Form 4 General Notes ENG 2024-2025

Geography Department
St. Theresa College

Secondary School
GEOGRAPHY
General (Year 10)
Name:………………………………
Surname:……………………………
Class:..………………………............
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© Mr. P. Bonnici & Ms. D. Abdilla Geography Department
Rocks (the formation of rocks)
The world
• Our world is made up of four different layers.
• On top we find the solid crust, made
of rocks and minerals that together
form the continents and the bottoms
of the oceans. The earth's crust is the
thinnest layer, with a thickness ranging
from 5 km under the oceans to 70 km
under the continents.
• Just below the crust we find the
mantle of the earth, about 2,900 km
thick. The temperature here reaches
1,600 ° C. Large amounts of
magnesium and silicon are found in
this layer. Although parts of the mantle
are hard and solid, most of it is slightly
melted.
• Deeper inside the earth (the core) is divided into two (the outer core and the inner core)
and which are most likely made of nickel and iron. The outer core, about 2,200 km thick and
molten, while the inner core is hard, with a temperature of up to 6,000 ° C. This means that
the further you enter and approach the heart of the earth, the more the temperature rises.
The illustration is showing how our world is divided from within.
1. The Crust
2. The Mantel
3. The Outer Core
4. The Inner Core
The Rocks: Raw Materials

• Rocks are used as a raw material in almost every country in the world.
• Quarries are mined for construction, gravel, and sand.
• Rocks crumble naturally and become sand after thousands of years. On this sand, or
rather soil, the farmer grows the crops. Rocks are also needed for water storage (perched and
mean sea level aquifers).
The main Rocks that exist in the world

Not all rocks form the same way. There are three main processes that form rocks.
• The igneous rock
• Sedimentary rocks
• The metamorphic rock
Like water, rock has its cycle. Over time, the Rocks are eaten away, crushed, and decayed,
with the direct effect of rain, wind, sea, weather and other elements.
2
Igneous Rocks
This type of rock forms by volcanic activity. This is a rock made of molten material, or magma,
found in the mantle beneath the earth's crust. When this new material erupts on the surface,
it cools rapidly and forms rocks such as basalt, lava, and obsidian. On the other hand, when
magma fails to reach the surface, it cools slowly and forms different rocks such as granite.
Granite is highly sought after because it is a hard rock with many beautiful colors. Abroad it
is used to produce gravel and pavement cords. In Malta this rock is also used in stairwells, and
as a surface for a kitchen counter.
Sedimentary rocks
This type of rock is made up of other pre-existing rock fragments. It is eroded and spoiled by
the elements until it is finally carried into the sea by wind, rain, or rivers. To this rock particles
are added the remains of many other creatures that live in the sea. These particles begin to
accumulate layer upon layer on the seabed. With its own pressure this sediment is squeezed
and forms new rocks.
3
Metamorphic rocks
When igneous and sedimentary rocks are
exposed to strong heat and pressure, the
change shape and structure, becoming
metamorphic rocks. This is mostly due to earth
movements or nearby volcanic activity. Often
during this process, the metamorphic rock
becomes more resilient and stronger. Thus,
this rock once was another rock and changed.
In fact, the word metamorphosis means
change.
Rocks
Examples of igneous rocks Examples of sedimentary Examples of metamorphic
rocks rocks
Basalt: Used for building Globigerina Limestone: Marble: For sculpture and
houses abroad. Building of houses) other decoration.
Granite: It is used for the Clay: (Clay ornament) and Slate: Widely used in the
production of gravel for use it for pottery. roofs of foreign houses.
roads and stairs, in homes it
is used for some kitchen
counter.
Ex. 1. There are hundreds of different types of rocks in the world, but they can easily be
grouped into three main categories: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
a. Fill in the table below with the name of the rock category.
(Igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary rocks)
1 Rocks made of magma that came out of the earth. igni
2 Rocks that have changed due to pressure or heat.
3 Rocks made of layers, one on top of each other.
4 Rocks made of magma that cooled slowly underground.
5 Rocks containing many shells and remnants of sea creatures.
4
Mediterranean Events
The Rocks of the Maltese Islands are entirely sedimentary and formed at the bottom of the
Tethys Sea. Today's the Mediterranean Sea is the remnant of the Tethys Sea that existed
between 300 and 65 million years ago. The Tethys Sea extended from where the
Mediterranean begins today in the West and stretches to the East and joins the Indian and
Pacific Oceans. It was a massive ocean surrounded by land. About 55 million years ago a major
plate movement began to erode the shores of the Tethys Sea. The plate movement closed
the Tethys Sea from the east side and at the same time opened a mouth on the west side. At
the same time and for the same reasons, a mountain range formed along the entire
Mediterranean basin, including the Alps in Europe and the Atlas in North Africa, among
others.
Malta
About 7 million years ago a strong tectonic movement reshaped the seabed and Malta
emerged from the depth of the seas. Shortly afterwards, the water of the Mediterranean
began to evaporate at a rapid rate, so much so that the water level dropped and parts of it
were completely uncovered while others formed shallow ponds. Some scholars argue that
the Mediterranean Sea has completely dried up. All this has happened because of the closure
of the Gibraltar Channel (Spain and Morocco), through which a stream of cold water from the
Atlantic flowed. Suddenly, 5 million years ago, the block between Spain and Morocco
reopened and large amounts of water began to flow with great force from the Atlantic. The
Mediterranean took more than a century to return to its former level. The Mediterranean
was once again filled with fish and other sea creatures, while Malta was cut off again from
Sicily.
A clear proof that Malta was formed under the sea is the large number of fossils of sea
creatures that we find in the Maltese rocks. Thanks to these fossils we have a clear picture of
what life was like in the Mediterranean Sea between 30 and 6 million years ago, the period in
which the Maltese islands formed. Fossils are the remains of creatures that lived millions of
years ago, which have been preserved when buried by gravel, sludge, and other debris. The
shape or hard part of these non-perishable creatures, such as teeth, shells, bones, and thorns,
remains in the rock. On the other hand, the soft part of their body decays and dies once they
die.
Buried in our sedimentary rocks we find fossils of creatures very similar to those to be found
today in the Mediterranean Sea. Such fossils give us an idea of how these creatures evolved
during all this time. We also find fossils of creatures that no longer live in the Mediterranean
Sea. Similar species of these creatures are found in other waters, in warmer waters, such as
the Red Sea. The most common fossils we find in our rocks are those of molluscs, such as
scallops, snails, oysters, masks and sea dates. We often find only the shape of these creatures,
but it is not uncommon to find the whole shell usually made up of two parts.
Properly preserved in our rocks, we have found forms of whole fish and fins and remnants of
cartilaginous fish, such as sawfish, rays, and sea pigeons. In the different layers of our rocks,
we found fossils of different species of sharks, such as the plaice, the armour, the
woodpecker, and the white shark.
The bottom of the Tethys Sea was home to a large number of prickly skins and starfish, as
well as other creatures such as corals and sponges. In our rocks we find many fossils of these
creatures that covered the sediment and bottom of the Tethys Sea of the past.
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Malta during the ice
• About 2 million years ago, the sea level dropped again and for the second time Malta
re-joined Sicily. Thus, some animals of northern Europe have migrated south to escape
the cold climate that was prevailing in northern Europe. They managed to reach Malta
but could not continue their way down to Africa because the sea level did not drop
enough.
• Among these animals we find hippos, dwarf elephant, deer, bears, foxes and wolves.
The bones of these animals were carried by rain/water which was abundant especially
when the ice melted. That is why we found many bones of these animals in
carved/held in stones in certain caves such as Għar Dalam and L-Għar tal-Magħlaq,
and in deep cracks in the rocks.
Ex. 2. State whether this information about the Mediterranean Sea is True or False
True False
1 In the past the Mediterranean Sea was much larger than it is today.
2 The bottom of the Tethys Sea was covered with several layers of sediment.
3 The Tethys Sea was so salty that no creatures lived in it.
4 The Andes Mountains in South America were formed when the sediment at
the bottom of the Tethys Sea crushed.
5 Malta is made up of sediment and creatures that lived in the Tethys Sea.
6 About 7 million years ago the Gibraltar Channel closed and the sea began to
evaporate.
7 The Mediterranean Sea has closed for a thousand years and large parts of it
have dried up.
8 When the Gibraltar Channel reopened, Malta was completely covered by the
sea water that came in from the Atlantic.
7
Ex. 3. These are some fossils we find in our rocks. See if you can recognize them. Choose:
(shell, coral, shark tooth, sea urchin, snail, whale’s backbone)
A D
B E
Ċ F
F
Sedimentary Rocks of the Maltese Islands

