Science and Technology

Defence
Pralay

1. It is a newly developed surface-to-surface tactical missile.

2. The trial of the missile was recently deferred by the Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO) due to the cyclone Phethai.
3. It is a derivative of Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV) exo-atmospheric interceptor
which can destroy enemy weapons at high altitudes.
4. It has a payload of 1 tonne and it has the capacity to strike targets 350 km away.
5. It can travel up to 500 km if the payload is halved.
6. It is propelled by solid-fuel rocket.
7. It can fly faster than the conventional missiles in its class and can evade ballistic
missile defence system.
8. It will be launched from its own canister-based transport erector launcher.
Prahar Missile
1. Prahar is a short-range (150 km) single-stage solid-fuel surface-to-
surface missile developed by DRDO.
2. Like the Pinaka missile (a multiple-rocket system) several Prahar missiles
can be fired in one salvo.
3. Prahar (guided: three-element flight-control system), with greater
accuracy and shorter reaction time than the unguided missiles currently
being used by the Indian Army, will fill the gap between Pinaka (multi-barrel
rocket system, range-45 km) and the Prithvi missile.
4. Configured on highly mobile platforms, it is being inducted into the Indian Army
(IA).
Ballistic Missile Defence System in India
1. A Ballistic Missile Defence system (BMD) is a missile defence system that acts
as a shield against ballistic missile attacks.
2. India’s BMD development began in 1999, after the Kargil war.
3. The primary aim was to augment India’s defence against possible nuclear attack
from Pakistan.
4. India seeks to deploy a functional ‘iron dome’ ballistic missile defence (BMD),
incorporating both low-altitude and high-altitude interceptor missiles.
5. India’s BMD is primarily developed by DRDO with help of many public and private
firms like BEL, Astra Microwave, L&T, etc.
6. Ballistic missiles of India: Agni, K-
4 (SLBM), Prahaar, Dhanush, Prithvi and Trishul.
7. The purpose is defence (by intercepting a ballistic missile) and not attack/offense.
A ballistic missile can be intercepted in three phases:

1. Terminal phase: During the atmospheric descent phase.

2. Mid-course interception (in-flight interception) – Most preferred
interception.
3. The lift-off phase– i.e. targeting at the launch point- requires advanced radars.

The first phase aims to develop a shield to intercept missiles with a range of up to 2000
km. 1st phase radar range is up to 600 km.

The second phase will have an intercept missile with a 5000 km range. The radar range
of this phase would be 1500 km.

Generally, a BMD is a two-tier automated system that has:

 1. The advanced radar system, Early warning system (Also called sensors system).
2. Integrated command and control centre.
3. Interceptor missile batteries- need to be agile, mobile, and strategically located on
land and sea.

India’s Ballistic Missile Defence System

Two- tiers of India’s BMD

They are Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) and Advanced Air Defence (AAD) respectively.

Prithvi Air Defence (PAD)

 Also referred to as Pradyumna Ballistic Missile Interceptor.

 It’s designed for High-altitude interception ( exo-atmospheric interception).
 Intercept missiles at altitudes between 50 – 80 km.
 The interceptor is a Prithvi Defence Vehicle ( PDV) which has two stages, both
with solid propellants.

Advanced Air Defence (AAD)

 Also called Ashwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor.

 It’s an endo-atmospheric interception system ( for low-altitude interception).
 Altitude of interception is range up to 30 km.
 It has a single-stage solid-fueled missile.
Configurations of BMD
According to Lieutenant General Balraj Nagal (retired), director of the Centre
for Land Warfare Studies. There are five possible configurations of BMD. These are:

1. A land and sea-based defence system against all kinds of threats. This system is
too expensive and requires too much technological and infrastructural
development. Though it is the safest configuration, it still isn’t 100% secure.
2. In the Second configuration, BMD is deployed to protect critical population
centres, control, and command centres, critical infrastructure centres (including
nuclear facilities), and major economic zones. It’s strategically and economically
more pragmatic than the first configuration. Yet, it is too costly for a nation like
India.
3. In the third configuration, protection is provided to command and control centres,
nuclear forces, and important citizen population centres.
4. BMD will protect command and control centres nuclear forces and the capital in
the fourth configuration. This is the most suitable candidate considering the
nascent stage of India’s BMD and also the weak financial condition of the nation. It
protects critical nodes of governance as well as of counter-attack.
5. The final configuration would involve BMD deployment only around the command
and control centre and the capital. Its purpose is only for total defence and not
able to provide the ability to counterattack as nuclear forces are left out of it.

Why should India need BMD?

 India follows the ‘No First Use policy ‘. A robust BMD provides an opportunity
for the nation to strike back if a nuclear projectile is launched by an enemy state.
 In the past efforts have been made by radicalized non-state fractions in Pakistan
to obtain Missile technology. BMD would shield from non-state actors-initiated
missile warfare and thus could avoid the Mutual Destruction trap.
 India has hostile, nuclear states in its north. It’s only practical for the nation to
prepare in advance.
 China is developing new technologies to implement its Anti-Access/Area-Denial
(A2/AD) strategy in the Western Pacific. It can impact the mainland in Indian
water. A robust BMD is a proactive measure to tackle China’s A2/AD strategy.
 BMD reduces the incentive for the enemy state to launch a nuclear attack, thus
enhancing strategic stability.
 An indigenous system would reduce the import bill of defence systems from other
nations.
 There are side benefits of BMD too, like better reconnaissance, detection,
tracking, and situation awareness.
 Technology developed for BMD can be used in other sectors, especially in space
technology.

Apprehensions regarding BMD

 It may start the arms race with Pakistan investing in more powerful missiles to
thwart BMD’s disturbing strategic balance.
 BMD is ineffective against Cruise missiles. Both China and Pakistan have cruise
missiles capable of delivering the nuclear payload.
 No BMD can have a 100% success rate in the interception of the projectile
(ballistic missile).
  BMD is a very costly affair. For example, the U.S. Continental System is estimated
to have cost around $100 bn from 2002 onwards.
 India has a wide and segregated geography. It creates a problem in the protection
of all critical centres and the creation of land infrastructure for BMD in many
areas.
 Even after interception, there remain chances of damage, especially if the
interception is done in the terminal phase of the ballistic missile.
 BMD testing is done in a controlled atmosphere raising the question of its efficacy
in wartime.
 DRDO has been criticized for not releasing whole data related to the BMD system.
It evokes a sense of suspicion regarding BMD’s capability.

Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air missiles (QRSAM)

To replace Aakash

It uses solid fuel propellant and has a strike range of 25-30 km with capability
of hitting multiple targets.
 It is capable of hitting the low flying objects.
 The missile is an all-weather, all-terrain surface-to-air missile equipped
with electronic counter measures against jamming by aircraft radars
 The missile can be mounted on a truck and is stored in a canister.
 The missile is equipped with a midcourse inertial navigation system with a two-
way data link and a DRDO-developed terminal active seeker. The system has the
capability to search and track targets while moving.
 QRSAM is a compact weapon system and is mobile. It has a fully automated
Command and Control System. The missile system comprises of two four-
walled radars both of which encompass a 360-degree coverage, namely, the
Active Array Battery Surveillance Radar and the Active Array Battery
Multifunction Radar, apart from the launcher.
Medium Range Surface to Air Missile (MRSAM): Developed by the DRDO in
collaboration with Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has a range of 70 km.
o MRSAM is a high-response, quick-reaction, vertically launched supersonic
missile designed to neutralise enemy aerial
threats – missiles, aircraft, guided bombs, helicopters to be used by all
three wings of armed forces.

Project Kusha: Under the project (shouldered by DRDO), India is readying its own
long-range air defence system, which will be able to detect and destroy
incoming stealth fighters, aircraft, drones, cruise missiles and precision-guided
munitions at ranges up to 350 km.
Indigenous LRSAM will be capable of reliable `area air defence’ with a single-shot
kill probability of not less than 80% (for single missile launch) and not less than
90% for a salvo launch.
S-400 Missile System

India’s acquisition of the Russian-made S-400 Triumf in 2018 has significantly

boosted its defensive capabilities through this advanced long-range surface-to-air
missile (SAM) system.

The S-400's unmatched speed, stealth, networked integration with indigenous systems
like Akash, multi-layered coverage and all-weather capability will significantly enhance
India's air defence against evolving security challenges. It will be a force multiplier,
strengthening the defensive might of the Indian Air Force.
Developed by Russia's Almaz Central Design Bureau in the late 1980s to counter
advances in Western air defence systems like the MIM-104 Patriot

The S-400 stands out for its sophisticated radars, long-range missiles, high mobility,
flexibility, adaptability, and networking capabilities.

