Disaster Management

UNIT 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT –

RECENT TRENDS

Structure
2.0 Learning Outcome
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of Recent Trends in Disaster Management
2.3 Disaster Management in Mountainous Areas
2.4 Disaster Management in Riverine Regions
2.5 Disaster Management in Coastal Regions
2.6 Strands in Disaster Management
2.7 Conclusion
2.8 Key Concepts
2.9 References and Further Reading
2.10 Activities

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the recent trends in disaster management worldwide;
• Identify requirements in disaster management with respect to specific natural
hazards; and
• Highlight the significance of disaster management.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters have been increasing in frequency and intensity over the past few
decades. This has been directly linked to the nature and extent of human activities
taking place in erstwhile natural surroundings. Human populations are settling
in areas hitherto left untouched due to those being declared hazard prone. This
trend of increasing disasters has necessitated changes in the disaster management
systems too. The trends in disaster management can be studied with reference to
vulnerabilities of specific regions in India and the requirements of disaster
management in those areas, viz. the Himalayan regions, the Riverine regions
and the Coastal regions. The chief emerging requirement in disaster management
is sustainable development practices, factoring vulnerabilities of each specific
geographic region in development policy. In this Unit, an attempt is made to
apprise the learners with the recent general trends in disaster management, which
pertain to all disasters- natural and man made- affecting us today.

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 Disaster Management –
2.2 OVERVIEW OF RECENT TRENDS IN Recent Trends

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Development Perspective to Disaster Management
Member States of the United Nations and other States met at the World Conference
on Natural Disaster Reduction, in the city of Yokohama, Japan, from 23 May to
27 May 1994, in partnership with non-governmental organisations, international
organisations, the scientific community, business, industry and the media to
deliberate within the framework of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction, on immense human suffering that has been incident over the past
years, globally, owing/due to natural disasters. It acknowledged increasing human
vulnerability to disasters, especially of the poor and disadvantaged groups that
are least equipped to cope with crises of such serious magnitude. The correlation
between disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and relief with sustainable
development policy in general is only too evident to be any longer overlooked.
Hence, the three interrelated concerns of disaster management, (encompassing
mitigation, prevention and preparedness), environmental protection and
sustainable development need to be simultaneously addressed through ‘all-
encompassing’ policy in this regard, for protection of life and preservation of
development in the short run and more importantly, for future generations over
the long run. Therefore, nations have to rework development strategy to some
extent to incorporate these concerns in mainstream development planning, since
these have hitherto been addressed as contingent measures, not mainstream
measures, that are treated consistently through adequate policy responses in this
regard on the part of governments. There is another significant ramification to
disaster management, which needs to be taken cognisance of. The need for
international cooperation for integrated action to combat the threat could not be
understated. Since natural disasters are not limited by natural boundaries, regional
and international cooperation is imperative to build capacity of governments at
regional/global scale(s) to combat the threat concertedly. Particularly, technology
transfer to developing countries by the developed to build capacity to fight
disasters was emphasised as an imperative in the conference. To that end, bilateral
and multilateral assistance and financial resources need to be mobilised by
developed countries to support the efforts of developing countries towards disaster
preparedness and mitigation. Hence, technology transfer to developing countries
along with corresponding training should be attempted as a necessary requirement
in concerted disaster management.

Experience with natural disasters over the past few years has led to the realisation
that disasters are not one off events, rather a result of concretised vulnerabilities,
which need to be addressed/treated over time through sustained public policy in
this regard. Positive correlation has been unearthed through empirical researches
between disaster vulnerability and socio- economic disadvantages stemming from
adverse social positioning due to poverty, unemployment, lack of access to basic
facilities like education, health and hygiene, as has been experienced in recent
experiences with disasters.

While disaster response is limited to short- term relief, long-term strategy is

imperative to curb disaster losses over time, by way of reducing vulnerabilities
of disadvantaged sections; women, children and the disabled in particular. The
same is achieved through building community resilience by way of targeted 31
Disaster Management offensive at particular debilitating factors such as poverty, unemployment and
other forms of social and economic deprivation, which create/increase
susceptibility to losses. Prevention aims at nipping disaster potential in the bud,
hence is essential for safeguarding development. Hence, disaster vulnerability
can be reduced overtime through planned interventions towards building resilience
through public policy. This necessitates consistent attempts at vulnerability
reduction through plan budget allocations for disaster mitigation with a view to
integrating disaster management with mainstream development planning.

In its tenth year of publication, The World Disasters Report, 2003, brought out
by the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, called for disaster
risk reduction targets to be added to the international development goals for
2015 and beyond. These targets could include reducing by half, the number of
people killed and affected by disasters and increasing the number of governments
with dedicated plans and resources for risk reduction programs.

The World Disasters Report, 2003 contains criticism of over-reliance on high-

profile aid operations, to save lives when long-term investment in disaster
mitigation at the local level have proven to be much more effective. No
international aid effort was necessary when the worst hurricane since 1944 hit
Cuba in 2002, but only five people died. Local mechanisms were in place to
evacuate 700,000 people from Havana and other threatened areas. Of the 53,000
people rescued from the floodwaters in Mozambique’s two great floods, local
people saved 34,000.

Building Community Resilience: Stress on Social Capital

The follow up report, that is, the World Disasters Report, 2004, published by the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies has ‘community
resilience’ as its central theme. Community involvement and active participation
in vulnerability reduction efforts are being emphasised as essential strategy for
effective policy towards vulnerability reduction. The Report notes that, building
community resilience for coping with disasters is the right strategy to adopt,
instead of misdirected international aid, most of which does not reach the needy.
It has been seen that people have been able to survive most adverse conditions
on the strength of their capacities. Therefore, the aid community is advised to
concentrate on the capacities of the vulnerable communities rather than their
vulnerabilities and aim at building/reinforcing the same as part of practical strategy
to counter- effect vulnerabilities and help people successfully combat disasters.
In the same vein, the Report calls for dispelling the myth of helpless victims;
hence, the requirement of study of the resources and resilience of vulnerable
communities to discover ways to augment them to further facilitate/strengthen
self- help on the part of at risk communities. In Swaziland, HIV/AIDS and drought
are endemic. But Chief Masilela informed Red Cross, that his community would
prefer irrigation and seeds, not food aid, to grow crops, craft their own recovery
and retain their dignity. A woman in Mumbai, to quote another instance, has
chosen to reside in a low cost dwelling in a flood prone area because that would
leave her money to finance her daughter’ education (World Disasters Report,
2004).

This is following realisation of the fact that active cooperation of communities

is vital for achieving real gains in both policy formulation and implementation.
Synergetic partnership between the government and people is essential to have a
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clear understanding, for instance, of the cultural characteristics and organisational Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
requirements in different societies/situations, respectively and accordingly,
specific policy requirements, as per assessed particularities/peculiarities, following
insights into a society’s behaviour and its interactions with the physical and natural
environment, for example, shifting cultivation among tribes in North East or
burning charcoal for cooking among tribal communities and poorer segments
generally, which were recently indicted as major causes of global warming. This
is envisaged as a practical strategy to target vulnerabilities through ‘relevant’
policy, based on articulate concerns by people themselves, in keeping with the
particular requirements of that place. The same is crucial for the success of any
policy measure, particularly planned strategies for environment protection, where
community involvement has proven to be a necessary requirement.

