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ABAQUS for Engineers: Engineering Fatigue Analysis with Fe-Safe
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Engineering Training Book Collection
ABAQUS for Engineers

Engineering Fatigue Analysis with Fe-Safe
 Book Cover Design : Concept Design of Nuclear Fusion Engine for Aircraft Carrier, 2022, BW Studios
ii
Table of Contents
Copyright @ 2023 BW Publication
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, without the publisher’s prior written permission,
except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical
articles or reviews. Every effort has been made in the
preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the
information presented. However, the information
contained in this book is sold without warranty, either
express or implied. Neither the author nor BW Engineering
or its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any
damages caused or alleged to have been caused directly or
indirectly by this book.
First published: March 2023

ISBN 9798379359331
Ryan Lee
i
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................................... ii
Preface ............................................................................................................................................................. i
Part 1. Fundamentals of FEA based Fatigue analysis.................................................................................. 1
Chapter 1. Getting Started............................................................................................................................ 3

Overview of What topics covered .......................................................................................................................... 3
What are Fracture and Fatigue Analysis? ........................................................................................................ 3
Brief Historical Aspect of Engineering Fatigue Analysis ............................................................................... 5
What Cause Mechanical Failure? ...................................................................................................................... 7
How does FEA Help for Fatigue Analysis? .................................................................................................... 10
How to Use This Book ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 2. FEA-based Fatigue Analysis ..................................................................................................... 17

Introduction to FEA-Based Fatigue analysis ...................................................................................................... 17
What FEA-Based Fatigue analysis? ................................................................................................................. 17
Overview of ABAQUS ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Overview of Fe-Safe .......................................................................................................................................... 24
FEA Approach to Fatigue Analysis ................................................................................................................. 27
FEA in Failure Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 33
Fatigue Analysis using Fe-Safe ............................................................................................................................. 36
Fatigue Analysis Software ................................................................................................................................ 36
Features of Fe-Safe ............................................................................................................................................ 39
What Engineer Can do with Fe-Safe .............................................................................................................. 42
Limitation of FEA-based Fatigue Analysis .................................................................................................... 47
 Workshop 2A Simple s-n analysis using Fe-Safe ..................................................................................... 49
Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Fatigue Analysis........................................................................................... 64

General Workflow of the Fatigue analysis with Fe-Safe ................................................................................... 65
Fatigue Analysis Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 67
Introduction of Fatigue Algorithms ............................................................................................................... 67
Uni-axial vs. multi-axial ................................................................................................................................... 69
When to Use Stress vs. Strain life .................................................................................................................... 71
ii
Table of Contents
Critical Plane Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 75

Fatigue Algorithms in Fe-Safe ......................................................................................................................... 78
Fatigue Loadings ............................................................................................................................................... 83
Factors on Fatigue Life ..................................................................................................................................... 87
 Workshop 3A Fatigue life estimation of Aircraft Landing gear with multi-axial load ....................... 88
Chapter 4. Engineering Applications of Fatigue Analysis ...................................................................... 105

Engineering applications that require fatigue analysis ...................................................................................105
Common mistakes in Fatigue analysis with Fe-Safe .......................................................................................116
 Workshop 4A Fatigue Loading Data Manipulation using Fe-Safe ......................................................127
Part 2. Engineering Applications of Fatigue Analysis ............................................................................ 139
Chapter 5. Fatigue life analysis of Engine Shaft with multi-mission profile ......................................... 140
Fatigue Loading Definition.................................................................................................................................141
Classical Fatigue Analysis with Measured Fatigue loading signals ...............................................................143
 Workshop 5A Fatigue Life Analysis of Engine Shaft with Multi-Block Loadings.............................145
 Workshop 5B Classical Fatigue Analysis using Measured signal ........................................................163
Chapter 6. Low Cycle Fatigue Analysis (e-n analysis) ............................................................................. 171

Material Plasticity ................................................................................................................................................172
 Workshop 6A Uniaxial Low-Cycle Fatigue Analysis of Standard Tensile Test specimen ...............175
 Workshop 6B Elastic-Plastic Fatigue Analysis of Pipe under Seismic load........................................189
Chapter 7. Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue Analysis with Temperature dependent s-n curves ............... 203
High temperature Fatigue Analysis ...................................................................................................................204
 Workshop 7A Thermo-mechanical fatigue analysis with temperature dependent s-n curves ........208
Chapter 8. Modal Transient fatigue Analysis .......................................................................................... 222

Modal Transient Fatigue analysis ......................................................................................................................223
 Workshop 8A Modal transient Fatigue analysis of Aircraft LG Door ................................................228
Chapter 9. Fatigue Analysis using TCD Method..................................................................................... 242

What’s TCD Method? .........................................................................................................................................243
HOW to use TCD Method?................................................................................................................................245
 Workshop 9A Fatigue analysis of Wing Attachment Bracket using TCD method ...........................246
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter 10. Infinite life-High Cycle Fatigue Analysis with Dang Van Model....................................... 262
Infinite fatigue Life analysis ................................................................................................................................263
 Workshop 10A Infinite fatigue life analysis of Shaft with Dang Van Fatigue Algorithm ................269
 Workshop 10B FKM guidelines analysis of Swing Arm in the Bike ................................................... 285
Chapter 11. Fatigue Analysis of Welded Structure ................................................................................. 296

Introduction of Fe-Safe/Verity ...........................................................................................................................297
Weld Fatigue Workflow ......................................................................................................................................302
Spot Weld Fatigue ................................................................................................................................................306
 Workshop 11A Fatigue Life analysis of Welded Joint Specimen ......................................................... 308
 Workshop 11B Spot Weld Fatigue of Bracket in Heavy Truck ............................................................324
Chapter 12. Random Vibration Fatigue Analysis with PSD................................................................... 342

What’s PSD analysis of Random Vibration Fatigue........................................................................................342
Random Vibration Fatigue Analysis using Fe-Safe ......................................................................................... 344
 Workshop 12A Random Fatigue analysis of Battery Package Housing with PSD for Electric Vehicle
348
Chapter 13. Stochastic Fatigue analysis with Weibull Distribution...................................................... 369

Reliability-based Fatigue Analysis .....................................................................................................................370
How to Define Reliability in Fe-Safe .................................................................................................................372
 Workshop 13A Stochastic Fatigue analysis of Engine Mounting Bracket with Weibull Distribution
377
Appendix A. Details on Fatigue Properties .............................................................................................. 395

Appendix B. Verification and Validation (V&V) .................................................................................... 401
Appendix C. FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) .................................................................................... 407
Epilogue ...................................................................................................................................................... 424
iv
Preface
Preface
Purpose of the Book
The objective of this book is to provide engineers, engineering students, and practitioners in various
engineering fields with an introduction to ABAQUS with Fe-Safe as an engineering analysis tool for
solving various engineering fatigue problems. This book aims to help readers develop problem-
solving skills and find solutions to difficult mechanical failure problems associated with fatigue and
fracture mechanics.
In over 30 years as an Aerospace Engineer, my primary responsibility was to troubleshoot and

prevent failures, with a focus on designing aircraft components. Fatigue failure analysis was a critical
aspect of this task, with the majority of failures being attributed to metal fatigue. Since metal fatigue
is caused by cycling forces and moments, vibration, it is difficult to address damage to mechanical
parts in aircraft due to the complex loads and operating environments involved. In order to obtain
reliable analysis results, it is necessary to rely significantly on the analyst's engineering judgment.
The purpose of this book is to help readers develop intuitive engineering judgment by presenting
various workshop examples of fatigue analysis. With the rapid growth of computational power and
analysis technology, many complex mechanical damage problems can be solved more effectively.
However, there is often a difference between theoretical-oriented education in graduate school and
practicality in the field, and it may take some time for newly graduating students and practicing
engineers to develop problem-solving skills. Therefore, this book focuses on the essential knowledge
and tips necessary to create a workshop model based on real experience.
Readers are assumed to have a background in the principles of numerical modeling and the finite
element method (FEM). The subject of mechanical fatigue is included in this book because excessive
repeated mechanical loading often results in fatigue failures. While it is not exhaustive in terms of
including all mathematical fundamentals of fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis, this book
i
Preface
provides a practical approach to the subject, with a focus on developing problem-solving skills
through the use of FE analysis programs with the Fatigue analysis features, using many cases.
It is my hope that this book will be a useful resource for readers, helping them to understand
mechanical fatigue and apply the contents in a practical manner to solve industrial problems and
enhance their careers.
ii
Preface
Overview of the Book
The purpose of this book is to provide engineers and engineering students with a comprehensive
guide to fatigue analysis. Each chapter begins with an overview, background physics, and brief
mathematical models to set the foundation. The latter part of the chapter focuses on workshop
models that can be applied to real-world situations. The book is divided into two parts.
Part 1 introduces the fundamentals of fatigue analysis and explains how they can be utilized in
modern engineering applications such as mechanical failure analysis and design validation. It also
describes some particular features of ABAQUS using Fe-Safe.
Part 2 (Chapter 5-13) focuses on the analysis of various mechanical failures associated with fatigue
damage that occurs in practice. It highlights the cases of fatigue analysis using ABAQUS/Fe-Safe
and introduces various analysis techniques related to fatigue failure analysis. Each chapter includes
a workshop model that the reader can follow step-by-step.
This book can be studied in any order. Readers can start from the beginning and proceed
sequentially or go directly to the specific chapter of Part 2, depending on their knowledge of
engineering concepts of fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis. The workshop models come with
a step-by-step guide that allows readers to learn the modeling procedure independently. Complex
geometry CAD models are provided as an attachment, and the procedure for generating the
geometry model can be omitted. The completed models are also provided in the working folder.
Most of the models in the book were created using ABAQUS 6.19 version, and backward
compatibility is not provided. Therefore, when using the CAE file, the same or later version as 6.19
should be used.
After completing the contents of this book, including the workshop tutorials, readers will have the
problem-solving skills to use ABAQUS incorporated with Fe-Safe in various engineering fracture
and fatigue applications.
iii
Preface
About the Authors
Ryan Lee
Dr. Lee has over 30 years of experience in the fields of engineering analysis and applied mechanics.
He has served the Air Force as the failure analysis expert of aerospace systems. Dr. Lee received his
MS and Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from the University of Florida and KAIST (Korea Advanced
Institute of Science and Technology), respectively. In particular, he has in-depth experience and
knowledge in various computational analyses related to fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis. He
has conducted plenty of R&D programs related to the development of aerospace weapon systems
and is currently participating in many R&D programs.
iv
Part 1. Fundamentals of FEA based Fatigue analysis
Part 1.
Fundamentals of FEA based Fatigue analysis
Chapter 1 |1
Part 1. Fundamentals of FEA based Fatigue Analysis
Intentional Break
Title: Engineer Working in the Depot of Mars Station, by BW Studios, 2022
Chapter 1 |2
Chapter 1. Getting Started
Chapter 1.
Getting Started
Overview of What topics covered
What are Fracture and Fatigue Analysis?
▌The author has worked in the aerospace industry for over 30 years. The author has carried out
engineering analysis for the mechanical part design as well as the aircraft accident investigation. In
aircraft accidents, many failure cases occur in association with fatigue damage of metal structures.
Therefore, in addition to the analysis of metallurgical analysis, computational analysis for failure
mechanism analysis associated with the cracking and crack propagation occupies a large part. It is
widely known that fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis are very useful in the aerospace
engineering field. Fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis, which are used in mechanical
component analysis, are largely utilized in two areas. First, in the Design phase, it is a part of
whether the component will function properly without damage in the operating period or operating
environment. The second field is the Failure analysis that analyzes the cause of the damage, the
mechanism of failure occurrence, and the time of occurrence to identify the root cause of the failure.
In this book, we will cover both fields, and introduces various examples of each case.
Chapter 1 |3
▌Fracture is the separation of a solid body into two or more pieces under the action of stress. Cracks
and flaws occur in many structures and components, sometimes leading to disastrous results. The
engineering field of fracture mechanics was established to develop a basic understanding of such
crack propagation problems. Fracture mechanics is the study of the complex stress field around the
tip of a crack and can be used to determine if an existing crack will propagate or arrest. It involves
correlating analytical predictions of crack propagation and failure with experimental results. The
analytical predictions are made by calculating fracture parameters such as stress intensity factors in
the crack region, which you can use to estimate crack growth rate. Typically, the crack length
increases with each application of some cyclic load. Further, environmental conditions such as
temperature or corrosive factors can affect the fracture propensity of a given material.
▌Fatigue is the process of progressive localized permanent structural change subjected to

