PYTHON PROGRAMMING

Introduction
Python is a very powerful high-level,general-purpose, object-oriented
programming language created by Guido van Rossum in 1989.

Python is very popular for developers and professionals because, it

has a rich set of supporting libraries, and addon modules. It is a
cross-platform(platform-independent) language and runs on all major operating
systems including Windows, Linux, and Macintosh. Python comes with a
powerful and easy to-use graphical user interface (GUI) toolkit that makes the
task of developing GUI applications.
History of Python
The Python programming language was conceived in the late
1980s, and its implementation was started in December 1989 by Guido
van Rossum at CWI(Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica) in the
Netherlands as a successor of ABC programming language. Python was
published in 1991.

The name Python was selected from

the TV Show "The Complete
Monty
Pytho's
Circus", which was broadcasted in BBC from 1969 to 1974.

Guido developed Python language by taking almost all

programming features from different languages

1. Functional Programming Features from C

2. Object Oriented Programming Features from C++
3. Scripting Language Features from Perl and Shell Script
 4. Modular Programming Features from Modula-3

Most of syntax in Python Derived from C and ABC languages.

Python Versions and Release Dates

Release dates for the major versions

 Python 1.0 - January 1994
 Python 2.0 - October 16, 2000
 Python 3.0 - December 3, 2008
 Python 3.4 - March 16, 2014
 Python 3.5 - September 13, 2015
 Python 3.6 - December 23, 2016
 Python 3.6.5 March28 , 2018
 Python 3.7.0 June 27 , 2018
 Python 3.8.0 Oct 14, 2019
Python 3.9.0 Oct 5, 2020
 Python 3.10 Oct. 04, 2021

Note: Latest version of Python "Python 3.11.0 Oct. 24, 2022"

Features of Python
 Python is easy to learn.
 It has easier to read syntax.
 Python is free.
 It comes with a large number of libraries.
 Python can be integrated with other languages,
like C, C++, and Java.
 Python is a good choice for web development.
 Efficient memory management.
 Python supports exception handling.
Interacting with Python
There are two ways to work with Python :
 Using Command Line Mode
 Using IDLE mode

Command Line Mode

On selecting the Python Command Line, you see the Python Command
Line window displaying the Python prompt (>>>), as shown in Figure

Python Command Line window.

In command line mode, you type Python instructions one line

at a time.

IDEs for Python

1) PyCharm
 Is a cross-platform IDE, developed by JetBrains company of Czech
 Facilitates Web Development along with Django, Flask, and web2py

2) Spider
 Spyder is an open-source, cross-platform IDE developed by Pierre Raybaut in 2009.
 It is integrated with many of the scientific Python libraries namely Scipy, NumPy, Matplotlib,
Pandas etc.

3) PyDev
 is basically an open-source third-party package which serves as a plug-in for Eclipse to
enable it for Python development.

4) Rodeo
  Rodeo is an open source Python IDE developed by Yhat. It is built in particular
for machine learning and data science.

5) Sublime Text
 Sublime-Text is a cross-platform IDE developed in C++ and Python. In addition to Python,
it provides support for other languages as well

6) Wing
 This IDE was created by Wingware. It is a lightweight IDE designed to allow
quick programming.

7) EricPython
 Eric is written in Python and is free software. Its source code is available freely and can
-be studied and recreated by anybody.

8) Atom
 Atom is an open source free IDE built using web technologies. Atom is based on the
Electron framework which is built by GitHub which in turn is written in CoffeeScript and
Less.

9) Thonny
 Thonny is an IDE developed for beginners. It provides step-by-step assistance to the
programmer.

10)IDLE
 completely in Python and it comes as a default implementation along with Python IDLE
is written

IDLE (Integrated DeveLopment Environment)

Python IDLE comes with the standard Python distribution. IDLE
combines an interactive interpreter with code editing and debugging tools.
The Python IDLE Shell window as shown in Figure.
 Python Shell window.

Character set:
Any Programming language is required to represent its
characters with the help of character set. An ASCII character set
is used to represent characters up to 3rd generation
languages(c/c++). An ASCII character set supports 8 bit
characters. The number of characters that can be represented by
this coding system is limited to 256 only. In order to extend
ASCII coding system, an universal coding system (UNICODE)
is introduced. Python adapted this coding system for
representing its characters.

Keywords
Keywords are the reserved words in Python. There are 35 keywords
in Python 3.11 This number can vary in different versions of Python.

Boolean type - True False None(object)

Operators - and or not is in
Conditional - if else elif
Loops - while for
Jumping statements - break return yield continue
Exceptions - try assert except raise finally
General keywords - def lambda class from import global
del as with pass nonlocal
Keywords in Python programming language
'False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await', 'break', 'class',
'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else', 'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if',
'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try',
'while', 'with', 'yield'

Note: you can always get the list of keywords in your current version by
typing the following in the prompt.

>>> import keyword

>>> keyword.kwlist
>>>len(keyword.kwlist)

Running Python as a calculator

Eg:
>>> 2*10
20
>>> 3+4+9
16
>>> 2**3
8

Data Types in Python

Python has a rich set of fundamental data types. The operations on an

object depend on its data type.

The list of data types are as follows:

Integers:
Integers are 32 bits long, and their range is from

–2147483648 to 2147483647
 Long Integers:
It has unlimited, subject to the memory limitations of the computer.

Floating Point Numbers:

Floating-point numbers are also known as double-precision
numbers(used 64 bits)

Strings:
Sequences of Unicode characters. A string can be represented either
Single quotes (or) double quotes (or) triple quotes. By using triple quotes
we can write multi-line strings.

Boolean:
It can hold only one of two possible values: True or False.

Complex Number:
A complex number has a real and an imaginary component, both
represented by float types in Python. For instance, 2+3j is a complex
number, where 3j is the imaginary component and is
equal to √-9 (√9 × √−1 = 3i or 3j)
Eg1:
>>> complex(2,3)
(2+3j)

Finding Data Types

To find the data type of the specified object, we use the type() function,
which returns the data type of the object passed to it.
Syntax:
type(value/object)
eg:
>>> type(10)
<class 'int'>

>>> type(10.0)
<class 'float'>

>>> type(‘abc’)
<class 'str'>

>>> type(True)
<class 'bool'>

>>> type(2+3j)
<class 'complex'>

a) Complex numbers – contain real and imaginary part ie.

3+5j
C= 3+5j here c is called an object
To get real part - object.real
To get imaginary - object.imag
Eg. c=3+5j
print(c)
print(c.real)
print(c.imag)

Variables
Variables are used for storing data in a program. Therefore,
by assigning different data types to variables(you can store
letters, numbers, or words).
Rules for creating variable names(Identifiers)
1. Identifiers can be a combination of letters in lowercase (a to z) or
uppercase (A to Z) or digits (0 to 9) or an underscore ( _ ).
2. An identifier cannot start with a digit. identifier must start with a
letter or an underscore
3. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
4. Identifier can be of any length.
 Eg. valid invalid
m 1m
_m m$
num1 else
tot_sal tot sal

For example
A = 10
value = 10.0
st_value="Hello World!"

You can see in the preceding examples the variable can be a single
character or a word or words connected with underscores.

Multiple Assignment
Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables.
For example
a=b=c=1
Here, an integer value 1 is assigned all the three variables.

For example –
a,b,c=1,2,'Hello'
Here, two integer values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b
respectively, and a string "Hello" is assigned to the variable c.

Python Input and Output

Python provides no. of built-in functions for I/O operations. Some of
the functions like input() and print() are widely used for standard input and
output operations . Let us see the output section first.
Python Output Using print() function
 The 'print' function is used to print data to the standard output
device(monitor) .
Syntax:
print(objects, sep=' ', end='\n')

 Here, objects are the value(s) to be printed

(objects are separated by comma).
 The ‘sep’ is used to display separator between the values.
( default is a space character)
 After all values are printed, ‘end’ is printed.
(default is a new line).
eg:
print('Welcome')
Output: Welcome

a=5
print('The value of a is', a)
Output: The value of a is 5

print(1,2,3,4,5)
Output: 1 2 3 4 5

print(1,2,3,4,5,sep='*')
Output: 1*2*3*4*5

print(1,2,3,4,5,sep='#',end='$')
Output: 1#2#3#4#5$

Eg:23

print('Hello', 'welcome to python')

output: Hello welcome to python
It display the two strings on the same line separated by a space

print('WEL'+'COME')
output: WELCOME
It display the two strings on the same line without any space in
between the two strings.
Formatting the Output
Sometimes we would like to format our output . This can be done by
using the str.format() method. This method is visible to any string object.
>>> x = 5; y = 10
>>> print('The value of x is {} and y is {}'.format(x,y))
Output :The value of x is 5 and y is 10

Here the curly braces {} are used as placeholders. We can specify the
order in which it is printed by using index numbers.

Eg:
print('I love {0} and {1}'.format('bread','butter'))
Output: I love bread and butter

print('I love {1} and {0}'.format('bread','butter'))

Output: I love butter and bread

Comments:
Comments lines are for documentation purposes and
these lines are ignored by the interpreter.
# - Single line comment

’’’
---------------------
--------------------- Multi line comment
----------------------
’’’

Writing Python Programs(Scripts)

 We can write Python programs either through IDLE’s built-in
editor or through any editor. We will be using python IDLE’s
editor for writing programs. We can launch IDLE and then select
the File > NewFile option to open IDLE’s built-in editor and
write the following small program.
Note: Python script(program) extension is .py
test.py
# This is First program
print ("Hello World!")
print ("Welcome to Python Programming")

Running Python Programs from the IDLE’s editor

We can run the program from IDLE editor by pressing the F5
function key (or) from the editor’s Run menu: select Run Module.
The output appears in the IDLE interactive shell window.

Literals in Python
Generally, literals are a notation for representing a fixed value in source
code. They can also be defined as raw value or data given in variables or
constants.
Python has different types of literals.
1.String literals
2.Numeric literals
3.Boolean literals
4.Literal Collections
5.Special literals

String literals
A string literal can be created by writing a text(a group of Characters )
surrounded by the single(' '), double(“”), or triple quotes. By using triple
quotes we can write multi-line strings.

Examples:
s = 'WELCOME'
 t = "Welcome To Python"
m = '''Hello
Welcome To
Python Programming'''

Numeric literals
They are immutable and there are three types of numeric literal
1.Integer
2.Float
3.Complex.

Examples:
n=100
f=14.219
c=(2+3j)

Boolean literals
There are only two Boolean literals in Python. They are True and False.
x=True
k=x+4 (1+4=5)

Literal Collections

There are four different types of literal collections

1.List literals
2.Tuple literals
3.Set literals
4.Dict literals
Examples
# List literals
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# Tuple literals
even_number = (2, 4, 6, 8)
odd_number = (1, 3, 5, 7)
# Set literals
vowels = {'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u'}

# Dict literals
alphabets = {'a': 'apple', 'b': 'ball', 'c': 'cat'}

Special literals
Python contains one special literal (None). ‘None’ is used to define a null
variable.
Example
ob=None

P1.py
eno = 100 # An integer assignment
ename = "HHHH" # A string assignment
salary = 20000.00 # A floating point assignment
print("Employ Number :",eno)
print("Employ Name :", ename)
print("Salary :",salary)

Format strings
We can use format strings in print() function like printf() style used
in ‘C’ language.
The list of format Strings
eg1:
C Language
int n=10;
printf("value of n = %d",n);

python
n=10
print("value of n = %d"%n)

eg2:
>>> m=10;n=20

>>> print("m = %d and n = %d"%(m,n))

output: m = 10 and n = 20

prg: Emp.py

eno=100
ename='HHHH'
grade='A'
salary=20000.00
print ("Employ Number :%d"%eno)
print ("Employ Name :%s"%ename)
print ("Grade :%c"%grade)
print ("salary :%.2f"%salary)

Escape Sequences
Python uses some backslash characters in output
functions for formatting the output. These characters are
called as Escape sequence characters. In these
characters it consists of two characters ,But it is treated as
a single character

Eg:
print('Hello \n Welcome to Python Programming')
print('Name\tEmail Address\tContact Number')

>>> print(" \"welcome\" ")

"welcome"
>>> print(" \'welcome\' ")
'welcome'
>>> print(" \\welcome\\ ")
\welcome\

python Input
We want to take the input from the user, We use input() function.
Syntax :
input([prompt])
 where prompt is the string we wish to display on the screen. It is
an optional.

Note: input function return only string value.

>>> num = input('Enter any number: ')

Enter any number: 10
>>> num
'10'
Here, we can see that the entered value 10 is a string, not a number.

Type conversion (or) Type casting in Python

Sometimes it is necessary to convert values from one type to another.
The process of converting from one type to another type is called as type
casting or type conversion.
To convert one type to another Python supplies several built-in functions.
these functions are
1)float(x) :
This function converts string type to a floating point number

2) int(x)
This function converts string type to integer.

Program
Conv1.py

s=input("Enter any string :")

f=float(s)
print("After converting to float :",f)
n=int(s)
print("After converting to integer :",n)

3. ord(x) :
 converts a character to integer(Unicode value).

4.chr(x) :
Converts an integer(Unicode value) to a character

5. str(x) :
Converts integer (or) float into a string.