Detection and tracking:

 Wide area search and track capability: S-400 radars can maintain 300 target
tracks while engaging 36 threats.
 Diverse radar suite: Multiple radars provide 360-degree surveillance against
various kinds of targets.
 Counter VLO/stealth: Radars can detect and track low observable and stealth
aircraft using a variety of advanced methods.
 Resilient in EW environments: Phased array radars offer electronic protection
measures to operate in dense EW environments.
 Active and passive guidance: Accurate tracking using both
target illumination and passive homing for resistance to EW.

Flexibility and adaptability:

 Ability to hit slow and fast targets: Long-range missiles can hit slow targets like
helicopters, UAVs, and cruise missiles. Short-range 9M96 can hit fast jets and PGMs.
 Components mounted on wheeled vehicles: Launchers, radars and command
posts mounted on trucks for easy transport.
 5–10-minute setup time: System designed for high mobility operations and rapid
relocation.
 Shoot and scoot tactics: The launchers can fire missiles on the move immediately
after stopping, then quickly displace.
 Point defence or area defence modes: It can protect high-value targets or deny
access to larger areas.
 Low to very high-altitude engagement: It can intercept terrain-hugging cruise
missiles to exo-atmospheric ballistic missiles.
 Multiple guidance modes: Missiles use inertial, active, passive radio, and satellite
guidance for flexibility.
 Adaptable to threats: Software can be reprogrammed to counter new aircraft,
missiles, and countermeasures.

Networking and integration:

 Interfaces with Radars and launchers: Command posts coordinate sensors and
launchers across wide areas.
 Integrates with other systems: It can exchange data with S-300, Tor, Pantsir and
Air Defence for comprehensive coverage.
 Resistant to jamming and EW: Networked sensors and launchers increase
redundancy and resistance to electronic attack.

Comparison of S-400 with other Defence systems

System Key Features
MIM- - - It has a 150 km radar range, PAC-3 hit-to-kill missile effective against
104 aircraft, missiles and drones but has a shorter detection range and
Patriot limited missile options compared to the S-400.
USA
 HQ-9 - It has a 200 km radar detection range with active radar-homing missiles
China and cold launch capability but a shorter detection range and fewer missile
types compared to the S-400.
THAAD - It has a 200 km radar detection range optimised to intercept
USA intermediate-range missiles in the endo-atmospheric region but has a
shorter detection range than the S-400 and limited targets, like missiles
only.
S- - It has a 200 km radar detection range capable of tracking 300 targets
300PM simultaneously with multiple missile options but a shorter detection range
U than the S-400 as it is an older predecessor system.
Russia

Technical Challenges of the S-400 Missile

1. Over-reliance on long-range radars makes them vulnerable to anti-radiation

missiles, air strikes and electronic attacks.
2. Deploying decoys and saturating the system with attacks from multiple axes
can overwhelm its engagement capacity.
3. Low-flying terrain-masked aircraft can stay below its radar detection coverage.
4. It is difficult to quickly retarget missiles fired against false contacts, like decoys.
5. It lacks interceptors optimised against very short-range threats like artillery
shells and saturated attacks using drones or guided rockets.
6. Countering ultra-high-performance threats like hypersonic glide vehicles is
still a challenge.
7. Adversaries can employ tactical approaches like suppression of enemy air
defences (SEAD), low observability, evasive manoeuvres, decoys, terrain masking,
electronic warfare and networked coordination to counter the S-400.
8. India also requires layered short-range systems like Akash and MANPADS to
address low-altitude gaps.

Strategic Implications of the S-400 in India

Deters regional adversaries:

Pakistan: The S-400’s 400 km range covers vast stretches of Pakistani

airspace. Pakistani F-16s have a combat radius of just 550-600 km.

 S-400s located in Punjab can thus effectively enforce ‘no-fly zones’ over Pakistan's
border regions.
 This reduces adversary air activity across the frontiers. India can also take steps like
shutting down Pakistani AWACS to dominate air battles.

China: The long reach allows India to shoot down Chinese fighter jets from within its
territory in case of hostilities.

 S-400 can counter China's J-20 stealth fighter and shut down vulnerable support
systems like AWACS and aerial refuelling tankers.
 It complicates PLAAF's options for air campaigns and limits its ability to assist
Pakistan.

Defensive shield over key cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and 30 other cities come
under the protective umbrella of the system with its 100 km+ engagement radius.
 Vital assets like nuclear command centres, space facilities, economic hubs and
military bases can be secured. This reduces vulnerability to punitive strikes.

Sea denial against Naval forces: The S-400's long-range surveillance provides
extensive tracking of naval surface forces.

 Chinese aircraft carriers and Pakistan Navy ships can be detected and
engaged hundreds of kilometres away from the coast. Their freedom to manoeuvre
close to India during a conflict was reduced.
 Shore-based S-400 batteries make the seas unsafe for adversaries while
sanitising airspace for the Indian Navy to dominate.

Boosts offensive air operations:

 By securing airbases, forward posts and national strategic

infrastructure, the S-400 provides a defensive counter-air shield under which
Indian offensive airpower can operate more freely.
 Offensive forces do not need to be diverted to protect the homeland and can solely
focus on targeting adversary assets.
 Patrols near borders also become more risk tolerant with S-400 cover top-down.

Limitations and Constraints of S-400 Missile System

The S-400 aptly fulfils India's deterrence requirements from a defensive technology
perspective against regional adversaries. Despite boosting India's military capability,
the S-400 has some strategic constraints:

 Defensive-only asset: It remains a defensive system unable to conduct surface

attacks or seize enemy territory.
 China-Pak nexus: Joint air power cooperation between China and Pakistan,
including operations from each other's soil, can create two-front
challenges that increase the stress on Indian air defence.
 Missile gaps: Upper-tier area defence gaps remain against hypersonic glide
vehicles which the S-400 has yet to demonstrate full capability against.
o Short-range protection against saturated artillery rocket attacks is also
limited.
 Cost implications: The S-400's high unit and lifecycle costs constrain funding
available for other military modernisation programs.
o It impacts the fiscal headroom for acquisition.
 Geopolitical fallout: More S-400 purchases could attract US sanctions.
Acquiring interoperable Western systems gets complicated. The S-400 thus also
brings geopolitical costs.

Jet Engines

A jet engine is an internal combustion engine that propels aircraft using

the rearward discharge of a jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases generated by
burning fuel with air drawn in from the atmosphere.

Air Breathing Engines?

1. An air-breathing engine is an engine that takes in air from its surroundings in

order to burn fuel.
2. All practical air breathing engines are internal combustion engines that directly
heat the air by burning fuel, with the resultant hot gases used for
propulsion via a propulsive nozzle.
3. A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. The air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.
4. Thrust produced by a typical air-breathing engine is about eight times greater
than its weight.
5. The thrust results from the expulsion of the working gases from the exhaust
nozzle.

Processes involved in Jet Engines

1. Combustion: This is the process in which fuel is mixed with compressed air and
gets ignited which then produces a high-velocity exhaust.
2. Compression: In this process, the incoming air is compressed to increase its
pressure before entering the combustion chamber.
3. Exhaust: In this process, the high-velocity exhaust gases exit the engine,
creating the thrust required to propel the engine.

T
ypes of Jet Engines
Types Features
Turbojet - Oldest and basic types of jet engines
- It compresses air through a turbine and then burns fuel in the
combustion chamber.
- The thrust generated by this process propels the aircraft forward.
Turbopro - Uses a gas turbine to power the propeller.
p - Used in smaller aircraft which require low speeds and
low altitudes.
- Unlike turbojets, it generates thrusts via their propeller.
 Turbofan - Commonly found in commercial aircrafts.
- It is a fusion of turbojet and turboprop engines.
- A portion of the air in this engine bypasses the combustion
chamber and is directed towards the engine core, producing
additional thrust.
Ramjet - It is an air breathing propulsion engine operating on the
principle of supersonic combustion.
- It has the absence of any rotator and relies solely on the forward
motion of the engine to compress incoming air.
Scramjet - It is an upgraded version of the Ramjet and generates thrust
through supersonic air flow and combustion.
- It moves at hypersonic speed and performs best at high speeds,
greater than Mach 5.
Pulsejet - This basic jet engine is the most inefficient of all.
- It has no moving parts.
- It generates a pulsating thrust through the combustion bursts.
- It is frequently used in rockets and model aircrafts.

Ramjet Engine

A ramjet engine is a jet propulsion system that utilises the exhaust velocity of
a combustion process to achieve thrust.

 Unlike turbojets, ramjet engines do not require an external compressor and

turbine, instead relying solely on the speed of incoming air to ignite
fuel in the combustion chamber and create thrust.
 This makes them an efficient option for high-speed applications, as they can
be smaller and lighter than traditional turbojets while delivering comparable
performance.
 The Ramjet engine has no moving parts and relies on high-speed motion for
operation.
 It operates efficiently at supersonic speeds (around Mach 3 to 6).

Advantages of Ramjet

 They have a compact size and lightweight construction.

