Tenth Edition

Criminology
TODAY
AN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTION

Frank Schmalleger, Ph.D.

Distinguished Professor Emeritus,
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Schmalleger, Frank, author.
Title: Criminology today : an integrative introduction / Frank Schmalleger,
Ph.D., Distinguished Professor Emeritus, The University of North
Carolina at Pembroke.
Description: Tenth edition. | New York, NY : Pearson Education, [2021]
Identifiers: LCCN 2019021145 | ISBN 9780135779019
Subjects: LCSH: Criminology. | Criminology—United States.
Classification: LCC HV6025 .S346 2021 | DDC 364—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019021145

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 Brief Contents
PART ONE Crime and Criminology

Chapter 1 | What Is Criminology—Understanding Crime and Criminals 1

Chapter 2 | Where Do Theories Come From?—From Idea to Evidence 27

PART TWO Crime Causation

Chapter 3 | Classical and Neoclassical Thought—Choice or Consequences 53

Chapter 4 | Early Biological Perspectives on Criminal Behavior—It’s What We Are 81

Chapter 5 | Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives—Interaction Is Key 101

Chapter 6 | Psychological and Psychiatric Foundations of Criminal Behavior—

It’s How We Think 131

PART THREE Crime Causation Revisited

Chapter 7 | Social Structure Theories—It’s Where and How We Live 163

Chapter 8 | Theories of Social Process and Social Development—It’s What We

Learn 195

Chapter 9 | Social Conflict and Emergent Theories—It’s How We Relate 235

PART FOUR The Crime Picture

Chapter 10 | Criminal Victimization—It’s Personal 263

Chapter 11 | Crimes against Persons—It’s What We Fear 295

Chapter 12 | Crimes against Property—It’s What We Lose 335

Chapter 13 | White-Collar and Organized Crime—Crime as a Job 359

Chapter 14 | Drug and Sex Crimes—Recreational Offenses 389

Chapter 15 | Technology and Crime—It’s a Double-Edged Sword 417

Chapter 16 | Globalization and Terrorism—Our Small World 439

EPILOGUE Future Directions—It’s What’s to Come E-1

iii

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 Major Theoretical Developments
Classical School Biological and Psychological/
Biosocial Theories Psychiatric Theories

Classical Criminology Early Positivism Modeling Theory

1810 Franz Joseph Gall Phrenology, scientific
1764 Cesare Beccaria Deterrence 1890 Gabriel Tarde Imitation
understanding of crime
through punishment, free will,
social contract 1830s Johann Gaspar Spurzheim Brought 1973 Albert Bandura Aggression is learned,
phrenology to America aggression is rewarded, disengagement,
1789 Jeremy Bentham Hedonistic social cognition theory, modeling
calculus, utilitarianism Criminal Anthropology
1863 Cesare Lombroso Atavism, born Psychoanalytic Criminology
Neoclassical Criminology criminals, 1920s– Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis,
criminaloids, Italian School
1974 Robert Martinson Nothing-works 1930s Id, ego, superego, sublimation
doctrine 1913 Charles Buckman Goring Challenged
Lombroso’s theory 1930s August Aichorn Damaged egos
1975 James Q. Wilson Thinking 1939 Earnest Hooton Environment +
about crime low-grade human = crime Personality Theory
1986 Clarke & Cornish Rational Criminal Families 1941 Hervey Cleckley Psychopathology,
choice psychopath, sociopath
1877 Richard Dugdale The Juke family
1988 Jack Katz Seductions of 1912 Henry Goddard The Kallikak family 1964 Hans Eysenck Traits, supertraits
crime, emotions and crime 1915 Arthur Estabrook 1968 DSM-II Antisocial personality disorder
1992 Clarke & Cornish Situational
choice, Constitutional Theories Behavior Theory
situational crime prevention 1925 Ernst Kretschmer Somatotyping
1900 Ian Pavlov classical conditioning
Hormones and Enzymes
1950s– B. F. Skinner Operant
1940 Alan Booth, D. Wayne Osgood, Paul C.
Bernhardt, Kevin Beaver, Anthony Walsh, Lee 1970s Conditioning, operant behavior, rewards/
Ellis testosterone, evolutionary ­perspective, evo- punishments, stimulus-response
lutionary neuroandrogenic theory (ENA), ­serotonin,
premenstrual syndrome (PMS), ­hormones (testos- Frustration–Aggression Theory
terone, cortisol, ­norepinephrine), neurotransmitters 1939 J. Dollard Displacement, catharsis
(dopamine), monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A)
1949 William Sheldon Body types, behavioral Cognitive Theory
genetics/twins, heritability, human genome 1955 Jean Piaget Stages of human
intellectual development
Genetics and Heritability
1940 Johannes Lange Twin Studies 1957 Leon Festinger Cognitive dissonance
1968 Karl Christiansen and Sarnoff 1969 Lawrence Kohlberg Stages of moral
Mednick Twin studies, heredity, genetic deter- development
minism
2011 Nathalie Fontaine and Richard E. 1970 Stanton Samenow and Samuel
Tremblay heritability, GxE, epigenetics, gene Yochelson The criminal mindset
expression
1979 Roger Shank and Robert Abelson
Sociobiology Script theory
1975 Edward O. Wilson Altruism, territoriality, Crime as Adaptation
tribalism, survival of gene pool
1950s John Bowlby Secure attachment, a­ nxious
Biosocial Criminology resistant attachment, anxious avoidance
1980 Darrell J. Steffensmeier attachment
1994 Adrian Raine prefrontal cortex dysfunction, 1971 S. M. Halleck Alloplastic adaptation, auto-
neurocriminology, frontal brain hypothesis, neu- plastic adaptation
roplasticity, PET scans
1997 Anthony Walsh Environmental mediation 1995 Linksy, Bachman, Straus Societal stress,
of genetic influences aggression
1990s Adrian Raine Brain dysfunction 1998 Donald Andrews and James
2003 Kevin M. Beaver and Anthony Walsh Bonta Criminogenic needs,
Biosocial criminology criminogenic domains
2010 Thomas Bernard Gender-ratio problem
2010 Kevin M. Beaver, John P. Wright, and
Anthony Walsh Evolutionary theory

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 In Criminology
Social Structure Social Process & Social Social Conflict Theories of
Approaches Development Theories Theories Victimology

Social Disorganization Social Learning Theory Conflict Theories Victim Precipitation Theory
1920 Thomas & Znaniecki 1939 Edwin Sutherland Differential 1848 Karl Marx The Communist 1947 Beniamin Mendelssohn
Displaced immigrants association Manifesto Coined the term
1960 Daniel Glaser Differential “victimology”
1920s Park & Burgess Social 1916 Willem Bonger Class struggle
ecology identification theory
1948 Hans von Hentig The
1966 Burgess & Akers Differential 1938 Thorsten Sellin Culture conflict criminal and his victim
1930s Social pathology, con-
association-reinforcement
centric zones (Chicago Radical Criminology 1958 Marvin Wolfgang Some
School) Social Control Theory victims are positive
1958 George Vold Political
1929 Shaw & McKay 1950s Walter Reckless Containment conflict between groups, precipitators in crime
Cultural transmission theory, inner and outer conflict is normal
containment 1968 Stephen Schafer The
(Chicago School)
1959 Ralf Dahrendorf Conflict is victim and his criminal
1973 Oscar Newman 1969 Travis Hirschi Social bond and
self-control: attachment, normal, destructive change 1970 Menachem Amir Victim
Defensible space
commitment, belief, involvement 1969 Austin Turk Social order = contribution to victimization
1982 James Q. Wilson &
1970s Howard Kaplan Self-degradation pattern of conflict, laws serve Lifestyle Theory
George L. Kelling
to control
Broken windows, 1990 Hirschi & Gottfredson Social
1970 Michael J. Hindelang &
­criminology of place bonds and self-control, general 1970s William Chambliss Power Michael R. Gottfredson
theory of crime gaps, crime reduces surplus labor
1987 Rodney Stark Theory of James Garofalo
deviant neighborhoods 1995 Charles Tittle Control-balance, Demographic variables
1974 Richard
control surplus, control deficit influence lifestyles and
Culture Conflict Quinney Contradictions of
1995 Per-Olof H. Wikström capitalism, socialist principles determine victimization risk
1927 Frederic Thrasher Situational action theory
Left-realist Criminology Routine Activities
Gangs and gang typologies
Labeling Theory Theory (RAT)
1938 Thorsten Sellin Conduct 1991 Jock Young & Walter
1938 Frank Tannenbaum Tagging, 1970 Lawrence Cohen and
norms, primary conflict, DeKeseredy The new
dramatization of evil Marcus Felson Motivated
secondary conflict criminology
1951 Edwin Lemert Primary deviance, offenders combine with
1943 William F. Whyte secondary deviance Feminist Criminology suitable targets in the
Subcultures absence of a capable
1963 Howard Becker Outsiders, moral 1975 Adler & Simon Gender
1955 Albert Cohen guardian
enterprise socialization
Gangs, reaction formation Cyberlifestyle-Routine
1997 John Braithwaite Reintegrative 1977 Carol Smart Gender bias
1957 Sykes & Matza shaming, stigmatic shaming Activities Theory
in criminology
Techniques of neutraliza-
Dramaturgy 2000s Bradford Reynes,
tion 1988 Daly & Chesney-Lind Billy Henson, Bonnie
1960s Erving Goffman Dramaturgy, Androcentricity, crime may
1958 Walter B. Miller Fisher Merged elements of
impression management, not be normal
Focal concerns routine activities theory and
discrediting information, total
1989 John Hagan Power-control lifestyle theory to explain
1960s Cloward & Ohlin institutions, disculturation
theory victimizations that occur in
Illegitimate opportunity Social Development cyberspace
structure, delinquent
1920s Sheldon & Eleanor Glueck Peacemaking Criminology
­subcultures
Family dynamics and delinquent 1986 Pepinsky &
1967 Ferracuti & Wolfgang careers
Violent subcultures Quinney Restorative justice,
1960s Marvin Wolfgang Chronic participatory justice
Strain Theory offending
1989 Lozoff & Braswell New
1938 Robert Merton Anomie, 1980s David P. Farrington Delinquent Age principles
conformity, innovation, development theory
ritualism, retreatism, 1987 Terrence Thornberry Cultural Criminology
rebellion Intereactional theory 1995 Jeff Ferrel, Mark S. Hamm,
1982 Blau & Blau Relative 1988 Lawrence E. Cohen and Richard Jock Young, Mike Presdee,
deprivation, frustration, Machalek Evolutionary ecology Keith J. Hayward Crime
distributive justice and crime control are cultural
1993 Robert J. Sampson and John H.
products; edgework; media loops
1992 Robert Agnew General Laub Life course criminology
and spirals, liquid e­ thnography
strain theory 1993 Terrie Moffitt Life course
1994 Messner & Rosenfeld persisters, adolescence-limited Convict Criminology
American Dream offenders 2001 John Irwin, Ian Ross, K. C.
Carceral, Thomas J. Bernard,
Stephen Richards Insights
from convicted offenders