6.complex(real,imag) :
Converts real numbers to complex number

Eg(Unicode values):
A to Z 65 to 90
a to z 97 to 122
0 to 9 48 to 57
Esc 27
Backspace 8
Enter 13
SpaceBar 32
Tab 9
etc.
program
Conv2.py

c = ord('A')
print ("After converting character to integer :",c)
c = chr(65)
print ("After converting integer to character :",c)
c = str(123)
print ("After converting integer to string :",c)
c = complex(1,2)
print ("After converting integers to complex number :",c)
Python Indentation
Most of the programming languages like C, C++and Java use curly
braces { } to define a block of code.
Python uses whitespace indentation to define blocks rather
than curly braces . A code block (body of a function, loop etc.) starts with
indentation and ends with un-indentation line.

Continuation Lines
You can join two adjacent lines,the first ends with a backslash (\).
The indentation is not applied to continuation lines.
Eg:
print('Hello World! \
Welcome to \
PYTHON.')

Python Operators
Operator :
Operator is special symbol in Python and it performs a particular
operation.
Operand :
The value on which the operator acts is called as operand.

Python has a number of operators which are classified below.

1)Arithmetic operators
2)Relational operators
3)Logical operators
4)Bitwise operators
5)Assignment operators
6)Special operators
a. Identity operator b. Membership operator

Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication etc.
Ari.py
print('Enter any two Numbers ')
a=int(input())
b=int(input())
print('Addition :',a+b)
print('Subtraction :',a-b)
print('Multiplication :',a*b)
print('Division :',a/b)
print('Modulus :',a%b)
print('Floor Division :',a//b)
print('Exponent :',a**b)

round()
Python provides an inbuilt function round() ,which rounds precision digits of floating
point number.
Syntax:
round(floating number, no of precision digits)
>>>round(10.639 , 2)
10.64

2)Relational operators
 These are used to test the relation between 2 values or 2 expressions.
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

Logical operators :
These are used to combine the result of 2 or more expressions.
and Logical AND
or Logical OR
not Logical NOT

Exp1 Exp2 Exp1 and Exp2 Exp1 or Exp2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
True True True True
True False False True
False True False True
False False False False

If Exp=True -> not Exp=False

If Exp=False -> not Exp=True

Bit-wise Operators :
These operators are used for manipulation of data at bit level.
Bit-wise logical operators :
These are used for bit-wise logical decision making.
& Bit-wise logical AND

Bit-wise logical OR

^ Bit-wise logical XOR

 B1 B2 B1 & B2 B1 B2 B1 ^ B2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0

Eg : int a=5,b=6;
a=5 - 1 0 1
b=6 - 1 1 0

1 0 1
1 1 0
----------------------
a&b : 1 0 0 =4
----------------------

1 0 1
1 1 0
----------------------
a|b : 1 1 1 =7
----------------------

1 0 1
1 1 0
----------------------
a^b : 0 1 1 =3
----------------------

Bit1.py
print('Enter any two Numbers ')
a=int(input())
b=int(input())
print('a & b :',a&b)
print('a | b :',a|b)
print('a ^ b :',a^b)

Bit-wise shift operartor :

The shift operations take binary patterns and shift the bits to the left or
right.
<< - left Shift
>> - Right Shift
Eg :
a=4
a=4 -> 1 0 0 (binary form)
b=a<<2; means value of a is to be left shifted by 2 bits and store it in b.

then the value of b :-

1 0 0 0 0 = 2 power 4 = 16

a=4 -> 1 0 0 (binary form)

c=a>>1; means a is to be right shifted by 1 bit and store it in c.

then the value of c :-

1 0 = 2 power 1 = 2

Bit2.py
a=4
b=a<<2
c=a>>1
print('a :',a)
print('b :',b)
print('c :',c)

Assignment Operators :
These operators are used to assign values to variables.
Simple assignment :
=
 compound assignment
+=
-=
*=
/=
//=
%=
**=

n=10, if we want to add 5 to n then we will give

n=n+5
(or)
n+=5 which is compound assignment.

Eg:
>>> n=10
>>> n
10
>>> n+=5
>>> n
15

Special operators
Python language offers two types of special operators. They are
1.identity operators
2.membership operators
Identity operators
‘is’ and ‘is not’ are the identity operators in Python. They are used to
check two values or variables.

is - True if the operands are identical

is not - True if the operands are not identical

eg:
>>> a=10
>>> b=10
>>> c=20
>>> a is b
True
>>> a is not c
True

Membership operators
‘in’ and ‘not in’ are the membership operators in Python.
They are used to test whether a value or variable is found in a
sequence(string, list, tuple,set,Etc.).

in - True if value/variable is found in the sequence

not in - True if value/variable is not found in the sequence
eg:

>>> st='abcd'
>>> 'a' in st
True
>>> 'k' not in st
True
>>> x='a'
>>> x in st
True
>>> "WEL" in "WELCOME"
True
>>> "WCE" in "WELCOME"
False

Control Flow Statements :

Conditional control statments
1.Simple if statement
It is a Conditional control statement in Python
The general form of the if statement is:

if condition :
 block

• The reserved word if begins a if statement.

• The condition is a Boolean expression . A colon (:) must
follow the condition.
• The block is a block of one or more statements to be executed
if the condition is true.

- To find maximum value of given 2 values using simple if

If.py
print ("Enter any two values")
a=int(input())
b=int(input())
max=a
if max < b :
max=b
print("Maximum value :",max)

- To find maximum value of given 3 values using simple if

print("Enter any 3 values")

a=int(input())
b=int(input())
c=int(input())
max=a
if max < b :
max=b
if max < c:
max=c
print("Maximum value :",max)

2. if-else statement
It is an extension of simple if statement.

The general form of an if-else statement is

if condition :
if block
else :
else block
 The condition is a Boolean expression, if it is true then if block will be
executed otherwise else block will be executed.

- To find maximum value of given two values using if-else

If-else.py
print ("Enter any two values")
a=int(input())
b=int(input())

if a> b :
max=a
else :
max=b
print("Maximum value :",max)

- To check whether the given number is even or odd

if-else1.py
n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
if n%2==0 :
print("Given Number is Even")
else :
print("Given Number is Odd")

3. Nested if statement :
Using a if statement within another if is called as nested if. If a series
of decisions are involved, we use nested if statement.

Form : 1
if condition-1 :
if condition-2 :
………….
………..
if condition-n :
Statements
Form : 2
if condition-1 :
if condition-2 :
Statement-1
else :
Statement-2
else :
if condition-3 :
Statement-3
else :
Statement-4

To find maximum of three values using nested if

Nest-if.py

print("Enter any 3 values ")

a=int(input())
b=int(input())
c=int(input())
if a>b :
if a>c :
max=a
else :
max=c
else :
if b>c :
max=b
else :
max=c
print("Maximum value :",max)

4. if-elif-else statement
This statement is also used for a series of decisions are involved.

Syntax:
if condition-1 :
statements-1
elif condition-2 :
statements-2
………………….
………………….
elif condition-n:
statements-n
else :
else block - statements

In this statement, the conditions are evaluated from top to bottom, if

the condition is true then the statements associated that block is executed
and the control transfers to the next statement. Otherwise when all
conditions are false then the final else block statements will be executed.

- Find maximum of 3 values using if-elif-else

If-elif.py
print("Enter any 3 values ")
a=int(input())
b=int(input())
c=int(input())
if a>b and a>c :
max=a
elif b>c :
max=b
else :
max=c
print("Maximum value :",max)

- write a python script to enter student number,name,marks in c,c++ ,

java and python . calculate and display total marks,average,result and
grade.
Stu.py
sno=int(input("Enter Student Number :"))
sname=input("Enter Student Name :")
print("Enter Marks in C,C++ ,Java and Python ");
c=int(input())
cpp=int(input())
java=int(input())
python=int(input())
tot=c+cpp+java+python
avg=tot/4
if c>=50 and cpp>=50 and java>=50 and python>=50 :
result='Pass'
if avg >=90:
grade='A+'
elif avg>=60:
grade='A'
else :
grade='B'
else :
result='Fail'
grade='-'
print(" RESULT ")
print("----------------------------------")
print("Sudent Number :",sno)
print("Sudent Name :",sname)
print("Marks in C :",c)
print("Marks in C++ :",cpp)
print("Marks in Java :",java)
print("Marks in Python :",python)
print("Total Marks in :",tot)
print("Average :%.2f" %(avg))
print("Result :",result)
print("Grade :",grade)
print("----------------------------------")
# To check whether the given character is alphabet or digit or special
character
char_ck1.py
ch=ord(input(("Enter any character : "))
if (ch>=65 and ch<=90) or (ch>=97 and ch<=122) :
print("Given character is a alphabet")
elif (ch>=48 and ch<=57) :
print("Given character is a digit")
else :
print("Given character is a special character")

# To check whether the given character is vowel or consonant

char_ck2.py
n=ord(input("Enter any character :"))
if (n>=65 and n<=90) or (n>=97 and n<=122) :
ch=chr(n)
if ch in "AaEeIiOoUu" :
print("Given character is Vowel")
else:
print("Given chartacter is Consonant")
else:
print("Given character is not an Alphabet")

Loop control statements :

loop:
The process of repeatedly executing a block of statement up to
specified number of times is called as loop.
Python supports 2 types of looping statements. They are :
1) while loop
2) for loop

While loop
It is a conditional controlled loop statement in python.
Syntax:
while condition :
statements

In this loop first the condition will be evaluated. If it is true, then the
statement block will be executed. After the execution of statements, the
condition will be evaluated once again, if it is true then the statement block
will be executed once again. This process of repeated execution continues
until the condition becomes false.

#To Display natural numbers from 1 to given number

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
print("Natural number from 1 to",n)
i=1
while i<=n :
print(i,end='\t')
i=i+1

#To Display Even and Odd numbers from 1 to given number

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
print("\nEven number from 1 to",n)
i=1
while i<=n :
if i%2==0 :
print(i,end='\t')
i=i+1
print("\n\nOdd number from 1 to",n)
i=1
while i<=n :
if i%2!=0 :
print(i,end='\t')
i=i+1

#To Display factors of given number

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
print("Factors of ",n)
i=1
while i<=n :
if n%i==0 :
print(i,end='\t')
i=i+1

#To check whether the given number is prime or not

print("Enter any Number : ",end='')

n=int(input())
count=0
i=1
while i<=n :
if n%i==0 :
count=count+1
i=i+1
if count==2 :
print("Given Number is Prime")
else :
print("Given Number is Not Prime")

#To calculate and display factorial of given number

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
fact=1
while n>=1 :
fact=fact*n
n=n-1
print("Factorial of Given Number :",fact)

#To calculate and display Reverse of given number

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
rev=0
while n>0 :
rev=(rev*10)+(n%10)
#n=int(n/10)
 n=n//10
print("Reverse Number :",rev)

#To display Fibonacci series of first n terms

n=int(input("Enter No of Terms :"))
i,a,b,c=1,1,0,0
print("Fibonacci Series : ",end='')
while i<=n :
print(c,end="\t")
c=a+b
a=b
b=c
i=i+1

The range () Function

The range() function generates and returns a sequence of integers and
is very commonly used in for loop . There are 3 variations of the range()
function, depending on the number of parameters passed to it.

range(x):
Returns a list whose items are consecutive integers from 0 to x-1 .

range(x, y):
Returns a list whose items are consecutive integers from x to y-1 .

range(x, y, step):
Returns a list of integers from x to y-1 , and the difference between each
successive value is the value defined by step.

Note: When step is not specified, its default value is 1.

• range(10) -> 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

• range(1, 10) -> 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
• range(1, 10, 2) -> 1,3,5,7,9
• range(10, 0, -1) -> 10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1
• range(10, 0, -2) -> 10,8,6,4,2
• range(2, 11, 2) -> 2,4,6,8,10
• range(-5, 5) -> −5,−4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4

The for Loop

The for loop iterates over a range of values. These values
can be a numeric range, or, elements of a data structure like a
string, list, tuple,etc.
Syntax:
for iterating_var in sequence :
statements

# To displays numbers from 1 to Given Number

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

print("Natural Number from 1 to",n)
for i in range(1,n+1):
print (i,end='\t')

#To Display Even and Odd numbers from 1 to given number using for loop
n=int(input("Enter any Number : "))
print("\nEven number from 1 to",n)
for i in range(2,n+1,2):
print(i,end='\t')

print("\n\nOdd number from 1 to",n)

for i in range(1,n+1,2):
print(i,end='\t')

# To calculate factorial of given Number using for loop

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

fact=1
for i in range(n,1,-1) :
fact=fact*i

print("Factorial of Given Number :",fact)

Unconditional control statements
1. The break statement
The break statement terminates and exits from the
current loop.It is typically used in an infinite loop.
Syntax:
break

Infinite Loops
An infinite loop is a loop that executes its block of
statements repeatedly until the user forces the loop to
quit.

break.py
To display Numbers from 1 to given number,if the given
number is greater than 20 it displays only 1 to 20 using
break.

n=int(input("enter any Number :"))

k=1
while True :
print(k,end='\t')
k=k+1
if(k>20 or k > n ):
break
 2. The continue Statement
The continue statement stops execution of the current
iteration by skipping the rest of the loop and continuing to
execute the loop with the next iterative value.
Syntax:
continue

write a program to display numbers from 1 to 10 except

for the values 4 and 7 using continue.

program
k=1
while k <=10 :
if k==4 or k==7:
k=k+1
continue
print (k,end=’\t’)
k=k+1

Output:
1 2 3 5 6 8 9 10

3. The pass Statement

The pass statement is used in Python to indicate an
empty block of statements.
Syntax:
pass

write a program to display numbers from 1 to 10 except

for the values 4 and 7 using pass

pass.py
k=1
while k <=10 :
if k==4 or k==7:
pass
else:
print (k,end='\t')
k+=1
Output:
1 2 3 5 6 8 9 10

Nested loops
Using a loop statement within another loop is called as
nested loops.

