AQA Biology GCSE

Genetics I: Inheritance

Name: ______________________

Lesson Homework Task SCAN CODE Due

1 Task 1 – Watch the video, complete the quick quiz and worksheet for
the ‘Meiosis’ lesson on Kay Science.com. Submit worksheet answers
on MS teams
2 Task 1 – Watch the video, complete the quick quiz and worksheet for
the ‘Mitosis vs Meiosis’ lesson on Kay Science.com. Submit worksheet
answers on MS teams
Task 2 - Complete the weekly quiz set on MS Teams
Remember! you can revise for the quiz using Seneca! (appropriate
sections will be set as an assignment)
3 Revision Task 1 – Watch the video, complete the quick quiz and
worksheet for the ‘Sperm cells’ lesson on Kay Science.com. Submit
worksheet answers (pg5/6 only) on MS teams
4 Task 1 – Watch the video, complete the quick quiz for the ‘Alleles’
lesson on Kay Science.com
Task 2 - Complete the weekly quiz set on MS Teams
Remember! you can revise for the quiz using Seneca! (appropriate
sections will be set as an assignment)
5 Task 1 – Watch the video, complete the quick quiz and worksheet for
the ‘Sex Inheritance lesson on Kay Science.com. Submit worksheet
answers on MS teams
6 Task 1 – Watch the video, complete the quick quiz and worksheet for
the ‘Recessive Disorders’ lesson on Kay Science.com. Submit
worksheet answers on MS teams
Task 2 - Complete the weekly quiz set on MS Teams
Remember! you can revise for the quiz using Seneca! (appropriate
sections will be set as an assignment)
Paper 2 - Genetics I Fact Sheet Fold To revise these facts, fold this sheet in half and try to
page write the answers down from memory. Repeat!
here

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1. Define 'gametes'. Sex cells

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2. How are gametes formed? Meiosis

3. How is a gamete different from a normal Half genetic information

body cell?
4. Name the gametes in plants. Egg + Pollen

5. Name the gametes in animals. Sperm + Egg

6. Name the organ that produces female Ovaries

gametes in animals and plants.
7. Name the organ that produces male Anther
gametes in plants.
8. Name the organ that produces male Testes
gametes in animals.
9. How many divisions do a cell undergo in Twice
meiosis?
1. Copies of the DNA are made.

2. The cell divides twice to form 4 gametes, each

10. State the three key steps in meiosis. with a single set of chromosomes.

3. All 4 cells are genetically different from each

other.

11. Describe the cells produced by meiosis. 4 cells, genetically different.

12. How many chromosomes are there in a 23
human gamete?
13. Name the process where a sperm and an Fertilisation
egg cell fuse together.
14. Explain why meiosis is necessary for Cells have to be haploid so that when they fuse
fertilisation to occur? they create a diploid cell with the right number of
chromosomes
15. Name the structure formed by fertilisation Zygote
(fusion of male and female gametes).
16. When a new cell is formed through By mitosis – zygote becomes an embryo once it
fertilisation, how does it divide? starts dividing to form a ball of cells
17. Define 'mitosis'. Cell division that produces two genetically
identical daughter cells

18. Which type of reproduction is based only Asexual

on mitosis?
19. Define 'cloning'. Production of identical offspring by asexual
reproduction/mitosis

20. By which cell division type does cloning Mitosis

occur?
21. What are the advantages of asexual Fast, only one parent needed (no need to find a
reproduction? mate
22. Describe the cells produced by meiosis. 4 cells, genetically different.

23. Describe the cells produced by mitosis. 2 cells, genetically identical (clones).

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24. By which cell division type does asexual Mitosis
reproduction rely on?
25. State one difference between asexual and A: no fertilisation/genetically identical offspring;
sexual reproduction. S: fertilisation/genetic variation
26. The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell
is…. DNA
A polymer made up of two strands forming a
27. Describe the structure of DNA. double helix.
28. Name the structure within which DNA is
contained. Chromosomes.

29. What is a gene? A small section of DNA on a chromosome.

30. What is the function of a gene? To code for a particular sequence of amino acids
in order to make a specific protein.

31. What is a genome? The entire genetic material of an organism.

32. What is a change in the DNA sequence A mutation.

called?
33. What are chromosomes? Structures in the nucleus that carry genes

34. How many chromosomes are in one human 46

body cell?
1. To search for genes linked to different types of
disease
35. State 3 ways in which understanding of the
human genome will be important? 2. To understand and treat inherited disorders

3. To trace early human migration patterns

36. How many percent of your chromosomes 50%

have you inherited from your father?
37. What is an allele? A different version of a gene.
The alleles of an organism for a particular gene
38. What is a genotype? (e.g. RR).
The displayed characteristic or physical
39. What is a phenotype? appearance caused by alleles (e.g. red flowers).
The individual only needs one copy of this allele
40. What does the term “dominant” mean? for its phenotype to be seen.
The individual needs two copies of this allele for
41. What does the term “recessive” mean? its phenotype to be seen.
The individual has two different alleles for this
42. What does the term “heterozygous” mean? gene.
The individual has two identical alleles for this
43. What does the term “homozygous” mean? gene.
44. What is the genotype of a female? XX
45. What is the genotype of a male? XY
A condition that causes the individual to have
46. What is polydactyly? extra fingers or toes.
47. Is polydactyly a dominant or recessive
condition? Dominant.
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 48. State the genotype(s) that would result in PP or Pp (homozygous dominant or heterozygous
polydactyly. for this gene).
A condition which causes sticky mucus to build up
49. What is cystic fibrosis? in the lungs.
50. Is cystic fibrosis a dominant or recessive
condition? Recessive.
51. State the genotype(s) that would result in
cystic fibrosis. cc (homozygous recessive).
Causing miscarriage/Ethical concerns/Inaccurate
52. State one concern of screening embryos. results/Expensive
Know if child will have disorder/Able to decide if
53. State one benefit of embryo screening. proceed with pregnancy or abortion

Once we have finished this topic, use this table to record your exam question marks and decide which
topics you need to revise!