 They do not require external compressors or turbines, as ramjets use the
speed of incoming air to ignite fuel.
 They are more efficient for high-speed applications than turbojets.
 Disadvantages of Ramjet

 They are likely to be inefficient at low airspeeds and may require large
intakes to ensure efficient operation.
 They require a considerable amount of fuel compared to traditional turbojets,
which are often more expensive to operate and maintain.

Scramjet Engine -A scramjet engine is an upgraded variant of a ramjet where

combustion occurs due to supersonic airflow.

 This supersonic flow allows the jets to achieve even faster speeds than the
standard ramjets.
 This engine does not need to slow the incoming air for combustion like a
typical turbojet or even ramjet.
 It carries liquid Hydrogen as fuel and liquid Oxygen for combustion (oxidiser)
to generate thrust.
 The fuel efficiency of the scramjets tends to be significantly better than that of
traditional turbojets and ramjets.
 It makes them ideal for various high-speed applications.
 Due to the complexities of maintaining the supersonic airflow, scramjets
are often more expensive and difficult to manage than other engines.
 They operate more efficiently at very high speeds (Mach 12 to 24).
 Just like the Ramjet engines, they also have no moving parts.

Advantages of Scramjet

 The primary benefit is the potential for increased speed, as combustion takes
place in supersonic airflow and does not need to be slowed down for combustion.
 They are also more fuel-efficient.
 They could potentially improve the performance during acceleration.

Disadvantages of Scramjet
 It does not have a compressor to compress the air; hence, it uses its high-
speed forward motion to compress the air. Therefore, efficient thrust is
difficult to produce unless boosted to high speed.
 The tolerances required to maintain supersonic airflow often make them harder
to manage.
 They are more expensive than other types of jet engines.
 These engines can also sacrifice some thrust compared to traditional turbojet
and ramjet designs.

Application of Scramjet in Defence

 The Scramjet engine is the central piece of many high-end applications in

Defence such as Hypersonic Cruise Missiles and Hypersonic Glide
Vehicles (a warhead for Ballistic Missiles).
 Many countries have successfully developed hypersonic cruise missiles.
o For example, Russia’s Zircon missile and China’s DF-27.
 HGVs use scramjet engines after achieving supersonic speed to attain
the hypersonic speed of the missile. For example, China’s HGV DF-ZF.
 Russia’s Hypersonic Glide Vehicle (HGV) Avangard has a speed of up to 20
Mach.

Ramjet vs Scramjet
Characteristic Ramjet Scramjet
s
Airflow/ Uses subsonic combusti Uses supersonic combustion.
Combustion on
Speed Range 1 to 6 Mach (in theory) 12 to 24 Mach (in theory), due
to a higher specific
impulse than a ramjet engine.
Efficiency It works best at It works best at Hypersonic
Supersonic Speeds Speeds

The Ramjet and Scramjet engines both have their unique advantages and
disadvantages, as Ramjets excel in applications where efficiency and simplicity
are crucial, while Scramjets offer unmatched speed and fuel efficiency but
come with increased complexity and cost. The choice between these two
technologies depends on the specific requirements of the project and the trade-offs
a designer is willing to make.
 I
n Defence Sector:

 In 2020, DRDO achieved the hypersonic speed of Mach 6 (for 20 sec) through its
cruise vehicle, the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrated Vehicle
(HSTDV), propelled by an air-breathing scramjet engine.
 India’s progress in ramjet engine development is impressive. In 2021, India
successfully tested a solid fuel ducted ramjet (SFDR) engine at a defence facility
located near the Odisha coast.
 It is designed to be used in missiles and can reach speeds of up to Mach 3.5,
demonstrating India’s commitment to developing cutting-edge aerospace
technology.

Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ).

A dual-mode ramjet (DMRJ) is a jet engine where a ramjet transforms into a scramjet
over Mach 4-8 range and it can efficiently operate both
in subsonic and supersonic combustor modes.
MTCR

 The Missile Technology Control Regime was started in 1987 by the G-

7 industrialized countries namely, the USA, UK, Canada, France, Germany,
Japan, and Italy. It was started to check the proliferation of unmanned delivery
systems for nuclear weapons (particularly systems that could carry a payload of
500 kg to a range of 300 km).
 It is not a legally binding treaty on the members. It is only an informal
political understanding.
 Currently, there are 35 members in the regime including India. China is not a
member of the regime.
 Every member is supposed to establish national export control policies for
ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, space
launch vehicles, drones, remotely piloted vehicles, sounding rockets,
and underlying components and technologies.
 Every member should look into the following five factors while deciding on a
possible export of controlled items:
1. Whether the intended recipient is pursuing or has ambitions for acquiring
weapons of mass destruction;
2. The capabilities and purposes of the intended recipient’s space and missile
programs;
3. The potential contribution the transfer could make to the recipient’s
development of delivery systems for weapons of mass destruction;
4. The credibility of the recipient’s stated purpose for the purchase; and
5. If the potential transfer conflicts with any multilateral treaty.
MTCR and India
India applied for a membership to the MTCR in June 2015. India was supported by the
USA and France in its application. India became a member of the MTCR in 2016.
Given below are the benefits of the Missile Technology Control Regime:

1. India’s space program will get a fillip as ISRO will now have access to restricted
high-end technologies for developing its cryogenic engines.
2. India’s arms exports will be enhanced as now, India can export BrahMos
to Vietnam, Philippines, and other nations.
3. This will help India procure Israel’s Arrow II missile, which will help develop
India’s ballistic missile system.
 4. India can buy surveillance drones from the US.
5. This will be a boost to the ‘Make in India’ program.
BrahMos

 The name BrahMos is a portmanteau formed from the names of two rivers,
the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia.
 Long range Supersonic cruise missile that can be launched
from submarines, ships, aircraft, or land.
 It is a two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid
ramjet in second) air to surface missile with a flight range of around 300 km.
 However, India’s entry into the Missile Technology Control Regime
(MTCR) has extended the range of the BRAHMOS missile to reach 450 km-
600km, a shade above its current MTCR capped range of 300 km.
 Manufactured by BrahMos Aerospace Limited, a joint venture between
the Defence Research and Development Organisation and Russia’s
Military Industrial Consortium NPO Mashinostroyenia.
 Multi-platform cruise can strike from various types of platforms.

 Among the world’s fastest supersonic cruise missiles with speeds ranging
between Mach 2.5 – 2.8. High supersonic speed all through the flight (up
to 290 km).

 Brahmos is the heaviest weapon to be deployed on Su-30 MKI fighter

aircraft, with a weight of 2.5 tonnes.
 A ‘fire and forget’ weapon i.e. requiring no further guidance from the
control centre once the target has been assigned.
 Uses a Transport Launch Canister (TLC) for transportation, storage, and
launch.
 Low radar signature.

Working of BrahMos Missile

BrahMos is a cruise missile, which is an unmanned self-propelled guided

vehicle that flies for the majority of its flight path using aerodynamic lift and whose
primary mission is to deliver ordnance or a special payload to a target.

Formation of BrahMos Aerospace

Following the Gulf War of the 1990s, it became increasingly clear that the country
needed a cruise missile system. As a result, in 1998, India and Russia signed
an intergovernmental agreement in Moscow.It paved the way for the formation
of BrahMos Aerospace, a joint venture betweenIndia's Defence Research and
Development Organization (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM).

Objectives: The partnership's goal was to design, develop, manufacture, and market
the world's first supersonic cruise missile system-BRAHMOS.

 According to the agreement, the two countries agreed to develop and manufacture
the missile jointly, with India owning 50.5% of the JV and Russia owning the
remaining 49.5%.
 On June 12, 2001, the first successful launch of BrahMos occurred. The missile
was launched from a land-based launcher at the Interim Test Range off the coast of
Chandipur in Orissa.
BrahMos-NG

- BrahMos NG is a multi-platform, multi-target, and

lightweight weapon system, making it perfect for the
battlefield.

- Range: 290 kilometers

- Speed: up to 3.5 Mach.

- It has a smaller radar cross-section (RCS) than the previous

missile, making it more difficult for air defence systems to detect
and engage the target.

- It was created to be deployed on ground-based, aerial, surface,

and underwater platforms.

 Because of its small size, this missile can be launched

from submarine torpedo rooms.

- Key features of BrahMos-NG would be:

 Reduced Dimension and weight for widespread usage

 Advanced next-generation stealth
 Higher versatility in underwater combat applications
 Launch readiness from Torpedo tube and vertical
orientation.

BrahMos-II

- The Hypersonic BrahMos-II will be

inspired by Russia's 3M22 Tsirkon
anti-ship hypersonic cruise
missile, specifically the scramjet
engine technology used in it.

- Expected range: over 300 miles

- Speeds of up to Mach 7.

- It is intended to be launched from a

variety of platforms, including land, air,
and sea.