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 Contents
New to This Edition xiii Chapter 2 | W
 here Do Theories Come
Preface xv From?—From Idea to
Acknowledgments xix Evidence 27
About the Author xx Introduction 28
Today’s Science-Based Criminology 29
The Evolving Science of Criminology 29
PART ONE Crime and Criminology
Theory Building 30
Chapter 1 | What Is Criminology— ■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS Do Violent Video Games Make
Understanding Crime Kids Kill? 32

and Criminals 1 The Role of Research and Experimentation 32

Problem Identification 33
Introduction 2
Development of a Research Design 34
What Is Crime? 2
Choice of Data-Gathering Techniques 38
Crime and Deviance 5
Problems in Data Collection 40
What Should Be Criminal? 7 Review of Findings 41
■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS What Should Be Criminal? 8 Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods 42
What Is Criminology? 9 Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research 44
Defining “Criminology” 9
The Impact of Criminological Research on Social Policy 46
The Interdisciplinary Nature of Criminology 9
■ THEORY|versus REALITY The Stockholm Prize in
What Do Criminologists Do? 10 Criminology 47
Theoretical Criminology 12
The Research Report 48
Evidence-Based Criminology 13 Writing for Publication 49
Criminology and Evidence-Based Social Policy 14 ■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Omar Mateen—American
The Theme of This Text 15 Monster 50
Individual Responsibility and the Law 16 Summary 51
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Is Criminology Key Terms 52
Really Just a Form of Academic Excuse Making? 17 Questions for Review 52
The Social Context of Crime 18 Questions for Reflection 52
Making Sense of Crime: The Causes and Consequences of the
Criminal Event 18 PART TWO Crime Causation
Crime and the Offender 19
Crime and the Criminal Justice System 19 Chapter 3 | C
 lassical and Neoclassical
Crime and the Victim 20 Thought—Choice or
Crime and Society 20
Consequences 53
The Consequences of Crime 21
Introduction 54
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Ross Ulbricht—The New Face
Major Principles of the Classical School 54
of Crime? 22
Forerunners of Classical Thought 54
The Primacy of Sociology? 23
The Demonic Era 55
Summary 24
Early Sources of Criminal Law 56
Key Terms 24
The Enlightenment 57
Questions for Review 24
The Classical School 59
Questions for Reflection 25
Cesare Beccaria 59
Jeremy Bentham 60

vi

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 Neoclassical Criminology 61 Twin Studies and Heredity 93
■ THEORY|versus REALITY Three-Strikes Legislation 63 PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
Rational Choice Theory (RCT) 64 Evidence-Based Policy 94
The Excitement of Crime 65 Sociobiology 95
Situational Crime-Control Policy 66 The Biological Roots of Human Aggression 95
■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE The Classical School and The New Synthesis 96
Neoclassical Thinkers 67 Critique of Early Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior 97
Critique of Rational Choice Theory 67 ■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Richard Benjamin Speck: “Born to
Punishment and Neoclassical Thought 68 Raise Hell” 98
Just Deserts 69 Summary 99
Deterrence 69 Key Terms 99
Capital Punishment 70 Key Names 100
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing Questions for Review 100
Evidence-Based Policy 71
Questions for Reflection 100
■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS Post-Conviction DNA Exonerations
Expose Weaknesses in Judicial System 73
Policy Implications of Classical and Neoclassical Chapter 5 | B
 iosocial and Other
Thought 74 Contemporary Perspectives—
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? The Excitement
Interaction Is Key 101
of Crime 75
Introduction 102
A Critique of Classical and Neoclassical
■ THEORY|versus REALITY The Future of Neuroscience 103
Theories 76
Genetics and Crime 103
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Gary Steven Krist: The Einstein of
Crime? 77 Future Directions in the Study of Genes and Crime 105

■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS Crime Pays: Washington, D.C., The Dysfunctional Brain 107
Considers Paying Off Criminals 78 ■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS Is There a Crime Gene? 107
Summary 79 ■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Modern Biological Theories 110
Key Terms 79 Body Chemistry and Criminality 111
Key Names 79 Ingested Substances and Nutrition 111
Questions for Review 80 Environmental Pollution 112
Questions for Reflection 80 ■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS Exposure to Lead, Other Substances
Linked to Crime Rate 113
Psychobiotics 114
Chapter 4 | Early Biological Perspectives Hormones and Criminality 115
on Criminal Behavior—It’s WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Hormones and
What We Are 81 Criminal Behavior 117
Low Resting Heart Rate and Crime 118
Introduction 82
Galvanic Skin Response 119
Traditional Biological versus Modern Biosocial
Digit Ratio 120
Theories 82
Climate, Weather, and Crime 120
Principles of Biological Theories 83
Biosocial Criminology 121
The Positivist School 84
Gender Differences in Criminality 122
Physical Features and Crime 84
Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory 124
■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Early Biological Theories 85
Policy Implications of Biological Theories 125
The Italian School 86
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Jodi Arias—The Petite Killer 126
Constitutional Theories 88
Critiques of Biological and Biosocial Theories 127
■ THEORY|versus REALITY Positivism: The Historical
Statement 89 Summary 128
Criminal Families 90 Key Terms 128
The XYY Supermale 91 Key Names 128
■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS President of Philippines Says Questions for Review 129
“Criminals Aren’t Humanity” 92 Questions for Reflection 129