fluctuating stresses and strains at some point and that results in cracks or complete fracture after a
sufficient cycle. Component seems to lose strength after multiple load applications, appears to get
tired, hence the name “fatigue”. Fatigue represents one of the most important types of damage
experienced by materials and structures during normal service, which may lead to fracture. Once
today metallic alloys are still the most used materials in the majority of components and structures
allowing carrying out highest service loads, the study of the different aspects of metals fatigue
attracts permanent attention of scientists, engineers and designers. Fracture mechanics and fatigue
analysis are essential to understanding the structural performance of real-world materials.
Figure 1. 1 Typical cyclic loading and fatigue failure specimen
When it comes to mechanical component failure, both fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis must
be comprehensively studied. In this book, we will focus on FEA-based fatigue analysis and briefly
review fracture mechanics analysis, too.
Chapter 1 |4
Brief Historical Aspect of Engineering Fatigue Analysis
▌Fatigue analysis, also known as durability analysis, has been an important area of engineering for
many decades. The roots of fatigue analysis date back to the late 19th century, when a series of
catastrophic failures occurred in railroad axles. The cause of these failures was eventually identified
as fatigue, or the weakening of a material due to repeated loading and unloading.
Figure 1. 2 A Sketch of a broken axle made in 1844 by Glynn 1
In the 1800's, there were often accidents that resulted in a lot of casualties due to breakage of railway
axles. Joseph Glynn, a civil engineer, survived a railway accident and published a paper analyzing it.
He suggested that “about 1/2inch in depth all-round the axle, a perfectly smooth cleft: this annular
cleaving appeared to have been produced by a constant process: the central crystallized part being
gradually reduced in diameter, until it was barely able to sustain the weight. The cleft is produced by
the alternate rupture and compression of the particles or fibers of the iron”
One of the major events in the history of engineering fatigue analysis is the collapse of the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge in 1940. This event was a significant milestone in the study of vibrations and fatigue
of structures, as it demonstrated the destructive power of resonance and the importance of
accounting for fatigue in design. Prior to this event, fatigue failures had occurred in various
structures such as bridges, airplanes, and machinery, but the underlying causes were not well
understood. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was designed with a relatively light and flexible deck, and
as a result, it was vulnerable to the effects of wind. On the day of the collapse, the bridge was
subjected to strong winds that caused it to start oscillating, eventually leading to its catastrophic
failure. The failure of the bridge was a turning point in engineering, as it led to a better
understanding of the fundamental principles of vibration and fatigue. Engineers recognized the
importance of considering these factors in the design of structures, and began to develop new
analytical and experimental methods to better predict and mitigate fatigue failures.
1 Glynn, J. (1844) Chapter V, Safe Railway Working, Crosby, Lockwood & Son, London
Chapter 1 |5
During the early 20th century, fatigue analysis became increasingly important in the field of aviation.
With the development of airplanes, it became critical to understand how repeated loads from
takeoffs, landings, and turbulence would affect the structural integrity of the aircraft. This led to the
development of fatigue testing methods and the incorporation of fatigue analysis into aircraft design
and maintenance practices.
In the mid-20th century, the study of fatigue analysis expanded beyond the aviation industry to
include other fields such as automotive, marine, and civil engineering. The development of
advanced computational tools and numerical methods also greatly advanced the field of fatigue
analysis. Today, fatigue analysis is an essential part of many engineering projects, particularly in the
design and maintenance of high-stress components such as bridges, pipelines, and wind turbines.
Ongoing research continues to improve our understanding of fatigue behavior and to develop new
materials and techniques to mitigate the effects of fatigue on engineering structures.
The image presented below displays an instance of fatigue cracking that took place in the safety wire
of a turbofan engine fuel manifold. This particular fatigue crack exhibits a common characteristic
of fatigue striations on the fractured surface during fractography. This was one of the failure analysis
tasks that the author had worked on.
Figure 1. 3 Fatigue cracking of the safety wire in engine fuel manifold 2
2
Image courtesy of BW Engineering, 2017
Chapter 1 |6
What Cause Mechanical Failure?
▌Fatigue is the predominant cause of mechanical failure, accounting for more than 90% of
industrial failures. Therefore, accurate prediction of fatigue strength is crucial to determine the
effective life of a structure prior to its deployment in real-world operating conditions. In the
aerospace industry, fatigue properties are of importance due to their critical implications for
operational safety. Similarly, in the nuclear power industry, where long-term safety is a top priority,
fatigue is a key design consideration. Mechanical failures, such as aircraft accidents or turbine blade
fractures, can result in significant and costly damages, including extensive business interruption
when the affected machinery becomes inoperable.
▌The data presented in the chart below depicts the statistical root causes of aircraft accidents in the
fighter fleet over a period of more than 30 years. The analysis of this data reveals that the largest
contributing factor is pilot mishap, followed by mechanical failure. In order to determine the root
cause of mechanical failures, an engineering failure analysis process must be conducted using
various engineering tools, including tests, simulations, metallurgical analyses, and more. Fatigue
failure is the most frequently observed cause of mechanical failures and accounts for over 40% of all
failures, followed by corrosion defects, brittle fractures, and overload fractures. The prevalence of
these factors may vary across different industry sectors. In the aerospace industry, fatigue failure is
the leading cause of mechanical failure, as the DaDTA (Durability and Damage Tolerance Analysis)
design concept is applied to the overall aircraft structure design in order to achieve a lightweight
structure while accounting for the existence of cracks.
Chapter 1 |7
Figure 1. 4 Top root causes of fatal aircraft accident (since 1991)
Figure 1. 5 Frequency of mechanical failure mechanicss
▌From this aspect of light structure requirement, Fatigue cracks initiation and propagation can
occur in some weakest structural parts while the aircraft is in operation. It should be operated while
ensuring structural integrity through monitoring and routine inspection such as non-destructive
inspection (NDI). Thus, fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis are the most important fields in the
design phase and failure analysis task in the aerospace industry.
The following Figure depicts cracks measuring over one meter in length on the stabilator surface of
a jet aircraft. The situation involves a fatigue crack that originated from the inboard edge, which is
Chapter 1 |8
a region of stress concentration, and subsequently propagated in a brittle manner towards the
outboard edge due to hydrogen embrittlement. In technical terms, the crack's growth is a result of
a phenomenon called hydrogen embrittlement, which refers to the weakening of a material due to
the absorption of hydrogen atoms. This, combined with the high levels of stress at the inboard edge,
led to the formation of the crack. As the crack progressed towards the outboard in the manner of
fatigue cracking due to the repeated aerodynamic loading in service, the material's brittleness caused
it to expand further, resulting in the visible damage depicted in the figure. Such damage to aircraft
structures is a critical concern and requires immediate attention to ensure safe operation. It is
imperative that appropriate maintenance and inspection protocols are in place to identify and
address such issues before they pose a threat to aircraft safety.
Figure 1. 6 Fatigue crack occurs on the stabilator skin of the aircraft 3
3
Image Courtesy of BW Engineering, 2019
Chapter 1 |9
How does FEA Help for Fatigue Analysis?
▌Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has long been regarded as a powerful and reliable design tool.
While it is commonly used for design purposes, its capabilities also make it an effective tool for
fatigue analysis. In most industries, it is imperative to maintain the integrity and reliability of safety-
critical structures throughout their entire lifespan to ensure they do not compromise safety.
Traditionally, designers would begin with computer-aided design, fabricate a prototype, and subject
it to functional testing. If structural or material defects are found, or if the design does not meet the
required fatigue life, a redesign is necessary, leading to the generation of a second-stage prototype,
resulting in high costs, delays, and iterations. With FEA, complex structures can be designed in
several variations, leading to a highly optimized final product. During the design phase, FEA
modelling can highlight potential design and material issues that may affect the required fatigue life.
FEA can also be used to predict structural failures that may occur when subjected to complex and
repeated stress loads, such as repeated impacts, sudden or prolonged loading strains, vibration, and
temperature changes. Based on these factors, a range of fatigue analysis scenarios can be developed,
which is critical for determining the application's fatigue life, which remains the most common in-
service failure mode for most mechanical components.
Figure 1. 7 FEA of Crash simulation of the Aircraft fuselage structure4
FEA predicts whether a mechanical part subjected to repeated stress will fracture, distort, buckle,
succumb to fatigue or wear out. It is also used to demonstrate that a design will function properly
4
Chapter 1 |10
in terms of stiffness, safety factor, and displacement under load. The immediate benefits of FEA
include the assessment and assurance of the product's safety factor, which is typically two and a half
orders of magnitude greater than the minimal safety factors. Secondly, FEA enhances confidence
that the design will operate as intended when subjected to complicated loading patterns. Lastly, FEA
facilitates quantifiable gains in part design, such as optimizing strength, reducing weight, increasing
product durability, and minimizing product cost. The ultimate goal of FEA simulations is to ensure
that component assemblies function as planned throughout their entire lifespan. In conclusion, FEA
is a highly effective tool for fatigue analysis, which is critical for maintaining the safety, reliability,
and durability of safety-critical structures throughout their lifespan.
Figure 1. 8 Example of FE model with the final fabricated component
▌The main focus of this book is FEA-based fatigue analysis.
When conducting fatigue analysis based on FEA, selecting the most suitable software is crucial for
accurate and reliable results. However, determining the "best" software is not straightforward, as
various factors influence the choice. These factors include the model's complexity, the analysis's
specific requirements, and the available budget. In this regard, several software options are available
for FEA-based fatigue analysis.
One popular option is ANSYS, which offers a comprehensive simulation platform that includes
both linear and nonlinear dynamic analysis capabilities. This software provides advanced tools for
modeling and analyzing fatigue-related issues and is widely used in many industries.
Another popular choice is ABAQUS, which has advanced capabilities for modeling and analyzing
complex systems. It also provides a broad range of materials models for simulating various
structures under different loading scenarios.
Chapter 1 |11
Nastran is another widely used FEA software for fatigue analysis. It offers advanced capabilities for
both linear and nonlinear analyses, including the ability to perform multidisciplinary simulations.
Nastran can also handle complex models and offers a user-friendly interface for better analysis.
Lastly, LS-DYNA is a highly regarded FEA software for fatigue analysis. It is well-known for its
ability to handle complex and highly nonlinear problems, making it suitable for simulating extreme
operating conditions. Additionally, LS-DYNA offers high-performance parallel processing
capabilities to handle large-scale models.
The software options presented here are popular choices that offer advanced capabilities for
simulating fatigue-related issues.
ABQUS with Fe-Safe
▌The selection of the most suitable software for FEA-based fatigue analysis primarily depends on
specific requirements, available budget, technical expertise, and other factors unique to the analysis.
It is often advisable to seek the advice of an FEA-based fatigue analysis expert to help determine the
most appropriate software for a particular analysis.
This book focuses on the practical application of fatigue analysis, combining the use of ABAQUS
and Fe-Safe software programs. Both ABAQUS and Fe-Safe are comprehensive software solutions
widely used for engineering simulations and analyses. These software programs offer a diverse range
of capabilities and can be used to perform a wide range of simulations and analyses.
 ABAQUS: ABAQUS is a finite element analysis (FEA) software that can be used to simulate
the mechanical behavior of structures and materials under various loading conditions. It can
be used for applications such as linear and nonlinear structural analysis, dynamic response
analysis, thermal analysis, and fatigue analysis.
 Fe-Safe: Fe-Safe is a fatigue analysis software that works in conjunction with ABAQUS or
other FEA software. It can be used to predict the life of a structure or component under
cyclic loading conditions, such as those encountered in vehicles, aerospace, and industrial
machinery. The software uses the results of an FEA simulation to predict the distribution of
stresses and strains in the structure, and then calculates the expected life of the structure
based on fatigue data.
Chapter 1 |12
▌Proficiency in both developing a reliable FE model and accurately reflecting the physical
characteristics of the fatigue phenomenon in the fatigue analysis program is crucial to obtaining
useful results through FEA-based fatigue analysis. The ability to develop a reliable FE model is the
cornerstone of a successful FEA-based fatigue analysis. "Reliable" in this context means "accurate"
rather than "perfect" in terms of stress, strain, and fatigue output when compared to real-world
testing. A reliable FEA process ensures that simulation results can be used to make valid
comparisons between designs. To achieve this reliability, FEA models must have robust accuracy,
which means that the model's boundary and loading conditions must be appropriately modeled to
include sufficient real-world physics. When the load or design changes, the model must capture
changes in the direction and magnitude of stress.
Fatigue is widely recognized as the most prevalent type of structural failure, often occurring at low
stress levels below the critical value. Stress cycles typically alternate between tension and
compression, which can result in material fatigue. Early studies in this field were motivated by
railway axle failures over a century ago, and ongoing research continues to improve our
understanding of this phenomenon. Through careful analysis by renowned scientists, it was
discovered that the magnitude and direction of forces acting on axles were crucial factors in their
failure. Thanks to modern tools like FEA, we can now accurately identify the direction and
magnitude of force, regardless of a structure's complexity or operating environment.
Cyclic loading on a structure generates cyclic local stresses, which can cause microscopic
imperfections or voids inherent in the material or caused by machining or environmental factors to
become significant crack initiation sites. A railway axle, for instance, experiences compressive loads
at the top of the shaft and tensile loads at the bottom. By rotating 180°, the local tensions are reversed,
and another 180° will return to the original local stress condition. As damage accumulates during
the component's loading history, the crack will initiate if the damage reaches a critical threshold
level.
Figure 1. 9 Railway stress analysis example 5
5 Image Courtesy of BW Engineering, 2019
Chapter 1 |13
In FEA-based fatigue analysis, the focus is on evaluating stress levels, loads, and environmental
conditions for the possible initiation of cracks, rather than capturing the crack initiation itself. The
FE model is used to identify areas of high stress under operating conditions, taking into account the
maximum and minimum stresses during cyclic loading. This approach is a typical stress analysis
field in FEA. However, recent developments in the field have made it possible to simulate crack
initiation and propagation using advanced modules for fracture mechanics, such as xFEM, which
have been integrated into software programs such as ABAQUS. These modules enable a more
accurate and detailed representation of the crack initiation and propagation process, providing
engineers with a better understanding of the failure mechanism and enabling them to develop more
effective strategies for preventing or mitigating fatigue failures.
Who should use Fe-Safe?
▌Fe-Safe can benefit a wide range of companies that manufacture products under repetitive or
random loading conditions. Manufacturing businesses with high replacement and warranty costs
may benefit from the fatigue evaluations provided by Fe-Safe. In such cases, any maintenance
expenditures become the responsibility of the corporation that owns the asset. Since downtime
caused by maintenance or failure can be costly, companies that use fatigue analysis to develop
products with longer operational lives will see a direct impact on their bottom line. While the
automotive, aerospace, and defense industries have recognized the benefits of fatigue analysis, other
industries such as construction equipment and medical gadgets can also benefit from the same
factors.
Figure 1. 10 Fe-Safe logo
Chapter 1 |14
How to Use This Book
▌This book comprises two parts. Part 1 explains the fundamental theory and background of FEA-
based fatigue analysis aimed at improving the level of learning of this book. It also includes practical
examples for those who have never experienced fatigue analysis using Fe-Safe before.
In Part 2, many practical workshop models are introduced that apply the most widely used fatigue
analysis techniques in various industries. Each workshop model comes with the necessary files to
create the model, including a geometry CAD model provided in *.sat, *.stp, or *.iges format, as well
as completed FE models in ABAQUS/CAE format. During the workshop, you can compare the
model creation process and analysis results by comparing the model created through the step-by-
step tutorial with the provided FE models in workshop folder. *.Project.7z file is compressed fatigue
analysis modeling file in Fe-Safe that includes all necessary data such as the FE solution, material
library, and fatigue load history files. Therefore, while practicing in the workshop, you can learn by
comparing the fatigue analysis results and project files created with Fe-Safe.
 Workshop folder example
You can access the workshop folder for the Part2 by pasting the download link below into your web
browser or by scanning the QR code in the following page. The model data and training materials
in each folder are only available for educational purposes and require the author’s permission to be
used outside of educational training.
 Workshop File Download Link

https://sites.google.com/view/bw-engineering/resources/abaqus_fatigue
Chapter 1 |15
 QR Code for Access Workshop File
If you have any difficulty with downloading files, or any comments and suggestions about this book,
write to us at:
LBWzippo@hotmail.com
Chapter 1 |16
Chapter 2. FEA-Based Fatigue Analysis
Chapter 2.
FEA-based Fatigue Analysis
Introduction to FEA-Based Fatigue analysis
What FEA-Based Fatigue analysis?
▌In the realm of modern structure design, fatigue analysis techniques have been developed over the
past century. The Stress-Life method (s-n method) is the first recognized technique and was
developed by August Woehler, a German engineer, in the 1870s, after his extensive testing on
railway axles. Initially, these techniques were relatively simple, consisting of comparing constant
amplitude stresses measured from tests with material properties on test coupons. Over the years,
these techniques have become more complex with the introduction of strain-based methods to
account for local plasticity effects, crack growth prediction techniques, and multiaxial fatigue
analysis to address stresses in more than one principal direction. Vibrations with Power Spectral
Densities (PSDs) of stress are also predicted, and component-specific requirements have been
introduced, such as weld, rubber, or creep fatigue. Many Finite Element (FE) based analysis
Chapter 2 |17
programs have integrated these techniques. FE models introduce additional considerations

regarding how input data is processed and how fatigue life and damage results are post-processed.
The fatigue analysis workflow schematic below provides a visual understanding of how fatigue
analysis is performed. There are always three inputs in any life analysis, whether it is fatigue or
fracture. The first three boxes represent Material properties, Loading histories, and Geometry data.
Testing is traditionally the basis of fatigue analysis to obtain the stress-strain data under repeated
loading cycles. Testing usually determines stress-strain data that can be measured remotely from a
hot spot. Geometry and material are two critical factors to consider when examining stress
concentration. However, data acquisition through testing is subject to many limitations, such as
being impossible until a prototype is available, and fixing design problems during testing can be
difficult due to time and budget constraints. This is why FEA-based fatigue analysis is preferred for
its advantages over traditional testing. Through FEA, data required for fatigue analysis can be
generated instead of expensive testing.
Figure 2. 1 Fatigue analysis schematic
In the field of fatigue analysis, once the appropriate fatigue theory has been chosen and the FE model
created, the next crucial decision is whether to perform the calculation manually or with the
assistance of modern CAE-based fatigue software. The ultimate goal of any fatigue analysis code is
to provide a numerical estimate of the number of load cycles necessary to initiate fatigue failure,
regardless of whether the calculation is carried out manually or with software.
There are three methods available for performing fatigue calculations: manual calculation, critical
plane method, and the use of a dedicated fatigue analysis program. The manual method involves
calculating the stress range for each loading cycle and comparing it to the material's stress-life curve
to determine the number of cycles to failure. The critical plane method, on the other hand, considers
the effect of all stress components on a specific plane and selects the maximum value to predict the
Chapter 2 |18
number of cycles to failure. Finally, the fatigue analysis program method employs specialized
software that can automatically calculate the number of load cycles to failure using established
fatigue analysis theories and algorithms.
Each fatigue calculation method has its own advantages and limitations. Manual calculations, while
time-consuming and prone to errors, are cost-effective and can provide insight into the fatigue
behavior of a structure. The critical plane method can be more accurate than manual calculations
but requires a more advanced understanding of fatigue theory. Fatigue analysis programs, while
expensive, provide a fast and reliable method for determining the number of cycles to failure, as well
as other relevant fatigue analysis parameters. The choice of fatigue calculation method ultimately
depends on the user's level of expertise, available resources, and desired level of accuracy.
 Manual calculation method

When the cyclic loading is relatively simple, manual calculations using fatigue textbook are an
economical choice with reasonable accuracy. Simple cyclic loading means only one load cycling or
multiple loads with constant phase throughout the spectrum. As the loading spectrum becomes
more complex in real-world applications, where loads are in multiple directions and not in sync,
the loading spectrum becomes more complex. In this case, critical plane method can be applied.
Most fatigue researchers agree that there is a critical plane at the point of fatigue initiation that must
be taken into account when assessing fatigue.
 Critical plane method

The concept of critical plane analysis is to identify which plane of a structure is likely to be subjected
to the most stress or strain. Critical plane analysis is commonly used to analyze the effects of cyclic,
multiaxial load histories on the fatigue life. In this case, the multiaxial fatigue criteria must be used
when cyclic multiaxial loading is applied to a structure. In the analysis of FEA output, selecting the
worst-case max principal stress may sometimes give an erroneous result when stresses are out of
phase. If a load spectrum has various phase change, a critical plane method is better used to avoid
taking the peak Max Principal stress at a single moment in time during the fatigue assessment.
 Fatigue analysis software