Versions of BrahMos
Land Based - The land-based BrahMos complex has four to six
mobile autonomous launchers, each with three
missiles that can be fired almost simultaneously.

- The upgraded land attack version, which can

 cruise at 2.8 Mach, can hit targets at a range of up
to 400 km with pinpoint accuracy.

Ship Based

- The ship-based BrahMos complex has the

capability to hit sea-based targets beyond
theradar horizon.

- The Naval version has been successful in sea-to-

sea and sea-to-land modes and can target a group
of frigates.

Air-Launched

- BrahMos was successfully flight-tested from

a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target.

- BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30MKI, which has

a range of 3000 km at a stretch without mid-air
refuelling.

- Future plans include integrating this missile with

the LCA Tejas.

Submarine-launched - This version can be launched from

 approximately 50 meters below the water's
surface.

- The canister-stored missile is launched

vertically from the submarine's pressure hull and
uses different settings for underwater and out-of-
water flights.

Significance of BrahMos Missile

 High speed: Operationally, the high speed of the BrahMos gives it better target-
penetration characteristics compared to the lighter subsonic cruise missiles, such
as Tomahawk.
 Security: The tests of land, ship, and air-launched BrahMos certainly project
India’s firm strategic posture in the light of situations along the LAC and
China's ambitions in the Indian Ocean Region.
 Self Reliance: The BrahMos model stands as a forerunner to the future of Indian
defence manufacturing, sustenance, and the first step towards self-reliance with
the creation of a BrahMos Missile Industrial Complex.
 Boost Defence Export: From a defence importer country, India now emerging
as a defence exporter.
o For instance, in 2022, India inked an export deal with the Philippines of
a $375 million contract for the BrahMos shore-based anti-ship missile
system and talks are also going on with over 12 other countries for
exports of BrahMos missiles.

Nirbhay Cruise Missile

 It is a long-range sub-sonic cruise missile.

 It is India’s first indigenously-produced cruise missile.
 The missile was developed by the Bengaluru-based Aeronautical Development
Establishment, a lab under India's Defence Research and Development
Organization (DRDO).
 It is capable of deep penetration into adversary territory to strike high-value
targets with precision.

Features:

o The Nirbhay measures 6.0 m in length, 0.5 m in body diameter,

and weighs 1,500-1,600 kg at launch.
o It can strike land targets at a distance of up to 1,000 kilometers.
o It uses a solid propellant booster motor that is jettisoned shortly after
launch, switching over to a turbojet engine.
o It is capable of loitering and cruising at Mach 0.7 (sub-sonic) at altitudes
as low as 100 meters.
o It can be armed with a 200-300 kilogram warhead. It can carry both
conventional and nuclear warheads.
o It can be launched from multiple platforms.
o It is guided by INS/GPS with an active-radar terminal seeker.
o The performance of the Indigenous Technology Cruise Missile
(ITCM) was monitored by several range sensors like radar, Electro
 Optical Tracking System (EOTS) to ensure complete coverage of the
flight path.

Air to Air Missile (AAM)

Air to Air Missile (AAM) is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying
another aircraft or any airborne object.
AAM is broadly classified into 2 types depending on the range factor of the missile.

1. Short Range Air to Air Missile (SRAAM) or Within Visual Range Air to Air
Missile (WVRAAM) – These Missiles are designed to engage aerial
targets within a range of 30 km. Most of these missiles use infrared guidance
and are called heat-seeking missiles. These missiles are designed for better
agility; hence they are also called dogfight missiles.

2. Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM) – These missiles can hit
targets beyond the range of 37 Km. These are radar-guided missiles. They
don’t use infrared detector since the infrared signatures of aerial targets would
be too weak at long ranges.
Astra is the Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM) developed by DRDO
(Defence Research and Development Organisation). It can engage aerial targets at a
range of 80 km – 110 km. It has been integrated with Sukhoi 30 Mki, Mirage 2000,
LCA, MiG-29 fighter aircraft.

Astra Missile:

 Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile designed to

be mounted on fighter aircraft.
 It is indigenously developed by the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Ltd. (BDL) for
the Indian Air Force (IAF).
 The missile was built to engage and destroy aerial targets,which have high
maneuverability and supersonic speed.
 The missile is capable of advanced air combat, which allows it to engage in
multiple high-performance targets.
 It is the best in its class of weapon systems in the world in the category of air-to-
air missiles.
 The missile is being developed in multiple variants to meet specific
requirements.
 Features of ASTRA Mk-I:
o Astra is 3.6 m long and with a diameter of 178 mm, weighing 154 kg.
o It has a range of 80 to 110 km in a head-on chase and can travel at 4.5
Mach speed (almost hypersonic).
o The missile uses an inertial guidance system driven by a fibre optic
gyroscope with terminal guidance through active radar homing.
o It offers the pilot the option to choose between “Lock on Before
Launch – LOBL” and “Lock on After Launch – LOAL” and later allows the
aircraft to shoot and scoot to safety after firing the missile in the direction
of the target.
o It is based on an advanced solid-fuel ducted ramjet (SFDR)
engine technology.
o It is capable of operating under all weather conditions, both day and
night, and offers high overall reliability and a very high ”Single Shot Kill
Probability – SSKP”.
What is Fighter Squadron?
 About:
o A fighter squadron is a military unit consisting of fighter aircraft and
the pilots who fly them.
 It is a fundamental component of an air force and is responsible
for conducting air operations in a combat zone.
o A typical fighter squadron consists of 18 fighter aircraft.
o They are an essential component of any modern air force and are tasked with
a wide range of missions, including air superiority, and ground attack.
 Reasons for the Shortfall:
o Delays in procurement have contributed to the shortfall, as many of
the IAF's fighter jets are ageing and need to be replaced.
 Status of the Procurement of Fighter Jets:
o India has an ambitious plan to acquire over 500 fighter jets, with most of
them being for the IAF.
 Many of these jets are still in various stages of development, and
their manufacturing and timely deliveries are critical.
o The IAF has in total contracted 272 SU-30s.
o A deal to procure 12 additional SU-30MKI aircrafts to replace the ones lost in
accidents and 21 additional MIG-29s from Russia has been stuck, though both
IAF and Russian officials state that it has only been delayed but is on track.
Important Fighter Jets and Helicopters of India
Important Fighter Jets of India
In this section, we highlight some of the most important fighter jets in the Indian Air
Force (IAF) arsenal. These jets play a crucial role in ensuring the nation's air superiority
and defense capabilities.
 MiG-21:
o Supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft designed by the erstwhile USSR
in the 1950s.
 Widely used combat aircraft in history, with more than 11,000 units built
and over 60 countries operating it.
o IAF acquired its first MiG-21 in 1963 and has since inducted 874
variants of the aircraft
o Involved in several wars and conflicts involving India. Involved in many
accidents and crashes, earning it the nickname “flying coffin”.
o IAF plans to phase out the MiG-21 by 2024 and replace it with more
modern fighters.
Multi-Role Fighter Aircraft (MRFA):
o Designed to perform various missions such as air-to-air combat, air-to-
ground attack, and electronic warfare.
o IAF pursuing the procurement of 114 MRFA to replace the aging fleet of
Soviet-era MiG-21.
o Procurement will be carried out under the Make in India initiative.
o Selected vendor will have to set up a production line in India and
transfer technology to local partners.
Light Combat Aircraft (LCA):
o Designed to replace ageing Mig 21 fighter planes
o Developed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) under
the Department of Defence Research and Development.
o Manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
o Lightest, smallest and tailless multi-role supersonic fighter
aircraft in its class.
 o Can carry a range of air-to-air, air-to-surface, precision-guided
weapons.
o Air-to-air refueling capability, maximum payload capacity of 4000 kg,
maximum speed of Mach 1.8 and Range of 3000 km.
Tejas LCA
 4th generation supersonic, single-seat, single-engine multirole light fighter
aircraft.
 Conceived in the early 1980s to replace the Russia-made MIG 21 of the Indian Air
Force.
 Designed and developed by the Aeronautical Development Agency.
 The combat-ready version of the fighter comprise of battle-time requirements
such as mid-air refuelling, AESA radar, electronic warfare suites, bombs and
weapons etc.
 India does not have even a single squadron of the indigenously produced
fighters.
 In contrast, both China has fifth generation fighters already in the test flying
stage.
 Pakistan also has an operational indigenously built fighter jet, JF 17 developed
with Chinese assistance.

Manufactured by India

1. Tejas is a Lightweight Fighter Jet developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

(HAL). The aircraft was designed by the Defence Research Development
Organisation (DRDO), Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA).
2. Tejas – Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) program was envisaged to replace the
Russian MiG-21 fighter aircraft operated by Indian Air Force.
3. Tejas is a single-engine multirole fighter aircraft.
4. The LCA program was named Tejas in 2003.
5. As of 2020, Indian Air Force (IAF) has two squadrons of Tejas Mk 1 Aircraft
located at Sulur, Tamil Nadu.