There is need for awareness of the fact that unplanned urbanisation is creating
newer risks. It creates a case for general upgrading of administrative services as
a long-term mitigation strategy, particularly building capacities at the local level
with active participation of the people, since, as borne out by experience, national,
or even international interventions are likely to be less effective in tackling
persistent problems like poor schools, poor quality housing, sanitation, drainage,
etc. The same has been realised in successive experiences with disasters around
the world, particularly, during the Bam Earthquake, when 34 search-and-rescue
teams from 27 countries flew to the city and saved 22 lives but, meanwhile,
local Red Crescent teams pulled 157 people alive from the rubble, using far
fewer ‘sniffer’ dogs. Investing in local response capacities therefore saves lives
and money; which is the main inference (Ibid).

Post- Modern Trends

Post-modern cultural values premised on democratic pluralism and quality of
life is gaining credence in the post-industrial society facing the ills of development.
It is a political science conception that marks a sharp breakaway from earlier
approaches towards governance and towards life in general, so much so, that it
could be termed revolutionary. Precisely, the trend is towards people-centered
governance, which is participatory and accountable, public policy oriented
towards sustainable development, in that pluralism and decentralisation are
especially espoused virtues; in fact, preconditions for democratic governance,
as is ‘diversity’ in all its forms which should be factored in public policy, as a
necessary requirement for/in good governance. The chief divergence in post-
modernism from earlier approaches is, that aesthetic and spiritual aspects of life
are being emphasised against purely material. In the same vein, protection of
ecology is the central theme in sustainable development. Apart from secular
policy, post- modern influences can be discerned in religious and cultural spheres
as well. It is chiefly manifest in the West’s changed attitude towards ‘indigenous
cultures’ which is different from the insistence on ‘the one right way’, which
was presumably Western. In disaster management accordingly, the trend is towards
respecting indigenous resilience strategies and even construction methodology,
which is in line with post modernism. Merit is being recognised in traditional
building knowledge such as in Marathwada, India. Malwad (timber under
structure) constructions offer several good examples of stone masonry. Many
traditional artisans possess skills in traditional building techniques such as good
quality stone masonry construction, which withstands earthquakes reasonably
well. Common practice is to discard local knowledge as inferior/unscientific.
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Disaster Management However, following studies in indigenous practices, there is increasing ‘voice’
for incorporating the same in modern engineering knowledge to find lasting
solution to physical vulnerability of infrastructure in disaster prone areas (Jigyasu,
2002).

For organisational theory, post-modernism implies a shift of emphasis towards

teamwork rather than strict stipulations of hierarchy with undesirables like status
differentiation, monolithic order et al; cooperation rather than compliance,
participatory management rather than monocentric order, peoples’ participation,
especially regarding choice in service provisioning, etc. To reiterate, this applies
to both secular and religious organisations. This is partly a result of growing
suspicion towards monocentric authority whereby public and private interests
are often confused/diffused; former unknowingly acting as a camouflage for the
latter and similar suspicions, not wholly unfounded. Post modernism argues for
more ‘political space’ for articulation of myriad concerns in/which in practice
make up public interest. Post- modernism, in one word, epitomises harmony/
balance in the physical, cultural, material and spiritual senses.

Sustainable Development
Akin to the spirit of post- modernism, sustainable development, in simple words,
means development that can be sustained over time, implying, benefit to the
present as well as future generations. This virtue would obtain only if development
has been ‘balanced’ with respect to other/related concerns. For example, a dam
would lead to power generation, which is its central purpose. But public policy
would demand consideration of ancillary/related issues, or ‘other concerns’ such
as impact on ecology, displacement of population, socio- economic impact of
proposed measure, etc., which would ultimately count in/decide its success. The
Brundtland Commission (1987) defines sustainable development as
“development, which meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

According to H. Ramchandran (1990), sustainable development is the latest ‘end’

in a linear continuum of growth concepts. Understanding of development has
progressed from the “simple but nebulous notion of progress to growth (of GNP),
to growth with equity in vertical and horizontal dimensions, to the physical quality
of life and currently to sustainable development or eco development.” The latter
concepts have added to the former ones, not replaced them and hence have
developed as inclusive ideas adding newer dimensions to the understanding of
sustainable development. Thus the concept of sustainable development
encompasses all previous ideas, viz. growth, equity, etc., with the added dimension
of sustainability for future use. Sustainable development has both ethical and
utilitarian value in that preservation of environment is as much a duty of the
present generations as a right for future generations, to lead disease free and
accidents/disaster free lives and touch higher levels of economic development.

Sustainable development is also a generic idea/concept in that development per

se could be appreciated, applying the premise of sustainability. This broad
understanding is credited to social science theorists who are increasingly
evaluating policy outcomes on the basis of its viability in the cultural, political,
socio economic senses. To elucidate, globalisation has cultural impact, besides
economic and political, which needs to be studied to understand its potential for
apocalyptic change to then question its desirability. The question would be; is a
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particular change sustainable? Context could be given here of welfare economics, Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
where gainers and losers from/in each proposed measure, are identified to compute
net social welfare derived/proposed from the measure. All ramifications of policy
viz. political fallouts, economic impact, pertaining to distributional aspects, impact
on ecology etc. is considered/possibly measured to judge the sustainability, hence,
desirability of a measure.

Science and Technology for Disaster Management

Currently, the All Hazards Approach is being emphasised in America as a holistic
strategy to combat disasters. The understanding that underlines this approach is
that all disasters, irrespective of type can be dealt with on the basis of common
knowledge/expertise based on academic researches and preparedness, based on
information derived thus and constant updating of such knowledge. Its chief
reliance is on science and technology for capacity creation. It relies on creating
capacity through R&D in science and technology to deal with any and every
kind of disaster(s), ranging from earthquake to terrorism, based on and converting
R&D to practice readily to attempt new and innovative ways to deal with crises,
whether natural and/or man made. For this purpose collation of science and
technology expertise scattered across institutions within the aegis of a single
agency is necessary that acts as clearing house as well as a coordinating agency
with respect to myriad disciplines/ concerns, even within science involved in
disaster management.

This approach lends a fresh perspective to disaster management in that policy in

this regard, never at any stage, suffers from redundancy. Disaster management
requires a multidisciplinary approach, hence, the need for a single coordinating/
overseeing agency.

