UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO DC & AC Circuits

Syllabus
DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Ohm’s Law and its
limitations, KCL & KVL, series, parallel, series-parallel circuits, Super Position
theorem, Simple numerical problems.
AC Circuits: A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current,
waveform, time period, frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average
value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor, Voltage and current relationship
with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits, Concept of Impedance, Active
power, reactive power and apparent power, Concept of power factor (Simple
Numerical problems).
Text Books:
[1] Basic Electrical Engineering, D. C. Kulshreshtha, Tata McGraw Hill, 2019,
First Edition
[2] Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Rajendra Prasad, PHI publishers,
2014, Third Edition
Abbreviations
AC: Alternating current
DC: Direct Current
f: Frequency(Hertz)
I: Current (Amperes)
KCL: Kirchhoff's Current Law
KVL: Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
RMS: Root mean square
V: Voltage (volts)
S.No. Contents Page
DC Circuits
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C) 3
1.3 Ohm’s Law and its limitations 8
1.4 KCL & KVL 8
1.5 Series, parallel, series-parallel circuits 10
1.6 Super Position theorem 13
1.7 Simple numerical problems 13
AC Circuits
1.8 A.C. Fundamentals
Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
14
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference

1.9 Average value, RMS value, Form factor, Peak factor 15

1.10 Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L,
and C circuits 17

1.11 Impedance, Active power, reactive power and apparent power 20

1.12 Power factor 20
1.13 Simple Numerical problems 20

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 1

 1.1 Introduction
In this Unit, we will delve into the intricate workings of electrical circuit
elements, starting with resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C). Through
a rigorous exploration, we will uncover the applications and limitations of
Ohm’s Law, a cornerstone principle in electrical engineering. By dissecting
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL), we will
unravel the mysteries of series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits, gaining
insights into their behavior and applications.
Transitioning into the realm of AC circuits, we will embark on a journey
through the fundamental concepts of alternating current. We will decipher the
equations governing AC voltage and current, exploring their waveforms, time
periods, frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Through the lens of phasor
diagrams, we will elucidate the intricate relationship between voltage and
current in resistive (R), inductive (L), and capacitive (C) circuits, unveiling the
concept of impedance.
Furthermore, we will unravel the complexities surrounding active power,
reactive power, and apparent power, shedding light on the concept of power
factor and its significance in electrical systems. Through a series of practical
exercises and numerical problems, we will apply theoretical concepts to real-
world scenarios, honing our analytical skills and problem-solving abilities.
By the culmination of this Unit, you will emerge equipped with a
profound understanding of DC and AC circuits, prepared to tackle challenges
and innovate within the realm of electrical engineering. Let us embark on this
enlightening journey together, as we unravel the mysteries and unveil the
intricacies of DC and AC circuits.
Basic definitions
Voltage: Voltage is the measure of electric potential difference between two
points in an electrical circuit. Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is a
fundamental concept in electricity, influencing the behaviour of electric
currents and the operation of electrical devices.
workdone W
Units: Volts V= =
charge Q
Current: The flow of electrons in a conductor is known as electric current,
which is represented by the symbol I.
According to modern electron theory, the actual direction of current in a circuit
is from negative terminal to positive terminal. However, conventionally it is
considered thought that the direction of current is from the positive terminal to
negative terminal.
dq
Units: Amperes i=
dt
where q = charge in coulomb & t = time in seconds.
Power: Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is
transferred by an electric circuit.
Units: Watts Power = Voltage x Current
Energy: is referred to as the amount of power consumed by the
circuit components in unit time. Power in a circuit is delivered
by the combination of supplied current and voltages.
Energy = power x time = p t (Watt hour)
pt
Energy = Power x time  kiloWatt  hour
1000
Units: Watt-hour
BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 2
 1.2 Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C)
Resistor (R)
A resistor is a practical device that ideally possesses only resistance. An ideal
resistor obeys Ohm's law. That is, the voltage across a resistance is directly
proportional to the current through it, resistance being the constant of
proportionality. Units: Ohm(Ω).
When I is in amperes (A) and V in volts (V), then R is in ohms (Ω). V  I R
(i) Resistance is the property of a material due to which it opposes the flow of
electric current through it.
(ii) Certain materials offer very little opposition to the flow of electric current
and are called conductors, e.g. metals, acids and salt solutions.
(iii) Certain materials offer very high resistance to the flow of electric current
and are called insulators, e.g. Mica, Glass, Rubber, Bakelite, etc.
(iv) The resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors:
(a) It is directly proportional to its length.
(b) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
(c) It depends on the nature of the material.
(d) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
l
R
A
where l = length of the conductor,
A = cross sectional area and
r = resistivity of the material.

