SET B U S N

RAJARAJESWARI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Kumbalgodu, Bangalore-74
DEPARTMENT OF MASTER OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
IA-III Scheme & Solution

Subject: Database Management System Date: 14.10.2024

Subject Code:22MCA21 Time: 9.00AM to 10.30 AM
Semester: 2 Max. Marks: 50

Q. No QUESTIONS MARKS COs BT

1 a) Define transactions and system concepts related to transaction processing. 10 CO3 L3

Transactions

A transaction is a sequence of operations (such as reading, writing, updating, or

deleting data) that are treated as a single, indivisible unit of work. The
transaction is either fully completed (committed) or completely undone (rolled
back) in case of failure. Transactions ensure the consistency and integrity of the
database.

The key properties of a transaction are summarized by the ACID properties:

1. Atomicity:
o A transaction is treated as an indivisible unit. Either all its
operations are performed, or none are.
o If a transaction fails at any point, the system must ensure that all
changes made up to that point are undone (rolled back).
2. Consistency:
o A transaction should transition the database from one consistent
state to another. If the database was in a valid state before the
transaction, it should still be in a valid state after the transaction.
3. Isolation:
o Transactions should not interfere with each other. The
intermediate states of a transaction should not be visible to other
transactions until it is completed.
o This ensures that concurrent transactions produce the same result
as if they were executed serially.
4. Durability:
o Once a transaction is committed, its changes must be permanent,
even in the case of system failures like crashes.

System Concepts Related to Transaction Processing

1. Concurrency Control:
o Concurrency control mechanisms manage the simultaneous
execution of transactions to prevent conflicts. The goal is to
maintain isolation and ensure correctness when transactions are
executed concurrently.
o Common techniques include locking (e.g., read/write locks),
 timestamp ordering, and optimistic concurrency control.
2. Locking:
o Locking is a method used to control access to data by multiple
transactions to ensure isolation.
o Types of locks:
 Shared lock (S-lock): Allows multiple transactions to
read the data but prevents them from modifying it.
 Exclusive lock (X-lock): Ensures that no other transaction
can read or modify the data until the lock is released.
o Two-phase locking (2PL): A common locking protocol ensuring
serializability. It has two phases:
 Growing phase: The transaction acquires all the locks it
needs but cannot release any.
 Shrinking phase: The transaction releases locks but
cannot acquire new ones.
3. Deadlock:
o A deadlock occurs when two or more transactions are waiting for
each other to release locks, creating a cycle of dependencies that
prevents any of them from proceeding.
o Deadlock detection and deadlock prevention strategies are
employed to handle this.
4. Serializability:
o Serializability ensures that the result of executing multiple
transactions concurrently is equivalent to some serial execution of
the transactions (i.e., one after the other).
o This is the gold standard for correctness in transaction
processing.
5. Commit and Rollback:
o Commit: When a transaction is successfully completed, its
changes are made permanent (i.e., committed to the database).
o Rollback: If an error occurs or the transaction cannot be
completed, all changes made by the transaction are undone,
restoring the database to its previous state.
6. Log-based Recovery:
o A transaction log (or journal) records all the changes made
during transactions. This log can be used to recover the database
in case of a crash.
o Undo logging and redo logging are common techniques to either
reverse incomplete transactions or redo committed ones that had
not yet been written to disk.
7. Checkpointing:
o A checkpoint is a mechanism that saves the current state of the
database and transaction log at specific points. In case of a system
failure, the database can be recovered more efficiently from the
most recent checkpoint instead of replaying the entire log.
8. Transaction Isolation Levels:
o Isolation levels control the degree of visibility that one
transaction has into the operations of other transactions.
o Common isolation levels (defined by SQL standards) are:
 Read Uncommitted: Transactions can see uncommitted
changes from other transactions, which may lead to dirty
reads.
 Read Committed: A transaction can only read committed
 data, avoiding dirty reads, but non-repeatable reads and
phantom reads may occur.
 Repeatable Read: A transaction can repeatedly read the
same data without it changing, preventing non-repeatable
reads, though phantom reads can still occur.
 Serializable: The highest level, ensuring full isolation,
where transactions appear to execute serially.
9. Optimistic vs. Pessimistic Concurrency Control:
o Optimistic: Assumes that conflicts between transactions are rare
and allows transactions to execute without locking data, checking
for conflicts only at the end.
o Pessimistic: Assumes that conflicts are likely and locks data at
the beginning of a transaction to prevent issues.
10. Database Recovery Techniques:
o Immediate Update: Changes are written to the database as soon
as they are made.
o Deferred Update: Changes are not applied to the database until
the transaction commits. This simplifies recovery because
uncommitted transactions do not affect the database.