Our Rock is made up of horizontal layers, spread out on top of each other resting on each
other. The oldest layer is the one at the bottom (LCL), while the modern is found on top (UCL).
Each layer varies in colour, porosity, hardness and weight. The different characteristics of the
rock have resulted from the changes that the seabed has undergone over the years. The
Maltese Islands are formed by five types or varieties of rocks, which from top to bottom are:
• Upper Coralline Limestone (Il-Qawwi ta’ fuq, UCL)
• Green Sand (Il-Gebla s-safra)
• Blue Clay (It-Tafli)
• Globigerina limestone (Franka)
• Lower Coralline Limestone (Il-Qawwi ta’ Taħt (Żonqor)
The difference in rock composition comes due to the changes that the seabed has undergone
over the years. The Earth's climate changed every time we had periods of heavy rain, when
the amount of sludge, debris, sand and sediment increased, and every time we had dry
periods. This variation in climate has greatly affected the thickness of the layers. There has
also been a great change in the depth and temperature of the sea during all this time, which
has affected all the seagrass, fish, and creatures that lived in the Tethys Sea. It is precisely
because of all these factors that we have mentioned that we have five different types of rock,
each with its own characteristics.
Ex. 4. Malta is made up of five layers of sedimentary rocks all formed at the bottom of the
Tethys Sea.
a. Write the name next to each layer.
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b. Which is the oldest layer of rock found in the Maltese islands? Why do you think so?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 5. In the Maltese Islands we find five main layers of rock as seen in the above diagram.
Next to each description in column A, write the name of the correct rock in column B.
Column A Column B
1 This is the only impermeable rock in the Maltese Islands.
2 This is the oldest rock in the Maltese Islands and is very strong
3 The layer of this rock is thin and crumbles quickly.
4 This is the last rock that formed in Malta.
5 This is a soft rock that is easy cut into building blocks.
Ex. 6. Answer the following. The layers of rock that we find in our country differ from each
other in a number of characteristics. See if you can figure out the type of rock with the help
of the hints given.
Hint Name of rock
1 orange sandstone
2 the oldest layer of rock found in the Maltese islands
3 the last layer of rock that formed at the bottom of the sea
4 porous but impermeable rock (waterproof)
5 forms massive foundations and cliffs by the sea
6 is found on the surface of 70% of the Maltese islands
7 impermeable rock on which water is stored
8 a layer of rock made up of many remnants of coral algae
9 it forms large expanses of land filled with holes and cracks
10 soft rock lying on the blue clay
11 this layer contains three secondary layers
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Geological Map of Malta
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Rock/Blat Features of this stone Use Porous / Amount
Non-Porous
/
Permeable
or Non-
Permeable
Upper The Upper Coralline The main purpose Porous and The Thickness of this
Coralline Limestone is very similar for use is top Permeable. layer is less than 30
Limestone to the Lower Coralline quality gravel. In meters near the cliffs
/Il-Qawwi limestone. The colour of the past the raw and hills. However, a
ta Fuq this rock varies. We find rock was used as a depth of 162 meters
grey and white layers, cord for sidewalk was measured in the
others give in light yellow edges, for stairs borehole excavated
and some layers give in and to build some within the limits of
red. simple memorial. Binġemma.
Green It is made up of dark green In the past these Porous and In many cases it
Sand/Ir- particles of a mineral particles were Permeable. barely reaches a
Rina called gluconate. When collected and used meter in thickness.
this layer is exposed to air, as a towel to dry
it changes color and turns the ink.
yellow and in some cases
orange.
Blue Clay/It- Clay is the only layer of In prehistoric times
The pores The clay layer reaches
Tafli rock we find in our clay was used for
of this a thickness of about
country that prevents ornaments, pottery
stone are 70 meters to the
water from passing water containers,
very small north of Gozo and to
through. Thus the clay statuettes, plates,
to prevent the West of Malta,
form streams of running amphorae, bowls water from Gnejna and Fomm ir-
water that were very and a hundred passing Rih. In some areas the
necessary for life in our other things made
through. clay layer is missing
country (perched aquifer). of Maltese clay.This rock is and in other places it
The color of clay is grey. not is very thin.
permeable.
Globigerina The globigerina layer is Most of the Porous and Varies between 23 u
Limestone/ spread over the surface, in Maltese houses are Permeable. 207 meters.
Franka about 70% of the Maltese built of limestone.
islands, and forms flat This stone can be
land areas. Limestone carved into a
varies depending on sculpture,
where it comes from, for balustrades,
example in Mqabba we columns, braces,
find yellow and clear and a hundred
limestone that does not other things.
decay quickly. In Siġġiewi
we find a pure white stone
sought for the work of
facades.
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Lower The color of this rock Raw and top Porous and There are certain
Corralline varies. We find grey and quality gravel. In Permeable. places such as the
Limestone white layers, others fade the past the raw cliffs of Ta 'Ċenċ and
/Il-Qawwi to light yellow and red. rock was used as a Fomm ir-Rih where
ta’ taħt cord for sidewalk the thickness varies to
(Zonqor) edges, for stairs about 140 meters.
and to build some
simple memorial
The Globigerina Limestone
The Globigerina is divided into three main divisions. These are:
• The Upper
• The middle layer and
• The bottom.
Beneath the first and second layers of globigerina one can find two conglomerates made of
round, oval, dark brown, shiny pebbles. This pebble contains a large amount of calcium
phosphate mixed with the shells of sea creatures.
The Three layers of Globigerina are:

1. The Upper: It is a fireproof rock, and in the
past our ancestors used to surround the old
ovens with a coating of this stone.
2. The Middle: This whitish layer is the softest
layer of globigerina and flakes and is eroded
very quickly.
3. The lower: It is used for building because it
is soft, easy to work and hardens when
exposed to air.
Quarries
In Malta there are two types of quarries, those of Globigerina limestone and those of Lower
/ Upper coralline Limestone. In our country, the Upper/Lower coralline are mainly used for
concrete, while Globigerina limestone is cut into slabs for construction.
In upper/lower coralline limestone quarries, the rocks are broken and demolished. Using the
machinery, it is broken into smaller pieces, thrown into the crusher where it comes out as
gravel or sand. Raw gravel is highly sought after today and is mostly used to produce roofing
and asphalt planks for roads, concrete and bricks. On the other hand, globigerina Limestone
quarries are sought to produce lime.
In the past quarrying in quarries was done with hand tools. Today this work is done using
machinery, thus in a much shorter time and with less suffering. Two main machines are used,
one is called the trench machine, which draws and cuts the stone from above according to
the required size, while the other is called the stone from below and is therefore called the
machine below. During this rock-cutting process, a powder called shingles forms, which
together with cement is used by the builder while laying the stones.
The quarries from which the rocks are cut have a strong visual impact on the Maltese
landscape. They cover an area of 2.3 km² or 0.7% of the total land area of our country. To
these we must add a large number of obsolete quarries that have remained only as deep pits
in the ground. Quarries have their advantages and disadvantages, as explained in the table
below.
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Advantageous Disadvantageous
Large trucks filled with stones and gravel create unnecessary
It is a good resource for pressure on the traffic system, in addition to increasing dust
construction of houses. and noise.
Rock-cutting work generates

employment for many people, Globigerina limestone is cut using large saws that generate a
not only for workers working lot of fine, thin dust that flies over residential areas, the
directly in quarries, but for same happens when cutting hard rock. The explosive used
many others whose to blow up the rocks of upper/lower coralline creates a lot
employment is tied to the of dust in addition to shaking the ground and thus causing
construction industry. damage to private property.
The use of explosives in quarries, especially in lower/upper
coralline can do great damage to the natural storage of
water in the rock (perched and mean sea level aquifer).
Certain quarries leave behind a complete destruction in the
surrounding natural environment. Amounts of sand, peat
and other stones fall into the valleys and are carried away
by rainwater.
Large areas of garrigue (Xaghri) have been destroyed in the
areas of Had-Dingli, Għar Lapsi and Qrendi, as well as in the
hills of Naxxar and Mellieħa.
According to estimates made, if we continue to cut rocks at
today’s rate, we will run out of rock soon. It is said that
there is enough for 300 years of Globigerina limestone, and
roughly just over 100 years of Upper/Lower Coralline
Limestone.
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Globigerina limestone Quarry Upper/Lower Coralline limestone quarry
Sustainability of Maltese stone in the building industry and quarries

It is a must that we reduce waste, by reusing the stone before throwing it away. For example,
the stone of an old demolished house can be used for other purposes, including the
restoration of old buildings, field rubble walls and building foundations.
Methods of how disused quarries can be restored and rehabilitated.

Today, a number of quarries, from which stones are no longer cut, are being used as landfills
for building waste. This is how old quarries can be rehabilitated to cover up the eyesore they
left behind. Construction waste began to be dumped in unused quarries after the Magħtab
and Qortin landfills stopped receiving this type of waste. Until then, Maghtab received more
than one and a half million tons of construction waste a year, or a garbage truck every minute,
or about 500 trucks a day.
It is very important that the waste in the quarries is clean, so as to protect the natural storage
of groundwater. On this layer of one can make a layer of soil so that the land is used for
farming or afforestation projects.
Over the years a number of old and abandoned quarries have been rehabilitated. Some of
them were filled with construction waste and then covered with a layer of soil to be used for
agricultural purposes. Others are being used for industrial purposes, such as concrete and
tarmac plants that are operating in them. Others are being used as large reservoirs to store
rainwater and draw second-class water for irrigation.
Barriera f’ Malta li tintuża għal skop ta’ Turiżmu Stampa ta’ kif barriera kif tista tigi restawrata
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Ex. 7. Recently a number of experts met and spoke about ways to reduce building waste.
Below we can see some points that have been mentioned and suggested that it should
happen.
When hard rock is cut Where large projects are to be carried out,
for development, it large amounts of stone will need to be cut.
must be taken to This can be the best quality limestone.
quarries to be worked Therefore in this case the stone should be
into sand or gravel. cut into slabs and used for construction.
Pieces of limestone left Mixed stones can be

over after completion crushed to sand to be
of a project can be used used under the tiles.
for rubble walls.
Stones coming from

We bury the rock waste close to
demolished houses can be
the coast. The new land created
used for the foundations of
can be used for residential or
new homes, or for the
commercial purposes.
restoration of old buildings.
a. What do you do with building waste, you put it somewhere or reuse it? Explain why.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b. Write down what can be done with this building waste.
1. Tons of hard rock cut from a long tunnel.