vii

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 Chapter 6 | Psychological and Psychiatric PART THREE Crime Causation Revisited
Foundations of Criminal Chapter 7 |Social Structure Theories—It’s
Behavior—It’s How We Where and How We Live 163
Think 131 Introduction 164
Introduction 132
Major Principles of Sociological Theories 164
Principles of Psychological and Psychiatric Theories 132
Social Structure Theories 165
History of Psychological Theories 133 ■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Types of Social Structure
Personality Disturbances 133 Theories 166
The Psychopath 134 Types of Social Structure Theories 166
Antisocial Personality Disorder 136 Social Disorganization Theory 166
Trait Theory 137
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 138
Evidence-Based Policy 169
Post-Partum Depression 138
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
Cognitive Theories 138 Evidence-Based Policy 171
Moral Development Theory 138
Strain Theory 172
Cognitive Information-Processing Theory 140
■ THEORY|versus REALITY The Criminology of Place, Routine
The Criminal Mind-Set 141
Activities, and Crime Mapping 173
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS The Pros and Cons of “Broken
Evidence-Based Policy 142
Windows” Policing 174
The Psychoanalytic Perspective—Criminal Behavior as
■ THEORY|versus REALITY The Correlation between Rates of
Maladaptation 143
U.S. Unemployment, Interest, and Crime 178
The Psychotic Offender 145
Culture Conflict Theory 179
Frustration–Aggression Theory 146
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Like Father,
Crime as Adaptation 146
Like Son 184
Criminogenic Needs 147
Attachment Theory 147 Criminal Street Gangs 185
History of Gangs in America 186
■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Types of Psychological and
Criminal Street Gangs Today 186
Psychiatric Theories 148
Gang Crime 186
Behavior Theory 149
Gang Affiliation 187
Behavioral Conditioning 149
Working with Criminal Street Gangs 188
Social Cognition and the Role of Modeling 150
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Sanyika Shakur—aka Monster Kody
Policy and Treatment Implications of Psychological and
Scott 189
Psychiatric Approaches 151
Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories 190
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? The Video
Game Killer 152 Critique of Social Structure Theories 190
Assessing Dangerousness 153 Summary 192
Predicting Criminality 155 Key Terms 193
Critique of Psychological and Psychiatric Theories of Key Names 193
Crime 155 Questions for Review 193
Criminal Psychological Profiling 156 Questions for Reflection 193
The Psychological Autopsy 158
Insanity and the Law 158
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Andrea Yates—Child Killer 159
Guilty but Mentally Ill (GBMI) 160
Problems with the Insanity Defense 160
Summary 161
Key Terms 161
Key Names 162
Questions for Review 162
Questions for Reflection 162

viii

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 Chapter 8 | Theories of Social Process Chapter 9 | S ocial Conflict and Emergent
and Social Development—It’s Theories—It’s How We
What We Learn 195 Relate 235
Introduction 196 Introduction 236
The Perspective of Social Interaction 196 Law and Social Order Perspectives 236
Types of Social Process Approaches 196 The Consensus Perspective 236
Social Learning Theory 197 The Pluralist Perspective 237
■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Types of Social Process The Conflict Perspective 237
Theories 198 ■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Social Conflict Theories 239
Social Control Theories 200 Radical Criminology 240
Labeling Theory 207 Critical Criminology 242
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Human
Evidence-Based Policy 207 Trafficking, Illegal Aliens, and the American Dream 243
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Dr. Farid Fata—Prescribing Unneeded Radical-Critical Criminology and Policy Issues 244
Chemotherapy 211 Critique of Radical-Critical Criminology 244
Reintegrative Shaming 212 Emergent Theories 245
Dramaturgical Perspective 212 Left-Realist Criminology 245
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK— Implementing Feminist Criminology 246
Evidence-Based Policy 213 PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
Policy Implications of Social Process Theories 214 Evidence-Based Policy 247
Critique of Social Process Theories 215 Postmodern Criminology 251

The Social Development Perspective 216 Peacemaking Criminology 252

Concepts in Social Development Theories 216 PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing

Evidence-Based Policy 255
The Life Course Perspective 217
Moral Time 256
■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Social Development
Convict Criminology 256
Theories 219
Cultural Criminology 257
Laub and Sampson’s Age-Graded Theory 220
Moffitt’s Dual Taxonomic Theory 221
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Theodore John “Ted” Kaczynski—The
Unabomber 258
Farrington’s Delinquent Development Theory 222
Narrative Criminology 260
Evolutionary Ecology 223
Policy Implications of Conflict Criminology 260
Thornberry’s Interactional Theory 224
Summary 260
■ THEORY|versus REALITY Social Influences on
Developmental Pathways 225 Key Terms 261
Developmental Pathways 225 Key Names 261
Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods Questions for Review 261
(PHDCN) 228 Questions for Reflection 261
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Sexual Abuser
Claims Victim Status 229
Policy Implications of Social Development Theories 230
Critique of Social Development Theories 231
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Adam Lanza and the Sandy Hook
School Shootings 231
Summary 233
Key Terms 233
Key Names 234
Questions for Review 234
Questions for Reflection 234

ix

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 PART FOUR The Crime Picture Chapter 11 | C
 rimes against Persons—It’s
Chapter 10 | C
 riminal Victimization—It’s What We Fear 295
Introduction 296
Personal 263
Homicide 296
Introduction 264
The Subculture of Violence Theory 298
Types of Victims 264 Homicide: A Closer Look 299
Victimization by the Numbers 265 Serial Killers 302
The Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR/ NIBRS) 265 Mass Murder 303
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 266 ■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS Why Mass Shootings Won’t Go
Comparing the UCR/NIBRS and the NCVS 269 Away 304
Hidden Victims 269
Rape 305
Changing Offense Patterns 270
Theoretical Perspectives on Rape 306
Demographic Correlates of Victimization 271 ■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Karla Homolka—A Woman
Victim-Offender Overlap 273
Rapist? 307
Repeat Victimization 273
Typologies of Rapists 309
The Developmental Victimization Survey (DVS)
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Exotic Dancer
and Polyvictimization 274
Claims Rape 310
The Costs of Criminal Victimization 275 Rape: A Closer Look 310
The Physical Impact of Victimization 275
Child Sexual Abuse 313
The Economic Impact of Victimization 276
Types of Child Sex Abusers 313
The Socio-Emotional Impact of Victimization 276
Robbery 316
Secondary Victimization 277
The Lethal Potential of Robbery 318
Victimization as a Risk Factor for Crime 278
Criminal Careers of Robbers 318
Theories of Victimization 279
Robbery and Public Transportation 318
Blaming the Victim: Early Theories of Victim
The Motivation of Robbers 319
Precipitation 279
Drug Robberies 320
Victimization and Lifestyle 281
The Gendered Nature of Robbery 320
■ THEORY|in PERSPECTIVE Types of Victimization
Aggravated Assault 321
Theories 284
Stranger Assault 321
Victims’ Rights 284
Assault within Families 322
A History of the Victim 284
Other Forms of Interpersonal Violence 324
PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
Bullying 324
Evidence-Based Policy 285
Workplace Violence 326
Victims’ Rights Legislation 286
Hate Crimes 328
Restorative Justice: Making the Victim Whole Again 288
Stalking 329
Victim Restitution and Victim Compensation 289
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Dylann Storm Roof—The Charleston
Social Movements and Victims’ Rights 290
Church Shooter 332
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Bill Cosby—The Public Face
Summary 333
of the “Me-Too” Movement 291
Key Terms 334
Summary 292
Key Names 334
Key Terms 293
Questions for Review 334
Key Names 293
Questions for Reflection 334
Questions for Review 294

Chapter 12 | C
 rimes against Property—It’s
What We Lose 335
Introduction 336
Types of Property Crime 336
Burglary 336
The Social Ecology of Burglary 337
A Typology of Burglars 338
■ THEORY|versus REALITY Ethnographic Research on Active
Burglars 339

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 The Locales and Times of Burglary 340 Financial Crime 365
The Motivation of Burglars 340 Environmental Crimes and Green Criminology 369
Target Selection for Burglary 341 ■ CRIME|versus REALITY Four Division I Coaches Arrested
The Costs of Burglary 341 for College Basketball Fraud 369
The Burglary–Drug Connection 342 Scandals, Government Collusion, and Political Corruption 371
The Sexualized Context of Burglary 342 Terrorism and White-Collar Crime 372
Larceny-Theft 343 Causes of White-Collar Crime 372
Shoplifting and Employee Theft 343 Curtailing White-Collar and Corporate Crime 375
■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS “Flash Robs” Become a Troublesome Organized Crime 376
Trend 345 Prohibition and Official Corruption 378
Flash Mobs and Larceny 345 Activities of Organized Crime 378
Identity Theft 346
Other Organized Criminal Groups 378
Motor Vehicle Theft 348 Eurasian Criminal Enterprises 380
Theft of Car Parts 348 Balkan Criminal Enterprises 380
Joyriders: Car Theft for Fun 348 Asian Criminal Enterprises 380
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Frank W. Abagnale, Jr.—“Catch Me If African Criminal Enterprises 381
You Can” 349 Middle Eastern Criminal Enterprises 381
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Body Parts for Transnational Organized Crime 382
Sale 350
■ CRIME| IN THE NEWS U.S. Authorities Grapple with the Rise
Professional Car Theft 351
of Transnational Criminal Organizations 383
Arson 351
Organized Crime and the Law 384
Fire Setters 351
Policy Issues: The Control of Organized Crime 384
Understanding Property Crimes 352
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Bernie Madoff—Disgraced
Persistent and Professional Thieves 352
Financier 386
The Criminal Careers of Property Offenders 353
Summary 387
Property Offenders and Rational Choice 354
Key Terms 387
Receivers of Stolen Property 354
Key Names 388
The Role of Criminal Receivers 354
Questions for Review 388
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Colton Harris-Moore—The Barefoot
Questions for Reflection 388
Bandit 356
Summary 357
Chapter 14 | D
 rug and Sex Crimes—
Key Terms 357
Recreational
Key Names 357
Questions for Review 357 Offenses 389
Questions for Reflection 358 Introduction 390
History of Drug Abuse in the United States 390
Extent of Drug Abuse 391
Chapter 13 | White-Collar and Organized Young People and Drugs 393
Crime—Crime as a Job 359 Costs of Drug Abuse 395
Introduction 360 Types of Illegal Drugs 396
A Brief History of White-Collar Crime 360 PUTTING CRIMINOLOGY TO WORK—Implementing
Understanding White-Collar Crime 361 Evidence-Based Policy 397
Definitional Evolution of White-Collar Crime 361 Drug Addiction 398
White-Collar Crime Today 363
Drug Trafficking 398
Corporate and Political Crime 363 WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? His Brother’s
Corporate Crime 363 Keeper 400
■ THEORY|versus REALITY White-Collar Crime: The Initial Pharmaceutical Diversion and Synthetic Drugs 401
Statement 365 Drugs and Crime 401
Narcoterrorism 401