OR
b) What are the desirable properties of transactions? Discuss each property in 10 CO3 L3
detail.

The desirable properties of transactions are encapsulated by the ACID

properties. Each of these properties ensures that database transactions are
processed reliably, even in the face of system crashes, hardware failures, or
concurrent transactions. Let’s discuss each of these properties in detail:

1. Atomicity

Atomicity refers to the "all-or-nothing" nature of a transaction. This means that a

transaction must be treated as a single, indivisible unit of work. Either all
operations within the transaction are completed successfully, or none of them are
applied to the database.

Detailed Breakdown:

 All-or-Nothing Execution: If a transaction involves multiple operations

(e.g., debiting one account and crediting another), atomicity ensures that
either all operations are completed, or none are. For example, if the
system crashes after debiting an account but before crediting another,
atomicity will ensure that the debit is undone.
 Rollback on Failure: If an error occurs during a transaction, all the
changes made up to that point must be rolled back (undone), returning
the database to its previous state. This prevents partial updates that could
leave the database in an inconsistent state.
 Transaction Log: To support atomicity, many systems use logs or
journals that record each operation so that, in the event of a failure, the
system can either roll back or complete any incomplete transactions.

2. Consistency
Consistency ensures that a transaction transforms the database from one valid
state to another valid state, preserving the integrity of the database. If the
database was consistent before the transaction started, it must remain consistent
after the transaction is completed.

Detailed Breakdown:

 Integrity Constraints: These are rules enforced on the data (e.g., foreign
key constraints, data types, uniqueness). Consistency ensures that these
constraints are not violated during or after the execution of a transaction.
For example, transferring money from one account to another should not
create or lose money, meaning the total balance in the system should
remain constant.
 Business Rules: Besides system-enforced integrity constraints, business
rules like limits on certain types of transactions or values are also
maintained under the consistency property.
 Before and After States: A transaction starts with a consistent state, and
after it finishes, the database should still be in a consistent state. The
DBMS and transaction management system are responsible for
maintaining this integrity.

3. Isolation

Isolation ensures that transactions are executed in isolation from each other,
meaning that the intermediate states of a transaction are not visible to other
transactions until the transaction is complete. Even when multiple transactions
run concurrently, the results should be as if the transactions were executed
serially (one after the other).

Detailed Breakdown:

 Concurrency: In a multi-user environment, multiple transactions may

execute simultaneously, potentially accessing the same data. Isolation
prevents transactions from seeing uncommitted changes made by other
transactions. This ensures that concurrent transactions don’t interfere
with each other in a way that would cause inconsistent or incorrect
results.
 Isolation Levels: Different levels of isolation provide trade-offs between
strictness and performance:
o Read Uncommitted: A transaction can see uncommitted changes
made by others. This can lead to dirty reads, where a transaction
reads data that may later be rolled back.
o Read Committed: A transaction can only read data that has been
committed by other transactions, avoiding dirty reads but
allowing non-repeatable reads.
o Repeatable Read: Once data is read by a transaction, it can be
read again without change, preventing non-repeatable reads, but
not phantom reads (new records inserted by other transactions).
o Serializable: The strictest level, ensuring full isolation where
transactions appear to have been executed serially, providing
complete protection against all isolation issues like dirty reads,
non-repeatable reads, and phantom reads.
  Locking Mechanisms: To enforce isolation, databases use locking
mechanisms (e.g., shared and exclusive locks) or optimistic concurrency
control mechanisms, which prevent conflicting operations on the same
data by different transactions.