#To display Prime Numbers from 1 to given number .

Prime1.py
n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
print("Prime Numbers from 1 to ",n);
for i in range(1,n+1) :
count=0
for j in range(1,i+1):
if i%j==0:
count=count+1

if count==2 :
print(i,"\t",end='')
patteren1
n=5
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****

n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))

for i in range(1,n+1) :
for j in range(1,n+1):
print('*',end=' ')
print()

patteren2
n=5
*
**
***
****
*****

n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))

for i in range(1,n+1) :
for j in range(1,i+1):
print('*',end=' ')
print()

patteren3
n=5
1
22
333
4444
55555

n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))

for i in range(1,n+1) :
 for j in range(1,i+1):
print(i,end=' ')
print()

patteren4:
n=5
1
12
123
1234
12345

n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))

for i in range(1,n+1) :
for j in range(1,i+1):
print(j,end=' ')
print()

patteren5
n=5
*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *

n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))

s=n*2
for i in range(1,n+1) :
print("%*c"%(s,32),end='')
for j in range(1,i+1):
print('*',end=' ')
print()
s=s-2

patteren6
n=5

*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *
 * * * *
* * *
* *
*
n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))
s=n*2
k=1
for i in range(1,2*n) :
print("%*c"%(s,32),end='')
for j in range(1,k+1):
print('*',end=' ')
print()
if i<n :
s=s-2
k=k+1
else :
s=s+2
k=k-1

n=5
1
121
12321
1234321
123454321

1
212
32123
4321234
543212345
 Data Structures
1)Sequences
A sequence is a collection objects . You can identify an object
in a sequence by its index.
Examples of sequences: lists, tuples, and strings.

2) Sets
3) Dictionaries
Note: Sets and Dictionaries are containers for sequential
data.
Lists
A list is a data structure in Python that is mutable (changeable)
sequence of elements. Each element or value that is inside a list
is called an item. A list is created by placing all the items
(elements) inside a square brackets, separated by comma. It can
have any number of items and they may be of different types
(integer, float, string etc.).
Syntax:
List_Name = [item-1,item-2,………,item-n]

# empty list
a=[]

# list of integers
a = [1, 2, 3]

# list with mixed data types

a = [1, "Hello", 3.4]

Access Elements from a list

There are various ways in which we can access the elements of a list.
List Index
We can use the index value to access an item in a list.
List Index value starts from 0. So, a list having 5 elements ,will have
index from 0 to 4.
Eg:
>>> a = ['P','Y','T','H','O','N']
>>> a
['P', 'Y', 'T', 'H', 'O', 'N']

>>> print(a[2])
T
>>> print(a[5])
N

Sub lists
>>> a=[[1,2,3],[100,200,300]]

>>> a
[[1, 2, 3], [100, 200, 300]]

>>> a[0]
[1, 2, 3]

>>> a[1]
[100, 200, 300]

>>> print(a[0][1])
2
>>> print(a[1][2])
300
>>> a=[[100,"BDPS"],[1,2,10.35,True]]
>>> a
[[100, 'BDPS'], [1, 2, 10.35, True]]
>>> a[0]
[100, 'BDPS']
>>> a[1]
[1, 2, 10.35, True]
>>> a[0][1]
'BDPS'
>>> a[1][1]
2
>>> a[1][3]
True
>>> a[0][3]
IndexError: list index out of range

Negative indexing
Python allows negative indexing . The index of -1 refers to the last item,
-2 to the second last item and so on.
>>> a = ['P','Y','T','H','O','N']
>>> print(a[-1])
N
>>> print(a[-6])
P

Slicing
We can access a range of items in a list by using the slicing operator : (colon).
Syntax:
List_name[x:y]
It displays list Items from x to y-1 where x and y are index values;

>>> a=[10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,100]
# elements 3rd to 5th
>>> print(a[2:5])

[30, 40, 50]

# elements beginning to 5th( index 0 to 4)

>>> print(a[ : 5])
[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

# elements 6th to end

>>> print(a[5:])
[60, 70, 80, 90, 100]
# elements beginning to end
>>> print(a[:])
[10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,100]

change elements in a list

List is mutable, means their elements can be changed .We can use
Assignment operator (=) to change an item or a range of items.
Eg:
>>> a=[2,5,7,8,10]
>>> a
[2, 5, 7, 8, 10]

# change the 1st item

>>> a[0]=1
>>> a
[1, 5, 7, 8, 10]

# change 2nd to 5th items

>>> a[1:5]=[2,3,4,5]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

>>> a[3:5]=[100,200,300,400]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 100, 200, 300, 400]

>>>a[1:6]=[10,20]
>>>a
[1,10,20,400]

a=[1,2,3,4,5]
>>> a[1:4]=[100]
>>> a
[1, 100, 5]

Delete Elements from a List

 We can delete one or more items from a list using the keyword
del .

Eg:
>>> a=[1,2,3,4,5]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

>>> del a[1]

>>> a
[1, 3, 4, 5]

>>> a=['P','Y','T', 'H','O','N']

>>> a
['P', 'Y', 'T', 'H', 'O', 'N']
>>> del a[1:3]
>>> a
['P', 'H', 'O', 'N']

>>> del a
>>> a
NameError: name 'a' is not defined

List Methods
Some Methods are available with list object in Python programming
They are accessed as listobject .method([arguments])
1)append
Add an element to the end of the list
Syntax:
append(x)
x - element
Eg:
>>>a=[1,2,3]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3]
>>> a.append(4)
>>>a
[1, 2, 3, 4]

#Write a python script to accept a List from key board and display list elements
List1.py
n=int(input("Enter No of Elements :"))
a=[]
print("Enter Elements")
for i in range(n):
x=int(input())
a.append(x)
print("Given Elements :",a)

2)Insert
Insert an Element at given position(index).
Syntax:
insert(i, x)
i – index
x- element
Eg:
>>> a = [1,2,4,5,6]
>>> a
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6]
>>> a.insert(2,3)

>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Note: If the specified index is not available ,the element will be inserted at
last index.
>>> a.insert(20,100)
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 100]
>>> a=[1,2,3,4]
>>> a.insert(-1,5)
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 5, 4]

Remove
Removes an Element from the list
Syntax:
remove(x)
x – element
Note:
1.It removes first occurrence of the specified element
2.if there is no such item, it displays an error
Eg:
>>> a = [1,2,3,4,5]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> a.remove(2)
>>> a
[1, 3, 4, 5]
>>> a.remove(8)
ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list
>>> a=[1,2,4,2,6,2]
>>> a
[1, 2, 4, 2, 6, 2]
>>> a.remove(2)
>>> a
[1, 4, 2, 6, 2]

pop
Removes and returns an element at the given index in the list. If no index is specified,
It removes and returns the last item in the list.
Syntax :
Pop( [i] )
i – index
Eg:
>>> a = [1,2,3,4,5,6]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> a.pop(3)
4
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6]
>>> a.pop()
6
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 5]
>>> a.pop(10)
IndexError: pop index out of range

clear
Removes all elements from the list.
Syntax:
clear()
Eg:
>>> a=[1,2,3,4,5]
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> a.clear()
>>> a
[]

index
Returns the index of the First matched Element
syntax:
index(x)
x – element

Eg:
>>> a=[1,2,5,2,8]
>>> a
[1, 2, 5, 2, 8]
>>> a.index(2)
1
>>> a.index(10)
ValueError: 10 is not in list

count
Return the number of times Element appears in the list.
Syntax:
count(x)
x – element

>>> a=[1,2,4,2,6,2]
>>> a
[1, 2, 4, 2, 6, 2]
>>> a.count(2)
3
>>> a.count(8)
0

extend
Extend the list by appending all the Elements from
another list
Syntax:
extend(another list)
Eg:
>>> a=[1,2,3]
>>> b=[4,5,6]
>>> a.extend(b)
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

>>> a=[1,2,3]
>>> b=[4,5,6]
>>> c=a+b
>>> c
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> a=a+b
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Sort
Sort Elements in a list in ascending or descending
order.
Syntax:
sort([reverse=False])
sort() – ascending
sort(reverse=True) - descending
Eg:
>>> a=[5,2,6,1,4,3]
>>> a
[5, 2, 6, 1, 4, 3]
>>> a.sort()
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> a.sort(reverse=True)
>>> a
[6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]

#To accept a list from keyboard and display in Ascending

and Descending order
List_sort.py

n=int(input("Enter No of Elements :"))

a=[]
print("Enter Elements")
for i in range(n):
a.append(int(input()))
print("Given Elements :",a)
a.sort()
print("Given Elements in Ascending order :",a)
a.sort(reverse=True)
print("Given Elements in Descending order :",a)

reverse
Reverse order of the Elements in the list
Syntax:
reverse()

>>> a=[2,1,4,3,6,5]
>>> a
[2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5]
>>> a.reverse()
>>> a
[5, 6, 3, 4, 1, 2]

Built-in functions
1)len(list)
Gives the total length of the list.
2)max(list)
Returns the maximum element in the list.
3)min(list)
Returns the minimum element in the list.
4)sorted(list)
Returns the sorted list
5) sum(list)
Returns sum of list elements

Program

List_funs.py
n=int(input("Enter No of Elements :"))
a=[]
print("Enter Elements")
for i in range(n):
a.append(int(input()))
print("Given List :",a)
print("Length :",len(a))
print("Max Element :",max(a))
print("Min Element :",min(a))
print("Sorted List :",sorted(a))
print("Sum of List :",sum(a))

Tuples
A tuple is a sequence of immutable(Unchanged)
Python objects. Tuples are just like lists. The differences
between tuples and lists are, the tuples cannot be
changed unlike lists and tuples use parentheses, whereas
lists use square brackets.
Note: parentheses brackets are optional for Tuples
Syntax:
Tuple_name=(item-1,item-2,…,ietm-n)
Eg:
>>> tup1=('hari','ravi',100,200)
>>> tup1
('hari', 'ravi', 100, 200)

>>> tup2=(1,2,3,4,5)
>>> tup2
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

>>> tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d"

>>> tup3
('a', 'b', 'c', 'd')
>>> t=tuple('PYTHON')
>>> t
('P', 'Y', 'T', 'H', 'O', 'N')

>>> print(t[0])
P
>>> print(t[1:3])
('Y', 'T')

>>> a=(1,2,3)
>>> b=(4,5,6)
>>> c=a+b
>>> c
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
>>> a=(1,2,3)
>>> b=(4,5,6)
>>>a=a+b
>>>a
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

Tuple Methods
index
Returns the index of the First matched Element
syntax:
index(x)
x – element

Eg:
>>> a=(1,2,5,2,8)
>>> a
(1, 2, 5, 2, 8)
>>> a.index(2)
1
>>> a.index(10)
ValueError: 10 is not in tuple

count
Return the number of times Element appears in the tuple.
Syntax:
count(x)
x – element

>>> a=(1,2,4,2,6,2)
>>> a
(1, 2, 4, 2, 6, 2)
>>> a.count(2)
3
>>> a.count(8)
0

Buit-in functions
1)len(tuple)
Gives the total length of the tuple.
2)max(tuple)
Returns the maximum element in the tuple.
3)min(tuple)
Returns the minimum element in the tuple.
4)sorted(tuple)
Returns the sorted list of given tuple
5) sum(tuple)
Returns sum of tuple elements
 Tup_fun.py
n=int(input("Enter No of Elements :"))
x=[]
print("Enter Elements")
for i in range(n):
x.append(int(input()))
a=tuple(x)
print("Given Tuple :",a)
print("Length :",len(a))
print("Max Element :",max(a))
print("Min Element :",min(a))
print("Sum of Elements :",sum(a))
print("Sorted List :",sorted(a))

Strings

A string is a sequence of characters used to store text

information. A string can be enclosed in single quotes (or)
double quotes (or) triple quotes. By using triple quotes we can
write multi-line strings.

Eg:
st=' Hello World! '
st=" Hello World! "

st = '''Hello
Welcome To
Python Programming'''
String functions
str:
Returns a string representation of the specified object.
Syntax:
str(x)
x – object of any datatype
eg:
>>> str(123)
'123'
>>> str(10.345)
'10.345'
>>a=[1,2,3,4,5]
>>> str(a)
'[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]'
>>> k=str(a)
>>> k
'[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]'
>>> type(k)
<class 'str'>

max():
Returns the maximum alphabetical character in the
string.
eg:
>>> max("ABCDEFGH")
'H'
min():
Returns the minimum alphabetical character in the
string.
eg:
>>> min("ABCDEFGH")
'A'

len():
Counts and returns the number of characters in the
string.
eg:
>>> len("ABCD")
4
sorted():
Returns the List representation string’s characters in
sorted order.
>>> st="CFADEB"
>>> sorted(st)
['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F']

String Methods

lower():
Returns the string converted to lowercase.
eg:
>>> st="WelCome"
>>> st.lower()
'welcome'

upper():
Returns the string converted to uppercase.
eg:
>>> st="WelCome"
>>> st.upper()
'WELCOME'

swapcase():
Returns the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
lowercase characters converted to uppercase .