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 3

 Inductor (L)
A inductor is a device which stores energy in the form of an electromagnetic field.
Units: Henry
A strong magnetic field will be developed around the inductor coil.
Flux linkage  N
N  I
N  Li
N
L
i
Ni
where magnetic flux density of solenoid, B 
l
NiA
flux linkage through solenoid  = BA =
l
 NiA 
N 
N l  N A
2
L   
i i l
Voltage: According to Faradays law, the magnitude of induced emf is directly
proportional to rate of change of flux linkages.
d d dI
VN   N   L
dt dt dt
Current: The current through an inductor is
t 0 t t
1 1 1 1
i  t    V  t  dt   V  t  dt   V  t  dt  i  t   i  0    V  t  dt
L  L  L0 L0
Power: The power across an inductor is
di di
Pt  Vtit  L i dt  Li
dt dt
Energy: The energy stored across an inductor is
di  t   i2  t  
t
t
L 2 1 2
W   P  t  dt   L i  t  dt  L  i  t  di  t   L    i  t   i  0    Li
2

dt 0  2 0 2 2

(i) For DC source under steady state condition, inductor acts as short circuit.
di di
i  constant   0  V  L  V  0 short circuit
dt dt
(ii) The Inductor does not allow sudden change in current.

di  finite, dt  0,  V  L
di
 VL
 finite   V   not possible
dt 0
(iii) For non-sinusoidal excitation,
di  t 
V t  L  Time domain
dt
V  S   SLI  S   Laplace domain
For sinusoidal excitation,
V = jLI  Phasor domain

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 4

 (iv) Ideal and practical inductors (v) Types of inductor symbols

dI
VL , it indicates that there is no voltage across an inductance unless the
dt
current through it is changing.
It also shows that if the current into the inductance is increasing, then the
opposing voltage increases also.
If the current is decreasing, the voltage is negative - in other words, the voltage
arrow is reversed.

Problem 2 : The current through an inductance of 5 mH is given in fig. Derive

the v-t graph.

di 5
At time t = 0 to 2.0 µs: V  L   5x103   10V
dt 2x103
di 0
At time t = 2 to 3.5 µs: VL   5x103   0V
dt 1.5x103
di 10
At time t = 3.5 to 6 µs: V =L =  5x10-3  = 20V
dt 2.5x10-3

Fig.3: The current-time graph for a 5mH inductance

Fig.4: The voltage-time graph for a 5mH inductance

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 5
 Capacitor (C)
A capacitor is a device which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
Units: Farads.
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the charge Q stored
on one of its plates to the voltage V across its plates. Mathematically, it is
expressed as:

Q
C or Q  CV
V

Current through a capacitor is

dq d dV dC dV
i   CV   C  V  C
dt dt dt dt dt
dC
0  in Network theory
dt
dC
0  in measurements
dt
A
as C =  C is variable
d
Voltage is directly proportional to the integral of current with respect to time.
t
1
V t   i  t  dt
C 
t
1
V t = i  t  dt  V  t 0 
C 0
dV
Power across a capacitor is, P  CV
dt
Energy stored in a capacitor is,
t
t t t
dV
t t
 V2  t   1
E  W   P  t  dt   V  t  i  t  dt   V  t  C dt   CV  t  dV  t   C  V  t  dV  t   C    CV
2