4. Durability

Durability guarantees that once a transaction has been committed, its effects are
permanently recorded in the database, even in the event of a system failure (e.g.,
a crash or power loss). Once a transaction is completed, its changes must not be
lost.

Detailed Breakdown:

 Permanent Storage: Once a transaction is committed, all changes are

saved to stable storage (e.g., disk) and remain there even if the system
crashes immediately afterward.
 Transaction Log: To ensure durability, most systems maintain a
transaction log (or write-ahead log) that records all changes made during
a transaction. If a crash occurs, the system can recover by reading the log
and applying or redoing the committed transactions.
 Crash Recovery: During recovery, the system can use the transaction
log to ensure that any transactions that were committed before the failure
are properly reflected in the database, and any uncommitted transactions
are rolled back.
 Stable Storage: This refers to non-volatile memory (e.g., hard drives,
SSDs) where changes are persisted after a commit operation. Even if
volatile memory (like RAM) is lost during a crash, the database system
can use the persisted data from stable storage to recover.

Summary of ACID Properties:

Property Description Purpose
Ensures all operations within a transaction are Guarantees that incomplete
Atomicity
completed or none are. transactions are rolled back.
Ensures the database transitions from one Preserves database integrity by
Consistency
valid state to another valid state. enforcing rules and constraints.
Ensures transactions execute independently Prevents transactions from affecting
Isolation
without interference. each other mid-execution.
Ensures committed transactions are Safeguards data by ensuring it’s not
Durability
permanently stored, even after system failure. lost after a commit.

Real-World Example of ACID Properties:

Imagine an online banking system where a user transfers money from one
account to another.

 Atomicity: The transfer either completes fully (both debit and credit are
done) or doesn’t happen at all (if any error occurs, no change is made).
 Consistency: After the transaction, the total amount of money in both
accounts remains the same as it was before the transaction, maintaining
the consistency of account balances.
 Isolation: If another user is checking their balance during the transfer,
 they will not see an intermediate state where the money has been
deducted from one account but not yet added to the other.
 Durability: Once the transfer is confirmed, even if there’s a system crash
immediately after, the transaction will not be lost, and the changes will
be reflected when the system comes back online.

The ACID properties are fundamental in ensuring the correctness, reliability,

and robustness of transactions in databases. They provide a solid foundation for
handling critical data in applications such as financial systems, e-commerce
platforms, and enterprise databases.

2. a) How schedules are characterized based on recoverability? Explain the concept. 10 CO3 L3

Schedules and Recoverability

In transaction processing, a schedule refers to the order in which operations

(such as read and write) from multiple transactions are executed. Since multiple
transactions may run concurrently, their operations can interleave in different
ways, creating various schedules.

A recoverable schedule is one where the system can recover to a consistent

state after a transaction failure. Recoverability becomes important in multi-
transaction environments to ensure that if a failure occurs, the database can be
rolled back to a valid state, preventing the effects of aborted or faulty
transactions from affecting other transactions.

Characterization of Schedules Based on Recoverability

Schedules can be categorized into different types based on whether they are
recoverable or not. These types are:

1. Recoverable Schedule
2. Cascadeless Schedule
3. Strict Schedule

Each type has different levels of recoverability, ensuring that transactions can be
correctly undone or committed based on the system's needs. Let’s explain each
in detail.

1. Recoverable Schedule

A recoverable schedule is one in which a transaction commits only after all

transactions from which it has read have also committed. This ensures that if
a transaction depends on the results of another transaction, it waits for the other
transaction to fully commit before committing itself. If a transaction needs to be
rolled back, the effects of the other transactions are also correctly rolled back to
maintain consistency.

Example:
Consider two transactions, T1 and T2:

 T1 writes to a data item (let’s call it X).

 T2 reads the value of X written by T1.