Eg:
>>> st="WELcome"

>>> st

'WELcome'

>>> st.swapcase()

'welCOME'

title():
Returns the string with first character of each word converted to uppercase
characters and the rest all characters in lowercase.

eg:
>>> st="welcome to python programming"
>>> st
'welcome to python programming'
>>> st.title()
'Welcome To Python Programming'

isalpha():
Returns True if all characters in the string are alphabetic, otherwise returns
False.
eg:
>>> st="abcd"
>>> st.isalpha()
True
>>> st="123abcd"
>>> st.isalpha()
False

>>> st="wel Come"

>>> st
'wel Come'
>>> st.isalpha()
False

isdigit():
Returns true if all characters in the string are digits, otherwise returns false.
eg:
>>> st="123"
>>> st.isdigit()
True
>>> st="123abcd"
>>> st.isdigit()
False

islower():
Returns True if all characters(alphabets) in the string are lowercase, otherwise
returns False.
eg:
>>> st="abcd"
>>> st.islower()
True
>>> st="abcd123"
>>> st.islower()
True
>>> st="ABCD"
>>> st.islower()
False
>>> st="1234"
>>> st.islower()
False
>>> st="abcdABCD"
>>> st.islower()
False

isupper():
 Returns true if all characters(alphabets) in the string are in uppercase, otherwise
returns false.
eg:
>>> st="ABCD"
>>> st.isupper()
True
>>> st="abcd"
>>> st.isupper()
False
>>> st="ABCD123"
>>> st.isupper()
True
>>> st="abcdABCD"
>>> st.isupper()
False
>>> st="1234"
>>> st.isupper()
False

split()
Return a list of the words in given string, using the specified 'sep'

syntax:
split(sep=' ')
eg:
>>> st="This is a Book"
>>> st.split()
['This', 'is', 'a', 'Book']
>>> st="abcd*123*ijkl*456"
>>> st.split(sep='*')
['abcd', '123', 'ijkl', '456']

Sets
A set is a collection of values(elements)with no duplicate elements.
This is based on a data structure known as a hash table. Sets support
mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference, and symmetric
difference. Curly braces ( {} )or the set() function can be used to create
sets.
Syntax :
1)Set_name={item-1,item-2,..,item-n}
2)set_name = set([Sequence])

Eg:
>>> a={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> a
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

>>> b={1,2,3,1}
>>> b
{1, 2, 3}
>>> s1=set([3,2,5,1,4])
>>> s1
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> s2=set((4,2,1,6,3))
>>> s2
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
>>> s3=set("WELCOME")
>>> s3
{'E', 'C', 'O', 'L', 'M', 'W'}

Python Set Operations

Sets can be used to perform mathematical set operations like union,
intersection, difference and symmetric difference. We can do this with
operators or methods.
Set Union
Suppose A and B are two sets, Union of A and B is a set of all elements
from both sets. Union is performed using | operator. Same can be
accomplished using the method union().
eg:
>>> a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> b = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
>>> print(a | b)

Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Syntax of Union Method:

union(Another set)

Eg:
>>> a={1,3,5,7,9}
>>> b={1,2,3,4,5}

>>> a.union(b)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}
>>> b.union(a)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}

>>> a={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> b={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> c={6,7,8,9}
>>> print(a|b|c) (or) a.union(b.union(c))
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Set Intersection
Intersection of A and B is a set of elements that are common in both
sets.Intersection is performed using & operator. Same can be
accomplished using the method intersection() .

>>>a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>>b = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
>>>print(A & B)
{4, 5}
Eg:
>>> A.intersection(B)
{4, 5}

>>> a={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> b={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> c={4,5,9,10}
>>> print(a&b&c)
{4, 5}
>>> a.intersection(b.intersection(c))
{4, 5}

Set Difference
Difference is performed using '-' operator. Same can be accomplished
using the method difference() .
Difference of A and B ( A - B ) is a set of elements that are only in A but
not in B . Similarly, B - A is a set of elements in B but not in A .
Eg1:
>>> a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> b = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
>>> print(a - b)
{1, 2, 3}

>>> a.difference(B)
{1, 2, 3}
>>> b-a
{8, 6, 7}
>>> b.difference(a)
{8, 6, 7}

Set Symmetric_Difference

Symmetric Difference of A and B is a set of elements in both A and B except those

that are common in both.
Symmetric difference is performed using ^ operator. Same can be accomplished using
the method symmetric_difference() .

>>a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>b = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
>>print(a ^ b)
Output: {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}

Eg:
>>> A.symmetric_difference(B)
{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
>>> B.symmetric_difference(A)
{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
Note:
1. 'set' object does not support indexing
2. 'set' object doesn't support item deletion using del keyword, but it deletes
entair set
eg: a={1,2,3}
del a

Python Set Methods

1) add
Add an element to a set
Syntax :
add(element)
Eg:
>>> A={1,2,3,4}
>>> A
{1, 2, 3, 4}
>>> A.add(5)
>>> A
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

2) clear
Remove all elements from a set
Syntax:
clear()
Eg:
>>> A={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> A
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> A.clear()
>>> A
set()

3) pop
Remove and return first set element.
Syntax:
pop()
 Eg:
>>> A={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> A
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> A.pop()
1
>>> A
{2, 3, 4, 5}

5) remove
Remove an element from a set.
Syntax:
remove(element)

Eg:
>>> A={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> A
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> A.remove(3)
>>> A
{1, 2, 4, 5}
>>> A.remove(8)
KeyError: 8

3
Set_ope.py

m=int(input("Enter No of Element for First Set :"))

n=int(input("Enter No of Element for Second Set :"))
a=set()
print("Enter First Set")
for i in range(m) :
a.add(int(input()))

b=set()
print("Enter Second Set")
for i in range(n) :
b.add(int(input()))

print("First set :",a)

print("Second set :",b)
print("Union of Two Sets :",a|b)
print("Intersection of Two Sets :",a&b)
print("Difference of Two Sets :",a-b)
print("Symmetric Difference Two Sets :",a^b)

'''
print("Union of Two Sets :",a.union(b))
print("Intersection of Two Sets :",a.intersection(b))
print("Difference of Two Sets :",a.difference(b))
print("Symmetric Difference Two Sets :",a.symmetric_difference(b))
'''

Built-in functions
1)len(set)
Returns the number of items in the set.
2)max(set)
Returns the maximum element in the set.
3)min(set)
Returns the minimum element in the set.
4) sum(set)
Returns the sum of items in the set.
5)sorted(set)
Return a new sorted list from elements in the set

Eg:
Set_fun.py

n=int(input("Enter No of Elements :"))

print("Enter set Elements")
s=set()
for i in range(n):
s.add(int(input()))
print('Given set is :',s)
print ('Length of set is :', len(s))
print ('Maximum value is :' , max(s))
print ('Minimum value is :' , min(s))
print ('Sum of items in set is :', sum(s))
print ('Sorted items in set is :', sorted(s))
Frozenset
The frozenset() is an inbuilt function in Python which takes an iterable
object as input and makes them immutable.
Syntax :
frozenset(iterable_object_name)

program
num = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
fnum = frozenset(num)
print("frozenset Object is : ", fnum)

output: frozenset Object is : frozenset({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9})

Dictionaries
Python dictionary is an unordered collection of items.
Creating a dictionary is placing items inside curly braces {}
separated by comma. An item has a key and the
corresponding value expressed as a pair. Each key is
separated from its value by a colon ( key : value ).
Note: Dictionary is based on a data structure known as
a hash table.
Syntax:
Dictionary_name = { key-1 : value-1, key-2 : value-2,….., key-n: value-n}

Eg1:
>>> d = {'a':10, 'b':1, 'c':22}
>>> d
{'a': 10, 'b': 1, 'c': 22}

Eg2:
>>> d = {'Name': 'Harsha', 'Age': 6, 'Class': 'First'}
>>> print (d['Name'])
Harsha
>>> print (d['Age'])
6
>>> print (d['Class'])
First

eg3:
>>> d={1:'abcd','a':100,10.25:'H'}
>>> d[1]
'abcd'
>>> d['a']
100
>>> d[10.25]
'H'

Updating Dictionary
Eg1:
>>> d = {'Name': 'Hari', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
>>> d
{'Class': 'First', 'Name': 'Hari', 'Age': 7}
>>> d['Age'] = 8
>>> d['School'] = "ABC School"
>>> d
{'Class': 'First', 'Name': 'Hari', 'Age': 8, 'School': 'ABC School'}

Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods

Python includes the following dictionary functions
 Sr.No .Function with Description

1 len(dict)
Gives the total length of the dictionary.
2 str(dict)
Produces a string representation of a dictionary

Python includes following dictionary methods

Sr.No .Methods with Description

1 clear()
Removes all elements of dictionary
2 items()
Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs
3 keys()
Returns list of dictionary dict's keys
4 values()
Returns list of dictionary dict's values

5.pop(key)
It Removes item of specified key in the dict.

del
eg:
del d['a']
del d

Eg1:
>>> d= {'a':10, 'b':20, 'c':30}
>>> d
{'a': 10, 'b': 20, 'c': 30}
>>> len(d)
3
>>> str(d)
"{'b': 20, 'a': 10, 'c': 30}"
Eg3:
>>> d.values()
dict_values([20, 10, 30])
>>> d.items()
dict_items([('b', 20), ('a', 10), ('c', 30)])
>>> d.keys()
dict_keys(['b', 'a', 'c'])
>>> d.clear()
>>> d
{}

Note:
empty list - []
empty tuple - ()
empty set - set()
empty dict - {}

Note:
Arrays
Arrays are fundamental part of most programming languages. It is
the collection of elements of a single data type. However, in Python,
there is no native array data structure. So, we use Python
list instead of an array.
Array.1

from array import *

vals=array('i',[5,9,-8,4,2])

print(vals.buffer_info())

(Address) (size)
(1997806967520, 5)

Array.2

from array import*

vals=array('i',[5,9,-8,4,2])
vals.reverse()

print(vals)

array.3

from array import*

vals=array('i',[5,9,-8,4,2])

for i in range(5):
print(vals[i])

array.4

from array import *

vals=array('u',['a','e','i'])

for e in vals:
print(e)
 Functions and Modules
Function
A function is a group of statements that can be invoked any
number of times. Besides the built-in functions, you can define
our own functions. In Python, a function always returns a value.

The 'def' Statement

The def statement is used to define a function.

Syntax:
def function-name( [parameter list] ) :
statement(s)

function-name : It is an identifier to recognize the function.

Parameter list : It is an optional list of identifiers that are bound to the
values supplied , while calling the function.

The 'return' Statement

The return statement is used for returning value from the function.
When return executes, the function terminates, and the return value is
passed to the caller. When there is nothing to be returned to the caller, the
function returns ‘None’.

Eg1:
To Find addition of two objects using functions
Func1.py

def addition(x,y):
return x+y

print("addition of two integers :",addition(100,200))

print("addition of two strings :",addition("wel","come"))
print("addition of two lists :",addition([1,2,3],[4,5,6]))

Eg2:
To find maximum value of given two values using
user defined functions.
fun2.py

def maxval(x,y):
if x>y :
return x
else :
return y

print("Enter any two values")

a=int(input())
b=int(input())
m=maxval(a,b)
print ("Maximum value :",m)

Note: In python a function returns more than one

value.
Example program for Function returns more than one value
def max_min(x) :
m=max(x)
n=min(x)
return m,n
n=int(input("Enter No of Values:"))
a=[]
print("Enter Values")
for i in range(n):
a.append(int(input()))

p,q=max_min(a)

print("Max Value :",p)

print("Min Value :",q)

calc.py

def add(x,y):
return x+y

def subtract(x,y):
return x-y

def multiply(x,y):
return x*y

def devide(x,y):
return x/y

def power(x,y):
return (x**y)

print("Select operation.")
print("1.Add")
print("2.Subtract")
print("3.Multiply")
print("4.Devide")
print("5.Power")
choice=input("Enter choice 1/2/3/4/5:")
num1=int(input("Enter the first number"))
num2= int(input("Enter the second number:"))

if choice =='1':
print(num1, "+", num2,"=", add(num1,num2))
elif choice =='2':
print(num1, "-", num2,"=", subtract(num1,num2))

elif choice =='3':

print(num1, "*", num2,"=", multiply(num1,num2))

elif choice =='4':

print(num1, "/", num2,"=", devide(num1,num2))

elif choice =='5':

print(num1, "^", num2,"=",power(num1,num2))

else:
print("Invalid input")

Default Value Parameters

The parameters listed in the function definition may be
mandatory or optional. The mandatory parameters are
those whose value has to be supplied when calling the
function.The optional prameters(default value parameters)
are those whose values may or may not be passed when
calling the function. An optional parameter is defined with
the following syntax:

def func_name(identifier-1,identifier-2=value,…) :
statements

Here identifier-1 is mandatory parameter and identifier-2

is default value(optional) parameter

Eg3:
Func4.py
def sum(x, y=20):
return x+y

print (sum(10))
print (sum(100,200))

Keyword Arguments
A value passed to a parameter by referring to its name is known as a
keyword argument.