Lesson Exam
Question
Marks
Lesson 1 – Meiosis /14

Lesson 2 – Sexual & Asexual Reproduction /25

Lesson 3 – DNA and the Genome /18

Lesson 4 – Genotype and Phenotype /20

Mid Topic Test

Lesson 5 - Genetic Inheritance and Sex Determination /6 or 9

Lesson 6 - Inherited Disorders /17

Lesson 7 - Genetic Diagrams /12 or 16

End of Topic Test

Lesson 1 – Meiosis
CHECKLIST! – Have you…
 Read the notes and completed the recall questions

5
  Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:

Meiosis A type of cell division which forms four non-identical gametes - the
chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid.
Gametes A sex cell (sperm/pollen in males and ova/eggs in females).
Ovaries A female reproductive organ in which ova or eggs are produced, present in
humans and other vertebrates as a pair.
Testes One of two egg-shaped glands inside the scrotum that produce sperm and
male hormones. Also called testicle.
Anther The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
Pollen Male sex (gamete) from flowering plants.
Daughter cells 1. A cell formed by the division of another.
Fertilisation The process where the nuclei of two haploid gametes fuses together to form
a new diploid cell (zygote)
Haploid A word used to describe a cell that has half the number of chromosomes e.g.
human gametes have 23
Diploid A word used to describe a cell that has the full set of chromosomes e.g. in
humans 46
Zygote A fertilised egg cell – the first cell formed after fertilisation

Part 1 - State the purpose of meiosis and where it occurs

Information: Read the following notes
Meiosis is a form of cell division which produces four gametes. Gametes are sex cells which contain half
the number of chromosomes that a normal body cell has. It is important as it allows sexual reproduction
to occur where chromosomes from each parent are mixed to produce offspring. Meiosis takes place in
reproductive organs.
In animals and plants meiosis happens in ovaries to produce egg cells (the female gamete). In animals,
sperm are the male gametes and they are produced by meiosis in the testes, in plants pollen is produced
in the anther.
Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
1. Define 'gametes'.
2. What type of cell division forms gametes?
3. How is a gamete different from a normal body cell?
4. Name the gametes in plants.
5. Name the gametes in animals.
6. Name the organ that produces female gametes in plants and animals.
7. Name the organ that produces male gametes in plants
8. Name the organ that produces male gametes in animals.
Part 2 - Describe how cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes
Information: Read the following notes

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Meiosis follows the same
steps as mitosis to start, but
once the daughter cells have
formed, they undergo a
second division. This results in
1 parent cell forming 4
gametes, each with half the
number of chromosomes as
an adult cell. We say these
cells have a haploid nucleus
because they have half the
number of chromosomes. In humans the haploid number is 23.
Meiosis also means the offspring will all be different from each other and their parents as they have a
unique combination of genes from both parents, so they are not identical. This leads to variation within
the population.
Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
9. How many divisions does a cell undergo in meiosis?
10. State the three key steps in meiosis.
11. Describe the product of meiosis.
12. How many chromosomes are there in a human gamete?
Part 3 - Explain the importance of meiosis for fertilisation to occur
Information: Read the following notes
Fertilisation occurs
when two gametes fuse
(join). At this stage the
first cell of a new
organisms has been
formed, called a
zygote, with the correct
number of
chromosomes (a
diploid nucleus, 46
chromosomes). This
one cell then divides (by mitosis) before differentiating into all the specialised cells that make up an
organism.
Meiosis is important because if gametes didn’t have half the number of chromosomes, they wouldn’t be
able to fuse during fertilisation to make an embryo with body cells that had the full number of
chromosomes needed in each cell.

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
13. Name the process where a sperm and an egg cell fuse together.
14. Explain why meiosis is necessary for fertilisation to occur?
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15. Name the cell type formed by fertilisation (fusion of male and female gametes).
16. When a new cell is formed through fertilisation, how does it divide?

Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you
Q1. Diagram 1 shows the nucleus of a cell at the start of meiosis.

Diagram 1

(a) Name structure A.

___________________________________________________ (1)

(b) During meiosis, the nucleus shown in diagram 1 will divide twice to
form four nuclei.

Complete diagram 2 to show the appearance of one of these nuclei.

Diagram 2 (2)

Q2. (a) Gametes (sex cells) contain half the amount of DNA compared to body cells.

Give the names of the two types of gametes in humans.

_______________________________ and _______________________________

(1)

(b) What is the process called when the gametes join?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) The diagram below shows cell division by meiosis to form gametes.

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 Which two features in the diagram above show that this cell division is meiosis and not
mitosis?

Tick two boxes.

The cell divides twice

The chromosomes pull apart into the new cells

The cytoplasm divides into new cells

The DNA is copied

The new cells have half the number of chromosomes (2)

Q3. Sex cells are produced by meiosis.

Describe what happens to the chromosomes when a cell divides by meiosis.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

Q4. The diagram shows some of the cell divisions that occur during human reproduction.

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(a) (i) Name the type of cell division that produces cell D from cell B.

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Which organ in the male body produces cell C from cell A?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) (i) Cells A and B each contain 46 chromosomes.