To accurately estimate fatigue damage, modern software such as Fe-Safe must be employed, as the
critical plane method is too complex and requires calculations over multiple points from an FEA
model, making manual calculations impractical. By utilizing fatigue analysis software integrated
with FEA results, even with complex load spectrums, the setup process is straightforward and quick,
providing better comparisons to actual tests. However, it is crucial to note that initial fatigue results
Chapter 2 |19
will often require comparison and correlation. It is equally important to understand fatigue analysis
theory and statistics, in addition to FEA software and analysis processes, to obtain the best real-
world fatigue analysis results.
Chapter 2 |20
Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Fatigue Analysis
However, when the material is subjected to low-cycle fatigue or the stress levels exceed the yield
strength of the material, the Strain-Life method is the more appropriate approach. The Strain-Life
method calculates the fatigue life of the material by considering the accumulated strain energy,
which is the sum of the elastic and plastic strain energy.
The Strain-Life method is a more comprehensive fatigue assessment technique that accounts for
both elastic and plastic behavior of the material. When selecting a fatigue assessment method, it is
crucial to consider the loading conditions, stress levels, and expected material life to determine the
appropriate approach.
 Mostly defect-free, metallic parts or structures

 Components which are part of a safety-critical system, such as those in which crack initiation
plays an important role as failure criteria
 Locating the points of crack initiation, as well as the growth of cracks should be considered
 Analyzing the effects of alternative materials and different surface conditions
 Components with short lifespans, such as low cycle fatigue (LCF), in which plasticity is
dominant
 Advantages
Mean stress effect
Consider plasticity effect
 Limitations
Requires empirical modification factor for predictive results
Long life situations where surface finish and processing variables are important
Crack Growth Life

Note that Fe-Safe does not provide crack growth life analysis, so advanced fatigue analysis program
such as ABAQUS xFEM must be utilized.
Chapter 3 |74
Critical Plane Methods
▌Critical plane method is a fatigue analysis technique that considers the multiaxial loading
conditions on a material and predicts the likelihood of failure based on the orientation of the loading
plane relative to the material's microstructure. The method assumes that the fatigue life is
determined by the maximum shear stress on a hypothetical plane within the material that is
perpendicular to the direction of maximum shear strain. By analyzing the orientation of this "critical
plane" relative to the material's microstructure, the critical plane method can be used to predict the
fatigue life of a component subjected to multiaxial loading.
Many of our applications involve multiaxiality and non-proportional loading. The S-N curve is
insufficient for predicting fatigue in this case. According to many experimental data, cracks start on
particular planes known as critical planes and propagate from there. In its damage assessment
procedure, the Critical Plane Method captures the physical nature of damage. It addresses strains
and stresses on the critical planes. The critical plane model examines stress state in different
orientations in space and can incorporate the effects of multiaxiality and nonproportionality. In the
engineering community, it has gained wide acceptance because critical plane method can accurately
predict fatigue failure phenomena for many structural applications.
Figure 3. 11 Critical plane searching process
In most cases in engineering applications, the phase relationship between axial and shear stresses
does not remain constant for components subjected to a combination of axial and shear stresses. In
these cases, it is not obvious which plane will experience the most strain. In critical plane method,
strains are resolved onto multiple planes, and damage is calculated on each plane. It is necessary to
apply this type of analysis to complex strain signals with differing phase relationships, such as
principal stress/strain, maximum shear stress/strain, and Brown-Miller criteria. Fe-Safe looks for
the plane that will cause the most damage by 10 degrees. Tensile crack damage model and shear
crack damage model are used by Fe-Safe to evaluate damage on each plane. Mostly, an increment
Chapter 3 |75
of 10 degree between planes is used since it produces a less than 2% error in calculations of fatigue
life.
a) tension-torsion loading b) Applied in-phase axial and shear stress history
c) In-phase and 90° out-of-phase load d) Applied 90° out-of-phase axial and shear stress history
Figure 3. 12 Tension-torsion damage model
▌A structural element's stress state can be described by a two-dimensional tensor with three normal
and three shear components. When the volume element is oriented differently, the magnitude of
those stress changes. In other words, if we cut through a volume element and evaluate stresses on
the newly created plane, its stress state will change according to the new orientation. If the surface
normal differs from the normal of the plane, the stress state becomes two normal stresses and one
shear stress.
Figure 3. 13 Six stresses and Six strains acting on an element
Chapter 3 |76
Figure 3. 14 Stress state on different planes
A plane in a volume element has one normal stress/strain component and two shear stress/strain
components. In a critical plane model, those stress/strain components are used to define the critical
plane in a specific way. As an example, the Normal stress criterion considers the plane with the
highest normal stress range.
Figure 3. 15 Two-dimensional stress state along with normal and shear stress on an arbitrary plane
Figure 3. 16 Stress acting on a 3D plane
In-plane stress conditions, the critical plane can be determined analytically. A multiaxial stress state
and non-proportional load make the situation more challenging. Then, it is necessary to find the
critical plane numerically and evaluate load history in each plane orientation. In the Fe-Safe, both
Stress-based and Strain-based models are used to examine the critical plane where the most damage
accumulates.
Chapter 3 |77
Fatigue Algorithms in Fe-Safe
▌It is advisable to revisit the comprehensive chart below and familiarize oneself with the distinctive
the characteristics and application cases of each algorithm.
Figure 3. 17 Fe-Safe fatigue analysis algorithms
 Normal strain (CP)
Figure 3. 18 Menu tree showing normal strain criterion
For brittle materials, it is advisable to use a recommended fatigue algorithm instead of one that is
intended for ductile materials. Fatigue analysis that employs normal strain criteria can yield non-
conservative outcomes for ductile materials. To determine which plane has sustained the most
damage, fatigue lives are computed for 18 planes that are separated by 10-degree increments. The
strain history for each plane is determined using normal strains. The normal strain cycles are
extracted and adjusted to account for mean stress effects. The fatigue life is determined based on the
shortest lifespan among the series of planes.
Chapter 3 |78
 Brown-Miller Criterion
Figure 3. 19 Menu tree showing Brown-Miller strain criterion
The Brown-Miller algorithm is the most preferred fatigue analysis approach for conventional metals
at room temperature, and it is also the default algorithm for most materials in the Fe-Safe Materials
database. This algorithm is designed for multi-axial fatigue analysis and utilizes planes that are
perpendicular and inclined at a 45-degree angle to the surface. Principal strains are employed to
determine the time history of the shear strain and the strain normal to the plane. Fatigue cycles are
derived and adjusted for mean normal stress. If stress outcomes from elastic Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) are available, an elastic-plastic correction for multi-axial stress-strain is applied. If such
results are not available, elastic-plastic stress-strain dataset pairs are required, and plasticity
corrections such as Neuber's rule are disabled. Overall, the Brown-Miller algorithm offers a
conservative approach for predicting the fatigue life of a material using planes that are oriented
perpendicular and inclined at a 45-degree angle to the surface.
 Cast Iron (CP)
Figure 3. 20 Menu tree showing Cast Iron criterion
Cast Iron is a specialized algorithm designed specifically for the analysis of Cast Iron. It utilizes a
critical plane analysis approach for the assessment of multi-axial fatigue, with critical planes
perpendicular to the surface being employed. This method is equally effective for analyzing grey
iron, Compacted Graphite (CG) iron, and Nodular (SG) iron. The critical plane analysis utilizes 18
planes at 10-degree intervals perpendicular to the surface. The normal strain on the plane is used as
the damage parameter, enabling accurate fatigue analysis. Users can customize the algorithm to suit
their unique Cast Iron analysis requirements using the Analysis option, which allows for the
configuration of specialized variables. One of the critical parameters that can be configured is the
damage rate parameter (Pi) for Cast Iron. This feature allows users to adjust the Pi parameter to
Chapter 3 |79
match their specific needs, ensuring that the analysis accurately reflects the characteristics of the
Cast Iron being analyzed.
Pi (damage parameter) = 2.55(sigma 𝜎 𝜀 )-0.8
Figure 3. 21 Cast Iron algorithm parameters
 Maximum shear stress

The Max shear Stress algorithm is known to produce conservative life estimations for ductile metals,
which can be considered as a safety margin. However, it can potentially yield unsafe life predictions
for brittle metals. The algorithm employs principal strains to derive the time-dependent history of
shear strain. Subsequently, cycles of shear strain are computed and corrected for mean stress, which
is a crucial factor affecting fatigue life. The critical plane multi-axial fatigue algorithm used in this
study is similar to the previously described algorithms. However, it adopts a critical plane approach
with two distinct orientations, perpendicular and 45 degrees. The damage is computed based on the
maximum shear stress acting on the critical plane, which is a more accurate representation of fatigue
behavior than other stress-based criteria.
▌The following shows representative analysis algorithms in HCF, stress-life approach.
 Stress-Based Brown-Miller (HCF)

This Stress-based Brown-Miller algorithm is valid only under circumstances where plasticity is
absent. The life cycle is represented by S-N curves. However, for nodes with a lifespan less than 10 6
cycles, plastic deformation is likely to occur, and therefore, this algorithm may not be appropriate.
Despite being as dependable as the Brown-Miller algorithm, this method is only appropriate for
high-cycle fatigue issues.
 Von Mises Life (HCF)

This Von Mises Life algorithm employs von Mises stress as the damage parameter. However, it is
not recommended for general fatigue analysis since von Mises stress is always positive and sign
Chapter 3 |80
attribution is necessary. Moreover, there is a possibility of sign oscillation, which can occur when
the hydrostatic stress approaches zero. Consequently, the use of von Mises stress values for fatigue
analysis can result in erroneous hot spots that may not be representative of the actual fatigue
behavior.
 FKM Guidelines analysis (HCF)

The stress-based compliance algorithm has been developed based on the FKM guideline titled
"Analytical Strength Assessment of Components Made of Steel, Cast Iron, and Aluminum Materials,
6th Edition." As per the guideline, this algorithm is suitable for assessing fatigue life expectations
that exceed 10,000 cycles. Unlike other finite life algorithms in Fe-Safe, FKM guidelines do not
provide an estimate of life. Instead, the user specifies the expected load life, and the algorithm
calculates the utilization based on it. The utilization is evaluated by comparing the highest stress
amplitude to the variable amplitude fatigue strength. It is feasible to evaluate the fatigue strength of
the component if the highest degree of utilization is less than or equal to 1. The following Workshop
10B in Chapter 10 will focus on the practical application of FKM guidelines, providing participants
with hands-on experience.
 Dang Van analysis (HCF)

The Dang Van criterion is utilized to predict the endurance limit of multiaxial components
subjected to complex loading conditions. It provides an endurance criterion for analyzing high-
cycle fatigue in multiaxial components, with its output expressed as a safety factor instead of a
fatigue life. This criterion requires specific material parameters, which are calculated from tensile
and torsion tests. It is essentially a pass/fail test, where the analysis determines whether a component
is capable of withstanding infinite life under given loading conditions. To perform Dang Van
analysis, two additional material parameters are required, including stress data for at least two
different stress ratios. At each node, the Dang Van analysis calculates three parameters, namely, the
FRF using a radial line, the FRF using a vertical line, and a pass/fail survival value indicating whether
the calculation shows infinite life.
Dang Van criterion is commonly employed in engine and powertrain applications, where numerous
cycles of combined loading, such as bending and torsion, are present. The forthcoming Workshop
10A in Chapter 10 will offer practical training on the implementation of Dang Van analysis,
providing participants with hands-on experience in the field.
Chapter 3 |81
Summary
To summarize, there are four recommended criteria for fatigue analysis. In Part 2 of the workshop
model, we will be utilizing representative analysis algorithms such as the following:
 Brown-Miller, with mean stress corrections, for ductile metals

 Principal (or axial) strain, with mean stress corrections, for brittle metals
 Cast iron, with mean stress corrections, for cast irons
 Dang Van for infinite life design
Chapter 3 |82
Fatigue Loadings
▌The majority of all components, structures, and vehicles are subjected to a wide range of load
histories and then eventually fracture due to repeated loads. The main difference between fatigue
fracture and other fractures is that fatigue fracture occurs under repetitions of loading-unloading,
this cyclic loading is called fatigue loading. Some loads histories may be simple and repetitive.
Others may be completely random. The randomness may contain substantial portions of more
deterministic loading. As fatigue loads fluctuate irregularly, the frequency of load changes and the
load magnitude fluctuate, such that random loading occurs. Random loading is defined as
irregularly fluctuating loading namely irregular loading.
Figure 3. 22 Examples of irregular fatigue cyclic load
These load histories are typical of those found in real-life engineering situations. Some real-life load
histories can occasionally be modeled as essentially constant amplitude. Constant amplitude loading
is used to obtain material fatigue behavior for use in fatigue design. The figure below shows the
definition of various variables using σmin and σmax in the constant load history.
Figure 3. 23 Stress history nomenclature
Load ratio R is defined as the ratio of the minimum and maximum loads during the fatigue loading.
Without the environmental effects, the load ratio has a more significant effect on the fatigue crack
growth. R= -1 and R= 0 are two common reference test conditions used for obtaining fatigue
properties. R= -1 is called the fully reversed condition. R=0 is called pulsating(repeated) tension.
One cycle is the smallest segment of the stress vs. time history which is repeated periodically. In
Chapter 3 |83
constant amplitude loading, one cycle equals two reversals. Meanwhile, under variable amplitude
loading, the definition of one cycle is not clear and hence reversals of stress are often considered.
Figure 3. 24 Fatigue loading: Fully reversed, Repeated, fluctuating
▌Mean stress effect is a phenomenon that occurs in fatigue analysis, where the mean stress level
acting on a material affects its fatigue strength. When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, the
maximum stress level and the minimum stress level are referred to as the stress amplitude. The
mean stress level is the average stress level over the loading cycle. The magnitude and direction of
the mean stress have a significant impact on the fatigue life of a material. In general, high tensile
mean stresses reduce the fatigue life of a material, while high compressive mean stresses can extend
the fatigue life. This is because tensile mean stresses increase the crack growth rate and reduce the
crack closure, while compressive mean stresses reduce the crack growth rate and increase the crack
closure. However, there is a transition point where the mean stress level has little effect on the fatigue
life of the material, known as the fatigue limit or endurance limit. In fatigue analysis, mean stress
correction methods can be used to adjust the S-N curve (stress amplitude versus number of cycles
to failure) to account for the effect of mean stress on fatigue life. These methods include the
Goodman diagram, the Gerber diagram, and the Soderberg diagram. The appropriate method to
use depends on the loading conditions and material properties.
Figure 3. 25 Comparison of mean stress equations
Chapter 3 |84
Fatigue loading definition in Fe-Safe

Fatigue loading conditions can be defined in many ways with Fe-Safe. It is possible to define very
complex loading conditions. It is possible to combine and superimpose these fatigue loading
conditions in a very flexible manner. In addition, PSD's, dynamics, Rainflow matrices, and other
capabilities are supported. Supported fatigue loading methods include followings.
 Component load history based on FEA results

 FEA stress sequences
 Multi-axial load histories can be superimposed to create a time history of the stress tensor
at each location
 Multiple block loadings consisted with a constant amplitude or more complex cycles
The chart below shows the fatigue loading definition method supported by Fe-Safe. The simplest
way to use is a simple loading method, which combines a single stress tensor dataset from the FEA
with a simple load cycle. In this simple load, a load can be created with two conditions.
 FEA stress (Unit load = 1) + Loading history (Real values variation)