___________________________________________________________________________
2. Old rubble slabs from the roof of an old house.

___________________________________________________________________________
3. Good quality Globigerina limestone to be cut to make two underground floors in a new
hotel building.
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Globigerina limestone left over after the builder completed the work.
___________________________________________________________________________
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Weathering and Erosion of Rocks
Erosion is the removal of sediment such as sand, silt or gravel, by wind or water. Weathering
is the breaking down of rock material by things like heating and cooling, frost or crystal
wedging, or chemicals, like acid in rain.
The shape of the Maltese landscape or topography is a result of rock weathering and erosion
from its first appearance to the present day. The surface is replaced by four main processes:
• Weathering (Degrades the rocks without displacing them)
• Erosion (the process in which rock particles are carried away by wind and water).
o Transportation (when the worn material is transported from one place to
another).
o Deposition (when rocks, crumbs and soil accumulate elsewhere, for example
under a foundation / wall).
These rocks has formed by three main elements, sea waves, wind and rainwater. The rocks
that cover the surface of the ground are gradually eroded, until they are finally broken into
small pieces. The main processes when the rock is exposed to air and starts eroding are
rainwater, ice, dew, sea salt, sun heat, and the activities of some plants and animals.
There are three main processes that shape rocks, these are; the physical process, the
chemical process and the biological process.
The physical process (onion skin weathering)

This happens when the rock is exposed to heat and cold for a long period of time. When the
rock heats up with high daytime temperatures, its outer shell expands. Then, during the night,
the temperature drops and the surface of the rock shrinks slightly. Such a continuous process
opens joints and cracks and thus the rock begins to peel off piece by sheet.
Physical process (Freeze Taw Weathering)
In cold places or on the mountains, ice is the main agent of breaking rocks. After a rain shower,
water enters and drains into the rock cracks. At night, when the temperature drops below 0
° C, the water expands by 9% and becomes icy. As a result, the cracks in the rocks widen and
grow. Not For exam.
Physical Process Onion skin (tmermir tal-blat folja folja) Physical Process Freeze tTaw (tmermir tal-blat bil-ġlata)
16 |
The Chemical Process
Rocks can decay and eroded due to chemical processes and reactions, usually due to
rainwater. When rainwater passes through the atmosphere, it absorbs amounts of carbon
dioxide and thus is converted into a weak acid known as carbonic acid. This acid attacks the
rock, even very hard rocks such as lower coralline, until it decays and shatters into small
pieces.
The Biological Process

Biological decay is a combination of physical and chemical effects through animals and plants.
As they grow, the roots of trees and shrubs slowly enter the crevices of the rocks. This breaks
the rock and breaks the rocks into smaller pieces. There are also lichens which cause a
chemical reaction on the surface of the rock where they live which weakens the rock. Even
on the coast there live a large number of creatures such as limpets, urchins and small sea-
snails which hollow the rock to find shelter from strong waves.
The Biological and Chemical process in Malta

When the physical factors, i.e., the chemical and biological work hand in hand to weather the
rocks, they form unique passages, such as caves (Ġħar Dalam cave), garigue landscapes
(Clapham Junction at Buskett) or dolines like Maqluba (Qrendi).
The environment of each type of rock weathering

Particular environments with the most common
Different rock weathering processes type of rock weathering
Physical process (Onion skin weathering)
(tmermir tal-blat folja folja) In hot deserts
Physical process (Freeze thaw In very cold places, such as mountains or cold places
weathering) (tmermir tal-blat bil-ġlata) such as Alaska.
High humidity, sun heat and air pollution make this
Chemical process (Chemical weathering) process well noticeable in Malta. This happens
mostly in big cities.
Biological Processes (Biological Under the rubble walls or under some bushes. Even
weathering) on the coast there live a large number of creatures
such as limpets, urchins and small sea-snails which
hollow the rock to find shelter from strong waves.
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Ex. 8. The statues in the picture below are being damaged by chemical weathering.
a. Describe the damage being done to these statues.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b. Explain why this is happening.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c. Name any prehistoric or historical monuments that are being damaged in this way.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
d. Complete the table below by filling in the missing parts.

i. Enter the name of the type of rock weathering process in the second column of
the table. Choose from: (Onion skin weathering, chemical weathering, biological
weathering, Freeze Thaw weathering)
ii. In the third column, enter the name of a place where this type of rock
weathering occur.
Name of the rock Reasons / Place
weathering process
Roots of trees that widen
cracks in the rocks.
Rock breaking due to water
infiltration and becoming ice
Carbon dioxide in rain water
dissolves limestone rocks.
The surface of the rock
expands during the day and
shrinks at night.
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Ex. 9. Look at the picture below and then answer the following questions.
a. By what means of weathering process is the

rock in the picture being broken? Choose from:
Chemical weathering
Biological weathering
Physical weathering
b. Explain how the rocks in the picture above are breaking down.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 10. Look at the picture below and answer the questions.
a. Look at the picture below and choose which

type of rock.
Choose from:
Green Sand
Upper Coralline Limestone
Globigerina Limestone
Blue Clay
b. Is the rock seen in the picture hard or soft?
___________________________________________________________________________
c. Mention some places in Malta where we find this type of environment that appears
in the picture.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Ex.11. Look at the map below that shows the location of the main quarries of our country
Malta.
a. Why is quarrying important and necessary for our Maltese economy.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. Compare the geological map

found in page 10 with this map
and then write down what
kind of quarry we find in the
places (Globigerina (soft) or
coralline (hard) marked with
the letters A to F.
A D
B E
Ċ F
Read pgs. 61-125 (The formation of Rocks and Weathering of Rocks)