Engine – General Electric F404-E

Payload – 5,300 Kg

Combat Range – 500 Km

Maximum Speed – Mach 1.8

8 Hardpoints – The aircraft can carry different types of missiles and bombs in those 8
Hardpoints.

Radar – Elta ELM/M – 2052 Active Electronically Scanned Array Radar (AESA) Radar
Variants of Tejas:
 o Tejas Trainer: 2-seater operational conversion trainer for training air force
pilots.
o LCA Navy: Twin- and single-seat carrier-capable for the Indian Navy.
o LCA Tejas Navy MK2: This is phase 2 of the LCA Navy variant.
o LCA Tejas Mk-1A: This is an improvement over the LCA Tejas Mk1 with a
higher thrust engine.

Mig 29
 India’s premier Air Defense Fighter aircraft
 Light-weight air-superiority fighter aircraft developed by Russia.
 Twin-engine jet fighter inducted into Indian Air Force in 1985.
 With about 110 Mig-29s operated by Indian Air Force and Indian Navy combined,
India is the second biggest operator of Mig-29s in the world after Russia.
 The MiG-29 aircraft played an important role during the Kargil War of 1999.
 Three squadrons of 16-18 MiG-29s aircrafts each are deployed in the
strategically important Adampur Air Force Station, which is around 100 km from
Pakistan and 250 km away from China borders.
 The MiG 29s are far more superior to F-16s of the Pakistan Airforce with the
capacity to launch Beyond Visual Range BVR missiles.
Twin-Engine Deck-Based Fighter (TEDBF):
o Manufactured for the Navy to replace the Navy's MiG-29K.
o First twin-engine aircraft project in India for dedicated carrier-
based operations.
o Equipped predominantly with domestic weapons.
o Maximum mach number of 1.6, service ceiling of 60,000 feet,
maximum takeoff weight of 26 tons, unfolded wing.
Sukhoi-30 MKI
 Multirole combat fighter aircraft
 Jointly developed by Russia and India.
 India’s answer to F-16 of Pakistan.
 Top speed of 2120 kph (Mach 1.7).
 Capable of launching upto 6 air-air, 6 air-to-surface missiles, 6 laser guided
bombs and 8500kg of cluster bombs.
 Recently test fired the world’s fastest supersonic cruise missile, BrahMos from
Sukhoi-30MKI.
 This has provided a significant strategic deterrence against China and Pakistan in
multi-mission roles, including precision strikes on terror camps across the LoC,
against high-value naval targets, including aircraft carriers and nuclear bunkers.
Engine – Snecma M88-2
Combat Range – 1850 Km

Maximum Speed – Mach 1.8

14 Hardpoints – Rafale can carry different types of missiles and bombs in those 14
Hardpoints.

Radar – Thales RBE2-AA Radar

Sukhoi 30 Fighter Aircraft – Manufactured by Russia

1. Sukhoi 30 is a twin-engine Fighter Jet manufactured by Sukhoi Aviation

Corporation.
 2. There are many variants of Sukhoi-30 aircraft, and the variant used by Indian Air
Force is Sukhoi 30 MkI.
3. Apart from the Russian and Indian Air Force, the other users of Sukhoi-30 aircraft
are Algeria, China, Vietnam, Venezuela, Malaysia.
4. Sukhoi 30 MKI is the backbone of the Indian Air Force. As of January 2020, India
operates around 260 Sukhoi 30 MKI fighter jets. India has plans to buy more
Sukhoi 30 MKI aircraft, primarily to replace the ones lost due to accidents.

Rafale
 Twin-engine medium multi-role combat aircraft, manufactured by French
company Dassault Aviation.
 Can carry weapons more than 9 tonnes including air-air, air-ground and air-ship
missiles.
 Main roles include missions including Air-defence/air-superiority,
Reconnaissance, close air support dynamic targeting, Air-to-ground precision
strike/interdiction, anti-ship attacks, and nuclear deterrence, buddy-buddy
refueling.
 Can carry out both air-to-ground, as well as air-to-air attacks and interceptions
during the same sortie.
 Maximum speed of 1.9 mach.
 Range of more than 3700 km vs 400-550 of Su 30
 Weapon system include SCALP and METEOR missiles
 SCALP: a precision long range ground attack missile that can take out targets
with extreme accuracy. Has a range of 300 km, capped by the missile
technologycontrol regime.
 METEOR: a beyond visual range air to air missile that is possibly the best in its
class. Can take out enemy aircraft at range of over 100 km.
Engine – Saturn AL-31FL
Range – 3000 Km

Maximum Speed – Mach 2

12 Hardpoints – Sukhoi 30 can carry different weapons and bombs in the 12

Hardpoints.

Radar – Bars Planar Array Radar

Rafale Fighter Aircraft – Manufactured by France

1. Rafale is a twin-engine manufactured by Dassault Aviation of France. It is

primarily used by the French Air Force.
2. Rafale fighter Jets will be operated by Indian Air Force, a deal was signed for
36 Rafale Fighter Jets. The deal was signed in 2016, it includes a package of
spares and weapons including the highly acclaimed Meteor Beyond Visual Range
Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM). Apart from Indian Airforce, Rafale has been chosen
by the Egyptian Air Force, Qatar Air Force.
3. Rafale fighter jets were used in combat operations in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria,
Libya, Mali.

US-2 Amphibious Aircraft

Japanese amphibious aircraft that India is keen to import
Important Helicopters of India
Light Utility Helicopter
 Developed as a replacement for Cheetah and Chetak helicopters
  New generation 3-Ton class helicopter.
 Being indigenously developed by Hindustan Aeronauics Limited (HAL).
Dhruv
Utility helicopter developed and manufactured by HAL.
Important Roles
 Commuter Role
 Evacuation
 Rapid Deployment of Forces
 Logistic Air Support
 Search and Rescue
Chinook
Characteristics
 Acquired from USA under Foreign Military Assistance
 Heavy-lift Capability
 Modern heavy-lift helicopter with payload lifting capacity of 10-12.5 tonne.
 Vertical-lift platform
 It has contra-rotating tandem rotors. (2 rotors rotating in opposite direction)
 Will replace the Mi-26 heavy-lift helicopters of IAF.
Importance
 To ferry 4.2 tonne M777 Ultra Light Howitzer to high altitude forward areas with
China and Pakistan which do not have road connectivity
 Will airlift artillery, light armored vehicles, troops and supplies to difficult
Himalayan mountainous terrains
 It will assist Border Road Organisation to carry road construction and engineering
equipments to difficult high-altitude terrains of North East.
 Deployed in disaster relief operations to carry and mass evacuation of disaster
victims.
Apache
 Acquired from USA under Foreign Military Assistance
 It is a multi-role combat helicopter.
 All-weather helicopter that can engage both air and ground targets.
 It is equipped with Hellfire missile (air to surface anti tank missile).
 The Hellfire is the same missile used by the Predator drone to launch targeted
killings of high-profile militants.
 It uses Longbow radar
Significance
 Can approach enemy troops covertly with relative stealth and launch as close
range attack
 Capability to operate in hostile airspace with threats from ground.
 Capability to destroy enemy tanks, armoured personnel carriers and fortified
positions in mountainous terrain.
Provides cover to army tanks and infantry during battle.
MH-60R (Romeo) Seahawk Helicopters
 Acquired from USA under Foreign Military Assistance
 Naval multi-role helicopter.
 Capable of being operated from various types of warships including frigates,
destroyers, cruisers and aircraft carriers
 Equipped with state-of-art SONAR suite which provides navigation, situational
awareness, target data and weapon guidance capabilities.
KAMOV
The final deal on the 200 Kamov Ka-226 light utility helicopters from Russia is in
advanced stages and expected to be signed soon
What are Fifth-generation fighter jets?
  Fifth-generation fighter jets are designed to carry out a range of missions, such
as air-to-air combat and ground attack.
 They have plain surfaces, specially shaped exhaust nozzles, and engines located
in the plane's body to hide heat signatures.
 They also have special radars to detect the aircraft's own radar emissions.
 Only a few countries have built a fifth-generation stealth fighter aircraft.
 The list of the aircraft currently in service includes the F-22 Raptor and F-35A
Lightning II of the US, the Chinese J-20 Mighty Dragon, and the Russian Sukhoi
Su-57.
What is Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)?
 About
o Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is India’s fifth-generation
fighter multirole fighter jet.
 This aircraft will be bigger than other fighters in the Indian Air Force
inventory.
o The aircraft will put India in a select group of nations that have their own
fifth-generation fighter aircraft.
 Organisations involved
o The Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) under the Defence Research
and Development Organisation (DRDO) will be the nodal agency for
executing the programme and designing the aircraft.
o It will be manufactured by state-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL).
 Features
o Stealth
 The 25-tonne twin-engine aircraft will have advanced stealth
features to avoid detection by enemy radar.
o Fuel & Weapons
 The aircraft will have a large, concealed internal fuel tank of 6.5-
tonne capacity, and an internal weapons bay for a range of
weapons, including indigenous weapons, to be buried in its belly.
o Engine
 The AMCA Mk1 variant will have the US-built GE414 engine of the
90 kilonewton (kN) class.
 The more advanced AMCA Mk2 will fly on the more powerful 110kN
engine.
 This will be developed indigenously by DRDO’s Gas Turbine
Research Establishment (GTRE) in collaboration with a foreign
defence major.
 Significance of Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)
o India’s indigenous fifth-generation fighter aircraft
 The AMCA will be India’s indigenous fifth-generation fighter aircraft.
 The indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas is a 4.5-generation
single-engine multirole aircraft.
o Advance stealth feature
 What will set this aircraft apart from the existing fourth-generation
is primarily its stealth features.
 The aircraft will have a low electro-magnetic signature, which will
make it difficult for enemy radar to detected it.
 At the same time, it will have powerful sensors and new weapons,
so it is able to register the signature of enemy aircraft and take
them out.
o Higher utilisation time and smaller serviceability
  Another important aspect would be to ensure a higher utilisation
time and smaller serviceability or maintenance periods for the
aircraft.
 This will be aided by the inclusion of a comprehensive Integrated
Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) system to keep track of multiple
structural components, and to assess the condition of the aircraft in
real-time.
o IAF’s dwindling numbers
 The IAF currently has around 30 fighter squadrons against the
sanctioned strength of 42.
 This number is expected to go down further as squadrons of MiG-
21s, MiG-29s, Jaguars, and Mirage 2000s are scheduled to be
phased out by the middle of the next decade.
 The IAF has indicated that it requires seven squadrons of the AMCA
to begin with.
o Strategic significance
 China has made great progress in the development and deployment
of fifth-generation fighter aircraft.
 It has recently deployed its twin-engine J-20 FGFA in Tibet bordering
India.
 Clearance from Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)
o The AMCA project, sanctioned by the Cabinet Committee on Security
(CCS) in March 2024, is set to develop a 25-tonne twin-engine stealth
aircraft with advanced features, aiming for a prototype by 2028-29.
o The development of AMCA is planned to be carried out in two phases:
 a MK1 with the General Electric F414 engine and
 a Mk2 with a more powerful engine planned to be co-developed in
partnership with Saran of France for which discussions are under
way.