 FEA stress (Max load) + Loading history (Proportion of Max load: -1.0 ~ +1.0)
Figure 3. 26 Fatigue loading definition method
▌Most of the fatigue loads are applied using scale-and-combine loading method. Each stress
dataset in an imported FE data results file includes the collection of a Unit (=1) load analysis for
multiple cases. Each stress dataset can be applied a load history. To produce a stress history for the
combined loading, the stress tensor from each stress dataset is scaled by the relevant load history
for each node. Load history loadings can be defined directly in the Fe-Safe user interface, or using
the load definition LDF file.
Chapter 3 |85
Figure 3. 27 Scale-and-combine method
In Fe-Safe, load history can be imported from many industry-standard file formats.
 Industry standard binary DAC file (*.dac)
 Analogue multi-channel data file (*.amc)
 ASCII single and multi-channel data files (*.txt, *.asc)
Chapter 3 |86
Factors on Fatigue Life
▌The endurance of a component or structure subjected to cyclic loading until failure is referred to
as its fatigue life. The fatigue life is influenced by numerous factors, such as cyclic and residual
stresses, material properties, internal defects, grain size, temperature, design geometry, surface
quality, oxidation, and corrosion. Components can be categorized based on their fatigue life,
starting from low to high, such as thermal shock, high temperature LCF, low temperature LCF, and
high temperature LCF. If no failures occur after ten million cycles, a component can be considered
safe for an infinite number of cycles when evaluating the risk of fatigue failure. The total fatigue life
is comprised of the lives of crack initiation and crack propagation. As the stress level required for
crack initiation is higher than that for crack propagation, the fatigue life heavily relies on the cyclic
loading history.
Estimating a component's fatigue life can be done using strain, stress, or energy techniques.
However, fatigue is a complex subject and affected by multiple factors, making it more effective to
model fatigue mechanisms using a macro phenomenological method rather than a microscopic
approach. Load type and geometry (size and concentration) are important factors that can be
reflected through FEA calculations in fatigue analysis. These factors are already considered in the
stress dataset in FEA-based fatigue analysis. However, in Fe-Safe, other effects such as surface
treatment, residual stress, temperature, and reliability must also be taken into account and reflected
in the fatigue analysis.
Figure 3. 28 Factors on fatigue life
Chapter 3 |87
Workshop 3A
Fatigue life estimation of Aircraft Landing gear with
multi-axial load
▌Landing gears have been an integral part of aircraft since their first flight. Early landing gears in
the 20th century were basic in design, lacking wheels and retraction capabilities. The retractable
landing gear was developed during World War II and underwent various configurations. With the
increasing size and weight of aircraft, more advanced landing gear systems were required. In
modern commercial aircraft, retractable landing gear systems are employed. This essential aircraft
component supports the aircraft's weight on the ground and encompasses several necessary
components for safe landing and takeoff. These hardware components include landing gear struts
that absorb the shocks during landing and taxiing, brakes that stop and steer the aircraft, and nose
wheel steering. As a result, the landing gear is subjected to cyclic loading with multi-axial loads.
The design, monitoring, and management of landing gears are crucial for ensuring aircraft safety.
When designing a landing gear structure for the fatigue-limit state, the objective is to guarantee that
the structure remains intact for the landing gear's lifespan. In this workshop, fatigue analysis was
conducted with the aim of achieving a target life of 5,000 repeats for landing case scenarios. Due to
Chapter 3 |88
the geometrical complexity of landing gears, multiaxial stresses exist even under uniaxial loads.
Landing gear failures are responsible for about 60% of aircraft malfunctions, with fatigue failure
being the leading cause. The workshop model considered a medium-sized aircraft with a tricycle,
retractable landing gear composed of two Main Landing Gears and a Nose Landing Gear. The model
in this workshop utilized a Nose landing gear strut, as depicted in the figure below. The loading case
examined comprised vertical force, side force, and internal hydrostatic pressure. This workshop
model presents fatigue analysis of the landing gear nose strut subjected to multi-axial loads.
Figure 3A. 1 FE model of nose landing gear strut and load spectrum for landing case
Figure 3A. 2 Various landing loads
Objectives
 Introduce analysis process for landing load cases of the nose strut
 Practice generation of fatigue load with multi-load dataset
 Understand how to handle multi-axial fatigue load case with Brown-Miller fatigue algorithm
Chapter 3 |89
…Workshop Folder/3A LG_MultiaxialLoad/ Folder Path

3A_LG_Strut.sat Geometry file
3A_LG_MultiaxialLoad.CAE ABAQUS Model file
3A_LG_Signal.amc Load file
3A_LG_MultiaxialLoad_Project.7z Fe-Safe project file(completed)
The linear static analysis is implemented to evaluate the nose landing gear of the aircraft. The
landing gear incorporates a strut that is manufactured using SAE4130, a widely employed material
in the aerospace sector due to its exceptional robustness. The FEA takes into consideration three
distinct load scenarios that act on the nose strut to produce a stress dataset. This dataset is
subsequently utilized in Fe-Safe for conducting fatigue analysis of the landing gear, a critical
component of the aircraft.
* FE model unit is [MKS: meter, kg, seg].
Part and Mesh

First step in the analysis of nose strut is geometry creation. The strut model is generated by CAD
program and export it as *.sat file. Import this model to CAE.
File  Import  Part  select 3A_LG Strut.sat OK
Part filter | Combine into Single Part | Merge solid regions OK
Figure 3A. 3 Create part from ACIS file window setup and imported geometry
Chapter 3 |90
Creates tetrahedron-shaped elements in the imported geometry. Since the geometry has a complex
shape, mesh can be generated using automesh with tetra element(C3D10) as shown below. Since
the model is a single part, mesh generation is directly done in the model tree of the part. Use the
Query function to check the status including the type and number of created elements .
Model tree | Part  select Mesh and Double Click  Seed | Size=0.015  Apply
Mesh  Mesh Control  Tet  OK
Mesh  Part  Yes
Query  Mesh  Query entire part | Done
Figure 3A. 4 Generated mesh model and mesh status
Properties
Input the material properties of this component made of stainless steel. The strut was manufactured
using SAE4130 material. To find SAE4130 properties, check the material system database in Fe-Safe,
and input its corresponding material properties.
Material  Create | Name=SAE4130  Mechanical | Elasticity | Elastic  Young’s

Modulus=220e9 | Poisson’s ratio=0.33  OK
Section  Create  Solid | Homogeneous  Material=SAE4130  OK
Assign  Section  Select entire part  OK
Chapter 3 |91
Figure 2A. 29 Fe-Safe material DB showing SAE4130 and Section assignments
To begin, navigate to the material database window within Fe-Safe. Locate and expand the
'system/SAE4130' material that will be utilized in this workshop. Look for the values of E (MPa) and
Poisson's ratio, being careful of the units of measurement used for the material. You can compare
the s-n and e-n curves visually by selecting the appropriate data files and plotting them together.
Since the stress level experienced during the landing process falls within the LCF regime, the EPN
curve will be utilized for the subsequent fatigue analysis.
Material Database | system  Select SAE4130

Main Menu | Material  Generate Material Plot data  Output option | check stress
life curve (*.sn) and strain-life curve(*.epn) OK
Highlight EPN and SN curves in loaded data files and RMB (Right Mouse Button)
 Overlay Plots
Figure 3A. 5 s-n and e-n curves for SAE4130
Assembly
Create an instance in assembly module.
Instance  Create  Select part  OK
Chapter 3 |92
Step
Create a linear perturbation step for 4 load cases and configure the stress field request in every n(n=1)
increment. This setting allows for the recording of stress-field data for each load cases.
Step  Create  Static, linear perturbation | Remain default OK

Output  Field Output Request  Manager | Select Step-1 Created | Frequency=
Every n increment | n=1 | Remain default OK
Figure 3A. 6 Field output request setup
Interaction
Datum must be established for the load bearing point. Following this, a reference point (RP) is to
be located at the position of a virtual piston that is attached to the inner surface of the housing.
Subsequently, multiple landing load scenarios to be applied to the RPs in accordance with the
prescribed specifications.
Tools  datum | point | enter coordinate | 0, 0, -250.E-03

Tools  Reference point  Select center datum point  OK
Constraint  Create | Type=Coupling  Select Create RP and Surface (inner
surface as shown below) | Type=Kinematic | Check all DOF | Remains default 
OK
Figure 3A. 7 Constraint for applying load
Chapter 3 |93
Load and Boundary Conditions

Make sure both ends of the strut are fixed to the aircraft body as shown in the below. Also fix the
two lug holes supported by the drag brace.
BC  Create | Name=BC-1 | Step-1 | Mechanical | Sym/Antisym/Encast  Select

internal hole surface of both ends (see figure) | u1=u2=u3=0  OK
BC  Create | Name=BC-1 | Step-1 | Mechanical | Sym/Antisym/Encast  Select
inner surfaces of two lug holes (see figure) | u1=u2=u3=0  OK
Figure 3A. 8 Boundary conditions
During landing scenarios, the various load cases on the generated RP are represented as
concentrated forces. The hydraulic force that functions as a shock absorber and acts on the inner
housing during the landing period is defined as pressure exerted on the inner surface of the strut
housing, as illustrated below.
Load  Create | Name=DragForce | Mechanical | Concentrated force  Select RP

at the bottom | CF1=7200 OK
Load  Create | Name=SideForce_L | Mechanical | Concentrated force  Select
RP at the bottom | CF2=2400 OK
Load  Create | Name=SideForce_R | Mechanical | Concentrated force  Select
RP at the bottom | CF2=-2400 OK
Load  Create | Name=VerticalLoad | Mechanical | Concentrated force  Select
RP at the bottom | CF3=22550 OK
Load  Create | Name=Hydrostatic | Mechanical | Pressure  Select inner surface
of strut(see figure) | Magnitude=2.6e7 OK
Figure 3A. 9 Drag Force and Side Force definition
Chapter 3 |94
Figure 3A. 10 Hydrostatic load application
Multi-axial loads arise in different combinations within the landing gear strut. The load
combinations for the four cases are established based on the design load based on the design
requirement diagram.
Load Case  Create | Name=LoadCase-1-Vert  Under Loads tab | click ‘+(add)’

| Select DragForce, Scale Factor=0.5  repeat this for Hydrostatic(0.8) and
Vertical Load(3) as shown below
Under BC tab | click ‘+(add)’ | Select BC-1, Scale Factor=1  OK
Figure 3A. 11 Load cases setup for vertical load
Repeat above two steps for Side-R, Side-L, and Drag Load cases (see figures)
Chapter 3 |95
Figure 3A. 12 Load case setup for Side-R/L and Drag load cases
Job and Results

Given the relative simplicity of the analysis model, the analysis process is expected to be brief. After
conducting the analysis, it is advisable to carefully examine the results obtained. Once the analysis
has been completed, expanding the frame set within the model tree, as illustrated in the
accompanying figure, reveals the creation of four frames. Each of these frames stores a specific load
case in a sequential order. Upon opening the results for the 4th frame, it becomes apparent that
stress concentration areas emerged around the lug hole situated in the center of the strut, specifically
under the Drag load case.
Job Create Select Model Submit

Job Manager  Results  Plot contour | Primary | S | Mises
Figure 3A. 13 Von mises stress distribution for Drag load case
The stress fields related to the four load cases required for fatigue analysis are stored within the
result file (*.odb). Check the directory path of the folder where the result file is being stored before
proceeding to the subsequent stage, performing fatigue analysis.
Chapter 3 |96
In the nose landing gear strut, multi-axial loads are applied in various combinations as applied in
the FE analysis. Fatigue life of different metallic structure like LG strut under multiaxial loading is
evaluated by employing the critical plane-based criterion in Fe-Safe. According to such a criterion,
the multiaxial fatigue strength is assessed through an equivalent stress expressed by a linear
combination of the normal stress amplitude and the shear stress amplitude acting on the critical
plane. The critical plane orientation is determined by Fe-Safe search algorithm.
In this workshop, multi-axial load fatigue analysis will be performed by combining the stress data
of four load cases extracted from the FE analysis results and the cyclic spectrum generated during
landing. The analysis model used Brown-Miller fatigue model which is the default analysis
algorithm of SAE4130 material.
Import FE analysis result
Start Fe-Safe  Create

Tools  Clear Data and Settings | Default  OK
File  FE Solutions  Open Finite Element Model  Select *.odb file  Open
Quick Select | Check Stresses and Last increment only  Select Increment 1, 2,
3, 4 | Stress as shown below  OK
Figure 3A. 14 Create new project and Select Dataset to read from FE analysis results
The Loaded FEA Models Properties dialogue box appears after the model is loaded. The unit system
should be matched with FE model. So, configure MKS unit for this fatigue analysis.
Chapter 3 |97
Then, manage groups dialogue box appears. Among all group elements in the analysis group, only
one element group (material setup group) including all elements is selected and set as an analysis
group.
Manage Groups  select /unused groups/SAE4130  Click   OK
Figure 3A. 15 Manage group setup
Fatigue Loading Setup

Open the cyclic load file ‘3A_LG_Signal.amc’ in Loaded Data Files window. If you open the file in
a text editor, it is composed of numerical data having 4 columns. In the data description, it is
described as a spectrum for 1 minute (100 samples). The first column is the number of samples, and
followings are the vertical landing force, drag force, and side force, respectively.
File  Data Files  Open Data File(s)  Select ‘3A_LG_Signal.amc’  OK

RMB on #2(Vertical)  check cyclic data plot
Figure 3A. 16 Loaded data files (cyclic load)
In the Current FE Models window, select the first dataset titled Dataset 1: (1,1): stress (vertical
load case) and select #2 (vertical load spectrum), add Load*Dataset in Loading Setting Tab. In
general, a scale factor is applied in fatigue analysis. Here, scale = 2 is input as follows. Then, create
an elastic block by pairing the stress data with the spectrum as follows.
Dataset #2 + Spectrum #4 (Side R)

Dataset #3 + Spectrum #4 (Side L)
Dataset #4 + Spectrum #3 (Drag)
Current FE Models Window | Select Dataset 1: (1.1) S: Stress  Loaded Data Files
Window | Select #2(loaded file)  Loading Setting Tab | Add  A Load * Dataset
Chapter 3 |98
Repeat above steps for Dataset #2, #3, and #4

RMB on Elastic Block  Select Scale  Enter ‘2’
* The set-up screen should be as follows.
Double click ‘Loading is equivalent to …’ | 1 Repeats  OK
Figure 2A. 30 Loading setup window
Fatigue Analysis Setup

In the Analysis setting tab, the material and analysis algorithm required for fatigue analysis are
defined. Select ‘SAE4130’ included in the system folder in the material database and apply it to the
fatigue analysis model. In the analysis setting, the Stress Concentration Factor according to the
surface treatment (Fined machined) is defined and the Residual Stress condition is defined. The
most important Fatigue analysis algorithm is also defined at this step. The default algorithm for
SAE4230 is Brown-Miller model.
Material Database Window  Select system/SAE4130

Fatigue From FEA | Analysis setting tab  Double click Material column header
 Change Material? | Confirmation dialogue  Yes
Group Algorithm | Highlight ‘Default’  Select ‘Do Not Analyze’  OK
Group Algorithm | Double click ‘Algorithm’ column header  Select ‘Analyze with
material’s default algorithm’  OK
Double click ‘Surface Finish’ column header  Select ‘Select surface finish from
list’ | File= default Kt | Surface finish = Fine Machined -4 < Ra <=16um  OK
Other options  Factor of Strength (FOS) | check ‘perform factor of strength
calculations?’ | User-defined design life = 5000 Repeats  OK
Figure 3A. 17 Fatigue analysis setup
All settings for Fatigue analysis have been completed. Check the output folder location and run the
fatigue analysis. Fatigue analysis result is recorded in ASCII code and binary format(*odb file) so
that it can be visualized in ABAQUS/CAE.
Chapter 3 |99
Run the Analysis

Fe-Safe should be properly configured to run the analysis. Check the analysis summary and run the
analysis.
Fatigue From FEA window | Analysis  Check the analysis summary  Continue
Figure 3A. 18 Fatigue analysis configuration summary
Chapter 3 |100
Review Results
After conducting fatigue analysis, it was determined that the worst-case scenario would result in
2163 repeats before fatigue damage occurs. This calculation was based on defining the landing
profile 1min (100 sample) spectrum as one repeat. Additionally, the worst factor of safety (FOS) for
5000 repeats was determined to be 0.863. If the calculated life is lower than the targeted design life,
the elastic stresses at each node are scaled by a factor less than 1.0. In such cases, the elastic stress
history is re-calculated using the rescaled nodal stresses and FOS.
View  view FEA Fatigue Results Log
Figure 3A. 19 Analysis completed pop-up window
Plot contour in ABAQUS/CAE

Fatigue analysis results can be easily visualized as contour plots within ABAQUS/CAE in LOGLife-
Repeats format, allowing for easy identification of fatigue hot spots. The Fe-Safe results file, which
is stored in binary format, includes all of the FE analysis data. The output DB model tree, which
includes the Fe-Safe result, also contains all existing FE analysis results. Once the most fatigue-
weakest elements have been identified using Fe-Safe, it is simple to verify the FE analysis result
directly within the model tree by determining which load case places the greatest damage on the
affected area among various load cases. In this case, the worst LOGlife-repeats value is 3.335,
indicating that 103.335, or 2163 repeats, can be sustained before fatigue damage occurs. This value
is consistent with the result obtained from Fe-Safe.
Locate fatigue *.odb file  Open ‘Job-1Results.odb’  Output DB Model tree |