xi

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 Social Policy and Drug Abuse 402 Summary 437
Recent Legislation 402 Key Terms 438
Drug-Control Strategies 404 Questions for Review 438
The Drug Legalization/Decriminalization Debate 404 Questions for Reflection 438
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Gangs,
Teenagers, and Peer Pressure 406 Chapter 16 | G
 lobalization and
Sex Work 406 Terrorism—Our Small
Morals Legislation 407
World 439
A Typology of Sex Workers 407
Introduction 440
■ CRIME|IN THE NEWS International Sex Traffickers Turn Girls
into Slaves 409 Comparative Criminology 440
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) 410 Ethnocentrism 441

Clients of Prostitutes 410 Transnational Crimes 442

Sex Work: A Changing Business 412 ■ THEORY|versus REALITY UN Offense

Exiting the Sex Trade 412 Definitions 443
Feminist Perspectives on Sex Work 412 Human Smuggling and Trafficking 443
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Heidi Lynne Fleiss—Madame to Human Trafficking—The Numbers 445
the Stars 413 Human Trafficking—The Perpetrators 446
Legalization and Decriminalization of Prostitution 414 Federal Immigration and Trafficking
Summary 414 Legislation 447

Key Terms 414 Terrorism 448

Questions for Review 415 Domestic Terrorism 449

Questions for Reflection 415 International Terrorism 450

Cyberterrorism 450
■ CRIME|IN THE NEWS “Lone-Wolf” Terrorists Remain Difficult
Chapter 15 | Technology and Crime— to Track Down 451
It’s a Double-Edged WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? The Making of a
Sword 417 Suicide Bomber 453
Explaining Violent Political Extremism 453
Introduction 418
The Radicalization Process 454
Technology and Crime 418
Countering the Terrorist Threat 456
High Technology and Criminal Opportunity 419
Foreign Terrorist Organizations 457
The Extent of Cybercrime 420
The Future of Terrorism 459
Cybercrime and the Law 422
International Crime-Fighting Organizations 460
The History and Nature of Hacking 423
INTERPOL 460
A Profile of Cybercriminals 424 Europol 460
■ CRIME|IN THE NEWS Cyberbanging 426 The International Criminal
WHO’S TO BLAME—The Individual or Society? Criminal Activity Court 460
or Mischievous Gaming? 427 ■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES The Tsarnaev Brothers—The Boston
Cybercrime as a Form of White-Collar Crime 427 Bombers 461
Technology in the Fight against Crime 428 Summary 463
DNA Technology 429 Key Terms 463
Computers as Crime-Fighting Tools 430 Key Name 463
Combating Cybercrime 431 Questions for Review 463
Police Investigation of Computer Crime 432 Questions for Reflection 463
Cybercrime and Internet Security 432
■ CRIME|IN THE NEWS The Budapest Convention Epilogue: Future Directions—It’s What’s to Come E-1
on Cybercrime 435 Glossary G-1
Policy Issues: Personal Freedoms in the Information Age 435 Notes N-1
■ CRIMINAL|PROFILES Kevin Mitnick—Hacker Turned Security Name Index I-1
Expert 436 Subject Index I-5

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 New to This Edition
The tenth edition of Criminology Today: An Integrative Chapter 6: Psychological and Psychiatric
­Introduction continues to offer students a clear, contemporary, Foundations of Criminal Behavior
and comprehensive introduction to criminology that encour- New key terms now include postpartum depression and post-
ages critical thinking about the causes of crime and crime- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
prevention strategies. The text’s hallmark thematic approach “Cognitive dissonance” has been added to the chapter as a
of social problems versus individual responsibility (Is crime a new key term; and the work of Leon Festinger is now discussed.
matter of individual responsibility or a symptom of a dysfunc- The link between serious mental illness and violence is fur-
tional society?) prompts students to think critically about the ther explored.
causes of crime and helps them see the link between crime
theories and crime policies. Chapter 7: Social Structure Theories
The American Society of Criminology’s Division of Communi-
New Chapter Content in the Tenth Edition ties and Place is now discussed.
Chapter 1: What Is Criminology? A “Crime and the Economy” heading has been added to
A discussion of undocumented residents and federal immigration the chapter.
policy is now discussed. Discussion of a new theory that claims that negative eco-
A discussion of sanctuary cities is used to illustrate varying nomic conditions and declining business cycles can increase
perspectives on crime and deviance. social strain, resulting in heightened rates for certain kinds of
Marijuana laws are also offered as an example of varying crimes, has been added to the chapter.
perspectives on crime and deviance, and updates are provided Discussion has been added of Richard Rosenfeld’s 2018
on the legal status of marijuana in various jurisdictions. comprehensive study of crime trends.
The discussion on the interdisciplinary nature of criminol- A new section on criminal street gangs has been added, and
ogy has been updated, and the section on individual responsibil- the term “criminal street gangs” has been made a key term.
ity and the law has been expanded. Delinquency theorists Frederic M. Thrasher and William F.
Whyte have been added to the chapter.
Chapter 2: Where Do Theories Come From? New key names have been added to the chapter, to include
Swiss experimentation in the treatment of heroin abusers to Irving Spergele, Elijah Anderson, Frederick M. Thrasher, William F.
­reduce crime commission has been added to the chapter. Whyte, and Malcolm Klein.

Chapter 3: Classical and Neoclassical Thought Chapter 8: Theories of Social Process and Social
The discussion of neuroscience has been expanded to include Development
more information on free will. Discussion of the 2017 study by John H. Bowman and Thomas
J. Mowen, which sought to compare the influence that criminal
Chapter 4: Early Biological Perspectives on peers or family members have on the future behavior of former
Criminal Behavior offenders, has been added.
The Positivist School has been more clearly defined, and the The “Ban the Box” movement is discussed as it relates to
term has become a key term. labeling theory.
Identity transformation, as ncessary to facilitate movement
Chapter 5: Biosocial and Other Contemporary away from criminal behavior, is now discussed.
Perspectives Discussion of a new study of parenthood as a potential
Brain injury and its possible relationship to criminal behavior is turning point in the life course of gang members has been
now discussed. added.
The discussion of the MAO-A gene and its relationship to
criminal behavior has been expanded. Chapter 9: Social Conflict Theories
A discussion of circadian rhythms and their possible rela- Cultural criminology is now discussed in this chapter, and
tionship to criminal behavior has been added. “cultural criminology” has been made a key term.

xiii

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 The work of Jeff Ferrel, Mark S. Hamm, Jock Young, D. Chapter 14: Drug and Sex Crimes
Milovanovic, Mike Presdee, and Keith J. Hayward in the area of The opioid crisis that now faces America is discussed.
cultural criminology is now discussed. Drug use statistics have been thoroughly updated.
The concept of “moral time” has been further clarified. A study showing how drugs and prostitution contrib-
New key terms, such as liquid ethnography, verstehen, edge- ute to the national economy in the United Kingdom is
work, carnival of crime, media loops and spirals, and narrative included.
criminology have been added to the chapter. The recreational and medical status of marijuana in the
United States has been updated.
Chapter 10: Criminal Victimization Discussion of the federal government’s Heroin Signature
This chapter has been thoroughly revised, with changes too Program has been substantially updated.
­numerous to list. The concept of “sex work” is introduced and explained.

Chapter 11: Crimes against Persons Chapter 15: Technology and Crime
A new story now opens this chapter. A new report by the U.S. Department of Justice, describing a
The 2018 United Nations report on violence is discussed. typology of cybercrimes has been added to the chapter.
The 2017 Las Vegas mass shooting incident is now discussed. Discussion of the 2018 Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of
Discussion of the FBI’s 2018 report on active shooters has Data (CLOUD) Act has been added to the chapter.
been added to the chapter. “Social engineering” has been made a key term, and is now
The distinction between situational child molesters and defined.
preferential child molesters is presented.