In a recoverable schedule, if T2 reads the value of X written by T1, then T2

should not commit until T1 has committed. This is because T2 depends on T1's
value of X. If T1 aborts, the value of X is invalid, and hence T2 should also abort
to maintain consistency.

Why is this important?

If a schedule is not recoverable, it can lead to situations where a transaction

commits based on data that was later rolled back by another transaction, leading
to data inconsistency.

Recoverable Schedules: Conditions

 Commit Dependency: If T2 reads a value written by T1, then T2 can

only commit after T1 commits.
 If T1 aborts after T2 reads its data, T2 must also abort.

Example of a Recoverable Schedule:

makefile
Copy code
T1: write(X)
T2: read(X)
T1: commit
T2: commit

This schedule is recoverable because T2 commits only after T1 commits.

2. Cascadeless Schedule

A cascadeless schedule is a stronger form of recoverable schedule where a

transaction is allowed to read a data item only if the transaction that last
wrote to that data item has already committed. This eliminates the need for
cascading rollbacks.

Cascading Rollback:

In a regular recoverable schedule, when a transaction aborts, other transactions

that have read its uncommitted data must also abort. This process is called a
cascading rollback. Cascading rollbacks can be complex and inefficient.

A cascadeless schedule prevents cascading rollbacks by ensuring that a

transaction can only read committed data, meaning that transactions are isolated
from the effects of other uncommitted transactions.

Example of a Cascadeless Schedule:

Consider two transactions, T1 and T2:

 T1 writes to a data item X.

 T2 wants to read the value of X.

In a cascadeless schedule:

 T2 is not allowed to read X until T1 commits.

 This ensures that T2 will not be affected by a possible rollback of T1.

Why is this important?

This eliminates the risk of cascading aborts, which happen when multiple
transactions need to be aborted because they have read data from a transaction
that has been rolled back. Cascadeless schedules improve system efficiency by
preventing chain reactions of rollbacks.

Example of a Cascadeless Schedule:

makefile
Copy code
T1: write(X)
T1: commit
T2: read(X)
T2: commit

This schedule is cascadeless because T2 reads X only after T1 has committed,

preventing any cascading rollback if T1 were to abort.

3. Strict Schedule

A strict schedule is an even stronger condition than cascadeless schedules. In a

strict schedule, a transaction is allowed to read or write a data item only if
the transaction that last wrote to that data item has already committed or
aborted. This applies to both read and write operations, not just reads.

In a strict schedule:

 A transaction can neither read nor overwrite a data item until the last
transaction that updated that item has committed or aborted.
 This prevents both cascading rollbacks and dirty writes (writing based
on uncommitted data).

Example of a Strict Schedule:

Consider two transactions, T1 and T2:

 T1 writes to a data item X.

 T2 wants to read or write to X.

In a strict schedule:
  T2 is not allowed to read or write X until T1 either commits or aborts.
 This guarantees that T2 will never work with uncommitted data, and no
cascading rollbacks can occur.

Why is this important?

Strict schedules provide the highest level of safety by preventing both cascading
rollbacks and dirty writes, ensuring that transactions work only with committed
data. It simplifies recovery because once a transaction is committed, its changes
are guaranteed to be permanent.

Example of a Strict Schedule:

makefile
Copy code
T1: write(X)
T1: commit
T2: write(X)
T2: commit
OR
b) Explain transaction support in SQL. What features does SQL provide to manage 10 CO3 L3
transactions effectively?

In SQL, transaction support refers to the ability of a database management

system (DBMS) to group a series of operations (such as SQL queries) into a
single, atomic unit of work called a transaction. This ensures that the operations
either all succeed or none succeed, which is crucial for maintaining data
integrity and consistency, especially in multi-user or distributed environments.

A transaction in SQL follows the ACID properties to manage data

consistency. Here's a breakdown of how SQL supports transactions and the key
features it provides:

1. ACID Properties

SQL transactions follow the ACID properties to ensure reliability:

 Atomicity: A transaction is treated as a single, indivisible unit of work.