Step-1 | Check Von mises stress in Frame:1 ~ 4
Output DB Model tree | Fe-Safe_01/Frame:0  Contour Plot Options | Color&Style
| Spectrum | Reversed rainbow  Apply
Field output | Primary | LOGLife-repeats
Chapter 3 |101
Figure 3A. 20 Von mises stress distribution in Frame:1(Vertical load case)
Figure 3A. 21 LOGLife-repeats contour plot in ABAQUS/CAE
Re-analysis with finer surface treatment

Up to this point, fatigue analysis of the aircraft nose landing gear strut has been conducted using
Fe-Safe, which was subjected to multi-axial load cases. This analysis has provided knowledge of the
fundamental process for multi-axial load cases. To expand upon this study, we will alter the current
model by updating only the surface finish condition and perform a comparative analysis of the
results. Specifically, we will refine the surface roughness to (1.6 < Ra <=4 um Ra) and compare the
fatigue life analysis results to the previous result.
Analysis setting window | Double Click ‘Surface finish’ | default.kt | Surface finish
= 1.6 < Ra <= 4 um  OK
Analyze  OK  Continue  Overwrite files
Figure 3A. 22 Updated analysis results with better surface treatment
Chapter 3 |102
Upon comparing the analysis results, it was observed that an enhancement in surface finish
condition with finer roughness resulted in a significant improvement in fatigue life. The fatigue life
was found to have increased by nearly 36%, 2958 repeats. It is worth noting that components
subjected to high stress and repetitive loads, such as landing gear, require precise management of
surface roughness to resist crack initiation. Therefore, surface treatment processes such as shot
peening are often employed to enhance the fatigue performance of such structures.
Import Fe-Safe Project File

The working folder contains the completed Fe-Safe analysis project, represented by the *.project.7z
file used in this workshop. This project file includes whole set of data such as FEA solution data,
loading data, and material data, allowing readers to complete the workshop exercises and compare
their analysis results. In this section, how to import and utilize the project file will be described. To
import a project, you can either do it with an open project or without one. If an existing project is
open, Fe-Safe will prompt the user to confirm whether the operation will overwrite any files.
Tools  Clear Data and settings | Select all option  OK

File  Project  Import Projects  Select 3A_LG_Multiload.project.7z  Open |
Overwrite  OK
* Check the contents of imported project
Figure 3A. 23 Configurations of imported project.7z model
* Ignore error and warning message that said unregistered material or unable to find file
locations.
Compare the results with the workshop model.
Chapter 3 |103
Figure 3A. 24 Fatigue analysis results of Imported porject.7z model.
Check model file folder

* Locate the imported file folder …/project/project_01/
The External files section includes data generated during the modeling process, such
as material databases, loading data, and other Kt data.
Figure 3A. 25 Model file folder contents
Chapter 3 |104
Chapter 4. Engineering Applications
Chapter 4.
Engineering Applications of Fatigue Analysis
Engineering applications that require fatigue analysis
▌Since fatigue fractures account for about 90 percent of all mechanical failures, fatigue is a major
consideration in the design and performance evaluation of materials, components, and structures.
The failure of a material due to fatigue is defined by progressive cracking under repeated alternating
or cyclic stress, often at an intensity much lower than the normal strength. Regardless of its brittle
nature, the fatigue crack can take some time to propagate. Cyclic loading can lead to fatigue failure
in all structures and mechanical components. Design and manufacturing requirements for avoiding
fatigue failure vary for each case and should be taken into consideration during the design process.
Below figure shows one example of failure investigation report by the author. Failure of the fuel tube
in a jet engine augmenter assembly has been investigated. A routine inspection detected that the
fuel tube connected to the fuel augmenter was completely fractured into two pieces in two separate
jet engines. Both fractures of the tubes occurred adjacent to a mounting area in the engine
augmenter assembly. Fractographic observation revealed that fatigue cracking was initiated from
multiple origins on the outer surface of the tube and progressed over 95% due to fatigue along the
Chapter 4 |105
circumference, ultimately resulting in fracture. Features of the fractured surfaces in both failed tubes
showed almost identical morphologies. X-ray observations showed no evidence of defects in the
joint area. 3D scanning technology was employed to precisely measure the tubes, which revealed
that both failed tubes had significant dimensional mismatches with the design drawings. Stress
analysis including both finite element analysis and X-ray diffraction was used to identify the stress
concentration level of the failed tube. Through detailed investigation, it was revealed that the
primary reason for premature fatigue cracking of the fuel tube was unintended assembly stress due
to the force of mounting the tube during installation.
Figure 4. 1 Example of Fatigue Crack (jet engine fuel augmenter) 12
Figure 4. 2 Example of FEA for the fatigue failure
12
BW Lee, Failure investigation of fuel tubes of a jet engine augmenter assembly, Engineering Failure Analysis Vol 62, 2016
Chapter 4 |106
Fatigue analysis is a crucial aspect of engineering design that is used to predict the durability of a
component or structure under repeated loading. Finite element analysis (FEA) is a widely used
method for simulating the behavior of structures under various loading conditions, including
fatigue loading. In this context, there are several engineering applications that require fatigue
analysis using FEA.
One such application is the design of aircraft components, such as wings, fuselages, and engine parts.
These components are subjected to repetitive loading during flight, which can lead to fatigue failure
if not properly designed. FEA can be used to simulate the stresses and strains that occur during
flight and predict the fatigue life of the component. This can help engineers optimize the design to
improve the fatigue resistance and ensure safe and reliable operation.
Another application is the design of automotive components, such as engine parts, suspension
components, and chassis structures. These components are subjected to cyclic loading during
operation, which can cause fatigue failure if the design is not optimized. FEA can be used to simulate
the loading conditions and predict the fatigue life of the component. This can help engineers
optimize the design to improve the fatigue resistance and ensure safe and reliable operation.
A third application is the design of offshore structures, such as oil rigs and wind turbines. These
structures are subjected to harsh environmental conditions, including cyclic loading from waves
and wind, which can cause fatigue failure if not properly designed. FEA can be used to simulate the
loading conditions and predict the fatigue life of the structure. This can help engineers optimize the
design to improve the fatigue resistance and ensure safe and reliable operation.
In conclusion, there are many engineering applications that require fatigue analysis using finite
element analysis. These include aircraft components, automotive components, and offshore
structures, among others. FEA can help engineers optimize the design to improve the fatigue
resistance and ensure safe and reliable operation.
The author proficiently applied finite element analysis (FEA) to investigate failures of aircraft
components in the field. FEA-based fatigue analysis has become a crucial task across all industries,
with the aerospace and nuclear industries prioritizing durability as the foremost design factor due
to its direct influence on safety during the operational lifespan. Furthermore, the assessment of
durability through fatigue analysis is a highly active practice in various industrial fields.
Chapter 4 |107
Figure 4. 3 Engineering fatigue analysis demand industries
Job Market for Engineering Fatigue Analysis
The job market for engineering fatigue analysis is relatively small but highly specialized. It is
considered a niche area within the broader field of engineering, and therefore the number of job
opportunities available may be limited. However, the demand for individuals with expertise in this
area has been on the rise in recent years, particularly in industries such as aerospace and automotive
engineering, where fatigue analysis is critical for ensuring the safety and reliability of components.
In terms of the job prospects and compensation, engineering fatigue analysis is considered to be a
high-paying job, on par with other high-skilled engineering positions. According to the Bureau of
Labor Statistics (BLS), the median annual wage for aerospace engineers, who often require expertise
in fatigue analysis, was $118,610 in May 2020. This figure is higher than the median annual wage
for all occupations in the US.
The specific salary for an engineering fatigue analysis position may vary based on factors such as
industry, geographic location, and level of experience. However, it is generally considered to be a
well-paying job with promising career prospects for those with the requisite skills and expertise.
Chapter 4 |108
If you look at job search website such as Glassdoor(glassdoor.com/), indeed(indeed.com/), or

LinkedIn(linkedin.com/) you can easily find the job opening announcements for fatigue analysis
engineers in a wide variety of fields.
Figure 3. 29 Example of job openings for fatigue analysis engineers
What’s required job skills for competitive fatigue analyst? First and foremost, a strong foundation
in engineering fundamentals is crucial for this role. This includes a deep understanding of
mechanics, materials science, and stress analysis, which are all essential to accurately predict and
analyze fatigue failures in engineering components. In addition to technical expertise, proficiency
in specialized software tools such as FEA (Finite Element Analysis) software and statistical analysis
tools is also a key requirement for this role. Knowledge of relevant industry standards and
regulations, such as FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) regulations for aerospace engineering,
may also be required. Effective communication skills are another essential requirement for a fatigue
analysis engineer. The ability to present complex technical information in a clear and concise
manner to both technical and non-technical stakeholders is critical, as the results of fatigue analysis
can have significant implications for the design and safety of engineering components.
Given the interdisciplinary nature of fatigue analysis, an engineering fatigue analysis position may
also require collaboration with professionals from other fields, such as materials science, physics,
and mathematics. Therefore, the ability to work in a team environment and effectively communicate
with individuals from diverse backgrounds is important for success in this role. Finally, attention to
detail, critical thinking skills, and the ability to work with large and complex data sets are also
essential skills for an engineering fatigue analysis position. It is important to note that the specific
skills required for a fatigue analysis engineer may vary based on the industry and type of engineering
components being analyzed. However, the above-mentioned skills provide a general overview of
what may be required in this position.
Chapter 4 |109
Let us examine a few specific examples in detail. It is evident that the majority of job postings for a
fatigue engineer require a diverse range of technical proficiencies, including expertise in FE analysis,
dynamics analysis, DTA (Damage Tolerance Analysis), and stress analysis. In other words, the
ability to perform FEA-based fatigue analysis is a critical requirement for this position. Additionally,
recruitment notices seeking experimental-based engineers for durability testing are easily
identifiable. It should be noted that the compensation for fatigue engineers is generally higher than
that of general engineers. Although FEA-based fatigue analysis is not a novel field, it is a
foundational responsibility that underlies the creation of many industrial products.
Recent trends for Engineering Fatigue Analysis field
Fatigue analysis based on finite element (FE) simulation is an indispensable facet of product
development across numerous industries, including aerospace, automotive, and industrial
manufacturing. Due to the recent rapid development of computation technology and simulation
technology, many changes are occurring in the traditional fatigue analysis field as follows.
 High fidelity of finite element analysis solution

The accurate prediction of a product's fatigue life is of paramount importance in ensuring its safety
and reliability. In recent years, there has been a noticeable shift towards the development of new
modeling techniques in FEA-based engineering fatigue analysis. High fidelity Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) is a field that involves using advanced computational methods to simulate complex
systems in engineering and scientific domains. Recent years have seen several trends driving new
research and development in this field. One significant trend is the development of new algorithms
for modeling complex material behaviors. Researchers use machine learning techniques to predict
material properties based on microstructural features, allowing for more accurate simulations.
Another trend is the use of multi-physics simulations, which couple multiple physical phenomena
like fluid flow and structural deformation to provide more realistic representations of complex
engineering systems. Efficient numerical methods are also being developed, including hybrid finite
element methods that combine different finite element formulations for better accuracy and
computational efficiency. Additionally, researchers explore parallel computing techniques such as
domain decomposition and adaptive mesh refinement to speed up FEA simulations. Lastly,
advanced visualization techniques are employed to better understand FEA results. Virtual reality
and augmented reality are used to visualize complex simulations and explore engineering designs
in an immersive way.
Chapter 4 |110
Overall, high fidelity FEA is an exciting field of research, with many developments that improve the
accuracy, efficiency, and visualization of FEA based analysis.
 Integrated design process

Furthermore, there is a discernible shift towards the integration of fatigue analysis into the design
process during the early stages of product development. This approach helps to identify potential
fatigue-related issues at an early stage of the design process, thus minimizing the risk of costly
product failures and recalls. Additionally, the emergence of lightweight and high-strength materials,
such as composites and alloys, has led to the development of specialized fatigue analysis techniques.
In the past, when designers completed their design, they conducted fatigue analysis which would
reveal if there were any issues regarding fatigue. This process was not only costly, but also time-
consuming since it could require a redesign of the structure. However, due to recent advancements
in computational tools and simulation techniques, fatigue analysis can now be integrated into the
early stages of the design process. This enables engineers to predict the behavior of the design when
under fatigue and make necessary adjustments to ensure that it meets the required fatigue life.
One of the primary reasons for this trend is the rising demand for lightweight and high-performance
structures in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and marine. These structures face complex
loading conditions, which make accurate fatigue analysis essential to their reliability and safety over
their service life. By integrating fatigue analysis into the design process, engineers can optimize the
design for both performance and fatigue life, resulting in more efficient and cost-effective designs.
Another crucial aspect of this trend is the development of standardized fatigue analysis procedures
and guidelines. International standards organizations such as ASTM and ISO have established
standard procedures for fatigue analysis, which have been broadly adopted by the industry. This has
helped ensure consistency and accuracy in fatigue analysis, making it easier to integrate into the
design process. Overall, the integration of fatigue analysis into the design process has become a
critical aspect of engineering design. It enables engineers to optimize their designs for both
performance and fatigue life, resulting in more efficient and reliable structures.
 Extended Finite Element Method

As the demand for intricate and innovative products surges, advanced fatigue analysis tools have
become necessary. Engineers are increasingly adopting advanced software tools, such as finite
element analysis (FEA), to simulate and evaluate product performance under different loading
conditions and scenarios. One prominent trend in FEA-based fatigue analysis is the development
of novel modeling techniques. For instance, researchers have proposed the use of extended finite
Chapter 4 |111
element method (XFEM) to model crack propagation in intricate geometries and decrease the
computational costs of traditional methods.
▌The Extended Finite Element Method (xFEM) is a numerical technique used in engineering to
simulate the behavior of cracks in structures. xFEM is an extension of the Finite Element Method
(FEM) that allows for the use of discontinuous functions in the solution space. xFEM has several
advantages over traditional FEM methods, including the ability to accurately model the complex
behavior of cracks, such as initiation, propagation, and interaction with other cracks and boundaries.
One of the key benefits of xFEM is its ability to simulate crack propagation in a range of materials
and structures. By introducing enrichment functions at appropriate nodes, xFEM can accurately
model the onset and growth of cracks. This technique can also capture mixed-mode crack
propagation and identify the critical region(s) for nodal enrichment, which is a challenging task for
traditional FEM methods. xFEM is also useful in modeling structures with complex interfaces and
inclusions. It can be used to model heterogeneities and discontinuities in a variety of materials,
including rock and functionally graded materials. Additionally, xFEM has been combined with
optimization algorithms to identify crack parameters and predict fracture growth in plate structures
Figure 4. 4 Example of xFEM analysis: Bolt thread stripping failure with CXFEM
Overall, xFEM is a powerful tool for simulating cracks in structures and offers advantages over
traditional FEM methods. It is capable of accurately modeling crack initiation, propagation, and
interaction with other cracks and boundaries, as well as modeling structures with complex interfaces
and inclusions. Its ability to capture mixed-mode crack propagation and identify the critical
region(s) for nodal enrichment make it an attractive choice for crack simulation in a range of
materials and structures.
 Multi-scale modeling to account for Microstructure

Another approach is the use of multi-scale modeling to account for the effects of microstructure on
fatigue behavior. The microstructure of materials plays a significant role in fatigue behavior, and
Chapter 4 |112
multi-scale modeling is a powerful tool that can account for the microstructure of the material to
estimate fatigue life more accurately.
Figure 4. 5 multi-scale modeling case example 13
Multi-scale modeling involves the integration of information from different length scales into a
single model to capture the behavior of the material accurately. At the microscale, the
microstructure of the material, such as grain boundaries and defects, affects the local stress and
strain fields and can initiate fatigue cracks. At the macroscale, the propagation of these cracks
through the material leads to failure. To account for the microstructure, multi-scale modeling
techniques can be used to simulate the behavior of the material at different length scales. One such
technique is the use of deterministic and probabilistic analyses to model fatigue life prediction of
materials and structural details. Another technique is the use of path planning algorithms to
calculate the crack growth length and estimate the fatigue crack growth life of metal matrix
composites. It is important to note that the fatigue behavior of materials can be affected by various
factors, such as stress amplitude and stress ratio. In mechanical design, material fatigue has a very
important place, and a large amount of research and development activities are devoted to
preventing or estimating the fatigue behavior of parts.
 Advanced Material Modeling