What is Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)?

The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is an essential decision-making body in the
Indian government, focusing on national security and defense policies. It oversees
strategic planning, defense procurement, and coordination of intelligence and internal
security matters.

Types of Warships in the 21st Century

Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories, which are:

 Aircraft carriers
 Cruisers
 Destroyers
 Frigates
 Corvettes
 Submarines
 Amphibious assault ships.
A brief explanation about these types of ships will be given below:
1. Aircraft Carriers: An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing
airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming,
deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it
allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local
bases for staging aircraft operations.

INS Vikramaditya
INS Vikrant (Currently undergoing sea trials, to be inducted in 2022)
2. Cruisers: A cruiser is a type of warship. Modern cruisers are generally the largest
ships in a fleet after aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships, and can usually
perform several roles.
As of 2021 only two countries operate vessels formerly classed as cruisers: the United
States and Russia, and in both cases the vessels are primarily armed with guided
missiles.
3. Destroyers: A destroyer is a fast, manoeuvrable, long-endurance warship
intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them
against powerful short range attackers. At the start of the 21st century, destroyers
were the global standard for surface combatant ships.
 Most destroyers are armed with guided missile systems. INS Kolkata (D63)
 INS Kochi (D64)
 INS Chennai (D65)
 INS Delhi (D61)
 INS Mysore (D60)
 INS Mumbai (D62)

 INS Rajput (D51)

 INS Rana (D52)

 INS Ranvir (D54)
 INS Ranvijay (D55)

4.Frigates: A frigate is a type of warship, having various sizes and roles over time. In
the 17th century, a frigate was any warship built for speed and manoeuvrability, the
description often used being “frigate-built”.
In modern navies, frigates are used to protect other warships and merchant-marine
ships, especially as anti-submarine warfare (ASW) combatants for amphibious
expeditionary forces, underway replenishment groups, and merchant convoys. INS
Shivalik (F47)
 INS Satpura (F48)
 INS Sahyadri (F49)

 INS Talwar (F40)

 INS Trishul (F43)
 INS Tabar (F44)
 INS Teg (F45)
 INS Tarkash (F50)
 INS Trikand (F51)

5. Corvettes: A corvette is a small warship. It is traditionally the smallest class of

vessel considered to be a proper warship.
The warship class above the corvette is that of the frigate, while the class below was
historically that of the sloop-of-war.
 The modern types of ship below a corvette are coastal patrol craft, missile boats
and fast attack craft. In modern terms, a corvette is typically between 500 tons
and 2,000 tons, although recent designs may approach 3,000 tons, which might
instead be considered a small frigate. INS Kamorta (P28)
 INS Kadmatt (P29)
 INS Kiltan (P30)
  INS Kavaratti (P31)

 INS Kora (P61)

 INS Kirch (P62)
 INS Kulish (P63)
 INS Karmuk (P64)
 INS Khukri (P49)
 INS Kuthar (P46)
 INS Kirpan (P44)
 INS Khanjar (P47)

6. Submarines: A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation

underwater. Submarines are referred to as “boats” rather than “ships” irrespective of
their size.

Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends
and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and
sensing devices as well as periscopes. INS Kalvari (S21)

INS Khanderi (S22)

INS Karanj (S23)

INS Sindhuvijay

INS Sindhughosh (S55)

INS Sindhudhvaj (S56)

INS Sindhuraj (S57)

INS Sindhuratna (S59)

INS Sindhukesari (S60)

INS Sindhukirti (S61)

INS Sindhuvijay (S62)

INS Sindhurashtra (S65)

INS Shishumar (S44)

INS Shankush (S45)

INS Shalki (S46)

INS Shankul (S47)
7. Amphibious assault ships: An amphibious assault ship is a type of amphibious
warfare ship employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an
amphibious assault.
Modern ships support amphibious landing craft, with most designs including a well
deck. Coming full circle, some amphibious assault ships also support fixed-wing aircraft,
now having a secondary role as aircraft carriers.
Nuclear and Conventional Submarines
The main difference between conventional submarines and nuclear submarines is
the power generation system.
Nuclear submarines
Nuclear submarines are powered by a nuclear reactor which is modified for use
in a confined , underwater environment. These nuclear reactors produce heat , which in
turn produces steam , which works on the steam turbines and turns a shaft. This shaft
is connected to the propeller as well as a generator which recharges the battery for
onboard use. This nuclear reactor gives them an unlimited range, and the ability to stay
underwater for months without surfacing. On-board oxygen generating systems and a
large supply of food and water give them a realistic 90 days of continuous underwater
time before they need to be re-supplied.
Conventional submarines
Conventional Diesel submarines run on diesel and electricity. They have a huge
network of batteries which depend on the diesel generator for charging. These
submarines have to surface to charge their batteries. They can also snorkel, which
means to travel just below the surface of the water with the periscope and the exhaust
pipe above the water surface. Since they become vulnerable when they surface, these
subs usually snorkel while charging their batteries. Once they charge the batteries,
they dive into the ocean and run silently on battery power with the diesel generators
shut down.
A diesel-electric submarine ‘s biggest advantage is that it has a smaller hull that
is easier to manoeuvre in shallow waters and harder to detect.
Attack Submarine
An attack submarine or hunter-killer submarine is a submarine specifically
designed for the purpose of attacking and sinking other submarines, surface
combatants, and merchant’s vessels. In the Soviet and Russian navies, they were and
are called “multi-purpose submarines“.
They are also used to protect friendly surface combatants and missile submarines.
Some attack subs are also armed with cruise missiles mounted in vertical launch tubes,
increasing the scope of their potential missions to include land targets. Attack
submarines may be either nuclear-powered or diesel-electric
(“conventionally”) powered.
In the United States Navy naming system, and in the equivalent NATO system (STANAG
1166), nuclear-powered attack submarines are known as SSNs and their
diesel-electric predecessors were SSKs. In the US Navy, SSNs are unofficially
called “fast attacks”.
Ballistic Submarine
A ballistic missile submarine is a submarine capable of deploying submarine-
launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) with nuclear warheads. The United States
Navy’s hull classification symbols for ballistic missile submarines are SSB and SSBN –
the SS denotes submarine (or submersible ship), the B denotes ballistic missile,
and the N denotes that the submarine is nuclear powered.
These submarines became a major weapon system in the Cold War because of their
nuclear deterrence capability. They can fire missiles thousands of kilometers
from their targets, and acoustic quieting makes them difficult to detect (see acoustic
signature), thus making them a survivable deterrent in the event of a first strike and a
key element of the mutually assured destruction policy of nuclear deterrence.
Their deployment has been dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union /
Russia, with smaller numbers in service with France, the United Kingdom, China, and
India.
Akula Class Submarines
 The Akula Class Submarine uses a nuclear reactor for propulsion, allowing it to
remain underwater for an extended period of time which makes its detection
impossible.
  This class of Submarine can be used for multiple tasks like hunting enemy
submarines, intelligence surveillance etc.