How many chromosomes would there be in the nucleus of cell C? (1)

(ii) Why is it important that cell C has this number of chromosomes?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (2)

Lesson 2: Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

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CHECKLIST! – Have you…
 Read the notes and completed the recall questions
 Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:
Clones An organism that is genetically
Cloning A scientific method by which genetically identical copies are made of animals or plants.
Variation Difference between individuals, distance from the norm.
Mitosis A type of cell division which produces daughter cells identical to the parent.
Asexual A type of reproduction requiring only one parent and produces offspring that are genetically
reproduction identical to each other.
Sexual Type of reproduction involving two parents and the fusion of gametes to produce genetically
Reproduction unique offspring.
Gamete A sex cell (sperm/pollen in males and ova/eggs in females).
Haploid A word used to describe a cell that has half the number of chromosomes e.g. human gametes
have 23
Diploid A word used to describe a cell that has the full set of chromosomes e.g. in humans 46
Somatic cells A somatic cell is any cell in the body other than cells involved in reproduction.
Tubers A swollen, fleshy underground stem of a plant, such as a potato, which can grow new shoots to
form a clone of the parent plant

Part 1 - Describe how sexual reproduction leads to variation in offspring.

Information: Read the following notes

Asexual reproduction only needs one parent. Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical
to each other, and their parents – they are clones of each other. This is because in asexual reproduction, there is no
mixing of genetic information. Examples include: Mitosis, binary fission in bacteria, and some plants can create
clones of themselves by producing side shoots which can then grow into new plants e.g. strawberries or by
producing tubers or bulbs (underground storage organs) that can regrow into a new plant after winter e.g. potatoes
and onions.

A disadvantage of asexual reproduction is that there is no genetic variation as all offspring are clones – this can
make them more susceptible to environmental change or disease

In sexual reproduction genes are mixed to produce variation in the offspring. This is because offspring inherit half
their chromosomes from each parent. The best solution is to be able to do both forms of reproduction.

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

1. Define 'mitosis'.
2. Which type of reproduction is based only on mitosis?
3. Define 'cloning'.
4. By which cell division type does cloning occur?
5. What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

Part 2 - Compare sexual and asexual reproduction

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Information: Read the following notes

Asexual reproduction produces clones - two genetically identical daughter cells.

Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction. Both cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes. They are known as
diploid.
Sexual reproduction (meiosis) produces four non-identical daughter cells.
These are sex cells called gametes.
Each gamete has half the number of chromosomes of a body cell so they are known as haploid.
Comparing sexual and Asexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Number of parent cells One Two

Cell division type used Mitosis Meiosis
Number of cells produced 2 4

Genetic information All of genes passed on – Half of genes from each parent
inherited by offspring genetically identical clones passed on
Genetic variation in No – all offspring are clones of Yes – offspring are genetically
offspring parent and each other because different to parent and each other
there is no mixing of genes because genes from two parents are
mixed.

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
6. Describe the cells produced by meiosis.
7. Describe the cells produced by mitosis.
8. By which cell division type does asexual reproduction rely on?
9. State one difference between asexual and sexual reproduction.
Worksheet questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
Mitosis

1. What are the main purposes of mitosis?

2. Mitosis is part of what cycle?
3. What type of cell undergoes mitosis?
Circle one: Reproductive sex cells or somatic cells
4. How does a daughter cell compare to the parent cell after undergoing mitosis?
Circle one: identical to the parent or different than the parent
5. Does mitosis make haploid or diploid cells?
Circle one: haploid or diploid
Meiosis
6. What type of cell undergoes meiosis?
Circle one: reproductive sex cells or somatic cells
7. What are the two main types of gametes?
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 8. What are gametes used for?
9. Does meiosis make haploid or diploid cells?
Circle one: haploid or diploid
10. How does a daughter cell compare to the parent cell after undergoing meiosis?
Circle one: identical to the parent or different than the parent
11. What process in prophase 1 of meiosis makes every gamete different?
12. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis by filling in the Venn diagram below:

Mitosis Meiosis

Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you

Q1. (i) Mitosis and meiosis are types of cell division.

For each feature in the table, tick ( ) one box to show if the feature occurs:
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 • only in mitosis

• only in meiosis.

Only in Only in
Feature mitosis mitosis
( ) ( )

Produces new cells during growth and repair

Produces gametes (sex cells)

Produces genetically identical cells

(2)

(ii) Name the organ that produces gametes (sex cells) in:

a man ______________________

a woman ____________________
(2)

Q2. Meiosis and mitosis are different types of division in human cells. Compare the two processes by
referring to where each takes place and the kind of products that are made.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q3. Starfish can split in half. Each half can then grow new
arms to form offspring.

This process is shown in the figure

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 (a) What process produces the starfish offspring?
Tick one box.

Asexual reproduction

Fertilisation

Selective breeding

Sexual reproduction

(1)

(b) More cells are produced as the starfish grows more arms.

What process will produce more cells in the starfish as they grow?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) All the offspring produced are genetically identical.

What name is given to genetically identical organisms?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(d) Each body cell of the parent starfish contains 44 chromosomes.

How many chromosomes are in each body cell of the offspring?

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

Q4. A gardener wanted to produce a new variety of onion.

Explain why sexual reproduction could produce a new variety of onion.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (3)

Q5. The bean aphid is a type of black-fly which lives on broad bean plants in summer.

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 In the autumn, males and females mate and produce eggs.

(a) Name the type of reproduction which produces the eggs.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) In spring these eggs hatch. The young aphids are all female.
Explain why they are all similar but not identical to each other.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) These females are then able to produce offspring without needing any males.

(i) Name the type of reproduction where females do not need males to produce
offspring.

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) How will the offspring from one of these females:

A compare with each other

______________________________________________________________

B compare with the offspring from other females?

______________________________________________________________ (2)

Q6. The drawing shows a potato plant producing new

tubers (potatoes). Buds on the stem of the parent
plant produce stolons. The new tubers are formed at
the ends of the stolons (stems that grow downwards).