The Sub-Committee on Disaster Reduction (SDR) of the National Science and

Technological Council (NSTC) in the United States has articulated six important
areas that require continued energy and appropriate resources to meet the
challenges of hazard risk reduction. The same may be pertinent for all countries
facing the threat of terrorism, which is the single most horrifying disaster
possibility in recent times.
1) Leveraging existing knowledge of natural and technological hazards to
address terrorism events
2) Improve hazard information data collection and prediction capability
3) Ensure the development and widespread use of improved hazard and risk
assessment models and their incorporation into decision support tools and
systems.
4) Speed the transition from hazard research to hazard management application
5) Increase mitigation activities and incentives
6) Expand risk communication capabilities, especially public warning systems
and techniques
Kenneth Bloem of the John Hopkins University Center for Bio-Defense Studies
has identified a number of parallel streams where preparation for terrorist incidents
can be enhanced by decades of research in traditional disaster areas:
• Wildfires and Arson
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Disaster Management • Accidental explosions and bombs
• Floods and dam sabotage
• Chemical spills and chemical attacks
• Epidemics and biological terrorism
Ultimately, effective public policy for disaster management is a result of
deliberation/cooperation between scientists, decision makers and informed
citizens. It should also be remembered that limiting disaster management to a
technocratic perspective would exclude many pertinent issues that fall within
the domain of social sciences, for example, greater relative vulnerability of the
poor and the socially marginalised.

2.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN

MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
The Himalayan range is one of the highest mountain chains in the world.
Himalayas, also known as the Extra-Peninsula, are one of the three main
geological divisions of India. The other two divisions are the Peninsula and the
Indo-Gangetic Plains.

Geographically, the Himalayas extend for about 2400 km, from western Syntaxial
bend-near Nanga Parbat to eastern Syntaxial bend-near Namcha Barwa, and
exhibit a curvilinear disposition.
The Himalayas are classified, from west to east, into four regions:
i) Punjab Himalaya - area between Indus and Sutlej rivers.
ii) Kumaon Himalaya - area between Sutlej and Kali rivers.
iii) Nepal Himalaya- area between Kali and Tista rivers.
iv) Assam Himalaya- area between Tista and Brahamputra rivers.
Presently, Himalayas are divided into three regions: the Western, Central and
Eastern Himalaya. Nepal Himalaya constitutes the Central Himalaya and the
mountainous area to its west and east are known as Western and Eastern Himalaya
respectively. Thus the Western Himalaya includes Punjab and Kumaon Himalaya
of Burrad et.al. covering Himachal Pradesh and parts of Jammu and Kashmir,
and Uttaranchal.

The Uttaranchal Himalaya extends from Tons river in the west to Kali river in
the east and covers an area of about 46,480 sq.km. Garhwal and Kumaon are the
two main regions of Uttaranchal Himalaya.
Major landforms of Uttaranchal Himalaya are arranged in three parallel ranges:
i) Great Himalaya (GH) lies south of Tibetan Plateau and contains the highest
elevations.
ii) Lesser Himalaya (LH) lies south of GH and has elevations between 10,000
and 15,000 ft.
iii) Outer Himalaya (OH) lies south of LH and borders Gangetic Plain. Altitude
varies between 2000 and 3000 ft. and has geomorphologic depression-the
Dun.
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Himalaya, in Uttaranchal, can also be divided into four broad geological zones, Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
each having distinct geological history. These are:
i) Tethys Himalaya Zone (THZ): exposes mainly fossiliferous rocks of
Phanerozoic and lies north of the central axis (line of highest elevation of
CH)
ii) Central Himalaya Zone (CHZ): contains crystalline and metamorphic rocks
which are thrust over the sedimentary sequences of lesser Himalaya along
the Main Central Thrust (MCT)
iii) Lesser Himalaya Zone (LHZ): exposes largely sedimentary, unfossiliferous
sequences of Proterozoic period, which are disposed in distinct tectonic belts
between the MCT and Main Boundary Fault.

Fossiliferous rocks of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic periods have very

limited extent. Regionally metamorphosed rock masses occur as Klippe.

iv) Outer or Sub Himalaya Zone (OHZ): This is the southern most zones and
exposes sedimentary sequence predominantly of Neogene period. The OHZ
lies between MBF and Foot Hill Fault (FHF). FHF is the boundary between
the outer Himalaya and Gangetic Plain.

Hazards in the Himalayan Eco-System

The Himalayan region, characterised by a wide variation in topography, geology,
soil, climate, flora and fauna and various ethnic groups having different socio-
cultural traditions, is a unique geographical entity. All major types of disasters,
prominently, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, flash floods and forest fires,
and soil erosion hit this region. In high altitude regions (over 3500m), snow
avalanches and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are common threats while
flash floods; landslides and mudflows assume disastrous dimensions in the
altitude range from 500 to 3500 m. (Bahadur, 1998).

The Himalayan region with soft weathering rocks, covered with a thin layer of
soil is becoming increasingly susceptible/ sensitive to landslides. Such landslides
cause disruption, create blockades in the road network and river system, which
in turn, cause floods. Interference in the environmental system in the form of
indiscriminate chopping down of trees has disrupted the ecological balance,
thereby resulting in loosening of the soil and consequent soil erosion and frequent
landslides. Over a period of time the eroded soil begins to settle down on the
riverbed resulting in shifting of the river. This is one of the major reasons for
floods.

A very befitting example in support of the above statement is the slash and burn
cultivation technique called ‘JHUM,’ which is practiced in the hilly areas.
Development of the communication system by means of road construction and
mining of rich mineral reserves over a period of time has destroyed the dense
natural evergreen forest cover.