Kwarg.py

def maxval(x,y=10,z=20):
if x>y and x>z :
return x
elif y>z :
return y
else :
return z

print("Maximum value :",maxval(30))

print("Maximum value :",maxval(100,200,300))
print("Maximum value :",maxval(y=25,x=5))
print("Maximum value :",maxval(x=40,z=25,y=50))

output:
Maximum value : 30
Maximum value : 300
Maximum value : 25
Maximum value : 50

Local and Global Variables

Local variables have scope within the body of the
function in which they are defined. That is, local variables
are accessible inside the functions. Global variables are
accessible inside and outside the functions.
Note :
Global variables are declared using the keyword 'global'

global_var.py

def compute():
global x
print ("Value of x in compute function is", x)
x=x+5

def dispvalue():
global x
print ("Value of x in dispvalue function is", x)
x=x-2

x=0
compute()
dispvalue()
compute()
print ("Value of x in main block is", x)

output:
Value of x in compute function is 0
Value of x in dispvalue function is 5
Value of x in compute function is 3
Value of x in main block is 8

Local_var.py
def compute(x):
x=x+5
print ("Value of x in function block :", x)
x=10
compute(x)
print ("Value of x in main block :", x)

output:
Value of x in function is 15
Value of x is still 10

Lambda Function
A lambda function is an anonymous(nameless)
function.The body of the lambda function is small, a single
expression.

Consider a small function that multiplies a passed

argument by 2 and returns, as shown here

def func(x) :
return x*2

n=func(3)
print(n)
output:
6

You can rewrite this function as a lambda function:

Syntax:
lambda arglist : expr

func=lambda x : x*2

n=func(3)
print(n)

output:
 6

map() function

Syntax:

map(function, iterable)

The map() function applies a given function to each item of an

iterable (list, tuple etc.) and returns an iterator( map object).

Parameters:

The map() function takes two parameters:

function - a function that perform some action to each

element of an iterable

iterable - an iterable like sets, lists, tuples, etc

Return Value

The map() function returns an object of map class. The

returned value can be passed to functions like

list() - to convert to list

set() - to convert to a set, and so on.

program:

def square(number):

return number * number

 numbers = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

result = list(map(square, numbers))

print(result)

Output: [4, 16, 36, 64, 100]

# Write a Program to square,double each item in a list using

lambda and map functions

my_list = [1, 5, 4, 6, 8, 11, 3, 12]

new_list1 = list(map(lambda x : x*x, my_list))
new_list2 = list(map(lambda x: x * 2 , my_list))
print("Given List :",my_list)
print("Square List :",new_list1)
print("Double List :",new_list2)

Function Attributes
In Python, functions are treated as objects, A function object has a
number of attributes that you can use to get more information about a
function.
A list of function attributes are shown in below Table
fun_att.py

def sum(a, b=5):

''' This Function adds the two numbers '''
return a + b

k=sum(10)
print ('Sum is', k) -
k=sum(100,200)
print('sum is ',k)

print('The documentation string is', sum.__doc__)

print('The function name is', sum.__name__)
print('The default values of the function is', sum.__defaults__)
print('The default module of the function is', sum.__module__)

#To Display natural numbers from 1 to given number using user defined
function
ndisp.py

def display(x) :
for i in range(1,x+1):
print(i,end='\t')

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

print("Natural number from 1 to",n)
display(n)

#To calculate and Display factorial of given number using user defined
function
Fact.py

def factorial(x) :
f=1
while x>1 :
f=f*x
x=x-1
return f

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

fact=factorial(n)
print("Factorial of given Number :",fact)

#To Display Reverse Number of a given Number using user defined

function

def reverse(x) :
rev=0
while x>0 :
rev=(rev*10)+(x%10)
x=x//10
return rev

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

r=reverse(n)
print("Reverse Number :",r)

- To Display Fibonacci Series of first n Terms using user defined

function

def fibo(x) :
a,b,c=1,0,0
for i in range(x):
print(c,end="\t")
c=a+b
a=b
 b=c

n=int(input("Enter No of Terms :"))

print("Fibonacci Series ")
fibo(n)

Recursive(Recursion) function
a function calls itself is called as Recursive function.
A function calling itself will generate an infinite loop, so when
implementing recursion, an exit condition must be included in the
function.

Note :
Recursion is implemented with the help of a data structure known
as a stack

#To Display natural numbers from 1 to given number using recursive function

def display(x):
if x > 1:
display(x-1)
print(x,end='\t')

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

print("Natural number from 1 to",n)
display(n)

#To Display natural numbers from n to given number using recursive function

Nnos_2.py

def display(x):
print(x,end='\t')
if x > 1:
display(x-1)
n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
print("Natural number from 1 to",n)
display(n)

#To calculate and Display factorial of given number using recursive function

def factorial(x) :
if x<=1 :
return 1;
else :
return x * factorial(x-1)

n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))

f=factorial(n)
print("Factorial of given Number :" ,f)

Iterator
Iterators is used for looping through collection of data. An
iterator has a __next__() method (or) next() function to get each
value in the sequence.

Syntax for create an iterator object

obj=iter(sequence)

program:

numbers=[100,200,300,400,500]
i = iter(numbers)
while True:
try:
print (i.__next__()) #print (next(i))
except :
break

Generator
A generator is a function that creates an iterator. A generator is a
special type of function which does not return a single value,
instead, it returns an iterator object with a sequence of values. In a
generator function, a 'yield' statement is used rather than a return
statement.

The following is a simple generator function.

def mygenerator(x):
for i in range(x):
yield i

gen=mygenerator(5)
while True:
try:
print (gen.__next__()) #print (next(gen))
except :
break

Modules
A module is a file consisting of a few functions ,variables and classes
used for a particular task. A module can be imported in any program and
can be used it. The filename of the module must have .py extension.

To import a module to a program, We use the import statement.

Syntax :
Form1 : import module-1[,module-2,..,module-n]
It imports single module or group of modules

Form2 : from module import name-1[,name-2,..,name-n]

It imports specific attribute from specified module

Form3 : from module import *

It imports all attributes from specified module

Form 4: import module as name

It imports and temporarily rename the module.
Pre-defined Modules

Calendar module
It is used to display a calendar of a specified Year or Month or etc.
Eg:
import calendar
prcal
It is a method and is used to display calendar of specified year
(default 3 months in a row)
Syntax:
prcal(year,m=3)
eg:
calendar.prcal(2021)
calendar.prcal(2021,m=2)

month
It is a method and is used to display calendar of specified year and
month
Syntax:
month(year,month)
Eg:
print(calendar.month(2021,10))

eg:
>>> from calendar import prcal
>>> prcal(2021)

>>> from calendar import *

>>> prcal(2021)
>>> print(month(2021,10))

>>> import calendar as cal

>>cal.prcal(2021)

cal.py
import calendar
year = int(input("Enter Year :"))
month = int(input("Enter month :"))
print(calendar.month(year,month))

time module
ctime :
It is a method and is used to display current date and time
Eg:
import time
time.ctime()

o/p: 'Wed Dec 22 19:54:57 2021'

math Module

pi—Returns the value of pi,( 3.1415926535897931).

ceil(x)—Returns the next larger whole number.
floor(x)—Returns the next smaller whole number
sqrt(x) - Returns square root of given number
pow(x,y) - It calculates exponentional value of given base and power
(x-base,y-power)

-program:

import math
print("pi = ",math.pi)
print("pi = ",round(math.pi,2))
print("Ceil value of 7.3:",math.ceil(7.3))
print("Floor value of 7.3 :",math.floor(7.3))
print("Square root of 9:",math.sqrt(9))
print("pow of 2 and 3 :",math.pow(2,3))

eval
Returns a result of the evaluation of a Python string expression.

Syntax
 eval (expression)
eg:
>>> x = 1
>>> eval('x+1')
2
>>> eval('2*2')
4
>>>eval('2+3*5')
17

random module

The choice ()
The choice() method picks and returns a random item from a sequence.
It can be used with lists, tuples, or strings,etc. This Method belongs to
random module, so we import choice from random.
Syntax:
choice(sequence)

Example:
>>> from random import choice
>>>choice([2,4,6,8,10])
You will get a random value picked from the specified sequence, which
may be 2, 6, or some other value from the list.

ran1.py
from random import choice
ch='y'
while ch=='y' :
k=choice(range(1,10))
print ("Random number is ",k)
ch=input("Do you want to Continue(y/n) :")

ran2.py
- To generate any 5 random numbers from 1 to 10 without duplicate
numbers.
from random import choice
a=[]
while len(a)<5 :
k=choice(range(1,11))
if a.count(k)==0:
a.append(k)

#print("5 Random Numbers :",a)

print("5 Random Numbers :",end='')
for i in a :
print(i,end=' ')

The dir() Function

The dir() function is used to list the identifiers defined by a module. The
identifiers are the functions,classes, and variables defined in that module.
Syntax:
dir(module_name)
eg:

>>> import calendar

>>> dir(calendar)

>>> import math

>>> dir(math)

help
it is built-in function and is used to display help content of specified
attribute(function,method,class,varible,module,etc.).
eg1:
>>> import math
>>> help(math.sqrt)
>>> help(math)
Squeezed text (281 lines)

go to Options => Configure IDLE => Shell/Ed

Auto-Squeeze min lines [50] and change 50 to a large count.
eg2:
>>> help() it display help prompt
help>
help> math.sqrt
It displays the following information

Help on built-in function sqrt in math:

math.sqrt = sqrt(x)
Return the square root of x.

Note:

exit
It is method belongs to sys module, it terminates the program.
Syntax:
sys.exit()

Creating Userdefined Module

Create a file with extension .py and then define some functions,
variables and classes in that file(module).After creating the file(module)
then import that module and use functions, variable and classes in that
module.

mymodule.py

def wel() :
print("Welcome to Python Modules")

x=10
y=20

>>> import mymodule

>>> mymodule.wel()
Welcome to Python Modules
>>> mymodule.x
10
>>> mymodule.y
20

>>> from mymodule import *

>>> x
10
>>> y
20
>>> wel()
Welcome to Python Modules

Import and Testing module in program

test_module.py
import mymodule
mymodule.wel()
print("x = ",mymodule.x)
print("y = ",mymodule.y)

Python - Packages
We organize a large number of files in different folders and
subfolders based on some criteria, so that we can find and manage them
easily. In the same way, a package in Python is basically a
directory(folder) with Python files(modules)and a file with the name
__init__.py

The package folder contains a special file called __init__.py,

which stores the package's content. It provides two services
1. __init__.py is essential for the folder,Because the Python
interpreter recognizes a folder as the package

2. __init__.py exposes specified resources from its modules to

be imported.

Let's create a package named mypackage, using the following

steps:

1.Create a new folder named 'mypackage'.

2. Create an empty __init__.py file in the mypackage folder.
3. Using a Python IDLE, create modules
greet.py and functions.py with the following code:

greet.py
def SayHello(name):
print("Hello ", name)

functions.py
def sum(x,y):
return x+y

def average(x,y):
return (x+y)/2

def power(x,y):
return x**y

We have created our package called mypackage.

Now, to test our package

Import the 'functions' module from the mypackage

>>> from mypackage import functions

>>> functions.power(3,2)
 9
>>>functions.sum(10,20)
30
>>> functions.average(100,200)
150.0

test_package.py
from mypackage import greet,functions
greet.SayHello("BDPS")
x=functions.power(3,2)
print("power(3,2) : ", x)
x=functions.sum(10,20)
print("sum of 10 and 20: ", x)
x=functions.average(10,20)
print("Average of 10 and 20 : ", x)

Pip
pip stands for "preferred installer program".
Pip is one of the most famous and widely used package
management system to install and manage software packages written in
Python
Syntax:
Install package
pip install some-package-name

Uninstall package
pip uninstall some-package-name

eg:
pip install pandas
pip uninstall pandas
Command-line Arguments
Command-line arguments are used to pass arguments to a program
while running it. Each command line argument that you
pass to the program will be stored in the sys.argv variable.
(sys is a module).

The sys.argv is a list that always has a length of at least 1, the item
at index 0 is the name of the Python program you are running.

Note: Command-line arguments are separated by space.

commandline1.py
import sys
print ('There are %d arguments' % len(sys.argv))
print ('The command line arguments are' )
print (sys.argv)

-Addition of two integer values using command line arguments

add_cmd.py
import sys
if len(sys.argv)!=3:
print("Invalid Arguments")
sys.exit()

print ("Addition :",int(sys.argv[1])+int(sys.argv[2]) )

Object Oriented Programming

Object oriented programming introduced in 1980’s by
Bjarne Stroustrup. OOP'S improves the style of a program. It allows the
user to develop a program structure. This concept mainly introduces a
mechanism called class.
Basic concepts of Object Oriented Programming

1. Objects
2. Classes
3. Data encapsulation and Data abstraction
4. Inheritance
5. Polymorphism

Objects :
Objects are the runtime entities in object oriented programming. They
may represents a person, a place, etc. that are program has to handle.
They may also represent user defined data.

Classes :
The objects contain data and code to manipulate that data, the entire
set of data and code of an object can be made a user defined data type
such as class. Once a class has been defined, we can create any number of
objects belongs to that class.

Data encapsulation and Data abstraction :

Data encapsulation : ( Data hiding)
It is a mechanism that associates the code and data
manipulations into a single unit and keeps them safe from external
interface. This is supported by the construct called class.
The use of encapsulation is to protecting the members of a class.
The data is not accessible to the outside class and only those functions
`which are wrapped (i.e. within the class) in the class can access it. This
insulation of data from direct access by the program is called as Data
hiding.

Data abstra ction:

abstact data type: a set of operations performed on a particular data
type is known as abstract data type.
The technique of creating new abstract data types that are well suited
to an application is known as data abstraction.
Data abstraction means we can combine the data structures and
operations on the data structures together into a new abstract data type.
An abstract data type not a part of language definition, they are created
by the user.