Advanced material modeling is also an area of focus in FEA-based fatigue analysis. Researchers have
been developing new constitutive models to address the nonlinear and anisotropic behavior of
composite materials. Additionally, machine learning algorithms have been gaining popularity for
predicting material properties and fatigue life.
13
Linwei Wu et al. 2019, MULTISCALE MODELING FOR HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE: A REVIEW, DOI: 10.1615/IntJMultCompEng.2018022827
Chapter 4 |113
 Aid of Machine Learning

Machine learning algorithms have been gaining popularity for predicting material properties and
fatigue life. Engineering design and maintenance rely heavily on accurate fatigue analysis of critical
components, particularly those subject to cyclic loading. Predicting the fatigue life of a component
is a challenging task, as it depends on various factors, including loading conditions, material
properties, and geometry. Machine learning (ML) technology offers a promising solution to
enhance fatigue analysis by providing accurate predictions based on complex datasets. ML
technology can enhance the field of engineering fatigue analysis as follows.
Figure 4. 6 Machine Learning Illustration (by A.I. image generator)
One approach to enhance fatigue analysis with ML is to develop models that can accurately predict
the fatigue life of components under different loading conditions. For example, Baker Hughes 14
developed a frequency domain technique for fatigue assessment on tensile layers of flexible risers.
This approach builds transfer functions based on chosen time-domain simulations and predicts the
total stress spectrum for other cases. Dirlik's approximation method is used to estimate the fatigue
damage based on the stress spectrum. This methodology can benefit from ML algorithms to
improve the accuracy of stress spectrum prediction. Another approach is to use ML to develop
models that can detect fatigue driving factors and predict the fatigue life of components under
different loading conditions. Gong15 developed a method of fatigue driving detection based on deep
learning and model building. The method is based on a data set, and the results of the method are
14
Baker Hughes, 2022, Machine Learning in Fatigue Analysis for an Unbonded Flexible Riser, https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/OMAE/
proceedings/OMAE2022/85871/V003T04A017/1147738
15
Shujuan Gong, 2020, https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/3524889.3524900
Chapter 4 |114
Chapter 8. Modal Transient Fatigue Analysis
Manage groups  Remove entire list in Analysis Groups  Select ‘Material-1’ in

unused groups  click   OK
Material Database Window  Select system | AL2014-T6
Fatigue From FEA | Analysis setting tab  Double click Material column header
 Change Material? | Confirmation dialogue  Yes
Group Algorithm | Highlight ‘Default’  RMB | edit  Select ‘Do Not Analyze’ 
OK
Group Algorithm | Double click ‘Algorithm’ column header  Select ‘Analyze with
material’s default algorithm’  OK
Double click ‘Surface Finish’ column header  Select ‘Select surface finish from
list’ | File= default Kt | Surface finish = Machined -16 < Ra <=40um  OK
Other options  Factor of Strength (FOS) | check ‘perform factor of strength
calculations?’ | User-defined design life = 8000 Hours  OK
Analysis options  Algorithms tab | Safety Factors  Band definition | max=2,
max fine=1.5, min fine=0.8, min=0.5  OK
Figure 8A. 14 Fatigue analysis setup
All settings for Fatigue analysis have been completed. Check the output folder location and run the
fatigue analysis. Fatigue analysis result is recorded in ASCII code and binary format(*odb file) so
that it can be visualized in ABAQUS/CAE.
Run the Analysis

Fe-Safe should be properly configured to run the analysis. Check the analysis summary and run the
analysis.
Figure 8A. 15 Fatigue analysis configuration summary
Chapter 8 |238
Review Results
After conducting a fatigue analysis, the element with the worst life was identified as element 17529
with a calculated life of 9303 hours. The syntax format used was element [0] 17529.1:5, which refers
to the first node of the element and the 5th shell section point. The worst factor of safety (FOS) for
8,000 hours was found to be 1.016. This indicates that the entire structure meets the fatigue life
requirement for 8,000 hours and also has a margin to withstand more severe external excitation of
up to about 1.6%.
View  view FEA Fatigue Results Log
Figure 8A. 16 Analysis completed pop-up window
Plot contour in ABAQUS/CAE

The results of the fatigue analysis can be shown as contour plots in ABAQUS/CAE using LOGLife-
hours, enabling identification of the fatigue hotspots. In this case, the element located at the edge of
the lug hole where the actuator was attached had the shortest fatigue life.
Locate fatigue odb file  Open ‘Job-1Results.odb’  check LOGLife-Hours and

FOS@Life-8,000hours
Contour Plot Options | Color&Style | Spectrum | Reversed rainbow  Apply
Field output | Primary | LOGLife-Hours
Query  Probe Values | check ‘ Key-in label’ and Probe=element | element label
= 17529
Figure 8A. 17 Worst LOGlife-hours location
Chapter 8 |239
Figure 8A. 18 Identification of worst life element
Sensitivity analysis to determine the most damaging mode

By conducting modal transient fatigue analysis, the weakest location in the aircraft door structures
with respect to fatigue life was determined, and it was found that the entire structure meets the
requirement of 8,000 hours of fatigue life. Modal response analysis was used to examine the
structural response characteristics in different modes, and in some cases, it is important to identify
the mode of damage that is the most critical. In such cases, a sensitivity analysis is required.
Output file | click ‘Exports’  List of Items | enter 17529 | check ‘only analyze
listed items’  Log for Items tab | Load sensitivity | Check ‘Enable load sensitivity
analysis’  OK
Analyze  OK  Continue  Overwrite files
After the analysis is complete, the results and logs are displayed. The impact of each mode on fatigue
analysis is shown as a percentage for each node connected to element 17529. This percentage change
indicates the increase in fatigue life value by omitting the mode. The mode with the highest
percentage calculated is considered the most damaging mode. This sensitivity analysis helps to
identify which mode of damage is the most severe.
Figure 8A. 19 Sensitivity analysis result
Chapter 8 |240
Upon reviewing the result log, it was observed that mode 2 exhibited the highest percentage change
in fatigue life. The 2nd mode shape is characterized by torsion at the lug location, which results in
a significant stress concentration in the lug and leads to the most severe fatigue damage. Thus, to
enhance the fatigue life of the weakest region, a redesign is required to reduce the suspected
torsional strain.
Figure 8A. 20 2nd Mode shape
Chapter 8 |241
Chapter 9. Fatigue Analysis using TCD Method
Chapter 9.
Fatigue Analysis using TCD Method
Chapter 9 |242
What’s TCD Method?
▌The Theory of Critical Distances (TCD) is a widely utilized technique to evaluate fracture behavior
in metallic structures subjected to complex loading conditions. The method was initially developed
by G.R. Irwin during the 1960s and has been improved by numerous researchers over the years. The
TCD method aims to anticipate the critical crack size that will result in the catastrophic failure of a
metallic structure. The most fundamental concept is to utilize crack propagation curves in order to
assess whether a crack that originates will lead to failure. The determination of whether the crack
will propagate is based on the stress at a certain distance below the surface. This crucial distance is
a material property referred to as the 'critical distance'.
Figure 9. 1 Concept of theory of TCD Point Method
The concept of evaluating the effects of stress within a zone, rather than at a single point, was
introduced several years ago, but it is only recently that TCD concepts have been shown to be a
valuable extension of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM). This is primarily due to
advancements in computational power, which have made the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) more
commonly used and have facilitated the extraction of stress fields that are useful in fatigue and
durability analysis. TCD integrates classical fracture models by considering the impact of microscale
phenomena in the fracture process, utilizing a single material parameter, the critical distance, L.
Therefore, TCD acts as a bridge between continuum mechanics and LEFM. Ongoing research
investigates the reasons for this connection and its implications. Although there is extensive
literature on TCD, industrial applications are limited. This workshop provides an overview of TCD
concepts and applications, emphasizing the significance of these theories in real-world applications.
Chapter 9 |243
Figure 9. 2 Crack initiation location of the speed brake due to stress concentration 19
▌It's important to note that critical distance values can vary depending on the specific TCD method
being used, as there are several variations of the TCD method. For instance, some TCD methods
use a single critical distance value for a given material, while others may use multiple critical distance
values to account for different loading scenarios. Moreover, the critical distance values for a given
material can also vary depending on the type of crack being evaluated (e.g., surface cracks,
embedded cracks, etc.) and the method used to detect and measure the crack.
The Theory of Critical Distances (TCD) is a widely used tool in engineering component design,
offering a straightforward approach based on post-processing of FEA. TCD requires only one
additional material parameter, the critical distance, for its implementation. However, for
engineering components with complex shapes, the method may be challenging to apply due to the
necessity of a fine mesh and stress/distance path information. The TCD method can predict fatigue
behavior using the hot spot stress, or the highest stress at the notch root. This allows users to make
predictions without the need to acquire the stress at the critical distance or make extensive mesh
adjustments.
Figure 9. 3 Critical distance in line method(2rc) and point method(rc) in TCD method
19
Chapter 9 |244
HOW to use TCD Method?
▌The TCD method is advantageous due to its simplicity and minimal data input requirements,
making it a preferred option for analyzing various metallic structures, such as buildings, bridges,
and complex machinery. The process involves measuring the size and location of existing cracks,
applying mathematical models to determine the expected stress and strain under different loading
conditions, and utilizing the TCD method to predict the critical size of potential future cracks and
the best strategy for avoiding catastrophic failure. The TCD method is a useful tool for engineers
designing metallic structures, as it considers the intricate interplay between material properties,
geometry, and loading conditions to ensure the structures can endure the expected stresses and
strains throughout their lifespan. When performing fatigue life analysis of a component or structure,
accounting for mean stress effects is crucial. The Critical Distance calculation is a widely used
method to estimate fatigue life, which incorporates the use of MSC. The Critical Distance provides
various MSC algorithms, including Goodman, Gerber, Smith Watson Topper, Walker, and User-
defined mean stress correction. The following workflow demonstrates the steps in applying the TCD
method using ABAQUS and FE-Safe.
Figure 9. 4 TCD Fatigue analysis workflow
Chapter 9 |245
Workshop 9A
Fatigue analysis of Wing Attachment Bracket using
TCD method
Chapter 9 |246
▌The purpose of this workshop model is to perform fatigue life analysis considering crack initiation
by applying the TCD method. This workshop model shows how to do Factor of Strength (FOS)
assessments in Fe-Safe using Theory of Critical Distance approaches. The model is an aircraft wing
attachment bracket subjected to torsional and bending loads. As shown in the figure below, the wing
attachment bracket serves to connect the wing and the fuselage, and is a structure that plays a very
important role in transferring up/down bending and torsion from the wing to the fuselage main
frame. For this part, high-strength metals such as Titanium are applied in the case of fighters with
severe maneuvering. This model is made of aluminum 2024-T4 structural metal.
Figure 9A. 1 CAD model of Aircraft Attachment Bracket
Objectives
• Understand the fundamental principles of TCD method in infinite fatigue life analysis.
• Acquire the skills to conduct FE analysis using load cases to generate stress dataset
• Understand how to deal with the TCD related parameters in fatigue properties
• Gain knowledge on how to interpret the TCD method results to determine the crack growth
status
…Workshop Folder/9A FatigueTCD/ Folder Path

9A_Bracket.sat Geometry file
9A FatigueTCD.cae ABAQUS Model file
9A FatigueTCD.project.7z Fe-Safe project file(completed)
Chapter 9 |247
▌The FE analysis involved calculating the stress field by subjecting the wing attachment bracket to
up/down bending load and clockwise/counter-clockwise torsion, as illustrated below. The analysis
was conducted in a simple and straightforward manner, wherein the four load cases were applied
and stress fields were calculated for each case (up bendingdown bendingpositive torsion
negative torsion).
* FE model unit is [MKS: meter, kg, seg].
Figure 9A. 2 Loading and Boundary Conditions for FE model
Part and Mesh

The initial stage of the FE analysis involves creating a geometry model. The bracket model is created
using a CAD program and exported as a *.sat file, which is then imported into CAE. Since the CAD
model is constructed based on MKS units, no further scaling is necessary during the import process.
File  Import  Part  select 9A_bracket.sat OK

Part filter | Combine into Single Part | Merge solid regions OK
Figure 10A. 1 Imported wing attachment bracket part
Chapter 9 |248
A proper mesh is generated for the imported geometry, which is a single part model. The mesh can
be directly created from the model tree with a global seed size of 3mm. To apply the TCD method,
it is necessary to obtain highly detailed stress data in the stress concentration areas. The critical
distance, L, is the most important factor in increasing the reliability of the TCD method. To ensure
proper interpolation of stresses for TCD calculations, the model must be meshed with at least four
elements over a critical distance 2L for the 'Line method' and at least two elements over a critical
distance L/2 for the 'Point method'. Stress concentration areas are identified through preliminary
analysis, and these areas should be meshed with fine elements while considering the critical distance
by applying edge seeds. The critical length of the Al2024 material is 2.2mm. If the 'Line method' is
selected for the TCD analysis, at least two elements must be included in the critical length, which
makes a 1mm edge seed appropriate.
Model tree | Part  select Mesh and Double Click  Global Seed | Size=0.003 
Apply
Mesh  Control  Select whole body  Element shape: Tet OK
Mesh  Seed  Select hole edges and corner edges (refer to figure)  element
size = 0.001  Apply
Mesh  Part  OK
Query  Mesh  Query entire part | Done
Figure 9A. 3 Finer mesh generation in stress concentration area
Figure 9A. 4 Generated mesh model
Chapter 9 |249
Properties
Enter the material properties of this component made of Al2024. Check the material DB of Fe-Safe
to find out Al2024-T4 under material system DB and input the material properties based on that.
Material  Create | Name=Al2024  Mechanical | Elasticity | Elastic  Young’s

Modulus=70.25e9 | Poisson’s ratio=0.33  OK
General | Density =2850  OK
Section  Create | Name=Section-1  Solid | Homogeneous | Material=Al2024 
OK
Assign  Section  select entire region | select Section-1  OK
Figure 9A. 5 Elastic properties of Al2024
Assembly
Create instance in assembly module.
Instance  Create  Select part  OK
Step
In the step, creates one static, linear perturbation and applies four individual loads.
Figure 9A. 6 Step generation
Step → Create | Step-1 → Static, Linear perturbation | Remain default → OK

Output → Field Output Request → Manager | Select Step-1 | Frequency= every n
increment | Output variables= S, U | Remains default → OK
Interaction
To simplify the application of the load on the bracket, we assume the wing spar to be a rigid body.
As a result, apply bending and torsion to a single reference point by coupling it with the fastening
holes and one reference point. To apply the load conditions on the attachment bracket, reference
Chapter 9 |250
points at the center points of the fastening holes are generated. Then, a kinematic coupling is created
to connect the reference point to the wing spar attachment holes.
Tools  Datum | Point | Midway between two points  Select the center point of
the holes on both sides (see figure)
Tools  Reference point  Pick the generated datum point
Constraint  Create | Name=Constraint-1  Coupling | select RP | region
type=Surface | Select surface (see figure)  Done  Type=Kinematic  D.O.F =
check all U1~UR3  OK
Figure 9A. 7 Constraints RP at the center point of the fastening holes
Load and Boundary Conditions

A fixed condition is applied to inner surfaces of the fastening holes and four loads are applied to the
RP at the wing span side as shown below.
BC  Create | Name=BC-1 | Step-1 | Mechanical | displacement/rotation  Select
inner surfaces of fastening holes | select  fixed  OK
Figure 9A. 8 Boundary condition
Chapter 9 |251
Appendix
Appendix C.
FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)
If readers do not have prior knowledge of fatigue analysis before reading the book, they will find it
very helpful to start by reading the FAQ first.
This FAQ draws upon my 20 years of experience working in on-site engineering, and seeks to
address the most frequently asked questions I've encountered over that time. It is designed to
provide new and novice engineers with a comprehensive starting point for understanding the
fundamentals of engineering fatigue analysis in real-world industrial settings. While the topics
covered are diverse and wide-ranging, I believe that this FAQ will prove to be an invaluable resource
for anyone looking to get started with fatigue analysis without prior professional experience.
Whether you are seeking to broaden your knowledge or develop new skills, this FAQ has been
carefully crafted to provide you with the insights and guidance you need to succeed in this exciting
and challenging field.
1. What is fatigue analysis and why is it important in engineering design?