from the book The World – Our Home 2
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Energy sources and climate change
Energy
• Along the years energy has played a very important part in the evolution of man since
it was used for heating, lighting, travelling and powering machines which led to
industrial development.
• The first energy source came from animals, which helped man in working the fields,
carry heavy burdens, extract water from wells, travelling and fighting. Gradually man
started using the force of water and wind for sailing and also for using windmills. He
also started burning wood for heating and cooking.
• During the Industrial Revolution (1800) water became a source of energy for the first
factories.
• Eventually the steam engine was developed which led to the use of fossil fuels
(petroleum, coal and natural gas) to generate energy.
• Due to the increase in the production and use of energy great pressure is being
exerted on the environment, therefore today we are trying to protect the little
resources we have left.
Energy sources
• Fortunately our natural environment provides us with a wide variety of energy
sources. Natural gas, coal and petroleum (oil), which are called fossil fuels, and also
wood and uranium are such types of energy sources. This kind of energy sources are
non-renewable, which means that they will eventually run out (finish).
• On the other hand, river water, wind and the sun can all be used to generate
electricity. These energy sources are limitless, which means that they are renewable
and sustainable, with minimal impact on the environment.
Non-renewable energy
Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Coal • Comes from fossilised • After it is mined it • When it is burnt
plants and is made up can be used almost it greatly
of organic and instantly. pollutes the
inorganic carbon. • It is relatively atmosphere and
• It is found squashed in cheap to extract produces huge
between underground and convert it into amounts of
layers of rocks. energy. greenhouse
• Burning it produces • The deposits of gases.
electricity and heat. coal are much
larger than those
of oil or gas.
Petroleum • Oil is a carbon based • Relatively cheap to • When it is burnt
(oil) liquid made from extract and it releases
fossilised creatures. convert into polluting gases
• Oil deposits are found energy. including
in between rock greenhouse
layers. gases.
21 |
• Holes are drilled down • There are very
to the oil wells and the limited oil
oil is pumped up reserves left
through special pipes.
• Oil is used in industry
and transport sectors.
Gas • Methane and other • When it is • When it is burnt
gases are trapped in extracted it can be it releases
between layers of used almost polluting gases
rocks below the instantly. including
Earth’s surface. • Much cleaner than greenhouse
• Holes are drilled down coal or petroleum gases but less
to these deposits and (oil). than coal and oil.
gas is extracted. • It is a relatively • Limited gas
• Widely used for cheap source of reserves
heating homes and energy. available.
cooking.
Firewood • Obtained from the • A very cheap • Burning it
cutting down of trees. source of energy releases
This firewood is burnt • Easily available polluting gases
to generate heat and • If trees are including
light. replanted greenhouse
(afforestation) it gases.
can be a long term • If trees are not
sustainable energy replaced it
source. becomes a non-
renewable
energy source.
22 |
• When uranium is used to generate energy, we call that nuclear energy. The atom is
split (fission) in a nuclear reactor and this creates a large amount of energy which is
used to change water into steam. This steam then turns the turbine which generates
electricity.
• Uranium, the material used in a nuclear reactor, is non-renewable but since there is a
great supply it can serve for a very long time.
• Although it is easy to use this type of energy, uranium can be dangerous since it
remains radioactive for thousands of years.
• Many people are still wary of this type of energy source because of health problems
caused by nuclear power station accidents in Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986 and in
Fukushima, Japan in March 2011.
Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages

Nuclear • Radioactive minerals • Small amounts of • Nuclear reactors are
energy like uranium are radioactive very expensive to
mined. material can operate.
• Electricity is produce large • Nuclear waste is
generated when amounts of highly toxic and very
energy is released energy. expensive to store
by the fission of the • The raw material securely for
atom (the atom is is relatively thousands of years.
split) in a nuclear cheap, and it lasts • A nuclear leakage
reactor. for a long time. could have
• Does not release devastating impacts
any polluting on people and the
gases in the environment. Eg.
atmosphere. Chernobyl, Ukraine
1986.
23 |
Renewable energy
Type Source Advantages Disadvantages

Solar • Energy coming from • An infinite source • The
the sun is captured by of energy. manufacturing
solar panels and • Isolated buildings and setting up of
converted into can still have solar panels could
electricity. electricity. In Spain be expensive.
there is one of the • They don’t
largest solar farms function at night.
in the world. • Can’t be used by
all countries.
Wind • Wind turbines are • They are usually • The
turned by the wind found in wind manufacturing
and the energy farms. and setting up of
generated is converted • A potentially wind farms could
into electricity. infinite source of be expensive.
energy. In • They can be an
Denmark we find eye sore and also
one of the largest noisy when they
wind farms in the are in operation.
world.
Sea tide • The rise and fall of the • It is ideal for • It is very
sea level turns the countries like the expensive to
turbines. UK. build a barrage.
• A barrage (type of • Can potentially • Few places are
dam) is built around generate large suitable.
estuaries, and it forces amounts of • Environmentalists
the water to pass in energy. object to them
between gaps. • Can decrease the because they can
• In the future danger of flooding. disrupt animal
underwater turbines • The country which migrations.
could be built generates most • It can disrupt the
eliminating the need energy from sea natural flow of
for dams. tides is Canada the sea water.
(Bay of Fundy).
Sea waves • The movement of the • Ideal for small • Can be expensive
sea waves around the countries to build.
coast turns the especially islands. • Local and
turbines to generate • More successful if environmental
electricity. used locally rather groups can
than nationally. object.
Geothermal • In volcanic regions it is • A potentially • Very expensive to
possible to use the infinite source of build and only
energy.
24 |
natural heat of the • It is successfully suitable in
planet. used in countries volcanic areas.
• Cold water is pumped like Iceland • Volcanic activity
underground, and it because it has high could slow down
comes out as steam. amounts of or stop, and so
• This steam can either volcanic activity. power stations
be used to heat could end up not
buildings or to turn functioning.
turbines to generate • Dangerous
electricity. material which is
found
underground
needs to be
disposed of
carefully.
HEP • Energy which is • It creates huge • Very expensive to
Hydro- controlled by the reserves of water build.
electric movement of water in and provides • Building such
power rivers and lakes by electricity. structures could
building dams. cause the
flooding of
certain areas.
• Dams make huge
impacts on the
local hydrology.
Biomass • Produced from trash, • It is a very cheap • When burnt toxic
plants and animals. source of energy. gases are
• Any organic material • Easily available. produced,
can be burnt to • It can be a including
provide energy like sustainable source greenhouse
heat and electricity. of energy. gases.
• After being treated by • Biomass can be a
chemicals this material renewable
can be used as fuel for energy source if
diesel engines. fields are re-
planted.
25 |
Renewable energy sources Non-renewable energy sources
Hydroelectricity Petroleum (Oil)
Sea waves Coal
Sea tides Natural gas
Sun Wood
Wind Nuclear Energy
Geothermal
Energy in Malta
• The Delimara power station
started producing electricity in 1992. It
was supposed to take the place of the one
in Marsa, but since the demand for
electricity had grown, it was still needed
even after the Delimara one was
expanded.
• In 2017 the power station in
Marsa was closed. It was the highest
source of pollution in Malta. It was
inefficient and highly polluting. Instead, a
gas fired one was built in Delimara. Gas is
the least polluting type of fossil fuel. An
electricity interconnector was also laid
down between Sicily and Malta, making the Island part of the European
electricity distribution network.
26 |
• The interconnector permits Malta to buy electricity from other European countries. It
is crucial that Malta has multiple sources of energy. Wind turbines, solar and biomass
energy are complimentary sources of energy that work along the Delimara power
station.
• To be able to generate electricity Malta depends on imported fossil fuels. Every year
we had to import huge amounts of petroleum and coal to be burnt in our power
stations. Apart from being expensive it was also the cause of high levels of pollution.
Today we have a gas fired power station which is cleaner.
• Malta as part of the EU has a commitment to reach the aim of generating 10% of all
energy from alternative and renewable sources by the year 2020. (2021 12%).
Alternative sources of energy which cannot be used in Malta