0 0 0
dt 0 0  2  0 2
(i) For DC source, under steady state condition, the capacitor acts as open circuit.
dV
V = constant for DC  0
dt
dV
iC  i  0  open circuit
dt
(ii) The Capacitor does not allow sudden change in voltage.
dV  finite 
iC iC  i   not possible
dt 0
(iii) For non-sinusoidal excitation,
dV  t 
i t  C  Time domain
dt
I  S   CS V  S   Laplace domain
For sinusoidal excitation,
I = jCV  Phasor domain
(iv) Types of capacitor symbols

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 6

 1
C
V idt Equation shows the voltage across a capacitance is the area under

its current-time (1-t) graph divided by C. The area under the i-t graph is the
charge, Q.

Problem 3: If the i-t graph for a capacitance of 1 µF looks like that of fig., what
will the V-t graph look like? (Assume that the capacitance was uncharged at t = 0)
Sol:

5x 1.5x106 
At time t = 0 to 1.5 µs: V  Q  it   7.5V
C C 106
Q it 3x  2.5x10 
6

At time t = 1.5 to 4 µs: V    7.5V

C C 106

Fig. The current-time plot for a 1µF capacitance

The current-voltage relations for capacitor and inductor
involves time differentials, thus voltage across a
capacitor & current through an inductor can change
instantaneously: the capacitor current or the inductor
voltage would have to be infinite for that to happen. This is
not true for a resistance because it stores no energy,
whereas a capacitor stores energy in its electric field
and an inductor in its magnetic field.

Fig. The voltage-time graph for the lµF capacitance

General representation of a circuit

Node A node is a junction where two or more circuit elements are connected together.
Branch A number of elements connected between 2 nodes constitute a branch.
Loop A loop is any closed part of the circuit.
Mesh A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into
other loops. All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshes.
BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 7
 1.3 Ohm’s Law and its limitations
Ohm’s law states that, in a linear network, the voltage across the conducting
material is directly proportional to the current flowing through the material, at
constant temperature, i.e.,
VI VIx R
where: V = Voltage across the conductor.
I = Current flowing through the conductor.
R = Resistance of the conductor.
When the temperature changes, the resistivity (  ) and the
physical dimension (length l or area A) of the resistance material
also changes
Limitations
(i) Ohm’s law is applicable only for the metallic conductors maintained at a constant
temperature. The law is not applicable if the temperature varies.
(ii) It is not applicable to all non-metallic conductors.
(iii) It is also not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diodes, transistors
and other semiconductor devices.
1.4 KCL & KVL
Gustav Kirchhoff, a German scientist, summed up his findings in a set of
two laws known as Kirchhoff ’s laws. The entire study of electric circuit
analysis is based mainly on Kirchhoff’s laws.
(i) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) :
“The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction in an electric circuit is zero.”
It is based on law of conservation of charge.
Consider five conductors, carrying currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 meeting at a point
O as shown in Fig. 2.1. Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and
outgoing currents negative, we have

I1 + (– I2) + I3 + (– I4) + I5 = 0
I1 – I2 + I3 – I4 + I5 = 0
I1 + I3 + I5 = I2 + I4
N

i
n 1
n 0

Thus, the above law can also be stated as the sum of currents flowing towards
any junction in an electric circuit is equal to the sum of the currents flowing
away from that junction.
(ii) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
“The algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop must always be zero.”
It is based on law of conservation of energy.
In Fig. if we travel clockwise in the network along the direction of the current,
application of KVL gives
–V1 + iR1 + V2 + iR2 + iR3 = 0
V1 = i (R1 + R2 + R3) + V2
V1 – V2 = i(R1 + R2 + R3)
V1  V2
i
R1  R 2  R 3
We consider the voltage drop as positive when current flows from positive to
negative potential. Hence V1 is negative while V2 is positive in the first step of
equation.