Fatigue analysis is a type of structural analysis that studies how materials behave and fail when
they are subjected to repeated or cyclic loads. Cyclic loads are those that vary in magnitude and
direction over time, such as wind, waves, traffic, or vibrations. Fatigue analysis helps engineers
understand how long a material can withstand cyclic loads before it develops cracks or breaks.
appendix |407
Appendix
Fatigue analysis is important in engineering design because many engineering structures and
components experience cyclic loads during their service life. For example, bridges, aircrafts,
ships, pipelines, turbines, and machines are all exposed to fatigue loading. If fatigue is not
considered in the design process, these structures and components may fail prematurely or
catastrophically, causing safety hazards, economic losses, and environmental damages.
Fatigue analysis involves several steps: defining the loading conditions and cycles; determining
the stress or strain response of the material; estimating the fatigue life or damage based on
fatigue models or criteria; and evaluating the reliability or probability of failure. Fatigue analysis
can be performed using analytical methods, experimental methods, numerical methods (such
as finite element analysis), or a combination of these methods.
2. What are the main causes of fatigue failure and how can they be mitigated in engineering
design?
Fatigue failure is a type of failure that occurs when a material is subjected to repeated or cyclic
loads that cause cracks to initiate and grow until the material breaks. Fatigue failure can be
caused by several factors, such as:
 High cyclic stress or strain levels that exceed the fatigue limit or endurance limit of the
material
 Stress concentrations or notches that increase the local stress or strain at certain regions of
the material
 Surface defects or damage that act as crack initiation sites
 Corrosion or environmental effects that accelerate crack growth
 Metallurgical flaws or defects that reduce the fatigue strength of the material
 Improper heat treatment or surface treatment that alter the microstructure or residual stress
of the material
Fatigue failure can be mitigated in engineering design by applying various methods, such as:
 Reducing the cyclic stress or strain levels by using lighter materials, optimizing geometries,
minimizing loads, etc.
 Avoiding stress concentrations or notches by using smooth transitions, fillets, chamfers, etc.
 Improving surface quality and integrity by using polishing, shot peening, coating, etc.
 Protecting against corrosion or environmental effects by using corrosion-resistant materials,
coatings, inhibitors, etc.
 Ensuring good metallurgical quality and properties by using appropriate materials, heat
treatment, surface treatment, etc.
 Performing regular inspection and maintenance actions to detect and repair cracks before
they become critical
appendix |408
Appendix
3. How do you choose appropriate fatigue life prediction methods for different types of
engineering components?
Different engineering components need different fatigue analysis methods to predict how long
they can last before breaking due to repeated loading. To choose the best method, you need to
know how and why each component fails and what factors affect its fatigue life. Some of the
factors are the shape and size of the component, the type and amount of loading, and the
material it is made of.
There are three main types of methods you can use: analytical, numerical, and empirical. One
common approach is to use analytical methods, such as the stress-life method or the strain-life
method, which are typically applicable for simple geometries and loading conditions. These
methods rely on mathematical models to predict fatigue life based on the material properties
and the applied stress or strain levels. For more complex geometries and loading conditions,
numerical methods such as finite element analysis (FEA) can be used. FEA involves breaking
down the component into smaller elements and simulating the loading and deformation of each
element over time. This approach can provide a more accurate prediction of fatigue life for
complex components. Another approach is to use empirical methods, such as fatigue life curves
or S-N curves, which are based on experimental data and are commonly used in industry. These
methods provide a convenient and straightforward way to estimate fatigue life, but may not be
as accurate as analytical or numerical methods. The best method for your application depends
on what you need and what you have. You should understand how each method works and what
its advantages and disadvantages are before choosing one. You should also think about things
like cost, time, and resources when choosing a method.
4. What are the limitations of finite element analysis in fatigue analysis?

Finite element analysis (FEA) is a numerical method that can simulate the loading and
deformation of complex components and predict their fatigue life. However, FEA also has some
limitations that need to be considered when using it for fatigue analysis. Some of these
limitations are:
 FEA requires a lot of computational resources and time, especially for large-scale or dynamic
problems.
 FEA depends on the quality and accuracy of the mesh, the material model, the boundary
conditions, and the loading data. Any errors or uncertainties in these inputs can affect the
reliability of the FEA results.
appendix |409
Appendix
 FEA may not capture some important factors that influence fatigue behavior, such as
residual stresses, surface roughness, defects, microstructure, environmental effects, etc2.
These factors may require additional experimental data or correction methods to account
for their effects on fatigue life.
5. What are some best practices for fatigue analysis using ABAQUS with Fe-safe?
ABAQUS is a FEA software that can perform stress and strain analysis of complex components
under various loading conditions. Fe-Safe is a fatigue analysis software that can use the FEA
results from ABAQUS to predict fatigue life using different fatigue models and criteria. Some of
the best practices for fatigue analysis using ABAQUS and Fe-Safe are:
 Use a compatible version of ABAQUS and Fe-Safe that can communicate with each other.
 Define the material properties and fatigue parameters for your component in Fe-Safe, such
as fatigue strength, endurance limit, S-N curve, etc.
 Perform a static or dynamic analysis in ABAQUS to obtain the stress or strain history of
your component under cyclic loading. Make sure to use an appropriate mesh size and
element type for your component geometry.
 Export the FEA results from Abaqus to Fe-safe using an ODB file format. You can also use
a direct interface between Abaqus and Fe-safe if available.
 Select a suitable loading method and fatigue model in Fe-safe based on your loading type
and failure mode. For example, you can use stress-life, strain-life, or fracture mechanics
models for different types of fatigue problems.
 Run the fatigue analysis in Fe-Safe and check the output results, such as fatigue life, damage,
safety factor, etc. You can also view the critical locations and cycles where fatigue failure
occurs.
This book covers all the topics above. So, best way to learn engineering fatigue analysis is to
study this book.
6. How can the results from fatigue analysis be incorporated into the design process?
Fatigue analysis is an important tool for designing components that are subjected to cyclic
loading and can fail due to fatigue. The results from fatigue analysis can help engineers to
improve the design of components by:
 Selecting suitable materials that have high fatigue strength and resistance.
 Optimizing the geometry and size of components to reduce stress concentrations and hot
spots.
appendix |410
Appendix
 Applying surface treatments or coatings to enhance fatigue performance.