Explain why the new tubers are genetically identical

to each other.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(3)
Lesson 3 – DNA and the Genome

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CHECKLIST! – Have you…
 Read the notes and completed the recall questions
 Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:

Polymer A large molecule formed from many identical smaller molecules known as
monomers.
DNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA carries genetic information. It has all the
instructions that a living organism needs to grow, reproduce and function.
Gene A short section of DNA that codes for a protein
Genome An organisms complete set of genetic information (in every cell)
Chromosomes The structure that DNA is organised into – humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in
the nucleus
Nucleus The nucleus controls what happens inside the cell. Chromosomes are structures
found in the nucleus of most cells. The plural of nucleus is nuclei.
Double helix The shape of the DNA molecule which has two strands twisted together in a spiral
The code formed by the order of the bases in DNA that determines an organism's
Genetic Code
characteristics.

Part 1: State the structure and role of DNA

Information: Read the following notes

DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix (‘Double’ = two strands ‘Helix’ = twisted
around each other).
The two strands are held together by chemicals called ‘bases’. DNA is a chemical which contains genetic
information or the “code for life”, small sections of the DNA called genes code for a particular sequence of
amino acids in order to make a specific
protein.
An organisms complete set of genetic
information (in every cell) is called its
genome.

Part 2: Describe how genetic material is organised.

Information: Read the following notes
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DNA is coiled into structures called chromosomes. The chromosomes are found in the nucleus of each cell.
Human body cells contain 23 pairs (46) chromosomes
A gene is a short section of DNA that codes for a specific protein. The code of each gene tells the ribosomes
the order to place certain amino acids.
We say each gene ‘codes for’ a specific protein because if you change the order of the amino acids a
different protein would be made.

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

1. The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell is….

2. Describe the structure of DNA.
3. Name the structure within which DNA is contained.
4. What is a gene?
5. What is the function of a gene?
6. What is a genome?
7. What is a change in the DNA sequence called?
8. What are chromosomes?
9. How many chromosomes are in one human body cell?

Part 3: Discuss the importance of understanding the human genome.

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of
determining the sequence of chemical bases which make up all of human DNA which is over 3 billion bases
long!
The importance of identifying and knowing the order of genes in the human genome is so that we can:
 To search for genes linked to different types of disease
 To understand and treat inherited disorders
 To trace early human migration patterns

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
10. State 3 ways in which understanding of the human genome will be important.

Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you

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Q1. When scientists look at dividing cells under a microscope, they can see strands that contain a chemical
called DNA.

The diagram shows an arrangement of the strands from a human cell.

(a) What name is given to the strands containing DNA shown in the diagram?

Draw a ring around one answer.

alleles chromosomes genes

(1)

Q2. The diagram shows a human cell and some of its contents.

(a) Choose words from this list to label the diagrams.

chromosome cytoplasm gene nucleus

(3)

(b) Choose words from this list to complete the sentence.

a body cell an egg cell a gamete a sperm cell

In the cell above, the chromosomes are found in pairs so this cell must be

__________________________________________________________________

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 Q3. DNA is the genetic material of human cells.

Figure 1 shows the structure of part of a DNA molecule.

(a) (i) Describe where DNA is found in a human cell.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________(2)

(ii) When a cell divides by mitosis the new cells are genetically identical.

What causes the cells to be genetically identical?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (1)

Q4. Marfan syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that causes problems with many body systems.

(a) Which sentence best describes a gene? Tick one box.

A long chain of carbohydrate

A short section of DNA

All of the chromosomes in an organism

Several amino acids joined together

(1)

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 (b) What does a gene code for? Tick one box.

A carbohydrate polymer

A DNA double helix

One glycerol and three fatty acids

A sequence of amino acids

(1)

(c) What scientific term is used to describe all the genes of one organism?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)
Q5. Diagram 1 shows an animal cell and some of the structures inside the cell.

(a) Label
structures
A, B and C,
on
Diagram 1

(3)

Q6. Proteins are made according to information stored in the DNA structure of genes.

(c) Describe the structure of DNA.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(d) Describe how DNA controls the structure of a protein.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

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 Lesson 4 – Genotype and Phenotype
CHECKLIST! – Have you…
 Read the notes and completed the recall questions
 Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:
Alleles Different form of the same gene
Characteristics A characteristic is an observable (can see it or measure it) quality, trait or feature of an
individual e.g. hair colour, eye colour, flower colour, leaf shape.
Dominant An allele that always expresses itself whether it is it is partnered by a recessive allele or by
another like itself.
Recessive Describes the variant of a gene for a characteristic which is masked or suppressed in the
presence of the dominant variant. A recessive gene will remain dormant unless it is paired with
another recessive gene.
Genotype The alleles that an organism has for a particular characteristic, usually written as letters.
Phenotype The visible characteristics of an organism which occur as a result of its genes.

Part 1: Define the terms genotype and phenotype.

Information: Read the following notes

When we describe how different organisms appear or

look, we are describing their phenotype – their
observable characteristics. A characteristic is an
observable (can see it or measure it) quality, trait or
feature of an individual e.g hair colour, eye colour,
flower colour, leaf shape.

Different forms of the same gene are known as alleles.

An organism’s genotype is the alleles an individual has for a certain characteristic.

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

1. What is an allele?
2. What is a genotype?
3. What is a phenotype?

Part 2: Describe how some characteristics are controlled by a certain allele.

Information: Read the following notes

There are two copies of every chromosome in a body cell nucleus (one copy inherited from the mother the other
copy inherited from the father).

Therefore, there are two copies of every gene. These may have different alleles and the combination of the two
alleles (the genotype) determines the characteristic (the phenotype).

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In this example there is a gene for flower colour, this plant has
two copies of the flower colour gene one on each chromosome.
This plant has two different alleles (versions of the flower colour
gene) one allele codes for purple petals the other codes for white
petals.

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

4. What percent of your chromosomes have you inherited from your father?
5. What is the word used to describe the alleles an organism has for a gene?
6. What word describes the physical characteristics an organism has?