Report of ‘The Central Team on Landslides in Hill Areas of Uttar Pradesh’ during
1998 indicates the damages caused due to hailstorms, heavy rains and the resulting
crop damage in the state during the months of May to September 1998. The
report observed that the Himalayan ecology is extremely fragile and falls under
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Disaster Management Seismic Zone V. Another problem is the rapidly growing urban centers within
the Himalayan belt being important tourist basins, both nationally and
internationally. They have grown rapidly, often with very little attention to building
by-laws and planning principles, which are almost non-existent at this point!
Other main causes for the landslide have been unplanned and unscientific
development activities in the hilly areas, unchecked organised crime that is
involved in illegal felling of trees, poaching, construction and urbanisation which
have caused ecological imbalances in the Himalayas. Increasing pressure of
human and animal needs, rapid denudation, biotic interference etc. have further
aggravated the problem of soil erosion, avalanches, flash floods etc.
Every year, landslides in the region kill dozens of people and cause widespread
damage to several villages such that they have now become almost unfit for
habitation. Landslides have caused havoc and the terraced fields have been
destroyed that cannot be easily renovated or made productive again. The road
network remains closed for long periods causing indescribable hardship to the
villagers who get their basic supplies and provisions from the neighbouring areas.
The water source is also disrupted due to landslides as they are breached from
several places and are choked by the debris. The sediment load of rivers has also
increased considerably, causing problems like irregular courses and frequent
breaching of the banks, which create uncertainty regarding the river course and
unexpected floods. More so, the water channels are affected from the up hillside
due to which the villagers are devoid of water for irrigation purposes. This
adversely affects agriculture production in the region.
As explained by Jagdish Bahadur, related problem is that of soil erosion. The
large fluctuation in temperature during the annual cycle generates a severe freeze
- thaw cycle resulting in greater erosion of soil and rock formations. Another
important factor for excessive soil erosion is very intense monsoon rainfall (from
a few hundred mm to thousands of mm in 24 hrs.). Measured sediment yields
range from less than one ton/ha/year to over 100 tons/ha/yr. It is normally assumed
that the sediment yield of Himalayan rivers is about 16.4 ha.m / 100 km2/yr,
which is about three to five times higher than the value assumed by the designers
of water resource storage projects. These estimates are not totally representative
of the sedimentation regime and represent only the suspended sediments. No
quantitative estimates are available for bed load sediments, which play an
important role for high mountain turbulent streams. Hence, we have to develop
strategies for sediment harvesting (seclude sediments for other uses) for efficient
water resources management for harmonious development of the region.
The region’s agriculture and power generation are fully dependent on the
freshwater supply fed by the discharges of the Himalayan glaciers. In the Ganga
river only, the loss of glacier melt water would reduce July-September flows by
two thirds, causing water shortage for 500 million people and 37 percent of
India’s irrigated land. The region’s agriculture and power generation are fully
dependent on the freshwater supply fed by the discharges of the Himalayan
glaciers. In the Ganga river only, the loss of glacier melt water would reduce
July-September flows by two thirds, causing water shortage for 500 million people
and 37 percent of India’s irrigated land. Perennial rivers could be changed into
seasonal streams giving rise to freshwater scarcity in the summer months when
melt waters contribute the bulk of the water (around 75%) to the Himalayan
Rivers.
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Several glacial lakes have been formed as a result of glacier retreat due to raised Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
temperatures, which could lead to catastrophic events like glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOF) in valley’s downstream, resulting in destruction of valuable
resources such as forests, farms, costly mountain infrastructures and even human
life. GLOFs can have devastating consequences for civil works, like bridges,
dams and powerhouses, and communities living at downstream.

In order to manage the impacts of climate change on glaciers, the nature of these
impacts with respect to individual glaciers or drainage basins needs to be studied
and understood. In the Himalayas, although there has been research at a large
scale on glacier retreat there has been no work at the scale of the individual
glacier or drainage basin and so current research is too general to drive policy
response (WWF, 2005). Adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation
practices on a watershed basis is considered to be the only way to control soil
erosion and improve the environment in the mountainous regions. The measures
are to be adopted in conformity with the concept of integrated land use planning
for development and improvement of catchment and command area. Efforts must
be directed towards utilising the maximum amount of rain to meet the human,
animal and crop needs and at reducing to the minimum, the damage by floods
and soil erosion. Excess water should be stored in the catchments areas, which
will reduce the fury of flash floods, recharge the ground water and improve the
environment. Runoff collection ponds in the catchments, though they might get
silted up in a few years, will be more useful than the measures in the lower
reaches. To prevent rapid siltation of tanks, the contributing catchments (even if
they are not cultivated but used for grazing or forestry purposes) need to be well
managed so that soil erosion is prevented. All common lands should be put under
fuel/fodder trees. Planting of barren areas, especially on slopes, with grass cover
is an important component of integrated watershed management programme.
Grazing should be completely restricted. After the area is completely protected
from grazing, better grasses can be planted. The grasses of industrial importance
should also be planted so that there is some economic return to the farmers as
well. The surface vegetative cover will not only protect the land from the beating
action of rain drops and bind the soil particles but would also decrease the velocity
of flowing water and cause less of soil erosion (Bahadur, 1998).

Availability of fresh drinking water is another problem in the region. Increasing

urbanisation in the area is putting added pressure on water resources, and not
much is being done to replenish the depleting resource. There is no detailed
scientific evaluation available for Himalayan water resources. According to
Jagdish Bahadur (1998), this is partly due to insufficient network of observations
for both precipitation and stream discharge measurements.

Both saline and freshwater natural lakes exist in high altitude regions. Saline
lakes abound in the arid region while those lakes, which are extremely poor in
electrolytes, are abundant in the humid region, being nurtured by the monsoon.
These lakes are situated at altitudes varying from 600m to 5600m and are exposed
to climatic conditions that vary from cold deserts of Ladakh to wet humid of
Manipur. Very few studies are undertaken on the Himalayan lake ecosystems
and the water management programmes are either completely lacking or grossly
inadequate (Zutshi, 1985). The inflow of high silt load from glaciers is gradually
filling these lakes and rendering the lake waters turbid and unfit for biological
activity. The other impact is from pollution from agricultural, industrial, and
39
Disaster Management human and cattle wastes. Restoration plans for the lake systems should be
undertaken on ecological considerations following their geophysical environment
and annual rhythm in chemical and biological compositions.

To achieve these objectives, the following essential elements for action are
considered necessary, as per Jagdish Bahadur:
i) All efforts should be made for proper assessment of water resources.
ii) A comprehensive framework for water resource management is considered
in preference to sectoral approach.
iii) Interventions in water sector should move from curative to preventive ones.
iv) A broad range of investments should be made on a continuous basis with
ability to operative and maintain investments effectively.
v) Infrastructural improvements must be complemented with measures to
strengthen institutions, develop human resource and promote public
awareness.
vi) Promotion of water user’s associations and increasing user participation.
vii) The participation of the private sector in water management should be
deliberately pushed forward.
The Fire Menace
Protection of forests is equally important. According to a Forest Survey of India
Report, about 50 percent of forest areas in the country are fire prone (ranging
from 50 percent in some states to 90 percent in the others). About 6 percent of
the forests are prone to severe fire damage). The coniferous forest in the Himalayan
region comprising of fir (Abies spp.), spruce (Picea smithiana), Cedrus deodara,
Pinus roxburgii and Pinus wallichiana, etc., is very prone to fire. Every year
there are one or two major incidences of forest fire in this region. Other areas
with deciduous varieties have also shown susceptibility to fire.

The ecological and socio-economic consequences of wild land fires in India

include loss of timber, loss of bio-diversity, loss of wildlife habitat, global
warming, soil erosion, loss of fuel wood and fodder, damage to water and other
natural resources, loss of natural regeneration, losses in productivity of the land,
impacts on regeneration of species, and deleterious impacts on water shed also
result from forest fires. Estimated average tangible annual loss due to forest fires
in country is Rs.440 crore (US$ 100 millions approximately). In India, there are
no comprehensive data to indicate the loss to forests in terms of area burned,
values, and volume and regeneration damaged by fire. One reason to account for
the same is alleged fear of accountability on the part of the forest department,
and hence deliberate understatement of the problem.