• Not all renewable sources of energy can be exploited in Malta. For example, we cannot
generate any electricity by using the tide of the sea since the tides in the
Mediterranean do not vary much.
• Another example is the energy generated by water. In Malta we don’t have rivers and
we do not have enough rain and therefore we cannot have hydroelectric power
stations. The same applies for geothermal energy.
Alternative sources of energy which can be used in Malta

In Malta we can use solar and wind energy.
• Wind - in Malta we can set up a number of wind turbines both on land and also in the
sea close to the coast to generate substantial amounts of renewable energy.
• However, a recent study has concluded that only 5% of land in the Maltese Islands is
ideal for the construction of wind turbines. The reason is that it has to be a place which
is far from buildings and where the wind is strong and reliable.
• Offshore wind turbines are better than land ones since the wind there is stronger, and
the environmental impact is lower. Obviously, it would be more expensive to build
and maintain wind turbines in the sea than on land.
• Solar (sun) - till now Malta is using only a small fraction of the potential energy that
the sun offers in Malta. This is because solar panels do not produce many units of
energy. More technological advancements need to be made to make them more
efficient.
• By putting photovoltaic panels on the roofs of houses, hotels, schools, hospitals and
other buildings our country could save 15% of the total expense on energy. This
would reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.
• Solar water heaters also reduce the use of electricity since they heat water using the
sun’s energy.
• Like wind energy, solar energy is clean, infinite and efficient since in Malta the sun
shines all year round and for a good number of hours almost every day.
• Waste - Malta is also generating electricity from waste. For example, a number of
boreholes have been dug up in the Maghtab landfill from where gas is being extracted
and used to generate electricity.
• The same thing is happening at the Sant’Antnin Waste Recycling Plant where the
biogass generated there is being used to produce electricity for about 1,400
households.
27 |
Malta, today and in the future towards renewable energy
• As of 2021, only 12% of energy consumption in Malta was from renewable energy
sources.
• The government gives various incentives to families and industries to help them invest
in alternative sources of energy. There are schemes which help in the purchasing of
solar heaters and photovoltaic panels to be installed on roofs of both private and
public buildings. Through educational campaigns people are encouraged to avoid
wasting electricity to control consumption.
• Each family had received a number of light bulbs which consumed only 20% of
conventional ones while giving the same amount of light, so as to reduce household
consumption.
• New buildings are becoming more energy efficient as double glazing in windows,
insulated roofs and better use of natural light are being more widely used.
• Those who need to change their car are being encouraged to go for electric or hybrid
vehicles by offering them a substantial discount on the price of the car.
• Since now the bigger share of air pollution in Malta comes from transport there are
government schemes where grants of up to €9,000 are given to those who scrap their
old car and buy a new electric one. There are also schemes by Enemalta which provide
a cheaper rate of electricity to be able to charge your electric car.
• At the moment studies are being conducted to find places to use wind turbines and
energy obtained from the sea waves.
The use of fossil fuels and the environment: negative impacts in Malta and abroad
• Most of the energy we use today comes from the burning of fossil fuels like
petroleum, coal and gas. The emissions that are generated pollute the air, the land
and the water. Waste is also generated and we sometimes have oil slicks when there
is an accident. All of this contributes to climate change, acid rain, damage to
biodiversity and negatively affects our health.
• When fossil fuels are burnt to heat water and turn the turbines in the power station,
dangerous gasses come out of the chimneys and into the atmosphere damaging the
environment and our health, both in Malta and abroad.
• Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is one of the gases which is responsible for the greenhouse
effect and climate change. Studies have shown that with the increase in CO 2 global
average temperatures of the air and the sea have increased causing the melting of ice
caps and ice at the poles which in turn raises the level of the sea worldwide. The more
fossil fuels are used the more serious the problem becomes.
• Another harmful gas which is being emitted by power stations is sulphur dioxide (SO₂).
It mixes with rainwater and changes to sulphuric acid which could lead to the
destruction of trees and forests (acid rain). If this acid finds its way into lakes it
destroys all the creatures which live in them. Moreover, buildings built with
globigerina limestone suffer damage whenever there is acid rain. This type of rain
erodes and eats away at the stone.
• These gases together with other polluting substances negatively affect our health.
These have given rise to asthma cases and bactereological infections especially in
children and the elderly.
• Each stage of oil exploitation as a source of energy leaves huge negative impacts on
the environment. Large stretches of land are cleared for drilling, pipeline laying and
28 |
the building of oil refineries where crude oil is transformed into petrol, diesel and tar.
All this destroys the natural environment, leaves a visual impact, causes noise and
generates toxic fumes, especially during the refining process and its use in power
stations.
• Oil transport can have serious repercussions like oil spills when oil tankers have
accidents or sink. This is what happened with the sinking of the Exxon Valdez in 1989
in Alaska, the Erika in the Atlantic Ocean close to the coast of France in 1999 and the
Prestige in 2002. The same thing happened in 2010 when the oil rig Deepwater
Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico exploded and the oil well discharged crude oil into the
sea for 4 whole months and covered an area of 180,000km² (Malta is 316km²).
• Apart from the impact on the local fishing and tourist industries, these disasters cause
very serious ecological damage. The coast is covered in oil as are thousands of sea
creatures which die. This is what happened when the Exxon Valdez was shipwrecked
in Alaska. The oil spill covered an area of 2,600km² where 3,500 birds and 3,000 seals
died.
Carbon dioxide in Malta and other countries

• Malta is a small country and compared to other countries it produces a small amount
of carbon dioxide. You can see this in the table underneath.
29 |
Tasks
Ex. 1. Look carefully at this table which shows the amount of emissions generated by power
stations fired by fossil fuels.
Emissions generated by the burning of fossil fuels

(pollution of kg/billion BTU of energy)
Petroleum (Oil) Coal Gas

carbon dioxide 75 000 100 000 53 500
(CO2)
nitrous oxide 200 250 50
sulphur dioxide 550 1 200 0.3
sooth, ash and fine 40 1 350 3
dust
i. Which energy source is most harmful to our health and to the environment? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
ii. Which one of the three is the “cleanest”?