If any part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction is rolled back,
and the database returns to its previous state. In SQL, this is supported by
the BEGIN, COMMIT, and ROLLBACK commands.
 Consistency: A transaction must leave the database in a consistent state.
This means that after a transaction completes, all rules (like constraints,
triggers, and referential integrity) must be satisfied. SQL automatically
checks for these rules and ensures data validity.
 Isolation: SQL ensures that transactions are isolated from each other.
Intermediate states of a transaction are not visible to other transactions
until it is committed. SQL supports different isolation levels to control
the visibility of data between concurrent transactions (see more on this
below).
 Durability: Once a transaction is successfully committed, its effects are
permanent and must persist, even in the event of a system crash. SQL
databases use mechanisms like write-ahead logging to ensure that
 committed transactions survive power outages or crashes.

2. SQL Transaction Control Commands

To manage transactions effectively, SQL provides the following commands:

 BEGIN TRANSACTION or START TRANSACTION: Starts a new transaction.

All subsequent SQL commands are part of this transaction until it is
committed or rolled back.
 COMMIT: Ends the current transaction and makes all changes permanent.
 ROLLBACK: Undoes all changes made in the current transaction, returning
the database to its state before the transaction began.
 SAVEPOINT: Allows the creation of intermediate points within a
transaction. You can roll back to a specific savepoint without affecting
the entire transaction, allowing partial undo of operations.
 RELEASE SAVEPOINT: Deletes a previously defined savepoint.

3. Isolation Levels

SQL provides isolation levels to define how and when the changes made by one
transaction become visible to other transactions. This helps control concurrency
issues like dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom reads. The SQL
standard defines four isolation levels:

 Read Uncommitted: Lowest isolation level. Transactions can read

uncommitted changes made by other transactions (dirty reads). This level
allows the highest concurrency but with the least data integrity.
 Read Committed: A transaction can only read data that has been
committed by other transactions. This prevents dirty reads but does not
protect against non-repeatable reads or phantom reads.
 Repeatable Read: Ensures that if a transaction reads a record, it will see
the same value if it reads it again, even if other transactions are making
changes. However, phantom reads (new rows being added by other
transactions) can still occur.
 Serializable: Highest isolation level. Transactions are completely
isolated from each other, ensuring that they behave as if they were
executed serially, one after another. This prevents dirty reads, non-
repeatable reads, and phantom reads, but can reduce concurrency.

SQL databases allow you to set the isolation level for a transaction explicitly
using commands like SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL.

4. Concurrency Control

SQL databases use locking mechanisms (pessimistic concurrency control) or

optimistic concurrency control to handle multiple transactions concurrently:

 Locking: Databases can place locks on data (such as rows or tables) to

prevent other transactions from modifying the same data at the same
time. Locks can be shared (multiple transactions can read the data but not
modify it) or exclusive (only one transaction can modify the data).
 Optimistic Concurrency Control: Instead of locking, some databases
use versioning, allowing multiple transactions to work on the same data
 without locking it. Conflicts are detected only when changes are
committed.

5. Error Handling in Transactions

SQL provides error-handling mechanisms within transactions:

 Try-Catch Blocks (in some databases like SQL Server): You can handle
errors inside transactions using BEGIN TRY and BEGIN CATCH blocks,
rolling back the transaction if an error occurs.
 Transaction Timeouts: Some databases allow you to specify a
maximum time for a transaction to complete, after which the transaction
is automatically rolled back.

6. Implicit and Explicit Transactions

 Implicit Transactions: Some databases like MySQL operate in

autocommit mode by default, meaning every SQL statement is treated
as a single transaction and automatically committed unless a transaction
block is explicitly started.
 Explicit Transactions: In this mode, the user explicitly starts and ends
transactions using BEGIN TRANSACTION and COMMIT or ROLLBACK.