INS Chakra
 INS Chakra is a Russia-made, nuclear-propelled, hunter-killer akula class
submarine.
 INS Chakra is one of the quietest nuclear submarines around, with noise levels
next to zero.
 INS Chakra has been taken on lease from Russia for 10 years and would provide
the Navy the opportunity to train personnel and operate such nuclear-powered
vessels.
 The INS Chakra joined the Eastern Naval Command at Visakhapatnam in 2012.

INS Arihant
 INS Arihant is the first of five nuclear missile submarines planned for induction.
 It is to be equipped with K 15 (or BO-5) shortrange missiles with a range of over
700 km and the K 4 ballistic missile with a range of 3,500 km.
 At present, the only nuclear – powered platform in service is the INS Chakra, a
Akula class SSN on lease from Russia.
 The induction of INS Arihant marks the completion of India’s nuclear triad.
 A nuclear triad refers to the nuclear weapons delivery via land, air and sea i.e.
land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers, and
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).

INS Kiltan
 It is the indigenously-built anti-submarine warfare stealth corvette.
 It has been recently inducted into the Indian Navy.
 It is the latest indigenous warship after Shivalik Class, Kolkata Class, and sister
ships INS Kamorta and INS Kadmatt.
 It is India’s first major warship to have a superstructure of carbon fiber composite
material resulting in improved stealth features.
 The ship derives its name from one of the islands in the Aminidivi group of the
Lakshadweep and Minicoy group of islands.

Losharik (AS-12 or AS-31)

 It is a highly advanced Nuclear powered submarine of Russia.
 This week a fire accident was reported on the submarine within the Russian
territorial waters.
 It is a deep-diving special missions ship, operated by the Russian Navy.
 It is capable of withstanding high pressures at great depths, enabling it to survey
the ocean floor.
 It’s interior hull is built using titanium spheres which makes the vessel dive up to
6000 metres. A regular submarine can go to the depth of only 600 metres.
 It is generally carried under the hull of a larger submarine and is capable of
releasing a smaller submarine itself.
 According to Russian military the submarine was carrying out ‘bathymetric
measurements’ or underwater mapping.
 But the the US and its allies feared that Russia might be developing new,
secretive ways to tap or even cut undersea Fiber-optic cables that carry
transatlantic Internet traffic.
 In recent years, U.S. and British military officials have warned that Russian
submarines have been spotted close to the cables.

INS Shivalik and INS Sindhukirti

  These are the Indian Navy’s indigenously conceived design and constructed
frontline stealth frigate.
 INS Shivalik is the Shivalik-class advanced, stealth-minded, guided-missile
frigate warship.
 It is the first stealth warship built by India at Mazagon Dock Limited in
Mumbai s part of the Indian Navy’s Project 17.
 It is equipped with a wide range of electronics and sensors.
 In addition, it uses HUMSA (hull-mounted sonar array), ATAS/Thales Sintra
towed array systems.
 It is equipped with a mix of Russian, Indian and Western weapon systems.
 It also has improved stealth and land attacking features over the
preceding Talwar-class frigates.
 It is the first Indian navy ship to use the CODOG (Combined Diesel Or Gas)
propulsion system.
 INS Sindhukirti is the seventh Sindhughosh-class, diesel-electric
submarine of the Indian Navy, built at the Admiralty Shipyard and Sevmash in
the Soviet Union.
 It is among the oldest operational submarines in the Navy.
 It has been virtually rebuilt with modern sensors weapons and systems which
make it “a hole in the water” for the Navy.

INS Sagardhwani
 It is the Oceanographic research vessel of DRDO.
 It is maintained and operated by the Indian Navy.
 It is a ‘Marine Acoustic Research Ship’ (MARS) designed and developed by
‘Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory’ (NPOL), Kochi.
 NPOL is a premier systems laboratory of DRDO.
 The ship is fitted with state-of-the-art equipments like the latest wave height
measuring radars, marine radio etc.
 It is exclusively used for the scientific and research programmes of NPOL.

INS Tarkash
 It is a state-of-the-art stealth frigate of the Indian Navy.
 It is the 5th Talwar-class frigate constructed for the Indian Navy, built at the
Yantar shipyard in Kaliningrad, Russia.
 It is equipped with a versatile range of weapons and sensors capable of
addressing threats in all three dimensions.

INS Nilgiri
 INS Nilgiri is the first ship of the Project-17A.
 Project 17A frigates is a design derivative of the Shivalik class stealth
frigates with much more advanced stealth features and indigenous weapons
and sensors.
 The P17A frigates incorporate new design concepts for improved survivability,
sea keeping, stealth and ship manoeuvrability.
 These frigates are being built using integrated construction methodology.

India’s Aircraft Carrier

 Currently, the Indian Navy opera only a single carrier, the 44,000-tonne
INS Vikramaditya bought from Russia.
 INS Vikrant is an indigenous aircraft carrier being built in Cochin Shipyard.
 It is a 40000-tonne carrier and expected to join service by 2021.
 INS Vishal proposed to be India’s 2nd indigenous aircraft carrier has
stalled since 2017 awaiting the defense ministry’s clearance.
  It was conceived as a 65,000-tonne class carrier. The clearance was mainly
delayed owing to its production cost.
 Recently, the Indian government has approached UK to build a state-of-the-art
aircraft carrier along the lines of Britain’s HMS Queen Elizabeth.
 The talks are underway to buy detailed plans for the 65,000-ton British warship
to build a so-called “copycat supercarrier” to be named INS Vishal in 2022.
 This India-UK Naval deal would follow the sale of INS Viraat to India in 1987,
which was decommissioned 2 years ago.

INS VISHAL:
 INS Vishal, also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 2(IAC-2), is a
planned aircraft carrier to be built by Cochin Shipyard Limited for the Indian
Navy.
 It is intended to be the second aircraft carrier to be built in India after INS Vikrant
(IAC-1), and the first supercarrier to be built in India.
 The proposed design of the second carrier class will be a new design, featuring
significant changes from Vikrant, including an increase in displacement.
 An Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) CATOBAR system is also
under consideration. Its name Vishal means ‘giant’ in Sanskrit.

INS Sahyadri
 INS Sahyadri is an indigenously built stealth frigate.
 It participated in trilateral Malabar war games with Japan and the U.S. off the
coast of Guam.
 It recently participated in RIMPAC and has been adjudged runner-up in an
innovation competition.
 INS Sahyadri presented the ‘idea of integrating yoga into our daily life as the
technology for well-being during extended deployments for ships’.
 The idea was appreciated by representatives of participating countries.
Submarines list of the Indian Navy
Class Type Boats Origin
Nuclear-powered
submarines (2)
Chakra (Akula II) Attack submarine (SSN) INS Chakra Russia
class
Arihant class Ballistic missile INS Arihant India
submarine (SSBN)
Diesel-electric
submarines (14)
Shishumar class Attack submarine INS Shishumar West
INS Shankush Germany Indi
INS Shalki a
INS Shankul
Kalvari class Attack submarine INS Kalvari France India
INS Khanderi
Sindhughosh class Attack submarine INS Sindhughosh Soviet
INS Sindhudhvaj Union Russia
INS Sindhuraj
INS Sindhuratna
INS Sindhukesari
INS Sindhukirti
INS Sindhuvijay
INS Sindhurashtr
a
Planned
Class Type Boats Origin
Nuclear submarines
Arihant class Ballistic missile submarine INS Arighat India
(SSBN)
Diesel-electric
submarines
Kalvari class Attack submarine INS Karanj France –
INS Vela India
INS Vagir
INS Vagshee
r
 Shaurya Missile:

o Shaurya is a land variant of short-range Submarine Launched Ballistic

Missile (SLBM) K-15 Sagarika, which has a range of at least 750
kilometers.
o It is capable of carrying payloads of 200 kg to 1000 kg.
o It is a surface-to-surface tactical missile.
o These ballistic missiles belong to the K missile family -
codenamed after late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam - which are launched
from Arihant class of nuclear submarines.
o Shaurya, like many of the modern missiles, is a canister-based system,
which means that it is stored and operated from specially designed
compartments.
o The missile is less vulnerable to anti-ballistic missile defence
systems due to its high maneuverability.
 The K Family of Missiles:

o The K family of missiles are primarily Submarine Launched Ballistic

Missiles (SLBMs).
o These have been indigenously developed by Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO).
o The development of these missiles began in the late 1990s as a step
towards completing India’s nuclear triad.