Part 3: Explain how a dominant allele is always expressed

Information: Read the following notes

For most genes, one allele is said to be dominant and the other recessive. Only one dominant allele needs to be
present for the dominant phenotype to be expressed. This means individuals that have two dominant alleles OR one
dominant and one recessive allele will express the dominant phenotype. Two copies of recessive alleles need to be
present for the recessive phenotype to be expressed. Due to this relationship, we often refer to the alleles using the
same letter, the dominant in UPPER case and the recessive in lower case e.g. “B” is dominant, “b” is recessive.

For example: In the gene for flower colour purple is the dominant allele, so our code is P= purple and p=white

Chromosomes/Gene Genotype Phenotype

PP Purple Flowers
Dominant Alleles Only

Pp Purple Flowers
Dominant and Recessive
Alleles

pp White Flowers
Recessive Alleles only

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Organisms which have two copies of a recessive allele and show the recessive phenotype cannot pass on any
dominant alleles to their offspring unless they sexually reproduce with a mate that has dominant alleles. E.g. two
plants with white flowers cannot produce plants with purple flowers but one white plant could reproduce with a
purple plant and their offspring would have purple flowers. You can use this as evidence to tell if a characteristic is
dominant or recessive!

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

7. What does the term “dominant” mean when used to describe an allele?
8. Give an example of a dominant genotype using the letter G.
9. What does the term “recessive” mean when used to describe an allele?
10. Give an example of a recessive genotype using the letter G.
11. How can you identify if a characteristic or phenotype is recessive?

Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you
Q1. A mouse will always have black fur if one or two black fur alleles are inherited.

What word describes the black fur allele? Tick one box.

Dominant

Recessive

Heterozygous

Homozygous

(1)

Q2. (i) describe the difference between dominant and recessive alleles;

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (2)

(ii) describe the difference between alleles and genes;

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (2)

24
Q3. In humans, hair colour is an inherited characteristic. Red hair is caused by a recessive allele.

(a) When does a recessive allele control the development of a characteristic? (1)

Tick (✔) one box.

When the allele is present on only one of the
chromosomes.

When the dominant allele is not present.

When the allele is inherited from the female parent.

Q4. Variation in individual organisms can be caused by:

• genes
• the environment
• a combination of both genes and the environment.

The table shows variations in a woman.

(a) What is the cause of each variation in the table below?

Tick only one box in each row.

Cause of variation

Variation Both genes

Environment
Genes only and the
only
environment

Brown eyes

Light brown skin colour

Short hair
(3)

(b) The allele for blue eyes is recessive (b).

The allele for brown eyes is dominant (B).

A woman has blue eyes.

What are the woman’s alleles?

Tick one box.

BB Bb bb

(1)
25
 (c) The woman marries a man with the alleles Bb for eye colour.

What colour eyes does the man have?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(d) What is the scientific term used for the child’s eye colour?
Tick one box.

Chromosome

Condition

Genotype

Phenotype

(e) What effect will a mutation have?

Tick one box.

Almost certainly have no effect

Definitely change appearance

Definitely be passed on to all children

Probably cause a disease

(1)
Q5. Wild turkeys have black feathers. Until about 30 years ago turkeys reared for meat also had black
feathers.

However, a recessive gene which produced entirely white feathers appeared, and
turkey farmers changed to breeding white-feathered birds.

Now, however, there is a demand again for birds with black feathers which can
be marketed as ‘traditional’ farm-produced turkeys.

(a) Feather colour is controlled by one pair of genes.

(i) Suggest suitable symbols for each of the two alleles of this pair of genes.

Black feathers ____________ White feathers _________________

(1)

(ii) What alleles for feather colour would a white turkey have? ______________ (1)
26
 (b) Explain carefully why ‘traditional’ black-feathered turkeys could not be bred from a flock
of white-feathered birds.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

Q6. Pompe disorder is an inherited condition that affects thousands of people, it is caused by the GAA
gene.

(a) What is a gene made of?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

Pompe disorder is caused by a recessive allele. r is the recessive allele and R is the dominant
allele

(b) What is the genotype of person that has Pompe disorder?

_________________________________________ (1)

27
 Lesson 5 - Genetic Inheritance and Sex Determination
CHECKLIST! – Have you…
 Read the notes and completed the recall questions
 Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:

Heterozygous This describes a genotype in which the two alleles for a characteristic are different.
Homozygous This describes a genotype in which the two alleles for the characteristics are identical.
Punnet Square A grid that shows the possible combinations of alleles that can result at fertilisation.

Part 1: Define the terms homozygous and heterozygous

Information: Read the following notes

If the two alleles of a gene are the same, the individual is described as homozygous. Example: BB or bb
If two alleles of a gene are different, the individual is described as heterozygous. Example: Bb

Example: The gene for flower colour in pea plants has two alleles, purple and white.

The purple allele is represented by “P” and the white allele by “p”.

Chromosomes/Gene Genotype Phenotype

PP The homozygous dominant
Dominant Alleles Only phenotype is purple flowers
Homozygous dominant

Pp The heterozygous phenotype

Dominant and Recessive Alleles purple flowers
Heterozygous

pp The homozygous recessive

Recessive Alleles Only phenotype is white flowers
Homozygous recessive

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
28
 1. What does the term “heterozygous” mean?
2. What does the term “homozygous” mean?