 Modifying the loading conditions or frequency to reduce fatigue damage.
 Establishing a safe design life or a maintenance schedule based on fatigue life predictions.
By incorporating the results from fatigue analysis into the design process, engineers can ensure
that their components meet the required performance and reliability standards and avoid
premature failure due to fatigue. This can also save costs, time, and resources in the long run.
7. What are some current trends and challenges in fatigue analysis for different types of
engineering components, such as those used in aircraft, automotive, and wind turbine
industries?
Fatigue analysis is a vital aspect of engineering design for various types of components that are
exposed to cyclic loading and can experience fatigue failure. Some of the current trends and
challenges in fatigue analysis for different types of engineering components are:
 For aircraft components, such as wings, fuselage, landing gear, etc., fatigue analysis needs to
account for complex loading scenarios, such as gusts, maneuvers, take-off and landing cycles,
etc., as well as environmental effects, such as corrosion, temperature variations, humidity,
etc. Fatigue analysis also needs to consider the effects of damage tolerance and crack
growth on the structural integrity and safety of aircraft components.
 For automotive components, such as engine parts, suspension systems, chassis frames, etc.,
fatigue analysis needs to cope with the increasing use of lightweight materials, such as
aluminum alloys, composites, etc., that have different fatigue properties and behavior than
conventional materials. Fatigue analysis also needs to incorporate the effects of
manufacturing processes, such as welding, forming, machining, etc., that can introduce
residual stresses and defects that affect fatigue performance.
 For wind turbine components, such as blades, towers, gearboxes, etc., fatigue analysis needs
to deal with the challenges of variable wind speed and direction that cause fluctuating loads
on the components. Fatigue analysis also needs to address the uncertainties and variability
in material properties and loading data that can influence fatigue life predictions.
These are some examples of how fatigue analysis is evolving and adapting to meet the demands
and requirements of different types of engineering components. By overcoming these challenges
and developing new methods and models for fatigue analysis, engineers can improve the design
and reliability of their components.
appendix |411
Appendix
8. What are some common sources of error in finite element analysis-based fatigue analysis,
and how can they be avoided?
Finite element analysis (FEA) based fatigue analysis is a powerful technique for predicting
fatigue life of complex components under various loading conditions. However, there are some
common sources of error in FEA based fatigue analysis that can affect the accuracy and
reliability of the results. Some of these sources of error are:
 Modeling errors due to simplifications or assumptions made in the FEA model, such as
geometry, material properties, boundary conditions, loading cases, etc. These errors can
cause discrepancies between the FEA model and the real component behavior and
performance. To avoid these errors, it is important to validate and verify the FEA model
using experimental data or analytical solutions whenever possible.
 Meshing errors due to inappropriate mesh size or element type used in the FEA model.
These errors can cause numerical inaccuracies or instabilities in the FEA solution, especially
near stress concentrations or singularities where high stress gradients occur. To avoid these
errors, it is advisable to use a fine mesh and suitable element type for regions of interest and
perform a mesh convergence study to ensure that the FEA solution is independent of the
mesh size.
 Fatigue analysis errors due to incorrect selection or application of fatigue models or
parameters used in the fatigue analysis software. These errors can cause unrealistic or
inaccurate fatigue life predictions that do not match with experimental observations or
theoretical expectations. To avoid these errors, it is essential to choose a suitable fatigue
model and parameters that match with the loading type and failure mode of the component
and calibrate them using experimental data if available.
These are some examples of how errors can occur in FEA based fatigue analysis and how they
can be avoided by following good practices and procedures. By minimizing these errors,
engineers can improve their confidence and trust in their FEA based fatigue analysis results.
9. What is the difference between stress-based and strain-based fatigue analysis methods?
The difference between stress-based and strain-based fatigue analysis methods is that they are
suitable for different regimes of fatigue loading. Stress-based models are frequently used to
predict “high-cycle fatigue”, where the applied stress is low and elastic. Strain-based models are
suitable for predicting “low-cycle fatigue”, where the applied strain is high and plastic.
appendix |412
Appendix
These models are based on a fatigue-life curve, which provides a direct relation between the
fatigue life and the applied stress or strain amplitude. The stress-based models use an S-N curve,
while the strain-based models use an ε-N curve.
More details are described in Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Fatigue Analysis, “When to use Stress
vs. Strain life method”
10. What are some common methods for reducing fatigue damage in engineering applications,
and how effective are they?
Fatigue damage is a phenomenon that occurs when a structure or a material is subjected to
repeated or fluctuating loads that cause cracks or failures over time. Fatigue damage can reduce
the performance, reliability and safety of engineering applications.
Some common methods for reducing fatigue damage in engineering applications are:
 Improving the design and geometry of the structure or material to avoid stress
concentrations, sharp corners, notches, etc.
 Improving the material properties and quality to increase its strength, toughness, ductility,
etc.
 Applying surface treatments or coatings to enhance the resistance to corrosion, wear,
abrasion, etc.
 Applying residual stresses or prestresses to counteract the applied loads and reduce the
effective stress range
 Reducing or controlling the magnitude, frequency and variability of the applied loads
 Inspecting and repairing any cracks or defects before they propagate
The effectiveness of these methods depends on various factors such as:
 The type and nature of the fatigue loading (e.g., axial, bending, torsion, random, harmonic,
etc.)
 The type and nature of the fatigue failure mode (e.g., high cycle fatigue, low cycle fatigue,
crack initiation, crack propagation etc.)
 The type and nature of the structure or material (e.g., shape size weight composition
microstructure etc.)
 The type and nature of environmental effects (e.g., temperature humidity corrosion erosion
etc.)
appendix |413
Appendix
Therefore, it is important to consider these factors when selecting an appropriate method for
reducing fatigue damage in a specific engineering application.
11. How do I determine the appropriate loading spectrum for a given fatigue analysis?
The loading spectrum for a given fatigue analysis is a set of data that describes the different
fatigue loads and their frequencies of occurrence that a structure experiences in service. The
loading spectrum is an important condition for fatigue life prediction, reliability design and
structural fatigue test of mechanical structures.
To determine the appropriate loading spectrum for a given fatigue analysis, you need to consider
several factors, such as:
 The type of structure and its application domain (e.g., aerospace, vehicle, wind energy,
railway, etc.)
 The sources of load variation (e.g., operational conditions, environmental effects, random
events, etc.)
 The methods of data collection and processing (e.g., field measurements, laboratory tests,
numerical simulations, statistical analysis, etc.)
 The forms of data representation and discretization (e.g., tables, matrices, graphics,
histograms, rainflow counting method etc.)
Depending on these factors, you may need to use different techniques and tools to obtain and
analyze the loading spectrum for your fatigue analysis. More details of how to manipulate with
fatigue loading signals is described in Workshop 4A in this book.
12. What are some common challenges that arise when conducting fatigue analysis with
ABAQUS and Fe-Safe?
Fatigue analysis with ABAQUS and Fe-Safe is a powerful technique that can predict the fatigue
life of a structure or a material under cyclic loading conditions. ABAQUS is a finite element
analysis software that can perform stress and strain calculations based on various loading
scenarios, while Fe-Safe is a fatigue analysis software that can use the stress and strain data from
ABAQUS to estimate the fatigue damage and life based on various fatigue models.
appendix |414
Appendix
Some common challenges that arise when conducting fatigue analysis with ABAQUS and Fe-
Safe are:
 Choosing an appropriate constitutive model and material parameters for the structure or
material of interest
 Choosing an appropriate fatigue model and criteria for the failure mode of interest (e.g.,
high cycle fatigue, low cycle fatigue, crack initiation, crack propagation, etc.)
 Choosing an appropriate loading spectrum and boundary conditions for the loading
scenario of interest
 Ensuring that the mesh size and convergence criteria are adequate for obtaining accurate
results
 Ensuring that the data transfer between ABAQUS and Fe-Safe is correct and consistent
These challenges require careful consideration of various factors such as geometry, material
properties, loading history, environmental effects, etc. They also require validation of the results
with experimental data or other methods.
13. How can I set up a fatigue analysis simulation in ABAQUS and Fe-Safe, and what input
parameters should I consider mostly?
To set up a fatigue analysis simulation in ABAQUS and Fe-Safe, you need to perform the
following steps:
 Create a finite element model of your component in ABAQUS and apply the appropriate
boundary conditions, loads and material properties.
 Run a static or dynamic analysis in ABAQUS to obtain the stress or strain results.
 Export the ABAQUS output file (.odb) to Fe-Safe using the direct interface option.
 Define the fatigue parameters in Fe-Safe, such as fatigue model, mean stress correction, load
cycle definition and damage accumulation rule.
 Run the fatigue analysis in Fe-Safe to obtain the fatigue life and damage results.
Some of the input parameters that you should consider mostly are:
 The type of fatigue model that suits your material behavior and loading condition. For
example, if you have high-cycle fatigue with constant amplitude loading, you can use a
stress-life (S-N) model. If you have low-cycle fatigue with variable amplitude loading, you
appendix |415
Appendix
can use a strain-life (ε-N) model. If you have multiaxial loading or non-proportional loading,
you can use a critical plane model.
 The mean stress correction method that accounts for the effect of mean stress on fatigue
life. For example, if you use a S-N model, you can choose from various methods such as
Goodman, Gerber or Soderberg. If you use a ε-N model, you can choose from various
methods such as Morrow or Smith-Watson-Topper.
 The load cycle definition that specifies how to extract cycles from your load history. For
example, if you have variable amplitude loading, you can use methods such as rainflow
counting or peak-valley counting to identify cycles with different amplitudes and
frequencies.
 The damage accumulation rule that determines how to combine the damage from different
cycles. For example, if you assume linear damage accumulation, you can use Miner's rule
which states that the total damage is equal to the sum of fractional damages from each cycle.
14. How do I generate S-N curves for materials that do not have readily available data?
To generate S-N curves for materials that do not have readily available data, you need to perform
the following steps:
 Prepare test specimens of your material with a standard geometry and surface finish.
 Subject the specimens to constant amplitude cyclic loading with different stress levels and
stress ratios using a fatigue testing machine.
 Record the number of cycles to failure for each specimen and plot them on a log-log scale
against the alternating stress.
 Fit a linear regression line through the data points and obtain the slope and intercept of the
S-N curve.
 Repeat the process for different loading conditions or environmental factors if needed.
15. How do I generate Fatigue material properties which is not included in Fe-Safe material
database?
To generate fatigue material properties that are not included in Fe-Safe material database, you
need to perform the following steps:
 Obtain experimental data for your material under different loading conditions and
environments. You can use methods such as S-N curves, strain-life curves, crack growth
curves or creep-fatigue curves to characterize your material behavior.
appendix |416
Appendix
 Import your experimental data into Fe-Safe using the Material Data Wizard. You can choose
from various formats such as CSV, Excel or XML to import your data.
 Define the fatigue parameters for your material such as fatigue model, mean stress
correction, damage accumulation rule and failure criteria.
 Save your material data as a custom library in Fe-Safe and assign it to your component.
16. What is the role of residual stresses in fatigue analysis, and how can they be accounted for?
Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a material after it undergoes a manufacturing
process or a loading-unloading cycle1. They can have a significant role in fatigue analysis, as
they can affect the stress range, crack initiation and crack propagation of a component under
cyclic loading.
Residual stresses can be accounted for in fatigue analysis by using different methods, such as:
 Superposition method: This method assumes that the residual stresses are constant and
independent of the applied stresses. The total stress is obtained by adding the residual stress
and the applied stress. This method is simple but may not be accurate for large residual
stresses or plastic deformation.
 Relaxation method: This method considers that the residual stresses may relax or change
due to the applied stresses. The relaxation behavior can be modeled by using empirical
equations, experimental data or finite element analysis. This method is more realistic but
may require more computational effort.
 Critical plane method: This method focuses on the orientation and location of the critical
plane where fatigue damage occurs. The critical plane is determined by using a fatigue
criterion that accounts for both normal and shear stresses. The residual stresses are projected
onto the critical plane and combined with the applied stresses to calculate the fatigue life.
In Fe-Safe, critical plane method is employed to account for the effect of the residual stresses. It
should be configured during the fatigue analysis setup to reflect the effect of the residual stresses.
17. How do I perform damage tolerance analysis using ABAQUS and Fe-Safe?
Damage tolerance analysis is a method of ensuring structural safety throughout the life of a
structure by accounting for possible defects and cracks that may grow with usage. It consists of
three parts: calculating the permissible crack size, calculating the crack growth curve, and
calculating the inspection interval. Unfortunately, Fe-Safe deals with fatigue only, it doesn’t
handle crack propagation. In order to use damage tolerance analysis using ABAQUS you need
to use xFEM(extended FEM) feature of ABAQUS with appropriate boundary conditions,
appendix |417
Appendix
material properties, loading cycles, and initial defects. Fe-Safe can deal with some portion of
cracked specimen using TCD method. TCD stands for “Theory of Critical Distances”, which is
a method of fatigue analysis that can estimate the lifetime of plain and notched specimens
subjected to cyclic loading.
18. How can I perform multi-axial fatigue analysis using ABAQUS and Fe-Safe?
The difference between multi-axial and uni-axial loading is that in uni-axial loading, the
structure is subjected to a single axial load, while in multi-axial loading, the structure is subjected
to multiple loads acting in different directions. The stress and strain states in multi-axial loading
are more complex and difficult to analyze than in uni-axial loading. Therefore, different
methods are used to calculate the fatigue life in multi-axial loading.
To setup multi-axial load in ABAQUS, you need to define a multiple load case analysis if you
want to apply different loading scenarios. Then, you could get multiple stress dataset that
include multi-axial load cases. To analyze the multi-axial load dataset using Fe-Safe, you need
to import the ABAQUS output file (.odb) into Fe-Safe. Select a fatigue algorithm that can handle
multi-axial loading, such as Brown-Miller equation or Critical Plane method. FE-Safe provides
different methods for calculating fatigue life, such as critical plane analysis, strain-invariant
parameter methods, and stress-invariant parameter methods.
In critical plane analysis, the maximum shear stress or strain range is calculated on each
possible plane orientation, and the plane with the highest stress or strain range is identified as
the critical plane. The fatigue life is then calculated based on the damage caused on the critical
plane.
In strain-invariant parameter methods, such as the Brown-Miller algorithm, the strain tensor
is decomposed into its deviatoric and volumetric components, and the deviatoric component is
used to calculate the strain amplitude and invariant parameter. The fatigue life is then calculated
based on the critical plane approach.
In stress-invariant parameter methods, such as the Dang Van criterion, the stress tensor is
decomposed into its deviatoric and hydrostatic components, and the deviatoric component is
used to calculate the stress amplitude and invariant parameter. The fatigue life is then calculated
based on the critical plane approach.
appendix |418
Appendix
All of above methods were covered in workshop models of this book
19. How do I perform fatigue analysis on composite materials using ABAQUS and Fe-Safe?
Fatigue analysis on composite materials using ABAQUS and Fe-Safe is possible by using the Fe-
safe/Composites module, which can handle different types of composite materials such as
laminates, woven fabrics, chopped fibers and unidirectional fibers. The module can interface
with ABAQUS to import stress and strain data from FEA models and perform fatigue life
predictions based on various failure criteria. However, Fe-Safe suite provided by Simulia does
not include Composite module. Safe Technology’s Fe-Safe had provided composite module
before merging with Simulia.
20. How are SafeTechnology and Simulia related to the Fe-Safe software for fatigue analysis?
SafeTechnology is the original developer of Fe-safe, which is a software for durability analysis
from finite element models. Simulia is a brand of Dassault Systèmes that offers simulation
software solutions, including Fe-safe. It was founded in 1997 and Simulia acquired
SafeTechnology in 2013 and integrated Fe-safe into its portfolio of products. Still, many traces
of SafeTechnology are confirmed when using the Fe-Safe program.
21. What are the effects of temperature on fatigue life, and how can they be accounted for in
fatigue analysis in Fe-Safe?
Temperature can have a significant effect on the fatigue life of materials. In general, higher
temperatures can accelerate the rate of crack initiation and growth, reducing the fatigue life of
the material. The effects of temperature on fatigue life can be accounted for in FE-Safe using
different methods, depending on the type of loading and material behavior.
One method is to use a modified stress-life (S-N) curve, which takes into account the effect of
temperature on the material's properties. The modified S-N curve is typically obtained by testing
specimens at different temperatures and constructing an empirical relationship between the
applied stress amplitude and the number of cycles to failure.
Another method is to use a creep-fatigue interaction model, which accounts for the combined
effect of cyclic loading and sustained loading (creep) on the material's behavior. The model
typically involves a set of equations that describe the evolution of damage in the material under
cyclic and sustained loading, taking into account the effect of temperature.
appendix |419
Appendix
Fe-Safe also allows for the modeling of thermal stresses that can arise due to temperature
changes in the material. Thermal stresses can have a significant effect on the fatigue life of the
material, especially if the temperature changes occur rapidly. Fe-Safe allows for the modeling of
thermal stresses using various methods, such as through the use of temperature-dependent
material properties (S-N curves) and the inclusion of thermal boundary conditions in the
analysis.
22. What are some techniques for improving the efficiency and accuracy of fatigue analysis in
ABAQUS with Fe-Safe?
There are several techniques for improving the efficiency and accuracy of fatigue analysis in FE-
Safe. Here are some of them:
 Use appropriate mesh size and element type: The mesh size and element type used in FE-
Safe can significantly affect the accuracy and efficiency of the analysis. Using a fine mesh
size and appropriate element type can improve the accuracy of the results, but it can also
increase the computational time. A coarser mesh size can reduce the computational time,
but it may affect the accuracy of the results. It is essential to find a balance between accuracy
and efficiency.
 Use appropriate load history: The load history used in FE-Safe should be representative of
the actual loading conditions that the structure will experience. Using an inappropriate load
history can lead to inaccurate results and may overestimate or underestimate the fatigue life
of the structure.
 Consider material properties: The material properties used in FE-Safe can have a significant
impact on the accuracy of the results. It is important to use accurate and appropriate material
properties, including the stress-strain curve, fatigue curve, and temperature-dependent
properties.
 Perform sensitivity analysis: Sensitivity analysis can help identify the parameters that have
the most significant impact on the results. It is important to perform sensitivity analysis to
determine the effect of changing various parameters on the results and to optimize the
analysis.
 Use appropriate analysis methods: FE-Safe offers various analysis methods, such as critical
plane analysis and strain-life analysis. The appropriate analysis method should be selected
based on the loading conditions and material properties.
appendix |420
Appendix
 Validate results: It is essential to validate the results of FE-Safe analysis by comparing them
with experimental data or other analytical methods. This can help identify any discrepancies
and improve the accuracy of the results.
 Optimize the analysis: Various optimization techniques can be used to improve the
efficiency of the analysis. These include reducing the number of load cases, using parallel
processing, and using the latest hardware and software technologies.
23. How can I account for uncertainties and variability in fatigue analysis predictions using
Fe-Safe?
Fe-Safe allows for stochastic analysis that considers uncertainties of material properties and
variability of fatigue loading in fatigue analysis. To account for uncertainties of material
properties and variability of fatigue loading in fatigue analysis using Fe-Safe, you can follow
these steps:
 Determine the uncertainty and variability parameters: Determine the uncertainty and
variability parameters for the material properties and loading conditions. This can include
the coefficient of variation, standard deviation, and mean values.
 Perform a stochastic analysis: Use Fe-Safe to perform a stochastic analysis that takes into
account the uncertainty and variability parameters. This analysis can generate a
probabilistic fatigue life distribution that provides insight into the likelihood of failure
under the given loading conditions.
 Interpret the results: Interpret the results of the stochastic analysis to understand the
probability of failure and the expected fatigue life of the component under the given
loading conditions.
Fe-Safe allows you to perform stochastic analysis using Monte Carlo simulation, which is a
probabilistic method that uses random sampling to generate multiple simulations of the same
system with different input parameters. This allows you to analyze the probability of different
outcomes and identify the input parameters that have the greatest impact on the results.
By accounting for uncertainties of material properties and variability of fatigue loading using
Fe-Safe, you can make more informed decisions about the design and maintenance of
components, leading to improved safety and reliability.
24. What is the impact of surface roughness on fatigue life in Fe-Safe fatigue analysis?
appendix |421
Appendix
Surface roughness can have a significant effect on the fatigue life of a material as it can affect the
stress distribution and initiation of cracks. In Fe-Safe, the effect of surface roughness can be
modeled using the surface roughness factor (SRF), which is a dimensionless factor that accounts
for the effect of surface roughness on fatigue life. The SRF is typically determined experimentally
and depends on factors such as surface finish, machining process, and material properties.
Fe-Safe includes an option to input the SRF as a material property, which can be used to account
for the effect of surface roughness on fatigue life. The SRF is used to modify the stress amplitude
and mean stress range at the crack initiation site based on the surface roughness of the material.
The modified stresses are then used in the fatigue analysis to predict the fatigue life.
It is important to note that the effect of surface roughness on fatigue life is highly dependent on
the specific material and loading conditions. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct
experimental studies to determine the SRF for a specific material and loading conditions to
accurately predict the fatigue life using Fe-Safe.
25. What is the typical approach to determining the scatter factor of fatigue analysis results in
Fe-Safe?
The typical approach for determining the scatter factor of fatigue analysis results in Fe-Safe is to
base it on experimental data whenever possible. The scatter factor is a measure of the variability
of fatigue strength within a material due to factors such as material variability and testing
variability. It is typically represented as a log-normal distribution with a standard deviation
factor (SDF) that characterizes the variability of the data.
In the absence of experimental data, the scatter factor may be estimated based on empirical
relationships or statistical models. However, the accuracy of the results may be limited by the
validity of the assumptions and models used. Overall, the determination of an appropriate
scatter factor in Fe-Safe is dependent on the specific material and loading conditions. It is
recommended to consult with fatigue experts and review relevant literature to determine
appropriate scatter factors for specific materials and loading conditions.
In aerospace engineering, the scatter factor is typically used to account for the variability of
fatigue strength within a material due to factors such as material variability and testing
variability. The use of a scatter factor of 2 times full-scale fatigue testing is a common practice
in aerospace engineering to ensure that the estimated fatigue life is conservative and accounts
for uncertainties in the analysis. This approach is based on empirical data and statistical analysis,
appendix |422
Appendix
and is intended to provide a reasonable estimate of the scatter factor for a given material and
loading condition.
appendix |423
Appendix
Epilogue
The advancements in Finite Element Analysis have contributed significantly to the evolution of
engineering fatigue analysis in recent years. With this book, we've aimed to provide a
comprehensive guide to this crucial area of engineering, using the powerful tools of ABAQUS and
Fe-Safe to illustrate practical applications and real-world examples. From the basic principles of
fatigue analysis to advanced modeling techniques for complex structures and material behavior,
we've covered a broad range of topics in this book. Exploration of the applications of ABAQUS and
Fe-Safe for engineering fatigue analysis has equipped readers with the requisite knowledge and skills
to effectively address engineering challenges in the real world.
I hope that this book has served as a valuable resource for both students and professionals in the
various engineering fields, and that it has provided readers with the tools they need to stay current
with the latest advancements in this critical area. As the field of engineering fatigue analysis
continues to evolve, I encourage all readers to remain curious and engaged in exploring new
approaches and techniques. Finally, I'd like to express my sincere gratitude to my family for their
unwavering support throughout the writing of this book, as well as to my colleagues for their
encouragement and inspiration along the way.
 Image: Old Industrial Turbine Engine in Classic Factory, by BW Studios, 2022
appendix |424
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Appendix
The first edition: March 2023

ISBN 9798379359331
appendix |425

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ABAQUS for Engineers: Engineering Fatigue Analysis with Fe-Safe

Book · March 2023

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ABAQUS for Engineers

Copyright @ 2023 BW Publication

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

First published: March 2023

Part 1. Fundamentals of FEA based Fatigue analysis.................................................................................. 1

Chapter 1. Getting Started............................................................................................................................ 3

Chapter 2. FEA-based Fatigue Analysis ..................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Fatigue Analysis........................................................................................... 64

Critical Plane Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 75

Chapter 4. Engineering Applications of Fatigue Analysis ...................................................................... 105

Part 2. Engineering Applications of Fatigue Analysis ............................................................................ 139

Chapter 6. Low Cycle Fatigue Analysis (e-n analysis) ............................................................................. 171

Chapter 8. Modal Transient fatigue Analysis .......................................................................................... 222

Chapter 9. Fatigue Analysis using TCD Method..................................................................................... 242

Chapter 11. Fatigue Analysis of Welded Structure ................................................................................. 296

Chapter 12. Random Vibration Fatigue Analysis with PSD................................................................... 342

Chapter 13. Stochastic Fatigue analysis with Weibull Distribution...................................................... 369

Appendix A. Details on Fatigue Properties .............................................................................................. 395

Purpose of the Book

In over 30 years as an Aerospace Engineer, my primary responsibility was to troubleshoot and

Overview of the Book

About the Authors

Title: Engineer Working in the Depot of Mars Station, by BW Studios, 2022

Overview of What topics covered

What are Fracture and Fatigue Analysis?

▌Fatigue is the process of progressive localized permanent structural change subjected to

Figure 1. 1 Typical cyclic loading and fatigue failure specimen

Brief Historical Aspect of Engineering Fatigue Analysis

Figure 1. 2 A Sketch of a broken axle made in 1844 by Glynn 1

Figure 1. 3 Fatigue cracking of the safety wire in engine fuel manifold 2

What Cause Mechanical Failure?

Figure 1. 4 Top root causes of fatal aircraft accident (since 1991)

Figure 1. 5 Frequency of mechanical failure mechanicss

Figure 1. 6 Fatigue crack occurs on the stabilator skin of the aircraft 3

How does FEA Help for Fatigue Analysis?

Figure 1. 7 FEA of Crash simulation of the Aircraft fuselage structure4

Figure 1. 8 Example of FE model with the final fabricated component

▌The main focus of this book is FEA-based fatigue analysis.

ABQUS with Fe-Safe

Figure 1. 9 Railway stress analysis example 5

5 Image Courtesy of BW Engineering, 2019

Who should use Fe-Safe?

Figure 1. 10 Fe-Safe logo

How to Use This Book

 Workshop folder example

 Workshop File Download Link

 QR Code for Access Workshop File

Introduction to FEA-Based Fatigue analysis

What FEA-Based Fatigue analysis?

programs have integrated these techniques. FE models introduce additional considerations

Figure 2. 1 Fatigue analysis schematic

 Manual calculation method

 Critical plane method

 Fatigue analysis software

 Mostly defect-free, metallic parts or structures

Crack Growth Life