Inheritance :
It is a mechanism which is used to extend the definition of existing
class. The extension can be done by declaring some other class. The class
that is originally present is called as Base/super class and the class which is
extended with the help of inheritance is called as Derived/sub class. A
derived class always can access the members of base class, whereas a
base class never access the members of derived class. The main purpose
of inheritance is reusability of definition that is already made.

Polymorphism :
The word polymorphism is derived from 2 latin Words
1. Poly (many)
2. Morphs (forms)
Polymorphism is nothing but the ability to access different
implementations of the function using the same name.
There are 2 levels at which polymorphism operates.
1. Compile time polymorphism
2. Run time polymorphism

Classes and objects

The class Statement
Python supports object-oriented programming and
provides reusable code in the form of classes. A class is
like a template or blueprint for data and operations. It
consists of a number of attributes that include variables
and methods(functions). The variables are called data
members, and methods are called member functions.

Syntax:
class classname[ (base classes) ] :
 statements

where classname is an identifier that is bound to the

class object. You can create either an independent class
or inherits from other classes.
Built-In Class Attributes
A class statement implicitly sets some class attributes. You can use these class
attributes to get information about a class.

note: default 'object'(it is pre-defined class) class is inherited

cls_att.py
class test:
'''This is Sample class '''
pass

print ("Class name :", test.__name__)

print ("Base-classes :", test.__bases__)
print ("Doc String :", test.__doc__)
print ("Module :", test.__module__)

output

Class name : test

Base-classes : (<class 'object'>,)
Doc String : This is Sample class
Module : __main__

Defining Methods(Functions) in a Class

The functions defined in a class are known as methods. A
method is defined in a class always has a mandatory first
parameter named ‘self’ that refers to the instance (object) on which you call
the method.

class classname [(base-classes)]:

classvariable(s)

def method-1(self [,parameters]):

instance variable(s)
statement(s)
……………………
……………………
def method-n(self[,parameters]):
instance variable(s)
statement(s)

A class can have two types of data members(variables):

1. Class variable :
The data member(variable) that is outside of any method of the class is known as
a class variable. All instances(objects) of the class share the class variables, and
changes made in the class variable , that changes will be seen in all
instances(objects).

2. Instance variable:
The variables that are defined inside a method are known as instance variables.
Changes made to instance variables by any instance are limited to that particular
instance and don’t effect other instances.

Instances(objects)
 A class is a template or blueprint of data and operations.To use the data and
operations, you need to create instances. An instance is a variable of a class. You
can create as many instances of a class and each instance gets a separate copy of
the methods and attributes defined in the class(except class variables, class
methods). Each instance can access the methods and attributes of the class
independently.

Syntax for create an instance(object) of a class

identifier = class_name([parameter list])

identifier – Instance(object) name

eg:
class test :
pass

ob=test()

Accessing Class Variables

Class_var.py
class num :
n=10

ob1=num()
ob2=num()
print("Initial value in the class valriable :",num.n)
print("Initial value in the First Object :",ob1.n)
print("Initial value in the Second Object :",ob2.n)
num.n=100
print(" value in the classvalriable :",num.n)
print("value in the First Object :",ob1.n)
print("value in the Second Object :",ob2.n)
Accessing Instance Variables
Instance_var.py
class num :

def datainput(self):
self.n=int(input())

def dataoutput(self) :
print(self.n)

ob1=num()
ob2=num()
print("Enter the value into First Object :",end='')
ob1.datainput()
print("Enter the value into Second Object :",end='')
ob2.datainput()

print("Given value in the First Object :",end='')

ob1.dataoutput()
print("Given value in the Second Object :",end='')
ob2.dataoutput()

The __init__() Method

---------------------------------
The __init __method is the first method to be executed after creation of an
instance. This method is like a constructor in C++ and Java languages and is used
to perform initialization.

rectar1.py
class rect:
def __init__(self):
self.l = 8
self.b = 5
def rectarea(self):
return self.l * self.b

r=rect()
print ("Area of rectangle is ", r.rectarea())

Passing Arguments to __init__ Method

----------------------------------------------------
rectar2.py

class rect:
def __init__(self, x,y):
self.l = x
self.b = y

def rectarea(self):
return self.l * self.b

print("Enter Length and breadth of Rectangle");

ln=int(input())
br=int(input())
r=rect(ln,br)
print ("Area of rectangle is ", r.rectarea())

Defining Default Value Parameters in __init__ Method

------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
rectar3.py
class rect:
def __init__(self,x=8, y=5):
self.l = x
self.b = y

def rectarea(self):
return self.l * self.b
r=rect()
s=rect(10,20)
print ("Area of First rectangle is ", r.rectarea())
print ("Area of Second rectangle is ", s.rectarea())

__del__ Method
------------------
It is invoked when the instance is to be destroyed.
This is also called as destructor.

del keyword
del is a keyword and is used to delete (destroy) specified object.
Syntax:
del object_name

destructor.py
class test:
def __init__(self):
print("Instace (object) is Created")

def __del__(self):
print ("Instace (object) is destroyed")

t=test()
del t

Access Control Specifiers

Access control specifiers define the visibility of the members
of the class. All the members of the class are assigned a
boundary in which they can be accessed using these control
specifiers. There are two types of Access Control Specifiers(
public and private ).
Public
Public member Accessed from inside as well as outside of the class.
Private
 Private member Cannot be accessed from outside the the class.
A private member is preceded by a double underscore (__).

Accessing public Members

Publicaccess.py
class rect:
def __init__(self, x,y):
self.l = x
self.b = y

def rectarea(self):
return self.l * self.b

r=rect(5,8)
s=rect(10,20)
print ("Area of First rectangle is ", r.rectarea())
print ("Area of First rectangle is ", r.l*r.b)
print ("Area of Second rectangle is ", s.rectarea())
print ("Area of Second rectangle is ", s.l * s.b)

Accessing private Members

privateaccess.py
class rect:
def __init__(self, x,y):
self.__l = x
self.__b = y

def rectarea(self):
return self.__l * self.__b

r=rect(5,8)
s=rect(10,20)
print ("Area of First rectangle is ", r.rectarea())
print ("Area of Second rectangle is ", s.rectarea())

'''
 print ("Area of First rectangle is ", r.__l*r.__b)
print ("Area of Second rectangle is ", s.__l* s.__b)
It is not possible,Because l abd b are private members
'''

Class Methods
A class method has no self argument and receives a class(cls) as its first
argument. The class method can also be called directly through the class
name without instance(object). A class method is defined using the '
@classmethod ' decorator.

Syntax:
@classmethod
def method_name(cls,[arg-list]) :
statements

classmethod.py

class book:
price=100

@classmethod
def display(cls):
print (cls.price)

def show(self,x):
self.price=x
print (self.price)

book.display()
# book.show(200) It is not working ,because it not class method
b=book()
b.show(200)
Static Methods
A static method is an ordinary function that is built using the
@staticmethod decorator . The difference between a static method and a
class method is that a static method has no cls argument. This method can
also be invoked directly through the class name without instance.

Syntax:

@staticmethod
def method_name([arg-list]) :
statements

staticmethod.py

class book:
price=100

@staticmethod
def display():
print (book.price)

book.display()

Garbage Collection
Garbage collection is a procedure of freeing up the memory. The
memory that is used by the instances (objects) are usually freed up
automatically . That’s why memory leaks are rare in Python.

stu_cl.py
class student :
 def datainput(self) :
self.sno=int(input("Enter Student Number :"))
self.sname=input("Enter Student Name :")
print("Enter Marks in C,C++,Java and Python ")
self.c=int(input())
self.cpp=int(input())
self.java=int(input())
self.python=int(input())

def calculate_result(self) :
self.tot=self.c+self.cpp+self.java+self.python
self.avg=self.tot/4
if self.c>=50 and self.cpp>=50 and self.java>=50 and
self.python>=50 :
self.result='Pass'
if self.avg >=90 :
self.grade='A+'
elif self.avg>=70 :
self.grade='A'
else :
self.grade='B'
else :
self.result='Fail'
self.grade='No Grade'

def printresult(self) :
print(" RESULT ")
print("------------------------------------")
print("Sudent Number :",self.sno)
print("Sudent Name :",self.sname)
print("Marks in C :",self.c)
print("Marks in C++ :",self.cpp)
print("Marks in Java :",self.java)
print("Marks in python :",self.python)
print("Total Marks in :",self.tot)
print("Average : %.2f" %(self.avg))
print("Result :",self.result)
 print("Grade :",self.grade)
print("-------------------------------------")

s=student()
s.datainput()
s.calculate_result()
s.printresult()

Inheritance
It is a mechanism which is used to extend the definition of an existing
class. The extension can be done by declaring some other class. The class,
that is originally present is called as "Base class" and the class which is
extended with the help of inheritance is called derived class . A derived
class always access the members of base class, whereas the base class
never access the members of derived class. The main purpose of
inheritance is the reusability of definition that are already made.

Types of Inheritance
1. Single inheritance
2. Multilevel inheritance
3. Multiple inheritance
4. Hierarchical inheritance

Single Inheritance
This is the simplest type of inheritance, where one class is derived from
another single class.

class B inherits class A, (or)

class B is derived from class A.
inr1.py
class base :
def __init__(self):
self.n=100
def display(self):
print("Initial value :",self.n)

class derv(base):
pass

d=derv()
d.display()

inr2.py
class base :

def accept(self):
self.n=int(input("Ennter any Number into base member :"))

def display(self):
print("Given value in the base member :",self.n)

class derv(base):

def datainput(self):
self.m=int(input("Enter the value into derv memeber :"))

def dataoutput(self):

print(" Given value in the derv member :",self.m)

d=derv()
d.accept()
d.datainput()
d.display()
d.dataoutput()

Method Overriding
If methods are defined with the same name both in base class and derived
classes, a derived class object always gives preference to the derived class methods
by overlooking base class methods. Hence it is called overriding .
Invoking the overriding methods by the following way :

class_name . method_name([arg_list])

Note : This Syntax works only inside methods of derived class

inr3.py

class base :
def __init__(self):
self.n=100
def display(self):
print("Initial value in Base member :",self.n)

class derv(base):
def __init__(self):
base.__init__(self)
self.m=200

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv member :",self.m)

d=derv()
d.display()

inr4.py
class base :

def accept(self):
self.n=int(input("Ennter any Number into base member :"))

def display(self):
print("Given value in the base member :",self.n)
class derv(base):

def accept(self):
base.accept(self)
self.m=int(input("Enter the value into derv memeber :"))

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print(" Given value in the derv member :",self.m)

d=derv()
d.accept()
d.display()

Multilevel Inheritance
The mechanism of deriving a class from another derived class is called as multi
level inheritance.

inr5.py
class base :
def __init__(self):
self.a=100
def display(self):
print("Initial value in Base member :",self.a)

class derv1(base):
def __init__(self):
base.__init__(self)
self.b=200

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv1 member :",self.b)

class derv2(derv1):
def __init__(self):
derv1.__init__(self)
self.c=300

def display(self):
derv1.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv2 member :",self.c)

d=derv2()
d.display()

inr6.py
class student :

def accept(self) :
self.sno=int(input("Enter Student Number :"))
self.sname=input("Enter Student Name :")
 def display(self) :
print("Sudent Number :",self.sno)
print("Sudent Name :",self.sname)

class marks(student) :

def accept(self):
student.accept(self)
print("Enter Marks in C,C++,Java and Python ")
self.c=int(input())
self.cpp=int(input())
self.java=int(input())
self.python=int(input())

def display(self):
student.display(self)
print("Marks in C :",self.c)
print("Marks in C++ :",self.cpp)
print("Marks in Java :",self.java)
print("Marks in python :",self.python)

class result (marks):

def calculate_result(self):
marks.accept(self)
self.tot=self.c+self.cpp+self.java+self.python
self.avg=float(self.tot/4)
if self.c>=50 and self.cpp>=50 and self.java>=50 and
self.python>=50:
self.result='Pass'
if self.avg >=90 :
self.grade='a+'
elif self.avg>=70 :
self.grade='A'
else :
self.grade='B'
else :
self.result='Fail'
 self.grade='No Grade'

def display(self):
print(" RESULT ")
print("--------------------------------------------------")
marks.display(self)
print("Total Marks :",self.tot)
print("Average :%.2f" %(self.avg))
print("Result :",self.result)
print("Grade :",self.grade)
print("---------------------------------------------------")

s=result()
s.calculate_result()
s.display()

Multiple Inheritance

One derived class with several base classes is called as multiple

inheritance.