7. Batching and Bulk Operations

SQL also supports batch processing where multiple SQL statements are
executed in a batch within a transaction. This is useful for bulk operations such
as inserting or updating large datasets efficiently and ensuring that the operation
is atomic.
3. a) Discuss two-phase locking techniques for concurrency control. How does it 10 CO3 L3
ensure data consistency?

Two-Phase Locking (2PL) is a concurrency control protocol used in databases

to ensure serializability, which is the highest level of isolation in transactions. It
achieves this by managing how transactions acquire and release locks on data
items. The key idea behind 2PL is that a transaction must acquire all the locks it
needs before releasing any locks.

Two Phases of 2PL:

1. Growing Phase:
o The transaction can acquire locks (shared or exclusive) as
needed, but it cannot release any locks.
o This phase continues as long as the transaction is requesting
locks.
2. Shrinking Phase:
o Once the transaction releases its first lock, it enters the shrinking
phase.
o In this phase, the transaction can only release locks and cannot
acquire any new locks.

This process ensures that no transaction can change its lock set once it starts
 releasing locks, preventing inconsistent states.

Lock Types:

 Shared Lock (S): Allows multiple transactions to read a data item

simultaneously, but no transaction can modify it while others hold the
shared lock.
 Exclusive Lock (X): Only one transaction can modify a data item, and
no other transaction can either read or write it until the exclusive lock is
released.

How 2PL Ensures Consistency:

 Preventing Dirty Reads: Exclusive locks ensure that no other

transaction can read uncommitted changes.
 Preventing Non-Repeatable Reads: Once a transaction acquires a
shared lock on a data item, no other transaction can modify it until the
lock is released.
 Preventing Phantom Reads: With appropriate range locks, 2PL ensures
that transactions do not see changes in the dataset's structure during
execution.

However, 2PL can lead to deadlocks, where two or more transactions are stuck
waiting for each other’s locks to be released. Deadlock detection or prevention
strategies (like timeout or ordering locks) are used to mitigate this.

In summary, 2PL ensures data consistency by enforcing strict rules about when
locks can be acquired or released, which guarantees that transactions are
serializable and, thus, ensures the database's correctness even in the presence of
concurrent transactions.
OR
b) What are multisession concurrency control techniques? How do they handle read 10 CO3 L3
and write conflicts?

Multisession concurrency control techniques manage how multiple database

sessions (transactions) access shared data concurrently, ensuring data
consistency and integrity. These techniques aim to prevent read and write
conflicts while maintaining performance. Key concurrency control techniques
include:

1. Locking Protocols

 Pessimistic Locking: Transactions acquire locks (shared for reads,

exclusive for writes) on data before accessing it. This prevents conflicts
by blocking other transactions from accessing locked data.
o Read-Write Conflicts: A transaction holding a shared lock can
read data, but others must wait for an exclusive lock to modify
the data.
o Write-Write Conflicts: Exclusive locks prevent two transactions
from modifying the same data simultaneously.

2. Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC)

  Transactions execute without acquiring locks, assuming conflicts are
rare. At commit time, they check for conflicts by comparing the data read
and modified with the current database state.
o Read-Write Conflicts: Detected during validation. If another
transaction has modified the data, the transaction is aborted and
retried.
o Write-Write Conflicts: OCC prevents transactions from
committing if they modify the same data simultaneously,
ensuring consistency.

3. Timestamp-Based Protocols

 Each transaction is assigned a unique timestamp. Operations are ordered

based on these timestamps to avoid conflicts.
o Read-Write Conflicts: A transaction trying to read outdated data
(modified by a newer transaction) is rolled back or delayed.
o Write-Write Conflicts: A later transaction is aborted if it tries to
overwrite data modified by an earlier one.

These techniques handle conflicts differently, with locking preventing conflicts

upfront, OCC resolving them at commit, and timestamps ensuring order to
avoid conflicts.
4. a) Explain the concept of granularity of data items and multiple granularity 10 CO3 L3
locking. How does it affect concurrency control?