According to the Constitution of India, the Central and State governments in the
country are enabled to legislate on forestry issues. The implementation part of
the forest policy/programmes lies with the state government. Thus, fire prevention,
detection, and suppression activities are the responsibility of the state
governments’ forestry departments. The policy, planning, and financing are the
primary responsibility of the Central Government. There is generally no separate
department for carrying out forest fire management in the states. The regular
staff of the forest department in the states carries out various activities of forest
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fire management. During forest fire seasons, in some of the divisions, the state Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
governments recruit firewatchers as a special provision. At the central level, the
Ministry of Environment and Forests is the ministry responsible for forest
conservation and protection. The “Forest Protection Division” of the Ministry,
which is headed by a Deputy Inspector General of Forests, administers Forest
Fire management. The Ministry is implementing a plan called “Modern Forest
Fire Control Methods” in India under which state governments are provided
financial assistance for fire prevention and control. This assistance is being used
by the state governments for procuring hand tools, fire resistant clothes, fire
fighting tools, radios, fire watch towers, fire finders, creation of fire lines, research,
training, and publicity on fire fighting. This project is carried out in fourteen
states and covers more than 70 percent of the forest area of the country.

Community Involvement
In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) Committees have been established at
the village level to involve people in forest protection and conservation. At present,
there are 36 165 JFM committees throughout the country, covering an area of
more than 10.24 million hectares. These JFM committees also have been given
responsibilities to protect the forests from fires. For this purpose, the Modern
Forest Fire Control plan is being revised and JFM is being made an integral
component of the forest fire prevention strategy.

The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is
burned each year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to
the problem. Both the national focus and the technical resources required for
sustaining a systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the
country. Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres,
coordination among Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire
research, fire management, and extension programmes are missing.

Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to

make some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the
country. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has
prepared a National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. The thrust areas in the
programme would be (Bahuguna &Singh, 2002):
• Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental
modification. It will include silvicultural activities, engineering works, people
participation, and education and enforcement. It is proposed that more
emphasis be given to people participation through Joint Forest Fire
Management for fire prevention.
• Prompt detection of fires through a well-coordinated network of observation
points, efficient ground patrolling, and communication networks. Remote
sensing technology is to be given due importance in fire detection. For
successful fire management and administration, a National Fire Danger Rating
System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be developed in the
country.
• Fast initial attack measures.
• Vigorous follow up action.
• Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
• Fire fighting resources. 41
Disaster Management Non-timber forest products such as medicinal plants and herbs, essential oils,
fibres and silks, natural dyes and organic products, off-season vegetables, bamboo
and bamboo products, bees and bee products, and enterprise-based pollination
services can provide the basis for increasing incomes and improving livelihoods.
Likewise, mountain tourism, hydroelectricity and other renewable energy sources,
and the potential for obtaining reimbursement for environmental services,
including carbon sequestration, have demonstrated the capacity to become drivers
of local economic growth if structured in ways that empower local communities
and poor households (Campbell, ICIMOD).

There is need to adopt a combination of traditional and modern control measures

adopting bioengineering techniques for sustainable development. Integrated long-
term planning is needed with local participation as an essential development
strategy for water resource development of the tallest water tower of the world
(Bahadur, 1998).

According to R.B. Singh (2005), some portion of money earmarked for relief
should be spent in water management practices like creating storages and water
harvesting structures in the upper reaches of the stream. Though floods in the
region cannot be controlled for hydro-meteorological and topographical realities,
such measures can modify them to a large extent so as to minimise loss of life
and property in the region. Drought and flood proofing programmes with satellite
data for hazard zoning, survey of past disasters, and damage assessments etc. are
important strategy.

2.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN RIVERINE

REGIONS
Several countries in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region (HKH) face flood disasters
almost regularly. In particular, floods affect the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna,
and Indus flood plains every year. This region contains one of the highest
concentrations of people in the world, with a high rate of poverty; population
growth has increased the vulnerability to flood disasters. Flooding is a part of
the growing spiral of poverty. Economically disadvantaged people move to the
flood-prone lowlands because of certain advantages like fertile soil, cheap housing
and also because they lack other options. At the same time, they lack the resources
to respond to and recover from floods. Communities living in the great plains of
India that spread across northern, western and central parts of the country, also
including inland parts of the larger coastal states, are vulnerable to a host of
disasters.

Floods are also a macro concern in that they constrict socio-economic

development opportunities by adversely affecting investment in agriculture,
infrastructure, and industrial production and also retard development. Hence,
flood management is imminent both for survival and for long-term growth (SAF,
2005).

As per the Expert Group Report on Employment submitted to the Ministry of

Urban Affairs in 1998, losses from floods are exacerbated by poor drainage
infrastructure, which are choked during heavy rains due to refuse disposal. This
creates a situation referred as, local flooding. The Indian Meteorological
42
Department has worked out the probable maximum precipitation values for
different areas, which are worked out on the basis of observation/computation in Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
24 hrs. Drainages and embankments, which often breach during heavy rainfall,
should be designed keeping in view the probable precipitation values. A
Vulnerability Atlas has been prepared which shows hazard vulnerability in
different areas. Flood prone areas are marked ‘protected’, where protective
measures such as embankments have been provided. The unprotected areas are
high-risk areas where no such effort has been undertaken. Even in protected
areas, though, engineering attempts are put to the real test only when actual
flooding takes place. In Punjab heavy damage was incurred in 1995, when the
Sutlej flooded large parts and embankments usually gave way. The crisis gets
worse in coastal areas where flooding is coupled with storm surges and heavy
wind velocities, which exacerbates the risks manifold. Other vulnerable regions
are the depressions or the poorly drained areas, which are subject to back- flow
from flooded rivers, catchments of choked drains etc., which have random risks
of flooding due to heavy rains. For identification of such areas, contour surveys
are required at the micro level.

Regarding flood hazard, there is emerging consensus that structural mitigation

measures have limited utility. Hence, the emphasis is now on non-structural
mitigation measures, particularly flood monitoring and forecast, besides creating
awareness among people regarding their vulnerable status, significance of
following warnings, easy modes of information dissemination regarding
impending disasters, institutionalisation of social capital for better preparedness
and so on.

It is most important to remember that natural disasters are not limited by/to
national boundaries. For effective combating the threat, regional cooperation is
needed. As yet, however, there is no regional framework for such multilateral
exchange, although there are successful examples of agreements for bilateral
exchange of data. Particular concern was voiced during the Second Steering
Committee Meeting of the hydrological research network HKH-FRIEND (Flow
Regime From International Experimental Network Data, part of UNESCO’s
International Hydrological Programme) held in April 2000 in Kathmandu. A
regional flood information system is being set up for the Hindukush region. A
number of agencies are involved, prime among whom are, the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO), supported by the US Department of State
(Regional Environmental Office of South Asia), US Office for Foreign Disaster
Assistance, and DANIDA. The scheme will benefit Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Nepal, and Pakistan, who have agreed on an initial Action Plan for Regional
Co-operation for Flood Information Exchange (SAF, 2005).

Apart from flooding, the other major problem is availability of fresh water.
According to R.B Singh (2005), most people in the region do not have access to
safe drinking water. Pollution is major concern and there is great biodiversity
loss, both on land and in the inland waterways. Because of erratic rainfall and
unequal distribution across regions, many districts in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal and Bihar suffer frequent droughts.