Chapter 12: Crimes against Property Chapter 16: Globalization and Terrorism
A new story now opens this chapter, and discussion of the case The discussion of human trafficking has been substantially up-
of Colton Harris-Moore has been updated. dated, including the presentation of new data.
A new study of persons convicted under federal human
Chapter 13: White-Collar and Organized Crime trafficking laws is discussed, offering insight into perpetrators.
The environmental crimes of the automobile manufacturer The list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations has been
Volkswagen are now discussed. updated.
Mention is made of the fact that the concept of white-collar A new section on “Explaining Violent Political Extremism”
crime has undergone refinement as focus has shifted to the nature has been added.
of the crime instead of the persons or occupations involved.

xiv

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 Preface
The opening decade of the twenty-first century was filled with criminologists in the twenty-first century are unlike any they
momentous events in the United States, including the destruc- have previously faced.
tion of the World Trade Center and an attack on the Pentagon It was against this backdrop that the need for a comprehen-
by Islamic terrorists, a fearsome recession, and corporate scan- sive revision of Criminology Today emerged. This new edition
dals that cost Americans billions of dollars in lost investments. addresses the poignant question of how security and freedom
The second decade saw the advent of a relatively large num- interface in an age of increasing globalism. Chapter 16, in par-
ber of homegrown terrorist efforts to attack American popu- ticular, provides substantially enlarged coverage of terrorism and
lation centers and landmarks, but only the Boston Marathon cyberterrorism, including an overview of many types of terrorist
bombings of 2013 were carried out successfully. The crimes groups, such as nationalist, religious, state-sponsored, left-wing,
committed by terrorists set a tone for the start of the new cen- right-wing, and anarchist groups. The findings and recommen-
tury unlike any in living memory. Homeland security became dations of special committees and government bodies that have
an important buzzword at all levels of American government, focused on terrorism in recent years are also discussed, and on-
while pundits questioned just how much freedom people line links to the full text of their reports are provided.
would be willing to sacrifice to enhance security. Americans The tenth edition, which is now available in a variety of
felt both physically and economically threatened as stock mar- print and electronic formats, presents historical and ­modern
ket losses were traced to the unethical actions of a surprising criminological approaches with the aid of real-life stories,
cadre of corporate executives who had previously been held ­up-to-date examples and issues, and interactive media. Key
in high ­regard in the business world and in the communities ­features include
where they lived. Soon the media were busily showing a parade
of business leaders ­being led away in handcuffs to face trial on
charges of crooked accounting.
Added to the mix by the beginning of 2020 were shocking WHO’S TO BLA
ME—The Individual or
Is Criminolog Society?
acts of criminality that emanated from all corners of the world, Three teenage
Maine, and
y Really Just
boys were arres
a
ted in the small
Form of Acad
emic Excuse
Making?
charged with town of Hillsb

including mass shootings in the United States; terror attacks in

beating a home oro,
with a base less man to The first ques
ball bat in an death tion came from
cold January underground voice recorder a reporter holdi
evening. A parking gara toward Profe ng a digital
surveillance ge on a ssor Humbolt.
beating, and camera capt here? How do “What happ
the youngster ured you explain

Paris, France; depravities of sex tourism involving human traf-

s were identified the this kind of sense ened
watched the by residents “Wel l,” Hum less killing?”
video clip on who bolt bega n,
Because the local TV news cial even t, not “it’s not sense
. just an isola less. Crim e
boys were ted is a so -
swarmed aroun juveniles, a And in muc insta nce of indiv
d a local judge storm of contr h yout h crime idua l activ ity.
oversy

ficking; sex acts with minors streaming across the Internet in

adults and to ’s decision to Humbolt felt we see patte rns of
bind them over charge them as though he co-o ffend ing.”
that state law for trial in criminal court as lecturing as was hitting his
allows for seriou —something though he was stride and starte
were over 14 s crimes if the uates. “Crim in the classroom d
years of age suspected offen inal behavior with his unde
at the time of ders is often attrib rgrad -

real time; Websites like Silk Road selling drugs, hits for hire,
Soon opinions the alleged rather than utable to socia
were being offense. to individual l failings
the news med heard from backgrounds choice. Cons
many quarters, of these youn ider, for a moment,
ia arranged and the
sor, Dr. Roy to interview physical abus g men. Were
Humbolt, at a criminolog e while they they subjected
a local colle y profes- were growing to
violence at

sexual services, weapons, and just about anything else; massive

able to shed ge to see if the hands of up? Did they
some light on he might be older siblings learn
the boys’ beha in this instance, or parents?
vior. involved in some Were they,
maybe even adolescent
an initiation rite of passa
behave this into a gang ge,
? Did they feel

copyright-infringement activities like those of New Zealand–

­
way because forced to
they saw on of peer press
television or ure? Was it some
in video gam thing
played and es that they
then decided might have
“Dr. Humbolt, to reenact?”

based Megaupload; and the theft of hundreds of thousands of

” the reporter
back from his asked, bring
reverie, “eve ing the profe
things are true, n if you find ssor
isn’t criminolog that some of
y just an exerc those
making for crimi
ise in excuse

personal identities. All of this led to an increasingly complex eco-

nals?”
amy Stock photo

Thin k Abo ut
It

nomic, educational, online, and social world.

1. What do
you think of
the explanatio
Humbolt for ns offered by
the boys’ beha Professor
ive/Al

if any, make vior? Which

s the most sense of his explanatio
ns,

Criminologists found themselves wondering what new laws

? How can we
Cultural Creat

those explanatio know for sure

ns are accu if
rate?
2. What do
you think of
the reporter’s
A news confe professor? Is stinging critic
rence held to the reporter ism of the

might be enacted to add additional controls to handgun sales and

ercise in excu right that criminology
senseless killing provide insigh se making for is “just an ex-
. What value t into a seem criminals?” Expla
do criminolog ingly
hold for the ical explanatio 3. Generally in your answ
understanding ns speaking, does er.
benefit from of criminal activ bility? In othe understanding
such explanatio ity? How can r words, if we absolve respo
nsi-

ownership; and they also focused on the potential harm that the
ns? we can understan
does something d why some
, then should one
sponsible for we hold him
Note: Who’s doing it? Why or her less re-
to Blame boxes or why not?
provide critica
l-thinking oppor

criminal mis-use of social media can cause. This last issue con-
tunities based
on actual cases.

stitutes a very intimate crime that can literally cause a person to

face the loss of his or her social self in our complex and highly
technological culture. Focus also shifted to expanding computer
capabilities and biotechnologies that, while seeming to hold Who’s to Blame boxes in each chapter highlight the book’s
amazing promise to cure disease and reshape humanity’s future, ever-evolving theme of social problems versus social respon-
threaten the social fabric in a way not seen since the birth of sibility, a hallmark feature of this text. In each chapter, Who’s
the atomic bomb or the harnessing of electricity. Similarly, cli- to Blame boxes build on this theme by illustrating some of
mate changes, violent storms such as damaging hurricanes, the the issues that challenge criminologists and policy makers
Gulf oil spill, our nation’s desperate need for alternative and today. Each box includes a case study followed by critical
additional energy sources, and the instability in the Middle East thinking questions that ask readers to ponder to what extent
contribute to a growing awareness that the challenges facing the individual or society is responsible for a given crime.

xv

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 TH EO RY ve
Ethnographic
| rsus RE AL ITY
Re search on Ac
Ethnographic
stand a burglar’s
research involving
active burglars
tive Burglars
way of life and attempts to unde
achieved in surve hence r-
y research or resea offers a depth of insight rarely as residential burgl
ars by other offen
ethnographic resea rch using offici
rch is often dang al data. However, jects were ident
ified by the field ders so identified.
Research sub- CR IM INA L
The true benefit
that comes from
erous, costly, and
time-consuming empl oyed, most of
whom were ex-o
workers whom
Wright PR OF ILE S
to an essential
methodological studying active
burglars is relate
. subjects were all ffenders. The inter and Decker Ross Ulbricht—T
the classic issue issue common d on activ
conducted in the
field. Building views with the
In 2015, 31-ye he New Face of
being studied.
of how individual
s behave when
to all research ende
avors:
e offenders not
currently incar on previous resea
rch
ar-old
online marketplace Ross Ulbricht, the mastermind
Crime?
In the case of they know they provi de insight into vario cerat ed, Wright and known as Silk behind the illegal
those who are studying burgl are ing an examinatio us facets of the Decker federal court to Road, was senten
incarcerated, Rich ars who are activ n of their moti offending of spend the rest of ced in Manhattan
vation, target selec burglars, includ-
e versus to forfeit $183,9 his life in prison
note that indiv ard
iduals behave differ T. Wright and Scott H. Deck search for valua 61,921 in illegal . He was also ordere
ble goods, and tion, entry meth firearms, illegal profits d
house. The resea ently “in the wild” er sweri disposal of good od, drugs, pharmaceuti . Silk Road, which offered
rcher than in the jail- ng quest ions, the offen s. In addition killings-for-hire, cals, hacking sex,
criminology, Edwi s point to statements made recent residential ders were asked to an- the dark Web.
was created in
2011 and operat
services, and
even
n Sutherland and by two pioneers burglary offense. to reconstruct Participants used ed on what’s know
years ago: “Tho Donald Cressey, in Defining the eligib their most ers and condu sophisticated and n as
se who have had more than 30 cted transactions secretive Web
ility of subjects mated that the in untraceable brows-
the open know intimate conta ers are common for research and site, before it was Bitcoins. Offici
that criminals are cts with criminals practices in ethno using field work and raked in over shut down, had als esti-
and prisons, and not ‘natural’ in in were followed graphic research. - $1.2 billion in nearly a million
that they must police stations, in other Simil Online, Ulbric sales through millio users
of institutions if be studied in their courts, chapter. They ethnographic resea ar strategies ht used the pseudo ns of transactions.
they are to be everyday life outsi include research rch projects discu his true identity
was known, the
nym Dread Pirate
ssed in this