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 8

 Network Analysis Procedure using Kirchhoff’s Laws
(i) Convert all current sources to voltage sources.
(ii) Letter or number all junctions on the network as A, B, C or 1, 2, 3 etc.
(iii) Identify current directions and voltage polarities and number them
according to the resistor involved.
(iv) Identify each current path according to the lettered junctions and applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the voltage equations for the paths.
(v) Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, write the equations for the currents
entering and leaving all junctions where more than one current is involved.
(vi) Solve the equations by substitution to find the unknown currents or voltages.
Problem 4: For the circuit shown in Fig.(a), find the values of I and R.

Sol: Assuming clockwise traversal current direction for IT in loop I as shown in

Fig.(b),

applying KCL at node-a, we get I T = I + 2

Applying KVL for loop 1, we get 100 = 10I T + 10I
Substituting the equation of IT in the above equation, we get 100 = 10  I + 2 + 10I
20 I = 80
I = 4A
Since 10 Ω and R are in parallel, V10  VR
10x4  2xR
R  20 
Problem 5: Find the value of Vs in the network shown in Fig.(a)

Sol: The given circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig(b).

Applying KCL at node-b we get, I X  5.04  2.083  2.957A
Applying KVL for the loop abga, we get,  2 x 5.04    2 x IX   V  0
S

Therefore, VS  10.08  2x2.957  15.99V

Problem 6: Obtain the potential difference VAB in the circuit shown in Fig.
using Kirchhoff’s laws.

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 9

 Sol: As the nodes X – X11 shown in Fig.(a) do not have any element connected
in between, they can be simply shorted to a single node-X and the circuit can
be redrawn as shown in Fig.(b).

Fig.(b) consists of two loops 1 and 2 with the currents I1 and I2 respectively.
Assuming clockwise current direction and applying KVL
for loop 1, (5 + 5)I1 = 10  I1 = 1A
for loop 2, (6 + 3)I2 = 9  I2 = 1A
Voltage drop across VBA = VBX + VXA
According to Ohm’s law, VBX = V6W = 6 x I2 = 6 x 1 = 6 V
i.e., VXA = V5Ω = 5 x I1 = 5 x1 = 5 V
Therefore, VBA = 6 + 5 = 11 V
1.5 Series, parallel, series-parallel circuits
Resistors in Series:
In a series circuit, all the components are connected such that there is only
one closed path through which the current flows. The same current flows
through all the components connected in series.

It consists of the resistances R1, R2 connected in series with a voltage source Vs

across them. Due to this voltage source, a current I flows through the circuit.
Applying KVL for the circuit, we get VS = V1 + V2 + V3
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
= I(R1 + R2 + R3)
The total or equivalent resistance of the circuit is given by R eq  R1  R 2  R 3
Resistors in parallel
Let three resistances R1, R2 and R3 be connected in parallel across a battery of
V volts as in Fig. The total current I divides into three resistors.
If a voltage VS is applied to node-a of the circuit, then current I is divided into I1 & I2.
Applying KCL to the node-a, we get I  I1  I 2
VS VS VS
 
R eq R1 R 2
1 1 1 R 1R 2
   R eq 
R eq R 1 R 2 R1  R 2

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 10

 Inductors in series
Consider three inductors L1, L2 and L3 are connected in series as shown in Fig.
The potential difference across each inductor is given by
di di di
V1  L1 , V2  L 2 , V3  L3
dt dt dt
di di di
V1  L1  L 2  L3
dt dt dt
di di
LS   L1  L 2  L3 
dt dt
 LS  L1  L 2  L3

Inductors in Parallel
Consider three inductors L1, L2 and L3 are connected in parallel as shown in Fig.
Let this parallel combination be connected to a voltage, V. The voltage across
each inductor is the same. The current on the three inductors are given by
t
1
I=  vdt + i(t 0 )
L0
di1 V di 2 V di3 V
 ,  , 
dt L1 dt L2 dt L3
di di1 di 2 di3
The total current in the inductors is, T   
dt dt dt dt
V V V V
  