Hence, while on the one hand there are floods, increasingly now, because of
global warming induced retreat/melting of glaciers in the Himalayan region, there
is a situation of water scarcity in cities like Delhi, to an extent where water riots
could ensue! Besides, glacial retreat would reach a point glaciers subside and
43
Disaster Management run off decreases. Hence flood control and water conservation, along with concrete
steps, through legislation for controlling water pollution and good maintenance
of drainage are significant requirements in disaster management in riverine
regions.

As per data cited by R.B. Singh, the average run off in the river system in the
country is assessed at 1,869Km3. Of this the utilisable portion by conventional
storage and diversion is estimated as about 690Km3.In addition thee is substantial
replenishable groundwater resource in the country, estimated at 432km3. Presently,
there are two strategies being followed; excess water transfer from surplus to
deficit regions through schemes like river linking, and water harvesting, which
is, storing water at the place where rainfall occurs. This two-pronged strategy is
expected to redeem the flood situation and also replenish aquifers, which have
fast receded.

Indian River Systems

The major river systems in the country can be broadly classified into two groups,
viz. the rivers of the Himalayan region and rivers of peninsular India. The
Himalayan Rivers are fed by the melting snows and glaciers of the great
Himalayan range, during spring and summer, as also by rains during monsoons.
They are often uncertain and capricious in their behaviour. They carry significant
flows during the winter. On the other hand, the peninsular rivers originate at
much lower altitude, flow through more stable areas, and are more predictable
in their behaviour. Their flows are characterised by heavy discharges during
monsoons followed by very low discharges during the rainless months.

Nature of Flood problem in various river systems from the point of view of the
flood problem, the rivers can be grouped under the four regions as under:
a) Brahampurtra region drained by the Brahmaputra Ganga river system
b) Ganga region drained by the Ganga river system
c) North West drained by Indus & it tributaries
d) Central India & Deccan region drained by rivers like Narmada, Tapti
Brahmaputra River System
The region drained by the Brahamputra and Barak and its tributaries covers the
state of Arunanchal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland,
Northern regions of West Bengal and Mizoram. The tributaries have very steep
slopes and shallow braided channels, coarse sandy beds and carry heavy silt.
They bring flash floods because of short distances between their source in the
hills and the confluence. The major problems faced by this system are that of
overspills, drainage congestion, bank erosion, landslides, and aggravation and
changes in river course.

Ganga Region
Ganga has a large number of tributaries. Ganga basin with a drainage area of
nearly 8,61,400 sq. Km. in India covers slightly more than ¼ of the total
geographical area. The tributaries of Ganga are by themselves mighty rivers and
most of them are highly flood prone. The northern tributaries of Ganga rise in
the hills, some in Nepal, causing most of the flood problems on account of heavy
44
flows and sediment that they bring down from the Himalayas. Flooding takes
place mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar & West Bengal. In Haryana, the marginal Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
areas along the Yamuna get flooded. Even through flood embankments have
been constructed on both banks of the Yamuna, in the territory of Delhi, flooding
can occur due to breaches as had happened in 1978. The danger of such flooding
has increased, with jacketing of river in the upstream reaches, thus denying the
benefit of valley storage.

North -West Rivers Region

Compared to the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river basins, the flood problem is
relatively less in this region. The major problem is that of inadequate surface
drainage, which causes inundation and water logging over vast areas. However
floods are sometimes caused by the Ghaggar river, which used to disappear in
the sand dunes of Rajasthan after flowing through Punjab and Haryana. In recent
years, besides flooding Punjab and Haryana areas, flooding has become active
in Rajasthan also. Jhelum, Chenab and their tributaries also cause occasional
floods.

Central India and the Deccan Region

The region does not have very serious flooding problem because the rivers mostly
have well- defined and stable courses. In Andhra Pradesh it is confined to spilling
by the smaller rivers. Tapti and the Narmada are occasionally in high floods
affecting areas in the lower reaches in Gujarat. Godavari and Krishna rivers on
the East Coast have acute drainage problem and face flood particularly in the
wake of cyclonic storms. The small rivers of Kerala when are in spate, cause
considerable damage. However, in Orissa, damage due to floods has been
extensive, caused by the Mahanadi, the Brahmani and the Baitarni which have a
common delta where the floodwaters intermingle, and when in spate
simultaneously, cause considerable havoc. The problem is accentuated when the
flood synchronises with high tides.

2.5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN COASTAL

REGIONS
India has a coastal stretch of 5700 km. Out of this the east coast bordering Bay of
Bengal has a length of 2700 km and the west coast bordering the Arabian Sea
has a length of 3000 km. Though India has a long coastline, stretching across
many states, the states most exposed to cyclone related hazards, including strong
winds, floods and storm surges, are West-Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Gujarat. Destructive natural system events that impact coastal areas
can be either episodic or chronic. Together, these types of events define what is
meant by natural coastal hazards. The destructive potential of such events is
often made much worse by the increasing amount of development along the
coastline. A variety of natural hazards regularly threaten the nation’s coastal
inhabitants. Severe meteorological events such as Hurricanes and Tropical
Cyclones are particularly harsh on coastal areas, often resulting in damages from
high winds, storm surge, flooding, and shoreline erosion. Tsunamis, whose
destructive force is characterised by potentially devastating flood inundation,
are uniquely coastal events resulting from offshore earthquakes, landslides, or
volcanic activity. Coastal locations are also subjected to the impacts of long-
term hazards such as chronic coastal erosion, potential sea-level rise, and global
45
Disaster Management climate change. Other hazards impacting coastal areas include biological events
such as Red Tides and Harmful Algae Blooms.

Coastal hazard events can significantly affect or even alter the natural
environment, but their impacts are generally not considered “disastrous” unless
they involve damages to human populations and infrastructure. Many of the
coastal ecosystems that are particularly fragile and sensitive to the cumulative
impacts of human development are also naturally fluid and generally capable of
adapting to hazard impacts over time. When people and property are not present,
hazards are merely natural processes that alter the environment. When people
and property are present, however, the impacts of hazards on the developed and
natural environments are viewed quite differently. The primary focus is no longer
on the natural processes associated with a major hazard event, but instead on the
disastrous results that can be measured by lives lost, property damages, and
economic and environmental impacts. Hazard impacts on the natural environment
become more devastating because human development has altered the ability of
natural systems to recover from such events. Natural hazard events can also
spawn secondary hazards such as sewage releases or hazardous materials spills
that are particularly damaging to coastal environments.

Among the main reasons for the continuing increase in the loss levels caused by
natural disasters is the continuing growth of the population by unchecked
migration of people to coastal areas that are generally more exposed to natural
disasters. The development of industry in regions that are subject to natural
hazards, without appropriate protective measures, is another reason for the
growing increase in the loss levels caused by natural disasters. In Asia, natural
hazards cause a high number of lives lost, and relatively small property losses in
least developed and developing countries. However, in the relatively developed
countries where disaster prevention and mitigation measures are adequately
established, the loss of life is relatively small, but the damage to property is
high. Losses may vary even within a country itself. The effect of natural hazards
on the loss of human lives is directly related to the poverty levels in a country.

