Semester 3: Readings in Global Cultures

Prof Mouna Benhaddou/ Made by Maram Alaoui

Preface: I have included the summary of the key terms and basic notions in one
section of the PDF (for easier retention). I included more details in section 2.

SECTION 1:
What is culture?

Culture:
The shared values, beliefs, customs, practices, behaviors, and material traits of a group
or society, passed down through generations, shaping identity and ways of life.
Culture is made up of: Values/ Beliefs / customs / languages / ideas / dress code/ art
and literature / way of life / law and order / rituals / traditions …

Cultural orientation: The tendency to act, think or feel according to one’s cultural
background and identity.

The process of assimilation: when someone or a group blends into a new culture by
adopting its language, values, customs, and behaviors and losing parts of their original
culture over time

1. How is Culture Transmitted from One Generation to Another?

Culture is passed down through two main processes:

● Enculturation: This is how people learn their own culture as children. Families
and communities teach children values, beliefs, and traditions that shape their
ethnic and cultural identity.
● Acculturation: This happens when someone interacts with a new culture and
adopts some of its traits. This can occur through migration, travel, or meeting
people from different cultures.

2. Good Culture vs. Bad Culture

Cultural Relativism: This is the idea that all cultures should be understood on their
own terms rather than judged by the standards of another culture. It promotes
open-mindedness and respect for diversity.

Reverse Culture Shock: People may feel out of place when they return home after
living abroad because their familiar surroundings now feel strange.

Ethnocentrism: This is the belief that one’s own culture is better than others. It often
leads to unfair judgments of other cultures.

Chauvinism: A stronger form of ethnocentrism, it involves excessive pride in one’s

group (like a nation, race, or gender) and can result in discrimination against others.
Homoculturalis: Humans are unique because they create meaning through culture,
unlike other species that act mainly on survival instincts. Culture allows humans to use
symbols (language, rituals, art) to communicate and build a shared identity.

3. Becoming Part of a Culture

Society: A group of people living together under shared rules, values, and institutions,
in a specific area.

Social Norms: Rules created by society about what is acceptable or unacceptable

behavior.

Socialization: The process where people learn to fit into society:, this consists of:

*Primary Socialization: Happens in childhood, where children learn values and

behaviors from family.

*Secondary Socialization: Happens later in life when people join new groups or
settings like schools, workplaces, or peer groups.

Difference Between Culture and Society:

Culture is the "way of life" (beliefs, values, behaviors), while society is the "group of
people" living that way of life. Culture shapes how people live, and society determines
how they interact.

4. Culture as a Way of Life

Humans use symbols (like words, gestures, and rituals) to communicate complex ideas.
These shared symbols allow us to teach, learn, and pass down values across
generations, creating cultural continuity.

Culture with a Big ‘C’: Refers to formal achievements like art, literature, and music,
often seen as elite or classical culture.

5. Impact of Transnational Media on Cultural Practices

Media: Includes traditional forms (newspapers, magazines), digital platforms (websites,

videos), and social media (Instagram, Facebook).

Cultural Imperialism: When a dominant culture imposes its values on others, often
through media.

Code-Switching: Adapting language or behavior to fit in with the dominant culture,

sometimes to avoid discrimination or gain acceptance.
Erosion of Culture: Over time, dominant cultures may weaken or replace local
traditions and values.

Media’s Role in Culture:

Positives: Encourages cultural exchange, spreads awareness, and inspires creativity.

Negatives: Reinforces stereotypes, erodes traditions, and promotes materialism.

Big media corporations can overshadow local media, but by focusing on unique,
culturally relevant content, local media can compete.

6. Social Media and Culture

Social media spreads cultural trends quickly across the globe.

Algorithms prioritize content based on user interests, making some trends go viral while
others are ignored.

User-Generated Content: Allows anyone to contribute to global cultural trends, making

cultural exchange more inclusive.

Example: K-pop
K-pop’s global success is due to its fans and the Korean government’s cultural
promotion. K-pop blends traditional Korean elements with modern styles, spreading
Korean values like teamwork and discipline.

7. Globalization and Cultural Diversity

Globalization: Connects people and countries through trade, culture, and media.

Cultural Diversity: Refers to the presence of many different cultures within a society.

Positives of Globalization:

● Economic growth through expanded markets.