___________________________________________________________________________
iii. Do you think that the three fuels contribute to the greenhouse effect? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iv. Which two fuels are most responsible for acid rain?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
v. How can this type of rain be harmful?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 2. Answer these questions.
a. Why are oil, coal and gas called fossil fuels?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
30 |
b. Match these sentences about non-renewable energy resources.
1 Oil formed millions of years ago causes much environmental harm.

2 Fossil fuels are mostly used for with the use of fossil fuels.
3 Fossil fuel reserves the production of electricity and for
transport.
4 Many countries today generate are decreasing at a very fast rate.
electricity
5 Burning fossil fuels from microscopic marine organisms.
c. Why do you think many countries are no longer using coal to generate electricity?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
d. What environmental harm can be done during the extraction and burning of this resource
for electricity production?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
e. Oil was a major source of energy during the Industrial Revolution. In brief explain what
happened during the Industrial Revolution.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 3. Write the name of the renewable energy pictured under each diagram.
31 |
Ex. 4. Write TRUE or FALSE near each sentence.
1 Petroleum (oil) and gas are fossil fuels.

2 Oil and gas produce renewable energy.
3 The sun and the wind produce non-renewable energy.
4 The use of oil and coal causes air pollution.
5 Rivers produce hydro-electric power.
Read pgs. 6-38 (Sources of Energy) from the book The World – Our
Home 2
32 |
Climate Change
Climate
Extreme weather, with severe storms and hurricanes, has become more common due to the
greenhouse gases being emitted in the atmosphere. This is leading to global warming (the
rise in global temperatures), which is a result of the production of carbon dioxide (CO2)
produced by human activities such as industries, power stations and transport.
The greenhouse effect

• The greenhouse effect is a natural process which keeps our planet warm and
habitable. The various gas layers that cover the Earth keep a balance in the
atmosphere which allows for life to thrive.
• The greenhouse effect takes place when gases
like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane let the suns’
rays penetrate through the atmosphere and so the
Earth’s surface and the sea warm up.
• These same gases absorb part of the heat that
the planet reflects back to space. Without these
gases in the atmosphere our planet would be much
colder than it is today, with an average temperature
of -18°C and no one would be able to live in it.
Climate change
• Some of the gases found in the atmosphere help in keeping the Earth warm. These
absorb and trap the sun’s heat just like what happens in a greenhouse. This process is
known as the greenhouse effect.
• The industrial and economic growth of these last 60 years has dramatically increased
the emission of such gases which trap the heat of the sun.
• These gases emitted in the atmosphere especially by factories, power stations and
means of transport are causing a rise in global temperatures.
• Scientists agree that human activity is causing a change in temperature, and we are
losing control over our climate.
• We constantly hear about problems linked to climate change: melting ice, floods,
drought, severe storms, hurricanes, and the extinction of different species around the
world.
33 |
The greenhouse effect and humans
• The increase in population, industrial development, and the rising levels of the
standard of living in the last 200 years have all contributed to an increase in the
demand for energy. In the last 200 years the levels of carbon dioxide have increased
by 25% and is the main cause for the rise in global temperatures and changes in
climate.
• We as humans are producing huge amounts of other gases which are also negatively
impacting the natural balance of the greenhouse effect. One of these gases is
methane, which forms during the decomposition of organic material in landfills and
also in rice fields and farms during the production of natural manure.
Reasons for rise in temperatures

Along the years people have aggravated the situation:
• By the cutting down and the burning of huge areas of forests, especially tropical
rainforests. Trees can help us reduce greenhouse gases from the atmosphere because
they absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Therefore, we need to stop the fast
deforestation taking place in tropical rainforests.
• By the burning of fossil fuels which are used for the production of energy in industry
and transport. These were not used until the 1800.
• Methane gas which forms during the decomposition of organic material in landfills.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) cause a lot of damage. This gas is found in sprays, cooling
machines (like fridges and freezers) and air conditioning systems.
Man and the ozone layer

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
cause the most damage. These gases
are found in spays, cooling systems
and air conditioners.
• The industrial use of
chlorofluorocarbon gases are
responsible both for the rise in global
temperatures and are also damaging
the ozone layer. This layer is only
3mm thick and is found in the
stratosphere 20-30km above the
ground.
• It also absorbs the majority of the
ultraviolet rays of the sun which are
very harmful to our health.
• The use of chlorofluorocarbons in industry especially for the production of sprays,
fridges and air conditioners slowly depletes this very important layer.
• A thinner ozone layer increases the risk of serious illnesses like skin cancer, damage
to the eyesight and even blindness.
• Many countries around the world have abolished the use of CFCs since the year 2000
and therefore these gases in the atmosphere are slowly diminishing.
• But scientists estimate that it will take another 50 years for the ozone layer to recover
its normal thickness.
34 |
Proof of global warming
Climate has changed along history. During the last 650,000 years there have been seven cycles
of ice ages and global warming. These cycles stopped 7,000 years ago and it marked the
beginning of the modern era for climate and human civilization.
• Many of these climate changes are attributed to minor variations in the Earth’s orbit
which changes the amount of solar energy our planet receives.
• Global warming is significant because it is probably caused by human activity.
▪ Proof of global warming:
• Rise in sea levels
• Rise in global temperatures
• Rise in ocean temperatures
• Ice sheets are melting and shrinking
• Reduction of ice in the Artic Ocean
• Glaciers are shrinking and receding.
• Extreme weather
• Acidification of the oceans
Consequences of global warming