Another factor that exacerbates the effects of natural hazards is environmental

degradation, which is taking place in many countries of the region. The damage
caused by natural hazards is higher in countries where environmental degradation
is rampant. Deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, or over-cultivation and incorrect
agricultural practices and degradation of natural buffers amplify the effects of
natural hazards. Coral reefs and mangroves are natural protection mechanisms
against high-speed winds, which are fast eroding. Restoration of the same can
restrict damage from disastrous events to a considerable extent (National Institute
of Oceanography).

Requirements in Disaster Management

Disaster requirements would differ in case of each specific hazard the coastal
areas are subject to, which have been referred briefly earlier. Major hazards are
Tsunamis, Storm Surges, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Erosion, hazards related to
climate change, besides Harmful Algae Blooms and Submarine Mudslides.

For curbing the hazard of Tsunamis and Storm Surges, the tide gauge data that
has regularly monitored tides in the Indian Ocean would be studied to trace past
tsunami events and storm surges. Tsunamis have escaped detection, perhaps
46
because of their infrequent occurrence, implying, a long gap between two events, Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
or because of their impact having been low, or because the usual practice of
digitising these data at one-hour interval is not enough for capturing tsunamis,
which have a smaller period. Hence, a closer analysis of tide gauge data would
be attempted to track and possibly predict more vigorous events such a storm
surges, cyclones and perhaps, Tsunamis.

Mangroves and forests along the coastlines act as natural buffers against strong
winds and storms. These are being referred bio-shields and their importance has
been realised post, recent tsunami. It is, however, necessary to quantify the
protection such natural buffer zones, now called bio-shields, provide to coastal
habitation. For example, it is necessary to determine the thresholds beyond which
they cease to be effective and the extent of protection they provide.

Coastal areas are subject to oil spills. Vulnerability mapping would be needed to
identify sensitive ecological zones to plan for emergency and quick evacuation.

To control coastal pollution, which has increased with increasing industrialisation

of these areas, compliance with EIA would have to be strictly enforced. There is
a need to integrate the results of the EIA studies to generate a national database,
and to determine the “carrying capacity” of the coastal waters of India. A beginning
towards determining the carrying capacity of Indian coastal waters has been made
with the ICMAM (Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management) and
COMAPS (Coastal Ocean Monitoring And Prediction System) programmes, but
there clearly is much that still needs to be done.

Eutrophication of waters caused by excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen, leads

to potentially harmful algal blooms (HAB). They result in rapid growth of an
algal species that contains toxins or causes a negative impact on natural resources
or human beings. Though thee are natural, pollution exacerbates them. Presently,
there is no database for systematic study of algae blooms, their causes, ways to
curb them, etc.

With exploration for oil gaining momentum, offshore structural engineering is

gaining importance. The potential threat to such structures from submarine
mudslides necessitates engineering design solutions to mitigate the impact. Since
poor quality of construction has been identified as one of the causes of higher
fatalities due to natural hazards in India, quantification of these hazards must
also lead to better regulations and viable building codes.

Besides these, considerable parts of India are multi-hazard prone, in that they
might be visited by more than one natural hazard at a time, which poses significant
challenge to disaster mitigation policy/strategy. For example, floods and droughts
have also been affecting these communities on a regular basis. Floods are
experienced almost every year in some state or the other. Major floods were
experienced in 1990, 1991, 1993, and 1994. A large number of deaths also occur
during summer months due to heat waves, particularly in states like Orissa, that
had a drought during 1995-98, and a severe heat wave in 1999. This
documentation however mainly covers cyclone disasters and accompanying floods
and storm surges (Ibid).

47
Disaster Management Controlling the Cyclone Hazard
Over the warm water (sea surface temperature greater than 26oC) in the tropical
ocean, little away from the equator within the belt of 30oN and 30oS, the occurrence
of tropical cyclones is almost a worldwide phenomenon. However, their
characteristics such as frequency, intensity and coastal impact vary from region
to region. But these have been the deadliest when crossing the coast bordering
the North Bay of Bengal (coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal
and Bangladesh), mainly because of the serious storm surge problem in this
area.

On an average, about 5-6 tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea every year, out of which 2 or 3 may be severe. More cyclones form
in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. The ratio is 4:1. There are two
definite seasons of tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean. One is from
May to June and the other from mid-September to mid-December. May, June,
October and November are known for severe storms. The entire east coast is
vulnerable to cyclones with varying frequency and intensity. Along the west coast,
the Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts are more vulnerable compared to the southern
part.

Indian scientists are seriously studying the El-Nino effect on weather and the
outcomes of these studies will help in better communication of early warnings
as well as preparedness planning.

In order to control floods, politicians and bureaucrats have been laying stress on
the construction of dams and embankments, which has necessitated much greater
expenditures. It has been estimated that at the time of Independence about 6000
kms. of embankments were existing on various rivers, providing a reasonable
degree of protection to about 3 million ha. of flood prone area. However, the
average flood affected population per year increased from about 16 million in
the 1950’s to 43 million in the 1970’s to 53 million in the 1980’s. Not only have
the flood relief expenditure increased from Rs. 230 crores in 1980-81 to Rs. 537
crores in 1986-87 even the related damages have increased substantially from
Rs. 60 crores during the 1950’s. This figure increased 38 times to an astounding
Rs. 2307 crore per year during the 1980s. The increase in the flood damages and
the affected area provides clinching evidence as to the country’s proneness to
floods on one hand and lack of preparedness on the other.

2.6 STRANDS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Preparedness
One of the many lessons learnt by victims of various natural disasters is that the
aftermath of the disaster can be worse than the disaster event itself. Thus, there
is a need to acknowledge the need for preparedness towards disaster reduction.
However, people are often surprised by the concept of reducing disasters. How,
is often asked, can a natural disaster such as an earthquake or a cyclone be reduced
or prevented?

Unfortunately, due to rapid population growth and development of human

settlements in disaster prone areas, more and more people and their assets are
vulnerable to natural hazards. The number of disasters was three times higher
48
worldwide in the past ten years than in the 1960s, economic losses were eight Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
times higher, exceeding US$ 60 billion a year!

Natural occurrences such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc. simply cannot be

avoided altogether; they are a part of the environment we live in. What can be
done, however, is to take preventive measures at various levels of society in
order to minimise the impact of such natural hazards as much as possible for the
people. The impact of a natural hazard can be reduced; its worst effects can be
prevented.

A natural hazard turns into a disaster when it hits a community and disrupts its
normal functioning and causes economic damage. Natural disasters hit all, rich
and poor alike. But it is the poor who will be hurt most. Protecting the poor from
disasters also contributes towards the alleviation of poverty.

The communities actively involved in working on prevention of natural disasters

before they strike belong to all groups of society: international and regional
organisations, national governments or private firms, local administrations or
specialised associations.

What is important is to introduce a culture of prevention in all communities, at

all levels: action to save lives must be taken before the disaster strikes.