● Cultural exchange fosters understanding.
● Global cooperation addresses big issues like climate change.

Negatives of Globalization:

● Widening inequality as large corporations dominate.

● Cultural homogenization erases local traditions.
● Over-reliance on global systems increases vulnerability during crises.

8. McDonaldization

The term describes how fast-food principles like efficiency and predictability are
influencing other areas of life. This leads to:
 ● Standardization and loss of individuality.
● Consumers valuing speed and convenience over quality.

Resistance:
Support local businesses and prioritize unique, high-quality products to counteract
McDonaldization.

9. Resistance to Cultural Homogenization

Communities resist global trends by preserving their local traditions, products, and
languages. Examples include:

● "Buy local" campaigns like "Label Morocco."

● Cultural preservation movements (UNESCO, INDH).
● Festivals like Mawazine strengthen bonds and celebrate heritage.
● Using technology to document and share traditions.

10. Globalization and Indigenous Languages

Globalization often threatens indigenous languages by prioritizing global ones like

English, reducing their use in schools and media. However, it also offers tools for
preservation through digital platforms and global networks.

11. Globalization and Cultural Innovation

Globalization introduces new ideas and technologies that inspire creativity. For
example, fusion cuisines or modern buildings with traditional designs. However, it can
also lead to the commercialization of culture, where traditions are adapted to attract
tourists.

12. Cultural Exchange and Hybridization

Cultural hybridization creates new forms by blending elements from different cultures,
such as fusion foods or mixed architectural styles. It enriches expression but may
reduce cultural distinctiveness.

13. Language Shift and Endangerment

Languages can decline when people switch to dominant ones due to:

● Social Factors: Prestige of certain languages or intermarriage.

● Political Factors: Government policies favoring dominant languages.
● Media Influence: Popular media often uses dominant languages, reducing the
use of native tongues.
 SECTION 2:
This part includes additional details and elaborated terms. Keep in mind that
they’re the exact same notions as in section 1, just more fleshed out.
The examples provided are ones that the prof actually used in class.

1. How is Culture Transmitted from One Generation to Another?

Culture is transmitted through two primary methods: enculturation and acculturation.
These processes ensure that cultural knowledge, values, and practices are passed
down, shaping individual identities and collective traditions.

Enculturation:
Enculturation begins in early childhood, where individuals naturally absorb cultural
norms and values from their immediate environment. This process often occurs
unconsciously, through observation, imitation, and participation.

Language: Language is perhaps the most important element of enculturation. For

instance, a child born in Morocco grows up speaking Darija, learning its unique
idiomatic expressions and context-dependent meanings. This language shapes how
they view and interact with the world.

Rituals and Customs: Families introduce children to traditions such as fasting during
Ramadan, wearing traditional clothing for special events, or participating in communal
gatherings. These rituals create a sense of belonging and identity tied to their cultural
heritage.

Moral Values: Enculturation also instills moral lessons. For example, a child may learn
the value of hospitality by observing their parents generously hosting guests, a hallmark
of Moroccan culture.

Enculturation ensures that cultural traditions remain preserved and relevant, even as
societies evolve.

Acculturation:
Acculturation takes place when an individual or group interacts with and adopts aspects
of a different culture. This process can enrich cultural experiences or create challenges
related to identity and integration.

Examples:
A Moroccan family moving to France might start celebrating Christmas or adopting
French dining habits, such as serving dinner later in the evening.

An international student might incorporate foreign slang or fashion trends into their daily
life while still observing their native traditions.

Challenges of Acculturation: While acculturation can foster a hybrid cultural identity, it

may also lead to cultural erosion or conflicts when individuals feel torn between two
cultural systems.

2. What makes a “good culture” a good one?

Labeling cultures as "good" or "bad" is inherently problematic because cultures are

complex and context-dependent. However, it is possible to evaluate cultural practices
based on their impact on individuals and society:

Cultural Relativism:
Cultural relativism promotes understanding and respect for cultural differences by
interpreting practices within their unique contexts. For example:

Positive Impact: Understanding the context of arranged marriages in some societies

can reveal their role in ensuring familial harmony and stability.

Challenges: However, cultural relativism does not mean accepting harmful practices.
For instance, practices like female genital mutilation are often criticized for violating
human rights, even if culturally ingrained.