Inr7.py
class base1 :
def __init__(self):
self.a=100
 def display(self):
print("Initial value in Base1 member :",self.a)

class base2 :
def __init__(self):
self.b=200

def display(self):
print("Initial value in Base2 member :",self.b)

class derv(base1,base2):
def __init__(self):
base1.__init__(self)
base2.__init__(self)
self.c=300

def display(self):
base1.display(self)
base2.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv member :",self.c)

d=derv()
d.display()

inr8.py

class student:
def accept(self):
print("Enter Student Number :",end='')
self.sno=int(input())
print("Enter Student Name :",end='')
self.sname=input()

def display(self):
 print("Sudent Number :",self.sno)
print("Sudent Name :",self.sname)

class marks :
def accept(self):
print("Enter Marks in C,C++,Java and Python ")
self.c=int(input())
self.cpp=int(input())
self.java=int(input())
self.python=int(input())

def display(self):
print("Marks in C :",self.c)
print("Marks in C++ :",self.cpp)
print("Marks in Java :",self.java)
print("Marks in python :",self.python)

class result (student,marks):

def cal_result(self):
student.accept(self)
marks.accept(self)
self.tot=self.c+self.cpp+self.java+self.python
self.avg=float(self.tot/4)
if self.c>=50 and self.cpp>=50 and self.java>=50 and
self.python>=50:
self.result='Pass'
if self.avg >=90 :
self.grade='a+'
elif self.avg>=70 :
self.grade='A'
else :
self.grade='B'
else :
self.result='Fail'
self.grade='No Grade'

def display(self):
print(" RESULT ")
 print("--------------------------------------------------")
student.display(self)
marks.display(self)
print("Total Marks :",self.tot)
print("Average :%.2f" %(self.avg))
print("Result :",self.result)
print("Grade :",self.grade)
print("---------------------------------------------------")

s=result()
s.cal_result()
s.display()

Hierarchical Inheritance
One class may be inherited by more than one class. This process is called as
hierarchical inheritance. i.e. one base class with several derived classes.

Inr9.py
class base :
def __init__(self):
self.a=100

def display(self):
print("Initial value in Base member :",self.a)
class derv1(base) :
def __init__(self):
base.__init__(self)
self.b=200

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv1 member :",self.b)

class derv2(base):
def __init__(self):
base.__init__(self)
self.c=300

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv2 member :",self.c)

d1=derv1()
d2=derv2()
d1.display()
d2.display()

inr10.py
class base :
def __init__(self,x):
self.a=x

def display(self):
print("Initial value in Base member :",self.a)

class derv1(base) :
def __init__(self):
 base.__init__(self,1000)
self.b=100

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv1 member :",self.b)

class derv2(base):
def __init__(self):
base.__init__(self,2000)
self.c=200

def display(self):
base.display(self)
print("Initial value in derv2 member :",self.c)

d1=derv1()
d2=derv2()
print("Derv1 Display")
d1.display()

print("\n\nDerv2 Display")
d2.display()

1. Overloading
1. Operator Overloading
2. Method Overloading
3. Constructor Overloading

2. Overriding
1. Method overriding
2. constructor overriding

The following is the list of operators and corresponding magic methods.

 + ---> object. _add_ (self,other)
- ---> object.__sub__(self,other)
* ---> object.__mul__(self,other)
/ ---> object. _div_ (self,other)
// ---> object. _floordiv_ (self,other)
% ---> object. _mod _ (self,other)
** ---> object. pow (self,other)
+= ---> object. iadd (self,other)
-= ---> object. _isub _ (self,other)
*= ---> object. _imul _(self,other)
/= ---> object. _idiv _(self,other)
//= ---> object. _ifloordiv _(self,other)
%= ---> object. imod (self,other)
**= ---> object. ipow (self,other)
< ---> object. _lt _ (self,other)
<= ---> object. _le _(self,other)
> ---> object.__gt__(self,other)
>= ---> object. _ge _(self,other)

class Book:
def __init__ (self,price):
self.price=price

def __add__ (self,other):

return self.price+other.price

def display(self):
print("price is:",self.price)

b1=Book(100)
b2=Book(200)

print("Book1 Price:",end="")
b1.display()
print("Book2 Price:",end=" ")
b2.display()
print('The Total Number of Pages:',b1+b2)
File Handling
In Python a file is a container for a sequence of data objects,
represented as sequences of bytes. File handling is a technique
by which you can store data and can retrieve it later.
When you run a program, the processed data is displayed on
the screen and temporally stored in RAM, so if later you want to
see the data, you can’t get it. To overcome these problems we
use files.

Text files :
These are used for reading and writing data in the form of characters.
Binary files :
These are used for reading and writing data in the form of data blocks.

The following three steps are required for working with files:
1. Opening a file
2. Performing actions on the file (reading, writing, updating contents)
3. Closing the file

Opening a File
open()
It is a function and it opens a file (both text and binary files)
Syntax:
open(filename, mode)

‘filename’ represents the name of the file, and ‘mode’ specifies the
purpose for opening the file. The open() function returns a file handler that
represents the file on the disk drive.

File modes
 Note :
To open a Binary file append ‘b’ to the mode string
Eg: ‘wb’,’rb’,etc.

File Methods Used in Python

close() : Closes the file (both text and binary files)

methods for text file operations

read([n]) : Reads the n number of characters or bytes

from the file. If the optional value n is
omitted, the rest of the file is read.

readline([n]) : Reads n number of characters in the line from

the file. If n is omitted, the next complete line
is read.
readlines() : Read all lines from the file and returns a list

write(string) : Writes the given string to the file.

writelines(list) : Writes the list of strings to the file.

seek(offset,location) : Sets the location of file handler at the

specified offset.
offset : Difference in bytes between location and new position

location :
0 - beginning of the file.
1 - current position.
2 - end of the file.

tell() : Returns the position of the file handler.

Textfile Operations

Writing and reading text data

file1.py

matter = '''Python is a great language

Easy to understand and learn
Supports Object Oriented Programming
Also used in web development '''

f = open('pyt.txt', 'w')
f.write(matter)
f.close()

f = open('pyt.txt','r')
lines = f.read()
print (lines)
f.close()

Reading line by line Data from a File

File2.py

f = open('pyt.txt','r')

while True:
line = f.readline()
if len(line) == 0:
break
print (line,end='')

File Attributes

name : This attribute is the filename that was passed to

the open() function when creating the file object.

mode : This attribute is the mode of the file that was used`
to create the file object through the open() function.

closed :This attribute is True if the file is closed.

File_att.py
f = open("pyt.txt", "r")
print ("Name of the file:", f.name)
print ("Opening mode:", f.mode)
print ("Closed? :", f.closed)
f.close()
print ("Closed? :", f.closed)
write a python script to open a text file , store data into file from
key board, read data from that file and display.
file3.py
f = open('text.txt', 'a')
print("Enter text data into file 'end ' to stop")
while True :
st=input()
if(st=='end'):
break
f.write(st+'\n')

f.close()
print("Reading data from file")
f = open('text.txt','r')
lines = f.read()
print (lines)
f.close()

2 method

f = open('text.txt', 'a+')
print("Enter text data into file 'end ' to stop")
while True :
st=input()
if(st=='end'):
break
f.write(st+'\n')
f.seek(0,0)
print("Reading data from file")
lines = f.read()
print (lines)
f.close()

sleep
It is a Method belongs time module, it delays flow of execution up to
Specified no of seconds.
 sleep(seconds)

write a python script to enter any file name and display all
content in the given file

file4.py
import time
name=input("Enter any file name :");
f = open(name,'r')
while True :
ch = f.read(1)
if ch =='' :
break
print (ch,end='')
time.sleep(0.01)
f.close()

Example program for seek method :

File5.py
f = open('h.txt', 'a+')
print("Enter text data into file 'end ' to stop")
while True :
st=input()
if(st=='end'):
break
f.write(st+'\n')
f.seek(0,0)
print("\nReading data from file")
lines = f.read()
print (lines)
f.close()

Copying content from one File to another

filecopy.py
f1 = open('a.txt', 'r')
lines = f1.read()
f1.close()
f2 = open('b.txt', 'w' )
f2.write(lines)
f2.close()
print("Fileis copied successfully")
print("Copied contents in the second file");
f2 = open('b.txt', 'r' )
lines = f2.read()
print (lines)
f2.close()

Deleting Content from a File

(delete 2nd and 3rd line of a file)

delfilecontent.py

f = open('a.txt','r')
lines = f.readlines()
print('Original content of the file:')
for ln in lines:
print(ln,end='')
f.close()
del lines[1:3]
f = open('a.txt', 'w' )
f.writelines(lines)
f.close()
print('\nThe content of the file after deleting second and third line:')
f = open('a.txt', 'r' )
lines = f.read()
print (lines)
f.close()

Binary File Operations

Storing string data into binary file

Python String ‘encode’ and ‘decode’ methos

 encode: It encodes the string with specified ‘code’

str.encode(code)

decode: It decodes the string with specified ‘code’

str.decode(code)

codes : utf-8,ascii,etc.

utf-8 : utf stands for Unicode Transformation Format.

The '8' means it uses 8-bit blocks to represent a
character.

binaryfile1.py
st = 'welcome to Python Binary files'
f = open("h.bin","wb" )
f.write(st.encode('utf-8'))
f.close()
f = open("h.bin","rb" )
fcontent=f.read()
f.close()
print('The content in the file ')
print (fcontent.decode('utf-8'))

Serialization (Pickling)
Serialization (also known as pickling) is a process of
converting structured (list, tuple, class, etc.) data into
data stream format. Serialization is done when storing
data, and deserialization is done when retrieving data. For
pickling, you can use the module ‘pickle’ .

dump(obj, file)
This method belongs to pickle module, and is used to
Write object to a file.

load(file)
This method belongs to pickle module, and is used to
read object from a file.

bfile2.py
import pickle
class num:
def __init__(self, x):
self.n = x

def display(self):
print("Given Number :", self.n)

ob=num(100)
f = open('num.bin', 'wb')
pickle.dump(ob, f)
f.close()
del ob
f = open('num.bin','rb')
obj = pickle.load(f)
obj.display()
bfile3.py
import pickle
class student:
def datainput(self) :
self.id = int(input("Enter Student Id :"))
self.name = input("Enter Student Name :")
self.emailid=input("Enter Email Id :")

def display(self):
print("Student Id :", self.id)
print("Studentr Name:", self.name)
print("Email Id :", self.emailid)

f = open("stu.bin", "ab")
ob=student()
while True:
ob.datainput()
pickle.dump(ob,f)
ch=input("Do you wanto to Continue(y/n) :")
if ch=='n' or ch=='N' :
break
f.close()

print('\nInformation of the Students')

f = open("stu.bin","rb")
while True:
try:
 obj = pickle.load(f)
obj.display()
print()
except :
break

f.close()

Exception Handling
Exception is an error state, it occurs during the
execution of an instruction in a program. when an
exception occurs it is possible to raise an exception and
when an exception is raised a set of instructions will be
executed and these instructions are referred as exception
handler. When an exception occurs, Python usually
displays a technical message. Syntax errors are different
from exceptions, if syntax errors occur when any
statement doesn’t match the grammar of the Python
interpreter.

To handle exceptions, you write the code in a block that

begins with the word try. There are two kinds of try
blocks
1) try/except
2) try/finally

try/except:
The code written in the try block, and all the
exceptions are handled through the except clause. If you
specify exception type, the except clause can handle a
single specified exception. If you don’t specify any
exception, except will handle all exceptions that appear in
the code written in the try block.

Syntax:
try:
statement(s)
except [SomeException]:
code for handling exception
[else:
statement(s)]

Some Exceptions That Can Be Handled While

Running a Program

Exception Description
1. EOFError : Raised when you try to read
beyond the end of a file.

2. FloatingPointError : Raised when a floating-point

operation fails.

3. IOError : Raised when an I/O

operation fails.

4. IndexError : Raised when you use an

index value that is out
 of range.

5. TypeError : Raised when an argument

of inappropriate type is
supplied.

6. ValueError : Raised when an inappropriate

argument value is
supplied.
7. ZeroDivisionError : Raised when a number is
divided by 0

Etc.

Exp1.py
try:
print("Enter any two Numbers ")
a=int(input())
b=int(input())
c=a/b
print("Division :",c);
except ZeroDivisionError:
print ('Division Error' )

exp2.py

try:
name = input('Enter your name : ')
print ('Given name :', name)
except :
print ('Input error has occurred' )
note:
If you want to raise exception press Ctrl+d or Ctrl+c

exp3.py(Single try and multiple except statements)

m = input('Enter First number : ')
if m.isdigit():
m=int(m)

n = input('Enter Second number : ')

if n.isdigit():
n=int(n)

try:
d=m/n
print ('Division :%.2f'%d)
except TypeError:
print ("You have not entered a numeric value")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print ("You have entered zero value, Division is Not possible")

Nested try
exp4.py
m = input('Enter First number : ')
n = input('Enter Second number : ')
try :
m=int(m)
n=int(n)

try:
d=m/n
print ('Division :',round(d,2))
except ZeroDivisionError:
print ("You have entered zero value, Division is Not possible")

except :
print ("You have not entered numeric values")
try/finally:
The code written in the finally block always executes whether an
exception occurs or not.

exp5.py
try:
f = open("a.txt", "r")
try:
lines = f.read()
print (lines)
finally:
f.close()
except IOError:
print ('File does not exist')

Raising an Exception
Exceptions are automatically raised when some undesired situation
occurs during program execution. You can raise an exception explicitly
through the ‘raise’ statement in a ‘ try/except ‘ block.