LP L1 L 2 L3
1 1 1 1
  
L P L1 L 2 L3

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 11

 Capacitors in series
When 3 capacitors are connected in series, the same charging current must
flow through all 3 capacitors. In series combination, charge on all capacitors is
same but voltage across each capacitor will change depending on its value.
Q Q Q
V1  , V2  , V3 
C1 C2 C3
V  V1  V2  V3
Q Q Q Q
  
C C1 C 2 C3
1 1 1 1
  
C C1 C 2 C3
Capacitors connected in parallel
Consider three capacitors are connected in parallel across a voltage source V.
The total voltage supplied by the source will be shared by each capacitor.
Q1  C1V, Q 2  C 2 V, Q 3  C3V
Q  Q1  Q 2  Q3
CV  C1V  C 2 V  C3V
C  C1  C 2  C3

Problem : Determine the current delivered by the source in the circuit shown.

Sol: Redrawing the circuit shown in Fig.(a), we have Fig (b) and (c).

The equivalent resistance Req across AB is given by,

58
R eq    21.2|| 2 1|| 2   1.0545
55
30 30
I   28.448A
Req 1.0545
Problem : Find the equivalent resistance across the terminals a and b of
the circuit shown in Fig.

Ans)

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 12

 1.6 Superposition theorem
The response in a circuit with multiple sources is given by the
algebraic sum of responses due to individual sources acting alone. The
superposition theorem is also referred to as the principle of superposition.

While removing the voltage source it should be replaced by a short circuit

& while removing the current source it should be replaced by an open circuit.

Superposition theorem is applicable only to linear networks (both AC and

DC) where current is linearly related to voltage as per Ohm’s law.

Example : Compute the current in the 10Ω resistor as shown in Fig. using
Superposition theorem.

Solution Considering the 100 V source acting alone, the direction of currents
supplied by the source has been shown in Fig.(a).

100 1500
Here i1    12A
10x5 125
5
10  5
5
Hence current through 10 W resistor, i1  i1  4A
5  10
Considering a 50 V source acting alone the direction of currents supplied by
the source are shown in Fig.(b).

50 750
i2    6A
10x5 125
5
10  5
5
Here, i11  i 2  2A
5  10
Hence current through the 10Ω resistor is when both the sources are acting
simultaneously, the current through 10 W resistor (according to Superposition
theorem) is given by I1 + I11 = 4 A + 2 A = 6 A.

1.7 Numerical problems

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 13

 1.8 A.C. Fundamentals
(i) Equation of AC Voltage and current waveform:
Waveform is a graphical representation of instantaneous value of any quantity
plotted against time as represented in Fig.
AC quantity has a varying magnitude and angle with respect to time when
compared with DC quantity which has a constant magnitude all the time.

The current wave which reverses its direction at regularly recurring intervals is
called alternating current. One complete cycle comprises of a set of positive and
negative halves.
(ii) Time period: Time period of an alternating quantity is the time required to
complete one cycle. Time period is equal to the reciprocal of frequency and its
unit is sec(s).
(iii) Frequency: The number of cycles per second of an alternating quantity is
called frequency (f) and its unit is cycles/second or Hertz (Hz).
(iv) Amplitude (or) Magnitude: It is the maximum positive (or) negative value
of an alternating quantity.
(v) Phase: The phase represents a particular point in the cycle of a waveform,
measured as an angle in degrees, as shown in Fig.
(vi) Phase difference: The term phase difference is used in comparison of the
phase of two waveforms or alternating quantities. The phase difference between
two sinusoidal waveforms which have the same frequency is represented in Fig.

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 14

 The phase angle can be considered as a measure of the time delay between two
periodic signals expressed as a fraction of the wave period. This fraction is
normally expressed in units of angle, with a full cycle corresponding to 360°.
For example, inspection of waveforms shown in Fig. reveals that, since the
voltage V1 passes through zero cycle before V2 , the V1 leads the V2 by a phase
 3600
difference of     450
4 8
If, the alternating voltage V2 is taken as a reference waveform, it can be
represented mathematically as V2  Vm sin t where, Vm =peak value,   2f
As V1 leads V2 by q, it can be expressed as V1  Vm sin  t   
1.9 Average value, RMS value, Form factor, Peak factor
Average value: The average of all instantaneous values of an alternating
quantity over one complete cycle is called average value. This can be
determined by first obtaining the average value for a small interval of time and
then integrating it over the curve. The average value of current is given by
Average value of V = VmSinωt
π
1
Vavg =  VmSinωt d(ωt)
π0
Vm
  Cosωt 0
π