Principles of Mitigation and Preparedness

Disaster mitigation and preparedness activities need to be carried out well in
advance of any emergency, and are driven by the following principles:
• Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful
disaster reduction policies
• Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing
the need of disaster relief
• Disaster Prevention and preparedness should be considered integral part of
the developmental policy and planning at national, regional, bilateral,
multilateral and international stage.
• Early warning of impending disasters and their effective dissemination using
telecommunication are the key factors to successful prevention and
preparedness
• Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at
all levels, from the local community to national level to the regional and
international level.
• Vulnerability can be reduced by the application of proper design and patterns
of development focused on target groups through appropriate education and
training
• The international community accepts the need to share necessary technology
to prevent, reduce and mitigate disasters, which should be made freely
available and done in a timely manner as an integral part of technical
cooperation.

49
Disaster Management Each country bears the primary responsibility of protecting its people,
infrastructure and other national assets from the impact of natural disasters. The
international community should demonstrate strong political determination
required to mobilise adequate and make efficient use of existing resources,
including financial, scientific and technological means.

Preventive Planning
Long-term planning and preparedness for disaster mitigation is gradually being
made part of the process of development planning in India. Science & technology
inputs constitute its basic thrust, manifested in development of forecasting and
warning systems, disaster resistant construction technologies and appropriate
cropping systems.

A number of special programs are in operation over many years for mitigating
the impact of natural disasters. As the country has been facing natural hazards
over centuries, the local communities have developed their own indigenous coping
mechanism. The rich storehouse of this knowledge is our country’s proud
inheritance. In times of emergencies, spontaneous mobilisation of community
action supported by non-government organisations adds strength to national
capability towards disaster management.

Accepting the fact that the trend of losses is not indicative of any sign of
improvement in spite of initiation of various disaster mitigation measures the
country is planning to lay more stress in some vital areas within this field in the
coming years. These include linkage of disaster mitigation with development
plans, effective communication system/ use of latest information technology,
insurance, extensive public awareness and education campaigns particularly in
the rural areas, involvement of private sector, and strengthening of institutional
mechanism and international co-operation.

In recent years, the role of the community and of the voluntary sector comprising
NGOs has gained significance. It is realised that the best and quickest response
to disasters comes from the people on the ground, that is the community and the
community based organisations. Preparation and mitigation efforts can, for the
same reasons, also work best at community levels. It is for this reason that
Community Based Disaster Management is emerging as the most appropriate
way of responding to disasters and for preparing for and mitigating the same.
Mitigation, prevention and preparedness shall be discussed in detail in subsequent
Units.

2.7 CONCLUSION
Disasters have been increasing in their frequency and intensity in recent years.
The primary reason for this is the fact that human settlements and activities are
interfering with natural systems, and populations are being increasingly exposed
to hazards. This can be seen clearly in the Himalayan, riverine and coastal regions
of the country, where most of the disasters strike. The disaster management system
in India is anchored at the Central Government level, with implementation
mechanisms at state, district and local levels. Besides the government, the role
of non-governmental organisations, community based organisations and the
community are increasingly being recognised as very important.
50
 Disaster Management –
2.8 KEY CONCEPTS Recent Trends

Eutrophication : Eutrophication is a process whereby water

bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, or slow-moving
streams receive excess nutrients that stimulate
excessive plant growth (algae, periphyton
attached algae, and nuisance plants weeds). This
enhanced plant growth, often called an algal
bloom, reduces dissolved oxygen in the water
when dead plant material decomposes and can
cause other organisms to die. Nutrients can
come from many sources, such as fertilizers
applied to agricultural fields, golf courses, and
suburban lawns; deposition of nitrogen from the
atmosphere; erosion of soil containing nutrients;
and sewage treatment plant discharges. Water
with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen
is called hypoxic (United States Gecological
Survey).

Storm Surges : Storms form over warm seas (sea surface

temperature should exceed ~ 28 ° C in the Indian
Ocean) (Gadgil, et al. 1984). The frequency of
storms is highest in the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 3).
Though storms are tracked better today owing
to satellite remote sensing, there is need for
improvement in modeling of storm track and
intensity because this is today one of the weakest
links in storm-surge prediction. The impact of
a storm as it crosses a coast is caused by the
surge due to strong winds and low atmospheric
pressure, and the high waves riding over the
surge.

Submarine mudslides : As on land, mudslides can occur on the

continental slopes; apart from the obvious risk
they pose to offshore platforms, they can also
trigger tsunami (National Institute of
Oceanography).

Tsunamis : A Tsunami is caused by vertical displacement

of the water column owing to earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and submarine mudslides.
Though they are almost undetectable in the open
sea owing to their low amplitude, the tsunami
waves can reach heights exceeding 10 m in the
vicinity of a coast. The high impact they have
on a coast is due to high water velocity and wave
height. Tsunami is not as frequent as storm
surges along the Indian coast.

51
Disaster Management
2.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
An Interim Report of the Sub Committee on Disaster Reduction, July
2003,“Reducing Disaster Vulnerability through Science and Technology,”
National Science and Technology Council, Committee on the Environment and
Natural Resources, at http://www.sdr.gov/SDR_Report_ReducingDisaster
Vulnerability2003.pdf.

Bahadur, Jagdish, 1998, Water Resources Management in the Himalayan Region.

Bahuguna, V.K., & Satendra Singh, 2002, “Fire Situation in India”, IFFN No.
26.

Bryant, E., 2001, Tsunami: The Under-rated Hazard, Cambridge University Press.

Campbell, Gabriel, J., 2005, “Diversifying and Enhancing Livelihood Options

in the Himalayan Region”, International Center for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), Newsletter 48.

Gadgil, S., P.V. Joseph, and N.V. Joshi, 1984, “Ocean-atmosphere Coupling Over
Monsoon Regions”, Nature, 312.

Jigyasu, Rohit, 2002, (Ph.D. Thesis), Reducing Disaster Vulnerability through

Local Knowledge and Capacity: The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural
Communities in India and Nepal, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art, Department of Town and
Regional Planning, Trondheim, at http://www.ntnu.no/~rohit/Rohit%20
Dr.ing%20final1.pdf.

National Institute of Oceanography, “Understanding the Seas”, at http://

www.nio.org/jsp

Ramchandran, H., 1990, Environmental Issues in Agriculture, Concept

Publishing, New Delhi.

Report of the Expert Group on Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and

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S.K.Chaudhari, (members) T.N.Gupta (member convenor).

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Plans, Government of India, 2001, New Delhi.

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Disasters in the Himalaya- Gangetic Region”, Department of Geography, Delhi
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the Hindukush -Himlayan Region”, at http://www.southasianfloods.org/
members.php

Website of the National Disaster Management (NDM) Division, Ministry of Home

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Affairs, Government of India: http://www.ndmindia.nic.in Disaster Management –
Recent Trends
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2.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Discuss with elders in your neighbourhood and list disasters or emergencies
that have occurred in your vicinity in the past. Elaborate if there is any increase
in such events in recent decades or years. If there is no increase, identify
those factors that have kept your area safe.
2) Identify and list all government agencies and non-governmental organisations
that have a role to play in disaster management in your city or village.

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