Syntax:
raise ExceptionType

exp6.py
try:
print("Enter any two Numbers ")
a=int(input())
b=int(input())
if b==0 :
raise ZeroDivisionError
c=a/b
print("Division :",round(c,2));
except ZeroDivisionError:
print ('Division Error' )
User defined Exceptions
Although Python’s build in exceptions handle most common errors.
We want to create our own exception type to handle situation to our
application. This is quite easy to do, just define a derived class of
Exception(Exception is a pre-defined class) .

exp7.py

class myException(Exception):
def __init__(self,st):
self.mesg = st

def getmessage(self):
return self.mesg

try:
print("Enter any two Numbers ")
s=input()
if(s.isdigit()) :
a=int(s)
else:
ob=myException("Invalid Data")
raise ob
s=input()
if(s.isdigit()) :
b=int(s)
else:
 ob=myException("Invalid Data")
raise ob

if b==0 :
ob=myException("Division Error")
raise ob

c=a/b
print("Division :",round(c,2))
except myException as me:
print (me.getmessage())
else:
print ('No Exceptions')

The Python Standard Library

Built-in Functions
abs , bin , bool , chr, dict , dir , eval , float , format, help , hex , input,
int , len , list , min , oct , ord , print , sorted , str , sum , complex , range
reversed , round , set, tuple, type ,etc.

abs(x) :
Return the absolute value of a number.
bin(x) :
Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”.
hex(x) :
Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string
prefixed with “0x”.
oct(x) :
Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”.
eg:
>>> bin(10)
'0b1010'
>>> hex(43)
'0x2b'
>>> oct(43)
'0o53'

num_sys.py
n=int(input("Enter any Number :"))
print("Absolute value of given Number :",abs(n))
print("Binary value of given Number :",bin(n))
print("Octal value of given Number :",oct(n))
print("Hexadecimal value of given Number :",hex(n))

Conversion binary,oct and hexdecimal to integer.

Eg:
int('0b100',2) = 4
int('0o644',8) = 420
int ('0x1a4',16)=420
Regular Expressions
A regular expression is a special sequence of characters that helps
you match or find other strings or sets of strings, using a specialized syntax
held in a pattern. Regular expressions are widely used in UNIX world.

The Python module 're' provides full support for regular expressions
in Python.The 're' module raises the exception re.error if an error occurs
while using a regular expression.

Regular Expression methods

findall:
Returns a list containing all matches
Syntax:
findall(pattern, string)
search :
Returns a Match object if there is a match anywhere in the
string.
Syntax:
search(pattern, string)

split:
Returns a list where the string has been split at each match
syntax:
split(pattern, string)

sub :
Replaces one or many matches with a string
syntax:
sub(pattern, repl, string)
match :
Returns a match object, or None if no match was found.
Syntax:
match(pattern, string)

Patteren
Metacharacters with special meaning:
[] A set of characters
eg: "[a-m]"
. Any character (except newline character)
eg: "he..o" - hello

^ Starts with
eg: "^hello"

$ Ends with
eg: "hello$"

* Zero or more occurrences

eg: "he.*o"

\s white space character

etc.

programs:
re1.py
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("ai", txt)
print(x)

output: ['ai', 'ai']

re2.py
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("[a-m]", txt)
print(x)

output: ['h', 'e', 'a', 'i', 'i', 'a', 'i']

re3.py
import re

txt = "hello planet"

x = re.findall("he..o", txt)
print(x)

output: ['hello']

re4.py

import re
txt = "BDPS COMPUTER EDUCATION"
x = re.findall("^BDPS", txt)
if x:
print("Yes, the string starts with BDPS ")
else:
print("No match")

x = re.findall("EDUCATION$", txt)
if x:
print("Yes, the string ends with EDUCATION ")
else:
print("No match")

re5.py
import re
txt = "The rain in Spain"
x = re.search("Sp", txt)
if x:
print("YES! We have a match!")
else:
print("No match")

output:
YES! We have a match!
re6.py
import re
txt = "The rain in Spain"

#Check if the string starts with "The" and ends with "Spain":

x = re.search("^The.*Spain$", txt)
if x:
print("YES! We have a match!")
else:
print("No match")

output:
YES! We have a match!

re7.py

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", txt)
print(x)

output: ['The', 'rain', 'in', 'Spain']

re8.py

import re

#Replace all white-space characters with "*":

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "*", txt)
print(x)
output: The*rain*in*Spain
 re9.py

import re
txt = "The rain in Spain"
x = re.match("The.*Spain", txt)
if x:
print("YES! We have a match!")
else:
print("No match")

output: YES! We have a match!

Python - GUI Programming

Python provides various options for developing graphical user
interface applications. Most important are Tkinter,JPython , PyQt,etc.

Tkinter Programming
Tkinter is the standard GUI library for Python. Tkinter provides a fast
and easy way to create GUI applications.

Steps for Creating a GUI application using Tkinter

* Import the 'tkinter' module.

* Create the GUI application main window.

 * Add one or more widgets to the GUI application.

* Enter the main event loop.

Tk()

This method belongs to tkinter module and creates a toplevel (main)

window of an application.

geometry()

It sets main window size

Syntax:

geometry("Width x Height")

eg: geometry("300x200")

title()

It sets window title

Syn:

title(str)

mainloop()

It Runs the main event loop

Eg:

gui1.py
import tkinter
top = tkinter.Tk()
top.title("Python GUI");
top.geometry ("300x100")
top.mainloop()

Tkinter Widgets
Tkinter provides various controls, such as buttons, labels and text boxes
used in a GUI application. These controls are commonly called widgets.

1.Button :

The Button widget is used to add buttons in a Python GUI application.

These buttons can display text or images. You can attach a function or a
method to a button which is called automatically when you click the button.

Syntax

Button ( master, option=value, ... )

Parameters
* master − It represents the parent window.
* options − Here is the list of most commonly used options for this
widget..
Options :

text : display text on the Button

command : Function or method to be called when the button

is clicked.

font,image,height,width,etc.
pack()

It Packs(Display) a widget in the parent window.

messagebox

It is a class belongs to 'tkinter'

showinfo():

It is a static method belongs to messagebox class,It Displays a message

on a separate window

syntax:

showinfo(windowtitle,message)

gui2.py

from tkinter import *

from tkinter import messagebox

top = Tk()

top.geometry("300x100")

def func():

messagebox.showinfo( "PYTHON GUI", "WELCOME TO GUI

PROGRAMMING")

B = Button(top, text ="CLICK", command = func)

B.pack()
top.mainloop()

2.Checkbutton

The Checkbutton widget is used to display a Checkbutton.

Syntax

Checkbutton ( master, option, ... )

options: width,height,onvalue,offvalue,etc.

gui3.py

from tkinter import *

top = Tk()

C1 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Music",height=5,width = 20)

C2 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Video",height=5,width = 20)

C1.pack()

C2.pack()

top.mainloop()

3.Label
This widget implements a display box where you can place text or images.

Syntax

Label ( master, option, ... )

4. Entry

The Entry widget is used to accept single-line text string.

Syntax

Entry( master, option, ... )

Gui4.py

from tkinter import *

top = Tk()

L = Label(top, text="User Name")

L.pack( side = LEFT)

E = Entry(top)

E.pack(side = RIGHT)

top.mainloop()

5.Frame

The Frame widget is very important for the process of grouping and
organizing other widgets . It works like a container, which is responsible
for arranging the position of other widgets.

Syntax

Frame ( master, option, ... )

Gui5.py

from tkinter import *

root = Tk()

frame = Frame(root)

frame.pack()

bottomframe = Frame(root)

bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )

redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red")

redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)

greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown")

greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )

bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue")

bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )

blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black")

blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)

root.mainloop()

6.Listbox

The Listbox widget is used to display a list of items from which a user
can select items.
syntax

Listbox ( master, option, ... )

insert :

It is method belongs to Listbox and is used to insert items at specified

index.

insert(index,item)

gui6.py

from tkinter import *

top = Tk()

Lb1 = Listbox(top)

Lb1.insert(0, "Python")

Lb1.insert(1,"C")

Lb1.insert(2,"C++")

Lb1.insert(3,"Java")

Lb1.pack()

top.mainloop()

7.Toplevel

The Toplevel widget is used to provide a separate

window container

Syntax

Toplevel ( option, ... )

Gui7.py
from tkinter import *

top = Tk()

top.geometry("300x100")

def func():

ob=Toplevel()

ob.title("MYWINDOW")

B = Button(top, text ="New Window", command = func)

B.pack()

top.mainloop()

Database Handling
Sometimes you need to save data entered by the user for
future use. There are two ways to save data that is supplied by the
user while running an application. The first way is to use file
handling. The second way is to use a database management
system.
 To interface with a database using Python, you need the Python
database API, which supports a wide range of database servers,
such as MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server , Oracle , Etc. You need to
download a separate database API module for each database you
want to access. Here we want to access MySQL Database Server
through Python.

Why MySQL?
MySQL is one of the most popular relational database management
systems . It’s open-source software, secure, fast, and very easy to
learn.

For accessing MySQL Database Server through Python, you need

to download and install the pymysql/MySQLdb module.
Note:
Before proceeding with installing the pymysql/MySQLdb module,
make sure that MySQL database server is installed on your
computer. You can download the current version from the following
URL: http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/.

pymysql/MySQLdb
pymysql/MySQLdb is an interface for connecting Python code
to a MySQL database server. You can insert, fetch, delete, and
update database tables by writing simple SQL statements and
executing through Python code.

MYSQL COMMANDS-1
1.Create a database on the mysql server :
create database database_name ;
eg: create database mydb;

2.List all databases on the mysql server :

show databases;

3.Switch to a database :
 use databasename ;

4.To delete a database:

drop database databasename;
eg:
drop database mydb;

connect:
It is a method belongs to pymysql/MYSQLdb module and it
connects the mysql database server and returns connection object.
Syntax:
connect(host, user, passwd, db)

close:
It is a method belongs to connection object and it closes the
database connection.
Syntax:
connection_object.close()

db1.py

import pymysql
try:
conn=pymysql.connect(host="localhost",user="root",passwd="bdps",db="mydb")
print("Connected to Database")
except :
print("Unable to Connect database")
conn.close()

MYSQL COMMANDS-2

1.Create table :

Syntax:
create table table_name (columnName-1 datatype,…….,columnName-n datatype);
Eg:
create table emp (eno int,ename char(20), salary float);
2.To see all the tables in the database:
show tables;

3.To see table field formats:

desc table_name;

4. To Delete a table :
drop table table_name;

5.Inserting Rows in a Database Table:

insert into table_name values(value-1,..,value-n);

eg:
insert into emp values(100,'abc',20000.00)

6. To display rows in the table

select fields from table_name;
select eno from emp;
select eno,salary from emp;
select * from emp;

cursor()
This Method belongs to connection object ,it returns a cursor object.
Using this cursor object we can execute sql statements.

execute():
this Methos Belongs to cursor object and it executes sql statements;
syntax:
cursorobject. execute(sql statement)
close()
It Closes the cursor object.
db2.py
import pymysql
try:
conn=pymysql.connect (host="localhost",user="root",passwd="bdps",db="mydb")
cursor=conn.cursor()
cursor.execute (''' create table emp (eno int,ename char(20), salary float) ''')
print("Table is Created")
cursor.close()
conn.close()
except :
print ("Unable to create Table")

commit():
This method belongs to connection object.To apply the modifications
to the database table, use the commit() method.
Once commit() is executed, then it’s not possible to undo the changes.

rollback():
This method belongs to connection object.The rollback() method
cancels all the modifications applied to the database table. It keeps the
database table when it was last saved.

Db3.py
import pymysql
try:
conn=pymysql.connect(host="localhost",user="root",passwd="bdps",db="mydb")
cursor=conn.cursor()
cursor.execute (''' insert into emp values (100, 'aaa', 25000.00) ''')
print("One Row Inserted")
cursor.close()
conn.commit()
conn.close()
except :
 print ("Unable to insert Row")

db4.py
import pymysql
try:

conn=pymysql.connect(host="localhost",user="root",passwd="bdps",db="
mydb")
cursor=conn.cursor()
while True:
eno=int(input("Enter Eno :"))
ename=input("Enter Ename :")
salary=float(input("Enter Salary :"))
try:
cursor.execute (''' insert into emp values (%d,'%s',%f)

'''%(eno,ename,salary))
print("One Row Inserted")
conn.commit()
except:
print ("Unable to insert Row")
conn.rollback()
ch=input("do you want to insert Another Record (y/n) :")
if ch=='n' or ch=='N' :
break;
cursor.close()
conn.close()
except :
print ("Unable to Connect")

Fetching Rows from the Table

fetchone():
This method belongs to cusor object and it fetches one row from resultset.

fetchall():
This method belongs to cusor object and it fetches all the rows from resultset.
db5.py
import pymysql
try:

conn=pymysql.connect(host="localhost",user="root",passwd="bdps
",db="mydb")
cursor=conn.cursor()
try:
cursor.execute ("SELECT * from emp")
print ("ENO\t\tENAME\t\tSALARY")
print("----------------------------------------------------------")
while True:
row=cursor.fetchone()
if row==None:
break
print ("%d\t\t%s\t\t%.2f" %(row[0], row[1], row[2]))
except :
print ("Error in fetching rows")
cursor.close()
conn.close()
except :
print ("Unable to connect database")

db6.py

import pymysql
try:

conn=pymysql.connect(host="localhost",user="root",passwd="harshith",d
b="mydb")
cursor=conn.cursor()
try:
cursor.execute ("select * from emp")
print("----------------------------------------------------------")
print ("ENO\t\tENAME\t\tSALARY")
print("----------------------------------------------------------")
rows=cursor.fetchall()
 for row in rows:
print("%d\t\t%s\t\t%.2f" %(row[0], row[1], row[2]))

except :
print ("Error in fetching rows")
print("----------------------------------------------------------")
cursor.close()
conn.close()
except :
print ("Unable to connect database")