π
V
  m  Cos π  Cos 0
π
V
  m  1  1
π
2V
 m  0.637Vm
π
Vavg  0.637Vm
2im
For AC current Iav = = 0.637Im where im = maximum value of the current.
π
2Vm
For AC voltage, Vav = = 0.637Vm where Vmis the maximum value of the voltage.
π

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 15

 RMS value: The Root Mean Square (RMS) value of an alternating current is the
steady value of direct current (DC) which when flowing through a given circuit
for a given time, produces the same amount of heat as would be produced by
the alternating current flowing in the circuit for the same time. RMS value of a
wave can be obtained by the formula,
RMS value of v = VmSinωt
π
1
Vrms =
Π0 V 2d(ωt)

π
1
=
π0 (VmSin ωt) 2 d(ωt)

π
Vm2

π 0 Sin 2 ωtd(ωt)

π
Vm2  1  Cos2ωt 
π 0 
   d(ωt)
2 
π
Vm2
2π 0
 (1  Cos 2ωt) d(ωt)

π
Vm2  Sin2t 

2π t  2 
0

Vm2  Sin2π Sin0 

  π  2  0  2 
2π
Vm2
 .π
2π
V
 m
2
Vrms  0.707Vm

I2m Im
RMS value of AC current is given by I RMS    0.707 I m
2 2
Vm2 Vm
RMS value of AC voltage is given by VRMS    0.707Vm
2 2

Form factor (Kf): is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the average value.
 Vm 
 
r.m.s value 2 π 0.707Vm
Form factor (K f ) = =  = = = 1.11 (For full sine wave)
average value  2Vm  2 2 0.637Vm
 
 π 
Peak factor (Kp) is defined as the ratio of peak value to the RMS value.
maximum value Vm
Peak factor(K p ) = = = 2 = 1.414
r.m.s value  Vm  (For full sine wave)
 
 2
BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 16
 1.10 Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits
(i) Resistor:
Fig. shows a simple circuit containing a resistor R and energised by an alternating
voltage varying sinusoidally as given by V = Vmsint

Fig. Pure resistive circuit Fig. V-I waveforms for R-load Fig. Phasor diagram

A resistor is one which possesses only resistive property and no other property. The
current flowing in the resistor has magnitude which is proportional to the applied
voltage at any instant. When the voltage is zero, the current becomes zero at the same
instant when the voltage reaches its maximum value, so does the current acquire its
maximum.
V V sint
The relation for the current at any instant can be written as, i = = m  Imsint
R R
(ii) Inductor:

Fig. Pure inductive circuit Fig. V-I waveforms for L-load Fig. Phasor diagram
di
The voltage – current relationship is given by V  t  = L
dt
Consider the function i  t  = Imsint
d
V t = L  Imsint 
dt
 L I m cos t
 L Im cos t
= Vm cos t
V  t  = Vm sin  t +900 
Vm sin  t + 900 
The impedance is, Z = , where Vm  L I m
I m sin t
L I m sin  t + 900 

I m sin t
L I m 900

I m 00
Z  jL  jX L , where X L  L is called inductive reactance
BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 17
 (iii) Capacitor:

Fig. Pure capacitive circuit Fig. V-I waveforms for L-load Fig. Phasor diagram
1
The voltage – current relationship is given by V  t  =  i  t  dt
C
Consider the function i  t  = Imsint
1
V t =
C
Imsint

1
C 
 Imsint

1
Im  -cost 
C 


Imsin  t  900 
1

C
 Vmsin  t  900  , whereVm 
1
C
 Vm  900
Vm   900
The impedance is, Z =
I m 00
Im I
   900
C I m
j 1
Z   jX C , where X C  is called capacitive reactance
C C

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 18

 Comparison of R, L, C in an AC circuit with their voltage, current and power relationships.