Ethnocentrism and Chauvinism:

Ethnocentrism: This is the belief that one’s own culture is superior. For example,
Western societies may view communal lifestyles in African or Asian cultures as
“underdeveloped,” failing to appreciate their inherent values, such as solidarity.

Chauvinism: A more extreme version of ethnocentrism, chauvinism often leads to

aggressive nationalism or racism. For instance, colonial powers historically used
chauvinistic ideologies to justify the exploitation of indigenous populations.

Evaluating Cultural Practices:

Some cultural practices can be universally admired, such as the emphasis on family in
many African and Asian cultures or the celebration of individual freedom in Western
societies.
Conversely, practices that perpetuate inequality, harm, or discrimination may be seen as
detrimental. For example, caste-based discrimination in certain societies or systemic
racism in others are often viewed as negative.

By approaching cultures with an open yet critical mindset, we can appreciate their
diversity while addressing practices that may harm individuals or groups

3. Becoming Part of a Culture

Becoming part of a culture involves a combination of formal and informal learning
processes. This requires understanding societal norms, participating in traditions, and
internalizing shared values.

Society:
Society is a structured community of people who share common values and customs.
These shared elements provide a framework for social interaction and cooperation.

Example: Moroccan society is deeply rooted in Islamic teachings, emphasizing family,

hospitality, and community. In contrast, Scandinavian societies prioritize individualism
and egalitarianism.

Social Norms:
Social norms are unwritten rules that dictate acceptable behavior. Adhering to these
norms is a crucial part of integrating into any society.

Examples of Norms:

In Morocco, it is customary to greet people warmly, often asking about their health and
family.

In Japan, bowing is a traditional form of greeting and respect.

Socialization:
Socialization is the lifelong process of learning the norms, values, and practices of a
culture. This process is divided into two stages:

Primary Socialization:
Occurs during childhood and is facilitated by the family. For example, children are
taught basic etiquette, such as saying “please” and “thank you,” or moral lessons like
the importance of honesty.

Secondary Socialization:
Takes place later in life through schools, workplaces, and peer groups. For instance,
university students may adopt new perspectives on global issues as they engage with
diverse ideas and cultures.

Adopting a New Culture:

For immigrants or expatriates, becoming part of a new culture involves navigating
differences while retaining their original cultural identity. This process often leads to the
creation of bicultural or multicultural identities, blending elements of both native and
adopted cultures.

Culture vs. Society:

While culture encompasses the shared practices and beliefs that give meaning to life,
society refers to the organized group of people living under those shared systems. For
instance:

A society provides the structure for shared governance and social interaction.

Culture gives that structure meaning through shared stories, rituals, and symbols.

4. Do All People Share the Same Culture?

While all humans participate in culture, the specific cultures they share differ widely
based on historical, geographical, and social contexts. This diversity is what makes
human societies both unique and interconnected.

Cultural Universals:
Despite differences, certain cultural elements are shared across all human societies,
often referred to as cultural universals. These include basic practices like:

Family Structures: Every society has some form of family organization, whether it’s the
nuclear family common in Western cultures or the extended family prevalent in African
and Asian societies.

Language: While languages differ, all societies use a form of communication to convey
ideas, emotions, and knowledge. For example, body language is universal, but its
interpretation may vary—nodding signifies agreement in many cultures but
disagreement in some Balkan countries.

Rites of Passage: Cultures universally mark transitions in life, such as birth, coming of
age, marriage, and death. For instance, Moroccan wedding ceremonies involve
traditional clothing and henna rituals, while Japanese Shinto weddings emphasize
simplicity and nature.
Cultural Specificity:
Most cultural practices are shaped by unique histories and environments, leading to
substantial variation.

Examples:

Moroccan cuisine reflects a blend of Berber, Arab, and French influences, with dishes
like tagine and couscous.

Scandinavian countries emphasize minimalism, seen in their interior design and societal
values.

Globalization and Cultural Blending:

Modern globalization has increased cultural exchange, blending traditions and creating
new hybrids.

Examples of Blending:

McDonald’s menus adapt to local tastes, such as the McArabia sandwich in Middle
Eastern countries.

Moroccan youth might celebrate Halloween, a traditionally Western holiday, while

maintaining their local customs like Eid al-Fitr.

Despite this blending, cultural identities often remain distinct, serving as sources of
pride and belonging for individuals and groups.

