11. Magnetic materials 4 5

12. Electromagnetic induction 5 7

14. Dual nature of radiation and matter 4 5

15. Structure of atoms and nuclei 4 6

16. Semiconductor devices 4 5

☛Physics ☛ Chemistry ☛ Biology

Available from all booksellers.

Part 2 MOST LIKELY QUESTION SETS

1. Multiple Choice Questions … 35

2. Very Short Answer Questions … 57

4. Laws and Theories … 101

5. Explanation, Characteristics and Properties … 117

8. Distinguish Between … 263

9. Short Answer Questions … 274

10. Experiments and Diagrams … 294

11. Instruments : Construction and Working … 306

12. Solved Problems – I … 323

13. Solved Problems – II … 373

Part 3 MODEL QUESTION PAPER FOR PRACTICE … 433

Time : 3 Hours] [ Total Marks : 70

(a) I2 > I1 (b) I2  I1 (c) I2 < I1 (d) I2  I1 . (1)

(ii) The mean free path  of molecules is given by

(iii) In a cyclic process,

2.7  105 kg.m2 performs angular oscillations about its transverse

period  s. Then, the magnitude of the magnetic induction is

If the partially reflected ray is completely polarized, tan i is

(x) A 15 V/2.5 W Zener regulator uses a 25 V input. The minimum value

(vii) (b) 4 (1 mark)

Q. 2. Answer the following questions : [8]

(ii) What is a hydraulic lift? (1)

(iii) What is a heat engine? (1)

(iv) At which position is the restoring force acting on a particle

(3) m depends on the absolute temperature (T ) of the body and,

Examples : Bismuth, copper, gold, silver, antimony, mercury, water,

Lloyd’s mirror (Schematic diagram)

lB is everywhere tangential to the circular Ampèrian loop. Therefore,

Q. 9. Compare resistance and reactance. (2)

Q. 11. Calculate the viscous force acting on a raindrop of diameter

As 1  2, m1v1  m2v2 ( 12 mark)

As particle 2 is the -particle, particle 1 (having the mass 1 times that

Different electrons need different energies in the first two

The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. ( 1 mark)

The voltage Vi to be amplified, called the signal voltage, is applied

For Vi  0, applying Kirchhoff’s loop law to the output and input

The applied signal voltage causes small changes  VBE in the

The variations in IB cause proportionately larger variations IC in

By symmetry, the electric field intensity lE at every point on the

This gives the magnitude of the electric field intensity in terms

Ans. Definition:Angular SHM is defined as the oscillatory motion of a

Ans. Definition:Angular SHM is defined as the oscillatory motion of a

2/Navneet21M.L.Q.Sets:Physics–Std.XII D0211 (2023)

Revise all important points and formulae.