Part 2: Use Punnett squares to predict and interpret the results of a genetic cross.
Information: Read the following notes Parent 1 Parent 1
allele 1 allele 2
A Punnett square can be used to perform a genetic cross to work Parent
Offspring Offspring
2
out the probability of a certain allele being present in the offspring allele
alleles alleles
chance 1 chance 2
1
of two parents each time they reproduce. The information in a
Parent Offspring Offspring
punnet square is labelled here. 2
alleles alleles
allele
chance 3 chance 4
2
Remember - Probability means 'how likely' or 'what chance' -
normally a fraction or a % example: ¼, 0.25 or 25%

In this example using our Pp alleles for purple and white flowers again:
Genotypes
 ¼ or 25% chance of the homozygous dominant PP
 ½ or 50% chance (2x 25%) of the heterozygous Pp
 ¼ or 25% chance of the homozygous recessive
Phenotypes
 ¾ or 75% chance of having purple flowers (as it is dominant)
 ¼ or 25% chance of having white flowers (as it is recessive)

A sex chromosome is a type of chromosome that determines the sex of an

organism. Humans and most mammals have two sex chromosomes, the X and the
Y. Females have two X chromosomes in their cells, while males have one X and one
Y chromosomes in their cells. Father

We can use a punnet square to show that the probability of getting a girl or a boy each time an embryo is
fertilised is always 50%.
Mother
Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the
information above to help you

3. What is the genotype of a female?

4. What is the genotype of a male?
Worksheet questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
Bronze:

29
 1. What is an allele?
2. How many alleles of each gene does a person have?
3. Circle the alleles which represent a person who is heterozygous:
Aa aa aA AA
4. What does homozygous mean?
5. Look at the genetic cross diagram:
a. Complete the diagram to show the alleles for each
box
b. Is person 3 heterozygous or homozygous?
c. Why does Person 3 have red hair?
d. Draw a ring around the boxes which show the
alleles for children with red hair.
e. What is the probability that one of the children will
have red hair?
Silver:
1. Why does a person usually inherit two alleles of each gene?
2. A mouse will always have black fur if one or two black fur alleles are inherited. What word best
describes the black fur allele?
3. Some humans are albino (they have white hair and pale skin). This condition is caused by a
recessive allele, n. The other allele, N, causes pigment to be made. There are three possible
combinations of these alleles: NN, Nn or nn.
a. Which one of these combinations will an albino person have?
b. Two non-albino parents can sometimes have an albino child.
Which combination of alleles must the two parents have for
this to happen? Tick one box:

Gold:
1. The allele for blue eyes is recessive (b) and the allele for brown eyes is dominant (B).
a. A woman has blue eyes what are her alleles?
b. The woman would like to have a baby with a homozygous brown eyed man. Draw a
Punnett square diagram to show the alleles for eye colour for their offspring.
c. What is the probability that one of their children will have brown eyes? Can you explain
your answer?

Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you
Q1. The allele for blue eyes is recessive (b). The allele for brown eyes is dominant (B).

30
 A woman has blue eyes. What are the woman’s alleles?

Tick one box.

BB Bb bb

(1)
(d) Complete the Punnett square diagram in Figure 2 for this man and the woman. (1)

Figure 2 Woman

(e) What is the probability that a child of this man and

woman will have brown eyes? B
Man
b

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

Q2. Two black mice both have one black fur allele (B) and one brown fur allele (b).

(f) Complete the genetic diagram below to show the possible offspring of these mice.

Parent 1

B b

B BB Bb

Parent 2

b bb

(1)

(g) On the diagram above draw a ring around one offspring with brown fur. (1)

(h) What is the chance of the offspring from the two black mice being brown?

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

Challenge:

Q1. Two heterozygous parents, with alleles Rr, produce offspring.

31
 (i) Draw a genetic diagram to show all the possible arrangements of alleles in their offspring.

(2)

(ii) One of the offspring is dominant homozygous. What is the chance of this occurring?

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

Q2. The fruit fly, Drosophila, has either long wings or

vestigial wings, as shown in the diagram.

The size of the wings is determined by a pair of

alleles: A and a.
Long-winged flies have one of two possible
genotypes: AA or Aa.
Vestigial-winged flies have only one genotype: aa.

(a) (i) What is the genotype of a heterozygous fly?

______________________________________________________________(1)

(ii) Why can vestigial-winged flies only have the genotype aa?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) A male and a female long-winged fly were crossed. They produced 96 offspring.
72 of the offspring had long wings and 24 had vestigial wings.
Use a genetic diagram to explain this.

(4)

Lesson 6 – Inherited Disorders

CHECKLIST! – Have you…

32
  Read the notes and completed the recall questions
 Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:

Polydactyly Polydactyly is a genetic disorder caused by a dominant allele. People born with
polydactyly have extra fingers or toes.
Cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder caused by 2 recessive alleles.
Embryo A ball of cells formed after fertilisation that undergoes mitosis to grow and form a
foetus.
Mutation A change to the DNA base sequence.

Part 1 - State (at least) two inherited disorders (cystic fibrosis and polydactyly)
Information: Read the following notes

Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disorder

caused by a mutation. It affects
many organs including the: lungs,
digestive system and reproductive
system. It affects mucus made by
cells in different areas of the body
causing it to become very thick and
sticky.

Organs such as the lungs can become clogged up, this makes breathing harder and increases their chance
of getting chest infections due to build-up of dust and dirt. Their pancreatic duct can also be blocked,
resulting in less digestive enzymes making their way into the small intestine. This can reduce the amount of
nutrients they can get from their food – this often leads to them being underweight.

It cannot be cured as it is a genetic disorder, but it can be treated to help reduce symptoms. Physiotherapy
can help keep area’s clear of mucus and antibiotics are used to prevent infection. Later in life a lung
transplant may be needed.

Cystic fibrosis is a recessive genetic disorder (only people who are homozygous recessive (have two copies
of the recessive allele) for the cystic fibrosis gene have the disorder).

Not all genetic diseases are recessive.