s/AP Images
ting as close as understood.”i It de on 30 active burgl Roberts. Before
possible to the is this concern setting by Paul ars in an urban
nal mastermind” media described
him as a “virtual
the tradition of social world one for get- F. Cromwell and Texas organized crime.
and an “online
mob boss” who crimi-
ethnography. is studying that professional fence his colleaguesii Ulbricht was said became the new
marks by Darre ll J. Steffensme iii and research on the to fund a $150,0 to face of
Ethnographic discussion of resea ier. As you read 00 hit on a Canad have personally used his creatio
research has alread rch in this chapt Investigators said ian man who n

Elizabeth Wlliam
where research through the
by Richard Wrig y been described in Chapter nographic resea er, that he later follow tried to extort
ht and Scott Deck 11, rch and the insigh keep in mind the strengths of blackmailer’s four
friends. Ulbricht,
ed up by orderi
ng the killing of
him.
bers was discussed. offenders withi ts eth-
This chapter prese er on armed rob- n their native socia to be gained by studying crimi sible for the crimes
that others comm
however, was ultima
tely held respon
the
by Wright and nts further ethno l and cultural conte nal U.S. Attorney itted through the -
Decker, this time graphic research xts. Preet Bharara says Silk Road portal.
the researchers on residential burgl the overdoses,
addictions, and
that “Ulbricht
bears responsibility
in St. Louis, Misso
located and inter
viewed 105 activ
ars. During 1989
, Discussion Que gal drugs sold on other foreseeable for
uri. To qualify e residential burgl stions Silk
not personally handle Road.” It doesn’t matter, Bhara
repercussions of
the ille- Silk Road found
er, Ross Ulbric
research, the offen for inclusion in ars 1. What is ethno those drugs; neithe ra said, “that he to life in prison ht. In 2015, Ulbric
ders had to meet Wright and Deck graphic research? Silk Road was r would a traditi did for creating
the anything-go
ht was sente
nced
(1) have comm one of er’s types of research in the How does it the first massiv onal kingpin.” es Internet site.
three criteria: they field of criminolog differ from other
itted a residential and services, and e online marke
it provided a tplace
contact, (2) defin burglary within had to 2. Can criminolog y? ing to conduct blueprint for other for illegal goods odds of a succes
sful
e themselves as
residential burgl
two weeks prior
to ists learn anyth busine
Katherine B. Forres ss autonomously. At senten
criminals want- Ulbricht by Donal appeal by Ulbricht, or a presid
ars, or (3) be labele ing on active burgl ing special abou t told Ulbricht cing, federal Judge
d Trum p before mid-2018. ential pardon
of
Notes d ars who are not t burglary by focus virtual world in that “as the first
than on burglars currently incar - which any kind person” to create
who are imprisone cerated—rathe he had to pay of illegal busine a The case of
i. Edwin Suthe
d? r the price. Anyon ss could be condu Ross Ulbricht
rland and Dona Ulbricht’s footste e who was thinki cted, of interesting raises a num
Job: Streetlife
and Residential
ld Cressey, Crimin
ology, 8th ed. ps, said the judge, ng of following questions. Amo ber
Break-Ins (Bosto (Philadelphia: out equivocation needs to know in the following ng them are
ii. Paul F. Crom that clearly “and with-
well, James
N. Olson, and
n: Northeaste
rn University
Lippincott, 1970)
, p. 68, cited serious consequence if you break the law this way, :
iii. Darrell J. Steffe D’Aunn Weste Press, 1994), in Richard T.
Wright and Scott s.” In a footno there will be very 1. What does
r Avary, Break p. 5. the Web site bitbet te to Ulbricht’s
nsmeier, The
Fence: In the ing and Enteri H. Decker, Burgla .us took bets (only trial and senten the conviction
Shadow of Two ng: An Ethno rs on the in Bitcoins, of cing, nature of crime of Ross Ulbric
graphic Analy course) favoring in America today? ht have to say
Worlds (Sava
ge, MD: Rowm sis of Burglary Notes about the
an and Littlefi (Newbury Park, 2. Why did Ulbric
eld, 1986). CA: Sage, 1991) FBI Press Releas ht receive such
. e, “Ross Ulbrich a harsh sentence?
press-releases/2015/ro t, AKA Dread
ss-ulbricht-ak Pirate Robert
One Virtual ‘Mob a-dread-pirat s, Sentenced
e-roberts-sent in Manhattan
Boss’ Becam enced-in-ma Federal Court
silk-road-how e the New Face to Life in Prison,”
-one-virtual-m of Organized nhattan-fede May 29, 2015,
ob-boss-beca Crime,” News.c ral-court-to-life https://www.
methe-new-f om.au, July -in-prison; and fbi.gov/newy
ace-of-organ 14, 2015, http:// “Silk Road: How ork/
ised-crime/sto www.news.co
ry-fnjwnj25-12 m.au/techno
27441204850 logy/online/

Theory versus Reality boxes throughout the text showcase

Criminal Profiles boxes throughout the text offer insights into
selected issues and theories in the field of criminology and
the lives and criminal motivations of notorious offenders, such as
invite discussion through thought-provoking questions for
Ross Ulbricht (founder of Silk Road, the underground Website);
consideration.
Omar Mateen (the Pulse Nightclub shooter); Jodi Arias, Colton
Harris-Moore (the Barefoot Bandit), and Bernie Madoff.

CR IM E in th
e NE W S TH EO RY in
Mass shootings
Why Mass Sh
oo tings Won’t Go Types of Psych
| PE RS PE CT IV E
by lone gunm Away ologic
phenomenon. To
date, the 2017 shoo
en seem to be
a uniquely Ame Psychological and al and Psychiat
58 died) in Las Vega
s by 64-year-old
ting of nearly 600
people (of who
rican
the behavioral
psychiatric theo
ries of criminolo
ric Theories
attack. Paddock Stephen Paddock m sciences and focu gy
fired from a guest is the deadliest such sis. This chapter s on the individual are derived from Period: 1900–pre
resort into a musi room on the 32nd breaks their discu as the unit of analy
c festival crowd floor of a nearb shown in this box. ssion down into - sent
Photo

Omar Marteen of more than 30,00 y a number of areas Theorists: B.

(who is featured 0 people. In 2016 as F. Skinner, othe
text) shot over in a Criminal Profi , rs
100 people at the le box elsewhere Modeling The Concepts: oper
Inc./Alamy Stock

of them died. Mart Pulse nightclub in this ory ant behavior, oper
een, who was 29 in Orlando. Forty ditioning, stimu ant conditioning,
killed after a polic years old at the -nine This theory states lus-response, rewa classical con-
e SWAT team time of the attac that people learn rd, punishment
In 2012, 20-y forced its way into k, was selves after othe how to behave
rs whom they
ear-old Adam the building. have the opportuni by modeling them- Frustration–Agg
man, killed 25 Lanza, a men Period: 1890s–pre ty to observe. ression Theory
people at an tally troubled
Connecticut— elementary scho young sent Frustration is a
20 of them child ol in Newtown Theorists: Gabr natural conseque
s/ZUMA Press,