Challenges of Cultural Differences: Cultural diversity can sometimes lead to

misunderstanding or conflict. For instance:

Stereotypes or prejudices may arise when people fail to understand unfamiliar

practices.

Discrimination against minority cultures can result in social and economic

marginalization.

Efforts to promote intercultural dialogue and mutual respect are essential to fostering
coexistence in an increasingly interconnected world.

5. How Does Culture Change Over Time?

Culture is not static; it evolves in response to internal and external factors, ensuring its
adaptability and relevance in a changing world.
Internal Changes:
Internal forces driving cultural change often emerge from shifts within society. These
include:

Technological Advancements: New technologies alter how people live, work, and
communicate. For example:

The internet has transformed communication, enabling global connectivity and the rapid
spread of cultural ideas.

In Morocco, smartphones have introduced mobile payment apps, gradually replacing

cash transactions in urban areas.

Generational Shifts: Younger generations often challenge traditional norms,

introducing new ideas and values.

For instance, many young Moroccans advocate for gender equality and environmental
sustainability, pushing for societal reform.

External Influences:
External forces, such as globalization and migration, also drive cultural evolution.

Globalization:

The spread of Western media, fashion, and technology has influenced lifestyles
worldwide. Moroccan youth, for example, may listen to rap music or wear sneakers
while still embracing traditional attire for formal occasions.

Migration:

Migrants bring their cultural practices to new societies, enriching local traditions. For
example, Moroccan immigrants in Europe have introduced dishes like couscous, which
are now enjoyed as part of European culinary culture.

Cultural Resistance and Preservation:

While cultures evolve, efforts to preserve traditional practices also persist.

Cultural Preservation Movements:

In Morocco, initiatives to revive Amazigh (Berber) language and traditions reflect efforts
to maintain cultural heritage amidst globalization.

Festivals and Rituals:

Annual celebrations such as the Moussem of Tan-Tan in Morocco showcase the
preservation of nomadic traditions, bridging the past and present.

Cultural Hybridity:
Cultural change often results in hybridity, where elements of different cultures merge.
This blending creates unique identities and practices, such as Moroccan fusion cuisine
or bilingual music that combines Arabic and French lyrics.

Language Shift and endangerment:

The socio economic factors that contribute to language shift and endangerment

Language shift: where a community comes from using one language to another
influence by several factors

Social factors:

Prestige and status: languages associated with higher social status are often adopted

Intermarriage: marriages between speakers of different languages can result in the

dominant language being adopted by the family

Political and legal factors:

Government policies: official language policies can drive language shift

Education systems: Schools teaching in a dominant language can lead to students

adopting that language over their native tongue

Cultural Factors

Media and Technology: Dominance of certain languages in media, entertainment, and

technology can influence language preferences.

Cultural Assimilation: Desire to integrate into the dominant culture can lead to
abandoning native languages in favor of more widely spoken ones.

Demographic Factors

Migration: Migration patterns can influence language use, with immigrants often
adopting the language of the new country.

Population Size: Smaller language communities are more susceptible to shift due to
external influences compared to larger ones.

Attitudes and Beliefs

Community Attitudes: Positive attitudes towards a dominant language and negative
attitudes towards one's own language can accelerate language shift.

Intergenerational Transmission: When parents stop teaching their children the native
language, it leads to a gradual shift towards the dominant language.

Globalization : Global Connectivity/ increased global interactions and the need for a
common language for international communication often lead to a shift towards global
languages like English

Examples of endangered languages:

North america:

- Cherokee : spoken by the cherokee people in the US, primarily in oklahoma

- Navajo: the number of fluent speakers is declining even though it has the largest
number of speakers among native american languages

Other languages:

- Aymara: spoken by the aymara people in bolivia, peru and chile

- Tamazight: spoken in various forms across north africa
- Breton: spoken in brittany, france

Types of Migration:

Internal Migration: Movement within a country, such as from rural areas to cities or
from one region to another.

International Migration: Movement from one country to another, either voluntarily or

involuntarily.

Voluntary Migration: People move by choice, often for better opportunities or improved
living conditions (e.g., job prospects or family reunification).

Involuntary Migration: People are forced to move, often due to conflict, persecution,
natural disasters, or economic hardship (e.g., refugees or asylum seekers).