Polydactyly is caused by a dominant allele. People born with

polydactyly have extra fingers or toes.
33
This genetic disorder is not harmful. People can choose to have extra digits removed with surgery but some
keep them.
Some dominant genetic disorders have a much more widespread effects on the way the body works and
cause serious symptoms, they are often life limiting e.g. Huntington’s disease.
Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
1. What are the symptoms associated with cystic fibrosis?
2. What type of genetic disorder is cystic fibrosis?
3. How can cystic fibrosis be treated?
4. What is polydactyly?
5. Is polydactyly a dominant or recessive condition?
6. State the genotype(s) that would result in polydactyly.

Part 2: Describe the difference in inheritance patterns for dominant/recessive allele disorders.
Information: Read the following notes

Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele. This means that only homozygous recessive people are
suffering from the disorder and heterozygous people are completely normal, but they have a chance of
having a child which suffers from it. They are known as carriers.

To the right is the Punnett square for a cross between two heterozygous carriers. C= healthy, c= cystic
fibrosis

In this example:
Genotypes
 25% chance of the homozygous dominant CC
 50% chance of the heterozygous Cc
 25% chance of the homozygous recessive cc
Phenotypes
 25% of being unaffected CC
 50% of having no symptoms but being a carrier
Cc
 25% chance of suffering from cystic fibrosis cc
(circled)

Polydactyly is caused by a dominant allele. This means that only one parent needs to pass on the faulty
allele for the child to suffer from polydactyly, So a homozygous dominant parent is guaranteed to have a
polydactyly child and a heterozygous parents will have a chance of having one.

34
To the right is a Punnett square showing the chances of having child with polydactyly when one parent
with the disorder mates with a homozygous recessive partner.

In this example:
Genotypes
 25% chance of the homozygous dominant PP
 50% chance of the heterozygous Pp
 25% chance of the homozygous recessive pp
Phenotypes
 75% chance of having polydactyly (circled)
 25% chance of being unaffected

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you
7. What is cystic fibrosis?
8. Is cystic fibrosis a dominant or recessive condition?
9. State the genotype(s) that would result in cystic fibrosis.

Part 3: Discuss the issues surrounding embryo screening.

Information: Read the following notes

Genetic testing involves analysis of a person's DNA to see if they carry alleles that cause genetic disorders. It can be
done at any stage in a person's life. If people know they are carriers of a genetic disorder and they would like to have
children but not pass on the alleles that cause their genetic disorder they can have their embryos screened before
pregnancy occurs.

Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) or embryo screening can be used on embryos before placing them into
the uterus of the mother. Fertility drugs stimulate the release of several eggs. The eggs are collected and fertilised
with sperm in a Petri dish. This is known as in vitro fertilisation (IVF).

Once the embryos have reached the eight-cell stage,

one cell is removed from each. These cells are tested for
the disorder causing alleles. Only embryos that do not
contain the alleles are then implanted into the uterus,
embryos with the alleles for the disorder are destroyed.

Testing can also be done during the pregnancy. This

testing uses a needle to take a sample of the growing foetus’s blood in the womb. It is offered to couples who may
have an increased risk of producing a baby with an inherited disorder, but it cannot detect all the inherited disorders
unlike embryo screening.

35
The main advantage of screening is it allows parents the ability to have healthy children without the disorder or they
can make an informed choice to continue or terminate a pregnancy.

But there are also some disadvantages:

 Testing can cause miscarriage by damaging the embryo or cause harm to the mother or unborn foetus (if
done during pregnancy)
 People can be against these tests for moral and religious reasons. Some people have a strong belief that it is
immoral or unethical to destroy embryos or terminate foetuses which could have lived.
 The tests are often expensive, and the results are not always reliable

Recall questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

1. State the benefit of embryo screening.

2. State one concern of screening embryos.

Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you

Q1. (i) What is meant by ‘embryo screening’?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Why do some people believe that embryos should not be screened?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (1)

Q2. Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disorder.

Mr and Mrs Brown do not have cystic fibrosis but they have a child with cystic fibrosis.

36
(a) Draw a ring around the correct answer to complete each sentence.

(i) The allele for cystic fibrosis is a

(1)

(ii) Mr and Mrs Brown are both

(1)

(b) The diagram shows how the allele for cystic fibrosis can be inherited by Mr and Mrs
Brown’s children.

(i) Give the number of one person in the diagram who has

cystic fibrosis. (1)

(ii) The chance that Mr and Mrs Brown's next child will have cystic fibrosis is

_____________________________________________________________ (1)

(c) A genetic counsellor describes to Mr and Mrs Brown one way of screening embryos for
cystic fibrosis.
• Some eggs are collected from Mrs Brown.
• The eggs are then fertilised in a dish.
• Several embryos may start to develop.

The photograph shows how doctors take one cell from each embryo when it is only 3
days old.

37
 ©Pascal Goetgheluck/Science Photo Library

• The DNA in the cell from each embryo is tested for cystic fibrosis.

• Doctors select one embryo that is unaffected and place it in Mrs Brown’s uterus.

• The embryo then develops into a baby.

Use the information to suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of screening
embryos in this way.

Advantage __________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Disadvantage _______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q3. Polydactyly is an inherited condition caused by a dominant allele.

(a) The figure below shows the hand of a man with polydactyly. The man has an extra finger
on each hand.

The man’s mother also has polydactyly, but his father does not.

(i) The man is heterozygous for polydactyly.

Explain how the information given above shows that the man is
heterozygous for polydactyly.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (3)

(ii) The man marries a woman who does not have polydactyly.

38
 What is the probability that their first child will have polydactyly?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

Q4. To avoid having another child with CRAM, persons 7 and 8 may decide to use embryo screening.

Two ways of doing this are:

• PGD (pre-implantation genetic

diagnosis)

• CVS (chorionic villus sampling).

PGD involves IVF (in vitro fertilisation)

of a few eggs, then taking a cell from
each embryo when it is 3 days old. The
image shows how the cell is removed.