Mass shootings ren. , iel Tarde, Albe in this theory, nce of living and
show no signs rt Bandura, othe where criminal a root cause of
the U.S. homicide of declining, despi Concepts: imita rs when it results behavior can be crime
rate. “The frequ te an overall drop tion, interperso from stress redu a form of adap
ate much year ency of gun viole in theory, modeling nal aggression, ction. tation
to year,” said Jame nce does not fluctu , disengagemen social cognition Period: 1940s–pre
Northeastern Univ s Alan Fox, a crim - t sent
inolo
Gene Blevin

ersity. Looking gy professor at Psychoanaly Theorists: J. Doll

shootings in 1976 back 35 years, tic Criminology ard, Albert Band
and 18 in 2010, Fox counted 19 ura, Richard H.
A study of past with a range of such This psychiatric Concepts: frustr Walters
incidents reveals 7 in 1985 to 30 A memorial approach, deve ation , aggression, displ
to be a young man a portrait of the in 2003. to the victims Freud, emphasiz loped
without friends mass shooter. He shooting, whic of the October es the role of perso by Austrian psychiatrist Sigm acement
tion. He’s aimin and recently enco tends h claimed the 1, 2017, Las Veg deviant behavior nality in human und
g for a high body untered some hum
others. The shoo lives of 58 peo as mass as the result of
dysfunctional perso behavior and sees Cognitive The
shooter or a figur count. Sometime
s he copies anoth
ilia- ter, 64-year-old ple, and injur
ed 546
tation to the socia
l environment. nalities or mala ory
e from the mov er mass Stephen Pad dap- Cognitive theo
when imitating ies, as Colorado of rounds from dock fired thou ry, also known
the Joker, Batm shooter James Holm the 32nd floor sands Period: 1920s–pre individuals beco as mora
shooters are depre
ssed, they rarely
an’s sworn enem
y. Although man
es did Casi no into a nearby musi
of the Mandala
y Bay Resort sent me criminal when l development theory, holds
suffer psychosis, y mass c festival crow and Theorists: Sigm pleted their intel they have not that
Knoll, a psychiatrist according to Jame mas s killings be prev d of over 30,00 und Freud, Augu lectual developm successfully com
at SUNY Upstate s L. ented? 0. How can st Aichorn, othe ent from child- -
Little in this Med Concepts: psych to adulthood.
portrait, however ical Center. iatric criminolo
gy, id, ego, supe
rs Period: 1950s–pre
sent
shootings. Mass , can help pred psychoanalysis, rego, sublimati
shoo ict future mass buying weapons. psychotherapy, Theorists: Jean
But many of them ters rarely talk about their Fox argues that schizophrenia neurosis, psych
osis, paranoid
on, Piaget, Lawrence
do undergo a exploits in adva much impossible preventing these Robert P. Abel Kohlberg, Rog
crimes, as evide personality chan nce. . “We’re not goin calam son, Stanton E. er C. Schank,
nced by Holm
es dyeing his hair
ge just before
their fortress,” he said. g to turn our coun ities is pretty Personality The Concepts: mora Samenow, Samu
a professor at “People hate it try into one big l development, el Yochelson
Bryn Mawr Coll orange. Larry Burt of tragedy is one when I say this,
but it’s true. This
ory ing, scripts, cogn cognitive-informat
should notice these ege in Pennsylvania, on, of the unfortunate This approach itive dissonanc ion process-
changes and repo thinks people prices we pay for kind envisions a com e criminal mind
Other ways to rt our freedoms.” from recesses deep plex set of drive -set
address mass shoo them to authorities. Discussion Que within the perso s and moti
which could redu tings might be
to ban assault rifles stions nality to determine ves operating Crime as Ada
ce the carnage, 1. Period: 1940s–pre behavior. ptation
ground checks and the imposition , Why have rand sent
for gun purchases of stricter om mass shootings Criminal activ
without a crim . But a mass shoo back- in American socie become relatively Theorists: Herv ity facilitates
individual adap
inal record migh ty? commonplace ey M. Cleckley, ment by redu
t not be identified ter, like Paddock, 2. What can be Concepts: perso Hans J. Eysenck, cing life stres tatio
ses and by prod n to the environ-
Sources: Seth and prevented done to prevent nality, psychopath many others changes. ucing environm
Cline, “Are Mass from shootings? future incidents ality, personality , sociopath, antis ental
/are-mass-shoo Shootings a of random mass
tings-a-fact-of-li Fact of Life in
America?” US , traits, Five Facto ocial person- Period: 1950s–pre
PoliceSay,” June 13, fe-in-amer
ica; Lizette Alvar News & World disorder (PTSD), r Model, post- sent
2016, The New ez, Richard Perez Report, Augu postpartum depr traumatic stress
Vegas Attac York Times, https -Pena and Christ st 28, 2012, http:/ ession Theorists: Seym
k is the Dead ://www.nytimes. /www.usnews.co
index.html (acc liest Mass Shoo
ting in Mode com/2016/06/14 ine Hauser, “Orla
ndo Gunman m/news/article Behavior The our L. Halleck, Don
essed November s/2012/08/28
ory Bonta, John Bow ald
lby Arnold S. Linsk A. Andrews, James
rn US History,” /us/orlando-sho was ‘Cool and
25, 2017). CNN, http://www oting.html (acc Calm’ after
.cnn.com/2017/ essed March Massacre, From a psycholog Murray A. Strau y, Ronet Bach
10/02/us/las-veg 3, 2017); and s man,
as-attack-dead Doug Criss, “The ical perspective,
liest-us-mass-sho Las ual behavior that behavior theory Concepts: allop
oting-trnd/ is rewarded will posits that indiv lastic and auto
that is punished increase in frequ id- needs, criminog plastic adaptatio
will decrease in ency and beha enic domains, n, criminogenic
Source: Schm frequency. vior attachment theo
alleger, Frank ry
Criminology.
Printed and Electronically
reproduced
by permission
of Pearson Educ
ation, Inc., Uppe
r Saddle River,
New Jersey ISBN 01329
66751.

Crime in the News boxes in each chapter present case ex-

amples and pose analytical discussion questions about connec-
tions between examples and the chapter topics. Theory in Perspective summary boxes in Parts 2 and 3 out-
line the main points of various theories for easy reference and
study.
In the past few years, crime and criminals have changed in
ways that few people had previously imagined would occur, and FRANK SCHMALLEGER, Ph.D.
these changes hold considerable significance for each one of us Distinguished Professor Emeritus
and for our nation as a whole. It is my hope that this new edi-
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke
tion, which is available in a number of formats, will help today’s
students both to understand the nature of these changes and to
find a meaningful place in the social world that is to come.

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 Supplements REVEL for Criminology
Instructor Supplements Today, Tenth Edition by
Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. Includes content outlines Frank Schmalleger
for classroom discussion, teaching suggestions, and answers to Designed for how you want to teach – and how your
selected end-of-chapter questions from the text. This also con- students want to learn
tains a Word document version of the test bank.
Revel is an interactive learning environment that engages students
TestGen. This computerized test generation system gives and helps them prepare for your class. Reimagining their content,
you maximum flexibility in creating and administering tests our authors integrate media and assessment throughout the narra-
on paper, electronically, or online. It provides state-of-the- tive so students can read, explore, and practice, all at the same time.
art features for viewing and editing test bank questions, Thanks to this dynamic reading experience, students come to class
dragging a selected question into a test you are creating, and prepared to discuss, apply, and learn about criminal justice — from
printing sleek, formatted tests in a variety of layouts. Select you and from each other.
test items from test banks included with TestGen for quick
test creation, or write your own questions from scratch. Test Revel seamlessly combines the full content of Pearson’s best-
Gen’s random generator provides the option to display dif- selling criminal justice titles with multimedia learning tools.
ferent text or calculated number values each time questions You assign the topics your students cover. Author Explanatory
are used. Videos, application exercises, survey questions, interactive CJ
data maps, and short quizzes engage students and enhance their
PowerPoint Presentations. Our presentations offer clear, straight- understanding of core topics as they progress through the con-
forward outlines and notes to use for class lectures or study tent. Through its engaging learning experience, Revel helps
­materials. Photos, illustrations, charts, and tables from the book students better understand course material while preparing them
are included in the presentations when applicable. to meaningfully participate in class.
To access supplementary materials online, instructors
need to request a free instructor access code. Go to www. Author Explanatory Videos
pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an Short 2-3 minute Author Explanatory Videos, embedded in
instructor ­access code. Within 48 hours after registering, you the narrative, provide students with a verbal explanation of an
will receive a confirming e-mail, including an instructor ac- ­important topic or concept and illuminating the concept with
cess code. Once you have received your code, go to the site additional examples.
and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials
you wish to use.

Alternative Versions
eBooks This text is also available in multiple eBook
­formats. These are an exciting new choice for students Point/CounterPoint Videos
looking to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the Instead of simply reading about criminal justice, students are
printed textbook, students can purchase an electronic ver- empowered to think critically about key topics through Point/
sion of the same content. With an eTextbook, students can Counterpoint videos that explore different views on controver-
search the text, make notes online, print out reading as- sial issues such as the effectiveness of the fourth amendment,
signments that incorporate lecture notes, and bookmark ­privacy, search and seizure, Miranda, prisoner rights, death pen-
important passages for later review. For more information, alty and many other topics.
visit your favorite online eBook reseller or visit www.­
mypearsonstore.com.