Granularity of data items refers to the size or level of data being locked in a
database during transactions. Granularity can vary from fine-grained (smaller
units like individual rows or fields) to coarse-grained (larger units like tables or
the entire database). The granularity chosen impacts the balance between
concurrency and overhead in a system:

 Fine-grained locks (e.g., row-level): Allow high concurrency since

different transactions can lock and work on different rows or fields
independently, but managing many locks increases system overhead.
 Coarse-grained locks (e.g., table-level): Reduce overhead since fewer
locks are needed, but limit concurrency as entire tables or large data units
are locked, preventing other transactions from accessing them.

Multiple Granularity Locking (MGL)

Multiple Granularity Locking (MGL) is a locking protocol that allows

transactions to lock data items at different levels of granularity (e.g., row, page,
table) using a hierarchical structure. This enables better control over concurrent
access while minimizing lock overhead. MGL uses a lock hierarchy, where a
transaction locks higher-level data (e.g., a table) and can drill down to lock finer-
grained data (e.g., rows) within that structure.

Key aspects of MGL:

 Intent Locks: Intent locks signal the intention to acquire finer-grained

locks below the current level. For example, an Intent Exclusive Lock
 (IX) on a table indicates a transaction intends to lock rows within the
table exclusively.
o Intent Shared Lock (IS): A signal that a shared lock on finer-
grained items (like rows) will be acquired.
o Intent Exclusive Lock (IX): Indicates exclusive locks will be
acquired on finer-grained items.
 Shared and Exclusive Locks: These operate at various levels. For
example, a shared lock at the table level allows reading the table but
prevents any transaction from acquiring an exclusive lock on any part of
it.

Effect on Concurrency Control

 Improves Concurrency: By allowing different transactions to lock data

at the most appropriate granularity, MGL maximizes concurrency. For
instance, a transaction might lock an entire table for writing, while
another locks a row within the same table for reading.
 Reduces Locking Overhead: Transactions can lock at higher levels
when necessary (reducing the number of individual locks) while still
supporting fine-grained access for high concurrency when needed.

In summary, MGL balances concurrency and locking overhead by adapting

the granularity of locks, thus improving transaction throughput in a multi-user
environment.
OR
b) Explain concurrency control based on timestamp ordering. How transactions are 10 CO3 L3
ordered using timestamps?

Concurrency control based on timestamp ordering is a technique where each

transaction is assigned a unique timestamp at its start, and operations are
ordered according to these timestamps to ensure serializability, which guarantees
the correct execution of concurrent transactions. The main goal is to prevent
conflicts between transactions based on the order of their timestamps, rather than
using locks.

Key Concepts:

1. Timestamps: Each transaction is given a start timestamp (TS) when it

begins. This timestamp defines the transaction's position relative to other
transactions.
o Older transactions (with smaller timestamps) must be executed
before newer ones (with larger timestamps).
2. Read and Write Timestamps: Each data item is associated with two
timestamps:
o Read Timestamp (RTS): The timestamp of the most recent
transaction that successfully read the item.
o Write Timestamp (WTS): The timestamp of the most recent
transaction that successfully wrote to the item.

How Timestamp Ordering Works:

 Read Operation: A transaction T1 can read a data item D if no newer

 transaction has written to it. Specifically:
o If WTS(D) (write timestamp of D) is greater than TS(T1)
(timestamp of T1), it means a newer transaction has already
modified the item, so T1 is aborted.
o Otherwise, T1 proceeds with the read, and RTS(D) is updated to
the maximum of RTS(D) and TS(T1).
 Write Operation: A transaction T1 can write to a data item D if no other
transaction has read or written a newer version of the item:
o If RTS(D) > TS(T1), meaning a newer transaction has read the
item, T1 is aborted to prevent overwriting data already read by a
newer transaction.
o If WTS(D) > TS(T1), meaning a newer transaction has already
written to the item, T1 is aborted.
o If neither condition is violated, T1 writes the data and updates
WTS(D) to TS(T1).

Handling Conflicts:

 Transaction Aborts: When conflicts occur (i.e., a transaction tries to

read or write data in a way that violates the timestamp ordering), the
conflicting transaction is aborted and typically restarted with a new
timestamp.