The DNA in the cell can then be tested. An unaffected embryo can be implanted in the woman’s
uterus. The possibility of a false positive result is around 1 in 6. The procedure costs about £6000.
Affected embryos would be discarded. Extra unaffected embryos might be frozen and kept for later
implantation. Alternatively, the extra embryos might be used in scientific research.

CVS involves taking a sample of blood from the placenta a few weeks into pregnancy. DNA from
white blood cells can then be tested.
If an affected embryo is detected, the parents then have to decide whether to terminate the
pregnancy or allow it to continue.

CVS has a 1 percent chance of giving an incorrect result and a 0.9 percent chance of causing a
miscarriage. CVS costs about £600.

Evaluate the benefits of these two methods of embryo screening.

You should include a conclusion to your evaluation.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (5)

Lesson 7 – Genetic Diagrams

39
CHECKLIST! – Have you…
 Read the notes and completed the recall questions
 Marked your recall questions using the answers
 Completed the exam questions
Key Words:

Genetic diagram/family A diagram which shows the inheritance of a genetic condition in a family
tree/Pedigree Chart across generations.

Part 1 - Identify alleles on a genetic diagram or ‘family tree’

Information: Read the following notes

Genetic diagrams or family trees

show how characteristics are
inherited across multiple
generations. They can be abstract
with shapes and a key (humans
usually) or with pictures and
descriptions (plants usually)

Example: Seed colour in peas is controlled by a single gene which has two alleles. A represents the
dominant allele, and a represents the recessive allele.

40
Part 2: Explain the phenotypes or ratios of offspring using evidence from a genetic diagram or ‘family
tree’
You can determine if the allele for a characteristic or disorder is dominant or recessive using a family tree
diagram. If all children/offspring have the
characteristic/disorder, then there is a strong
chance the allele for it is dominant.

You can tell if the allele for a characteristic or disorder is

recessive if only offspring of heterozygous parents have
it e.g. if parents do not have the characteristic/trait but
some of their children do. The parents are carriers – you
can show this with a punnet square. In both the
diagrams above white flowers and attached ear lobes
must be caused by recessive alleles whereas red flowers
and hanging ear lobes are dominant.

With the ear lobe diagram, there is no evidence from

that family tree that females can have attached earlobes so that allele may only be present on the Y
chromosome.

With the flower colour diagram you can see that recessive inherited characteristics or traits have the ability
to skip generations as there are no white flowers in the second generation of plants.

Worksheet questions: Answer these in your book, use the information above to help you

Bronze:
The colour of the seeds is controlled by a gene. The
gene has two alleles, purple and yellow. The allele for
purple can be represented by the letter A. The allele for
yellow can be represented by the letter a.
1. All of the first-generation offspring are purple
what does this tell you about the purple allele?
2. What alleles does a yellow seed plant have?
AA Aa aa
3. What will the alleles of the first-generation
plants be? Use a Punnett square to help you.
4. The second generation of plants had a mixture
of yellow and purple seeds. Can you explain
why?
41
Silver:
People have different shaped ear lobes, either ‘hanging’ or ‘attached’. A gene controls the shape of a
person’s ear lobes. Parents A and B both have hanging ear lobes.
1. Draw the symbol for a
female with attached
ear lobes to complete
the key.
2. What does the diagram
tell you about the allele
for hanging ear lobes? Explain your answer.

Pompe disorder is an inherited condition that affects thousands of people. R is the allele for no Pompe
disorder and r is the allele for Pompe
disorder.
1. What is the genotype of person
2?
2. Explain how we can tell Pompe
disorder is caused by a recessive
allele
3. Person 6 and 7 decide to have another child. What is the probability of 6 and 7 having another child
with Pompe disorder?
Gold:
A scientist investigated inheritance in pea plants. The scientist crossed tall pea plants with short pea plants.
T = allele for tall and t = allele for short
1. What alleles does plant 1 contain?
2. What will the ratio of tall : short
offspring be in the second
generation?
3. Two short plants were crossed.
This cross produced 100 offspring.
How many tall and short plants
will there be?

42
Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your recall questions to help you

Q1. The family tree shows the inheritance of a disorder caused by a dominant allele.

Fiona and Eric have two children George and

Harriet.

(a) The son, George, has the disorder.

The daughter, Harriet, does not have the

disorder.

(i) Use the key to draw the symbol for Harriet next to
her name on the family tree. (2)

(ii) The symbol D represents the dominant allele for the disorder.
The symbol d represents the recessive allele. Fiona has the pair of alleles dd.
Write the correct pairs of alleles in the boxes.

Harriet has the pair of alleles

A person with the disorder could have

the pair of alleles or the pair of alleles

(3)
Q2. The diagram shows a family tree in which some individuals have an inherited disorder, which may
cause serious long-term health problems.

43
 (a) What proportion of the children of A and B have the disorder?

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

Q3. CRAM is an inherited condition which causes muscle breakdown.

The breakdown products enter the urine, making it dark-coloured.

The diagram below shows the inheritance of CRAM in one family.

CRAM is caused by a recessive allele, n. The allele for normal health is N.

(a) (i) What is an allele?

______________________________________________________________(1)

(ii) What does recessive mean?

______________________________________________________________ (1)

(iii) Give evidence from the diagram that CRAM is caused by a recessive allele.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (1)

(b) (i) Person 2 is homozygous for CRAM. What does homozygous mean?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) None of person 2’s children have CRAM.

Explain why.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (2)
Hard:
44
Q1. The diagram shows a family tree in which some individuals have an inherited disorder, which may
cause serious long-term health problems.

(a) What proportion of the children of A and B have the disorder?

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

(b) Explain the evidence from the diagram which shows that the allele for the disorder is
dominant.

Use the appropriate letters to identify individuals in your answer.

You may use genetic diagrams in your explanation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

45