S.no. Relation Resistor Inductor Capacitor

t
di 1
1. V-I V = IR
V=L V =  idt+V(t 0 )
dt C0
t
V 1 dv
L 0
I= I= vdt + i(t 0 ) I= C
2. I-V R dt

V2 di dv
3. Power P = VI=I R=2 P = Li P = CV
R dt dt

1 2 1
4. Energy W = I 2 Rt W= LI W= CV 2
2 2
1 1 1
5. Series R = R1 +R 2 L = L1 +L 2 = 
C C1 C2

1 1 1 1 1 1
6. Parallel = + =  C = C1 + C2
R R1 R 2 L L1 L 2
ρl μ0 μr N2A εA
7. Geometrical view R= L= C=
A L d
Can’t change
8. instantaneously. -- current Voltage

9. Short circuit Open circuit

to D.C supply (O.C at high freq) (S.C at high freq)
Same for both
A.C & D.C V = VmSinωt V = VmSinωt
10. to A.C supply i = ImSin(ωt-90 ) 0
i = ImSin(ωt+900 )

11. Impedance(Z) R 1
(V = R I) jωL
V jωC
Z= = R + jX
I di 1
Time domain V=L V =  i dt
dt C
Freq. domain V = jωLi 1
V=
jωC
12. Admittance(Y)
1 I 1 1
Y= = = G + jB jωC
Z V R jωL

13. Resistance (R) 1

Inductance (L) G+jB =
R+jX
Capacitance (C)
Reactance (X) 1  R-jX  R-jX
Impedance (Z) G+jB =  = 2 2
R+jX  R-jX  R +X
Admittance (Y)
Conductance (G) R X
where G = 2 2 and B = 2 2
Susceptance (B) R +X R +X

BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 19

 1.11 Impedance, Active power, reactive power and apparent power
(i) Impedance: In a network, impedance is the measure of opposition to the flow of
current or applied voltage. It is the extension of the concept of resistance to AC
circuits. But, unlike resistance, which has only magnitude, the impedance possesses
both magnitude and phase.
With a DC current, the resistance can be treated as impedance with zero phase angle.

Z  R 2   XL  XC 
2

Real Power (P): Real power is the power that is actually consumed by the resistive
elements in the circuit and is measured in watts (W). Ex: kW, MW
It represents the actual energy transferred from the source to the load and converted
into useful work, such as producing light, heat, or mechanical motion.
P  S Cos
Reactive Power (Q): Reactive power is the power that flows
back and forth between the source and the load due to the
presence of inductive and capacitive elements in the circuit.
It does not perform any useful work but is necessary for the
operation of inductive and capacitive loads. Reactive power is
measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). Ex: VAR, KVAR,
MVAR
Q  S Sin 
Apparent Power (S): Apparent power is the vector sum of
real power and reactive power and represents the total power
supplied to the circuit. It is measured in volt-amperes (VA). It
indicates the total magnitude of power flowing in the circuit,
including both the real and reactive components. Ex: KVA, MVA

S  P 2  Q2
In the power triangle, real power (P) is represented along the horizontal axis, reactive
power (Q) is represented along the vertical axis, and apparent power (S) is represented
as the hypotenuse of the right triangle formed by P and Q.
The angle between the apparent power vector (S) and the real power vector (P) is the
power factor angle, which indicates the phase difference between the voltage and
current in the circuit.
1.12 Power factor
Power factor is defined as the cosine of the phase angle difference
between the voltage and current. It is denoted as p.f. If f is the phase
angle between voltage and current then, Power factor, p.f  cos 
where   V  i ,
V  is the phase angle of voltage, v
i  is the phase angle of current, i
In the calculation of the phase difference between V and I, the symbol
| | indicates that only the difference in magnitude is taken into
consideration by neglecting its polarity.
BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC20 Unit-1 DC & AC Circuits 20