Advantages:

 No Locks: Since timestamp ordering does not rely on locks, it avoids

issues like deadlocks.
 Serializability: Transactions are serialized based on their timestamps,
ensuring consistency.

Disadvantages:

 Frequent Aborts: In high-concurrency scenarios, frequent transaction

aborts can occur if older transactions conflict with newer ones, reducing
performance.

In conclusion, timestamp ordering ensures that transactions execute in a

serializable manner by assigning timestamps and enforcing a strict order for
reads and writes based on those timestamps
5. a) Discuss validation concurrency control techniques. How does validation ensure 10 CO3 L3
transaction serializability?

Validation concurrency control is a technique that ensures transactions are

executed in a manner that maintains consistency and serializability without using
locks. It operates on the premise that transactions can execute optimistically
without immediate locking and only validate their actions at the commit time.

Key Phases of Validation Concurrency Control:

1. Read Phase:
o During this phase, transactions can read data freely and make
local changes without acquiring locks. They operate under the
 assumption that conflicts are rare.
oEach transaction keeps track of the data it reads and writes, along
with their respective timestamps.
2. Validation Phase:
o Once a transaction completes its read operations and is ready to
commit, it enters the validation phase.
o The validation process checks whether the transaction can be
committed based on the following rules:
 Read-Only Transactions: These can always be validated
successfully since they don’t modify data.
 Read-Write Transactions: For a transaction to be valid,
it must ensure that no other transaction has modified the
data items it read since its start timestamp.
 Conflicts are checked against the write timestamps of the
data items to ensure no other transaction has modified any
of the items that the current transaction has read or
written.
3. Write Phase:
o If a transaction passes validation, it proceeds to the write phase,
where its changes are committed to the database.
o If it fails validation, it is aborted, and all its changes are
discarded.

Ensuring Transaction Serializability:

 Conflict Resolution: By validating transactions against each other based

on their read and write operations, the system ensures that only those
transactions that can safely be committed without violating consistency
are allowed to do so.
 Optimistic Execution: This technique leverages the optimistic nature of
transactions, allowing many transactions to proceed without immediate
restrictions. As long as they validate correctly, the final state is
serializable, resembling some serial order of the transactions.

Advantages:

 Reduced Locking Overhead: Since transactions can execute without

locking data, the system experiences higher concurrency and improved
throughput.
 Avoiding Deadlocks: Because there are no locks to contend for, the
issues related to deadlocks are eliminated.

Disadvantages:

 Validation Failures: In high-contention environments, many

transactions may fail validation, leading to frequent aborts and restarts,
which can decrease overall performance.

In summary, validation concurrency control techniques ensure transaction

serializability by allowing transactions to execute optimistically and validating
their interactions with one another at commit time, thus maintaining consistency
and integrity in the database.
OR
b) What is transaction processing, and why is it important in database systems? 10 CO3 L3

Transaction processing refers to the management of a sequence of operations

performed on a database that must be completed as a single unit of work. A
transaction typically includes operations like reading, writing, updating, or
deleting data.

Importance of Transaction Processing in Database Systems:

1. Atomicity: Ensures that all operations within a transaction are completed

successfully or none at all, preserving the integrity of the database.
2. Consistency: Transactions must take the database from one valid state to
another, ensuring that all integrity constraints are satisfied before and
after execution.
3. Isolation: Allows multiple transactions to occur concurrently without
interfering with each other, maintaining correct data states despite
overlapping operations.
4. Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its effects are permanent,
even in the event of a system failure. This is typically achieved through
mechanisms like logging.
5. Data Integrity: Transaction processing helps maintain data integrity by
ensuring that incomplete or erroneous operations do not corrupt the
database.
6. Error Recovery: In case of failures, transaction processing systems can
recover to a consistent state using mechanisms like rollback or log files.

Overall, effective transaction processing is crucial for ensuring reliable,

consistent, and efficient operations in database systems, supporting applications
across various domains, from banking to e-commerce.