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 New Social Explorer Criminal Justice Data Maps Track time-on-task throughout the course
Social Explorer Maps integrated into the narrative ask students The Performance Dashboard allows you to see how much time
to examine crime and corrections data correlated with socio- the class or individual students have spent reading a section or do-
economic and other criminal justice data. Maps also show ing an assignment, as well as points earned per assignment. This
differences in state statutes on major issues such as marijuana data helps correlate study time with performance and provides a
legalization, the death penalty, and the distribution of hate orga- window into where students may be having difficulty with the
nizations across the US. material.

Learning Management System Integration

Pearson provides Blackboard Learn™, Canvas™, Brightspace
by D2L, and Moodle integration, giving institutions, instruc-
tors, and students easy access to Revel. Our Revel integration
delivers streamlined access to everything your students need
for the course in these learning management system (LMS)
environments.

The Revel App

The Revel mobile app lets students read, practice, and study—
anywhere, anytime, on any device. Content is available both
online and offline, and the app syncs work across all registered
devices automatically, giving students great flexibility to toggle
between phone, tablet, and laptop as they move through their
day. The app also lets students set assignment notifications to stay
on top of all due dates. Available for download from the App
New Student Survey Questions Store or Google Play. Visit www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/
Student Survey Questions appear within the narrative asking to learn more.
students to respond to questions about controversial topics and
important concepts. Students then see their response versus the
responses of all other students who have answered the question
in the form of a bar chart. We provide the instructor with a
PowerPoint deck with links to each survey and map, making it
easy to pull these items up in class for discussion.

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 Acknowledgments
A book like Criminology Today draws on the talents and resources Jeff Bry, Minnesota State Community and Technical
of many people and is the end result of much previous effort. This College-Moorhead
text could not have been written without the groundwork laid Donna Massey, University of Tennessee at Martin
by previous criminologists, academics, and researchers; hence, a Chad Sexton, Ocean County College/State University of
hearty thank-you is due everyone who has contributed to the New York-Fredonia
development of the field of criminology throughout the years, es-
I also thank the following reviewers for previous editions:
pecially to those theorists, authors, and social commentators who
are cited in this book. Without their work, the field would be that Reed Adams, East Carolina State University
much poorer. I would like to thank, as well, all the a­dopters— Elizabeth Bondurant, Mercer County Community College
professors and students alike—of my previous textbooks, for they Michael P. Brown, Ball State University
have given me the encouragement and fostered the steadfastness Gregg Buchholz, Keiser University
required to write this new edition of Criminology Today. Bryan D. Byers, Ball State University
The Pearson team members, many of whom I have come to Dianne Carmody, Old Dominon University
know very well and all of whom have worked so professionally Steven M. Christiansen, Joliet Junior College
with me on this and other projects, deserve special thanks. The team Tomasina Cook, Erie Community College
includes Faye Gemmellaro, Elissa Senra-Sargent, Holly Shufeldt, Myrna Cintron, Texas A&M University
and Heather Taylor. My thanks to the photo researcher Lav Kush Patrick G. Donnelly, University of Dayton
Sharma, whose efforts have helped make Criminology Today both at- Ronald D. Hunter, State University of West Georgia
tractive and visually appealing. Thanks, too, to the very professional Steven Johnson, Eastern Arizona College
folks at Integra, who aided in the production of this text. They Daniel D. Jones, University of Washington
include, Gowthaman Sadhanandham, and Abinaya ­Rajendran at John Kirkpatrick, University of New Hampshire
Integra for their very capable handling of numerous details. Joan Luxenburg, University of Central Oklahoma
My friends and professional colleagues Ellen G. Cohn at Eugene Matthews, Park University
Florida International University, Cassandra Renzi at Keiser M. Joan McDermott, Southern Illinois University
­University, and Karel Kurst-Swanger at Oswego State University William McGovern, Sussex County Community College
helped in many ways. Dr. Cohn graciously used her deep per- Darrell K. Mills, Pima Community College (East Campus)
sonal creativity in enhancing the supplements package and creat- Robert Mutchnick, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
ing quality products; she has the exceptional ability of building Michael Pittaro, Lehigh Valley College
intuitively on concepts in the text. Thanks also to Bob Winslow Glen E. Sapp, Central Carolina Community College
at California State University–San Diego for insight and encour- Jennifer L. Schulenberg, Sam Houston State University
agement on a number of important issues and to Jack Humphrey Louis Shepard, West Georgia Technical College
at St. Anselm College and Stephen J. Schoenthaler for their valu- John Siler, Georgia Perimeter College
able suggestions in the preparation of this new edition. Tamson L. Six, Lock Haven University
This book has benefited greatly from the quick availability Dianne Williams, North Carolina A&T State University
of information and other resources through online services and in Jeffrey Zack, Fayetteville Technical Community College
various locations on the Internet’s World Wide Web. I am grate- Anthony W. Zumpetta, West Chester University
ful to the many information providers who, although they are
Finally, but by no means least, I am indebted to a small but
too numerous to list, have helped establish such useful resources.
very special group of contemporary criminologists who have
I am thankful as well for the assistance of Prof. Bill ­Tafoya
laid the foundation for our discipline’s presence on the Internet.
(retired FBI) and Nancy Carnes of the Federal Bureau of
Among them are Cecil Greek at Florida State University, whose
­Investigation; E. Ann Carson at the Bureau of Justice Statistics;
online lecture notes are massively informative; Tom O’Connor
William Ballweber at the National Institute of Justice; ­David
of Austin Peay State University, whose Megalinks in Criminal
­Beatty, director of public affairs with the National Victim Cen-
Justice site provides an amazingly comprehensive resource; Mat-
ter; Kris Rose at the National Criminal Justice Reference Ser-
thew Robinson at Appalachian State University, whose Crime
vice; Marilyn Marbrook and Michael Rand at the Office of
Theory links allow visitors to vote on what they think are the
Justice Programs; Mark Reading at the Drug Enforcement Ad-
causes of crime; and Bruce Hoffman, whose former Crime The-
ministration; and Barbara Maxwell at USA Today.
ory site at the University of Washington offers many great insights
Many manuscript reviewers have contributed to the devel-
into the field. All of these excellent resources were very useful in
opment of Criminology Today. I offer my thanks to the following
writing this book—and it is to these modern-day visionaries that
reviewers for the tenth edition:
Criminology Today owes much of its technological depth.
Daniel Boudon, St. Francis College

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 About the Author
Frank Schmalleger, Ph.D., is Schmalleger is the author of numerous articles as well as
Professor Emeritus at The Uni- many books: Criminal Justice Today: An Introductory Text for the
versity of North Carolina at 21st Century (Pearson, 2021), now in its 16th edition; Juvenile De-
Pembroke, where he also was linquency, 9th edition (with Clemmens Bartollas; Pearson, 2014);
recognized as Distinguished Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction, 12th edition (Pearson, 2019);
Professor. Dr. Schmalleger Criminal Law Today, 6th edition (Pearson, 2016); Corrections in the
holds degrees from the Uni- Twenty-First Century (with John Smykla; McGraw-Hill, 2021);
versity of Notre Dame and Crime and the Justice System in America: An Encyclopedia (Green-
The Ohio State University; he wood Publishing Group, 1997); Trial of the Century: People of the
earned both a master’s (1970) State of California vs. Orenthal James Simpson (Prentice Hall, 1996);
and a doctorate (1974) in soci- Career Paths: A Guide to Jobs in Federal Law Enforcement (Regents/
ology, with a special emphasis Prentice Hall, 1994); Computers in Criminal Justice (Wyndham
in criminology, from The Ohio Hall Press, 1991); Criminal Justice Ethics (Greenwood Press, 1991);
State University. From 1976 to Finding Criminal Justice in the Library (Wyndham Hall Press, 1991);
1994, he taught criminology Ethics in Criminal Justice (Wyndham Hall Press, 1990); A History
and criminal justice courses at The University of North Carolina of Corrections (Foundations Press of Notre Dame, 1983); and The
at Pembroke, and for the last 16 of those years, he chaired the Social Basis of Criminal Justice (University Press of America, 1981).
university’s Department of Sociology, Social Work, and Crimi- He is also the founding editor of the journal Criminal Justice Stud-
nal Justice. As an adjunct professor with Webster University in ies (formerly The Justice Professional).
St. Louis, Missouri, Schmalleger helped develop the university’s Schmalleger’s philosophy of both teaching and writing can be
graduate program in security administration and loss prevention summed up in these words: “In order to communicate knowledge
and taught courses in that curriculum for more than a decade. we must first catch, then hold, a person’s interest—be it student,
He has also taught in the New School for Social Research’s on- colleague, or policy maker. Our writing, our speaking, and our
line graduate program, helping build the world’s first electronic teaching must be relevant to the problems facing people today,
classrooms in support of distance learning through computer and they must—in some way—help solve those problems.” Visit
telecommunications. Schmalleger’s Amazon author page at: http://amazon.com/
author/frankschmalleger. Follow his tweets @schmalleger.

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