 Nuclear triad is the capability of launching nuclear weapons from

land, sea and air-based assets.
o Because these missiles are to be launched from submarines, they
are lighter, smaller and stealthier than their land-based counterparts -
the Agni series of missiles which are medium and intercontinental range
nuclear capable ballistic missiles.
o India has also developed and successfully tested multiple times the K-4
missiles from the family which has a range of 3500 km.
o The early development trials of K-15 and K-4 missiles had begun in the
early 2010s.
o K-5 and K-6 with ranges of 5000 and 6000 km are also under
development.
 Strategic Importance of SLBMs:

o Nuclear Deterrence: The capability of SLMBs has great strategic

importance in the context of achieving a nuclear triad, especially in the
 light of the ‘no first use’ policy of India which acts as a deterrent.

 These submarines can not only survive a first strike by the

adversary but also can launch a strike in retaliation thus achieving
Credible Nuclear Deterrence.
o The development of these capabilities is important in light of India’s
relations with the two neighbours China and Pakistan.

Project 15B
The Project 15B class of guided-missile destroyers, an improved variant of the
Kolkata-class destroyers, are being built by Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL) for the
Indian Navy.
The four ships in the project are:

1. INS Vishakapatnam (commissioned)

2. INS Mormogaon (ready for trials)
3. INS Imphal (advanced stage of outfitting)
4. INS Surat (to be launched in 2022)

Features of the ships

 These ships are amongst the most technologically advanced Guided Missile
Destroyers in the world, with state-of-the-art weapon/sensor packages, advanced
stealth features, and a high degree of automation.
 They are equipped with Brahmos supersonic cruise missiles and long-range
surface-to-air Missiles (SAM).
 The ship has several indigenous weapons systems like medium-range Surface-
to-Air missiles (SAMs), indigenous torpedo tube launchers, anti-submarine
indigenous rocket launchers, and a 76-mm super rapid gun mount.
 The destroyers will feature multiple fire zones, battle damage control systems
(BDCS), and distributional power systems for improved survivability and reliability
in emergent conditions.
 The total atmospheric control system (TACS) onboard the vessel will protect the
crew from chemical, biological and nuclear threats.
It is one of the Indian Navy’s paramount responsibilities to safeguard the large
coastline of 7516 Kms and almost 1100 offshore islands with 2.01 million sq km EEZ
(exclusive economic zone). The current geopolitical scenario has only intensified the
need for more vigilance.
Destroyers like the P-15B class will play an important role in the oceans of the Indo-
Pacific, making the Indian Navy a powerful force.
The guided-missile Destroyers are deployed for various responsibilities like escort
duties with the Carrier Battle Group to protect the Naval fleet against any air, surface,
and underwater threats.
Project-75 (I)

Project-75 (I) envisages the indigenous construction of six Kalvari Class Diesel-
Electric Attack submarines. The submarines under this project would be
equippedwith contemporary equipment, weapons, sensors, modern missiles, and state-
of-the-art countermeasure systems. The most important improvement over its
predecessor, Project-75, is a fuel-cell-based AIP (Air Independent Propulsion)
system. This would provide a major boost to the stealth ability and construction
capability of indigenous submarines in India, in addition to bringing in the latest
submarine designs and technologies as part of the project under Atmanirbhar Bharat.
The number 75 in Project 75 refers to a unique identifier for the Scorpene class.

Background of Project 75

Project-75, the precursor to Project-75I, was initiated in 1997 with the aim of building
two indigenous SSK (United States diesel-electric) submarines.

 The project was divided into two phases: Phase I and Phase II.
o Phase I involved the construction of some submarines at MDL under
Project-75.
o Phase II included plans for additional submarines to be built later using
indigenous capabilities.
 In 1999, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) approved a plan to construct a total
of 24 submarines over a 30-year span.
o However, due to financial constraints, only six submarines of Kalvari
Class - INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vagir,
and INSVagsheer—would be authorised for operational status by the
mid-2030s.
 In April 2001, the Indian Navy decided to adopt a newer submarine design, the
Scorpene.
o It was offered along with the option of technology transfer (TOT) by the
French naval firm Armaris.
 The construction of the submarines commenced between December 2006 and
July 2009.
o However, challenges related to technology adoption, delays in improving
industrial infrastructure, and procurement of materials from MDL resulted
in overall project completion delays.

Features of Project-75 (I)

Project 75I (a follow-up to Project 75) is an improvement upon the design and
technology of AIP technology, along with other features of its predecessor. The features
of the project are:

 Stealth Features: As with the 75 submarines, they are equipped with advanced
acoustic absorption techniques, low radiated noise levels, long-range guided
torpedoes, tube-launched anti-ship missiles, sonars, and sensor suites.
o Diesel-electric attack Submarines under Project 75
need atmospheric oxygen to run the diesel generator, which in turn
charges the batteries; hence, they need to come to the surface every
48 hours to be recharged.
o But, with the AIP technology, submarines use fuel cells that will enable
them to stay submerged for up to two weeks.
 Indigenisation: The first submarine must have a minimum of 45%
indigenisation, with the indigenous content going up to 60% in the sixth.
 MSME Development: The project would not only aid in boosting the core
submarine building industry but also enhance the manufacturing sector,
especially for MSMEs, for the manufacturing of associated
spares/systems/equipment related to submarines.
 Size: The submarines under Project 75 (I) may be larger than those under
Project 75.
Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) System

The AIP is an improvement in the technology through which the underwater endurance
of the submarines can be enhanced so that they can remain underwater for longer
durations and their security will not be compromised.

 Components: This system works with two key components, i.e., a fuel and
an oxidant, to generate electricity by either a heat engine (e.g., closed cycle
diesel, Stirling engine, closed cycle gas turbine) or an electrochemical cell (e.g.,
lead acid batteries, fuel cells).
 Working principle:
o The diesel-used electric submarines are vulnerable to detection while
snorkelling. This issue was overcome by applying nuclear power to
produce a ‘true submarine’ but this solution is expensive to implement.
o The need for a cheaper way to obtain long underwater endurance led to
the use of fuel cells.
o They can be recharged by the diesel engine and would act as an auxiliary
source of energy during the underwater drives of submarines. It will help
in longer submergence.
 Indigenous AIP by DRDO:
o The Fuel Cell-powered Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) system of DRDO’s
Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL) will be fitted onboard INS
Kalvari.
o DRDO and Naval Group (France) signed an agreement to safely
integrate the indigenous system in Kalvari-class submarines.

Issues associated with Project 75 India

A combination of structural inefficiencies, budgetary changes, tendering problems,

delays, and institutional ad-hocism have hindered India’s submarine manufacturing
ambitions.

 Delays: The original P-75 proposal was supposed to be completed by 2017.

However, the lead boat of the P75 project, INS Kalvari, was commissioned in
2017.
o Till now, the country has commissioned the fifth submarine (INS
Vagir), and the final one (INS Vaghsheer) is expected next year 2024.
o The P-75(I) programme is budgeted at Rs 43,000 crore with state-of-the-
art sensors and weapons, is lagging as it is currently stuck in the
tendering stage.
 Structural Inefficiencies: The indigenous AIP system developed by
DRDO was not first trialed on a submarine before its contribution to the P-75(I).
o If the necessary criteria are not met, its integration into the P-75(I)
program will further complicate the structural issues.
 Shortage of Submarines: The Indian Navy faces submarine shortages and is
also endowed with submarines with outdated technology. It has only 16
functional submarines, with a significant portion older than 30 years, and
currently doesn’t operate a nuclear-powered-attack submarine (SSN).
 Exiting Collaborators: The early existing collaborators from the P75(I)
program, including Sweden and France, as well as complaints from
 the Russians about the technical demands of the program, have created
uncertainty about the future of the project.

Way Forward

The following measures can be taken to harness the benefits of Project-75(I) and
enhance India’s security capability:

 Indigenous Technology: India has wasted millions in paying ToT (transfer of

technology) fees to foreign Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) but has not
acquired the capability to design and build submarines. Hence, it is necessary to
depend on and develop technology indigenously.
 Global Collaboration: Collaboration with international partners is often
essential for acquiring advanced technology, expertise, and other managerial
advantages.
 Fast-track Tendering: To achieve more timely or reduced-delay completion of
the project, it's essential to accelerate the implementation process, particularly
in the area of tendering.
 Trial of Indigenous AIP: The indigenously developed AIP by DRDO must first
be installed and trialled on a submarine before its contribution to the P-75(I) as it
has been trialled only on land.
 Audit of the Project: There is a need to have regular audits of the project to
monitor and streamline the spending process and reduce waste.