• The rise in temperatures causes serious problems both to humans and the
environment. We are already experiencing some of these problems like an increase in
natural phenomena such as heavy rainfall, heatwaves, strong winds, hurricanes, and
droughts. This extreme weather is taking place in regions which rarely experienced
such phenomena. High temperatures are causing skiing resorts in mountains to close
because snow is melting at a very high rate.
• There are rising sea levels due to the melting of huge amounts of ice at the poles.
• Millions of people who live close to the coast in low lying areas will have to leave
everything behind and move to higher ground. Large cities like Bangkok, Dhaka,
Mumbai, and Alexandria are vulnerable even if the sea levels rise by a few
centimetres.
• Different plants and animals will be affected by the rise in temperatures. Some
creatures will manage to adapt to these changes, others will need to leave their
habitats and find new ones while others still will not survive. For example, different
species like the polar bear, which lives on huge ice sheets, will not be able to adapt
and will disappear altogether.
35 |
Global warming and Malta
Our country, like many others in the Mediterranean will be highly affected by climate change.
This will cause serious problems to the:
• Economy, especially to agriculture and tourism,
• Problems linked to our water reserves (supplies),
• Problems related to our physical health and
• Coastal erosion.
• Several studies have shown that Malta is highly vulnerable to climate change. The
occurrence of extreme weather like storms, floods, droughts, and heatwaves will
become more frequent. Temperatures are expected to rise, and heatwaves will
become more severe. Total rainfall will decrease, and Malta will become drier. Flash
floods will become more common causing flooding and having a serious impact on
agriculture and water supplies. The soil will not have enough time to absorb the
sudden huge amounts of water and most of it will run off to the sea causing a lot of
damage on its way there. The water table won’t be able to absorb any of this water
making it even more scarce.
• The decrease in rainfall and the increase in temperatures will increase the salinity of
the Mediterranean. These events together with warmer seas can cause changes in the
marine ecosystems. Some species will be boosted while others will diminish, and a
new ecological balance will emerge. Some insist that the jellyfish infestations since
1981 are a result of this change. Warmer seas can also affect the sea currents causing
changes in the migration routes of fish like tuna and swordfish thus affecting the
Maltese fisherman.
Decreasing global warming

• Today all the countries in the world agree that climate change is the biggest problem
facing our planet.
• The increase in economic activity together with the comforts and needs we have
grown used to and our irresponsibility all require great quantities of energy.
• Along the years numerous meetings and conferences, attended by leaders of both
developed and developing countries, have been held in a bid to solve this problem.
• The world leaders met in cities
like Kyoto in Japan, Johannesburg, Bali,
Bangkok, Rio de Janeiro and in a number
of European countries in order to reach
an agreement about the reduction of
greenhouse gases released in the
atmosphere. During one of these
meetings members of the European
Union agreed to reduce the levels of CO2
by 20% until the year 2020.
• Climate change should be
everyone’s priority and not just the
responsibility of governments. Everyone
should strive to reduce the emissions
caused by the burning of fossil fuels.
36 |
• We can achieve this by using less energy and investing in alternative resources which
do not damage the environment. This way we can save the ecosystem which has been
sustaining human life for thousands of years.
• We should act responsibly by not
wasting electricity and water, make
more use of public transport and less
use of private cars, install energy
saving light bulbs and use energy
saving appliances. All of this and more
can help in reducing our individual
carbon footprint.
• Cars which consume a lot of fuel and
are highly polluting pay higher taxes
than those which have clean
technology and produce very small
amounts of emissions. This happens in
many European countries, including Malta. This is called the polluter pays principle
and the aim of such measures is to persuade people to buy small cars with clean
technology and therefore reducing their emissions to a minimum.
• Electric vehicles which do not release any polluting emissions are becoming more
popular.
• In Malta we are seeing more of these vehicles and buses. Some are fully electric while
others are Hybrid, but both emit very small amounts of greenhouse gases. This is very
important since transport has become the main polluter in our country. Malta also has
the fourth highest rate of vehicles per capita in the world. We need to make more use
of public transport and bicycles and we should walk more frequently. This could lead
to a reduction in the number of cars on our streets and the reduction of CO2 emissions.
Reducing global warming in Malta

• 30% of all the electricity generated in Malta is used in private homes. Therefore, if we
manage to use less electricity in our homes it would make a big difference.
• We should look for appliances which are
certified as being energy efficient. We should also
use light bulbs (LEDs) which consume 5 times less
energy than conventional ones. Such small
changes won’t have any effect on our comfort,
but we would be reducing the amount of energy
and resources used and above all reduce the
emissions of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
37 |
Tasks
Ex.1. Match the following statements about the process of the natural greenhouse effect.
Our planet is covered with a layer the sun’s light energy and heat to
1
pass through them.
2 These atmospheric gases allow and the sea are warmed.
Due to this the land the world temperature would be
3 about 25°C colder and everything
would freeze.
Atmospheric greenhouse gases of the heat which the earth reflects
4
absorb part back.
Some of the heat which is reflected escapes back to space.
5
by the Earth
Without these greenhouse gases in of gases like carbon dioxide and
6
the atmosphere methane.
Ex. 2. Fill in the spaces with the following words.

(refrigeration, absorbing, oil, carbon, ships, methane, deforestation, rubbish dumps)
In the recent past greenhouse gases produced by human activities have increased greatly.
The major greenhouse gas which is increasing global temperatures is
____________________ dioxide. This is emitted into the atmosphere by power stations while
burning fossil fuels which include ____________________, coal and gas. We cannot do
without electricity. We need it for heating, ____________________ and lighting homes.
Much oil is also burnt in transport especially by cars, aeroplanes and ____________________.
Forest trees are needed since they help us by ____________________ part of the extra CO 2
which we generate. Instead we are cutting trees at the rate of 100,000 km² each year. The
clearing and the burning down of forests are responsible for 20% of the total global emissions
of greenhouse gases, therefore all possible alternatives should be tried to stop
____________________. Another greenhouse gas produced by human activities is
____________________ which is an invisible gas emitted from ____________________, rice
cultivation and from certain fertilising agents.
Ex. 3a. Explain how global warming is expected to affect:
1 the sea level

___________________________________________________________________________
2 glaciers and Polar ice-caps
___________________________________________________________________________
3 the weather
___________________________________________________________________________
4 plants and creatures living on Earth
___________________________________________________________________________
38 |
b. Climate change will also affect Malta. Global warming will make the Maltese climate
warmer and drier. How will this change affect:
5 agriculture?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6 water resources?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7 tourism?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8 domestic electricity consumption?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 4. Mention five measures which each and every one of us may take in order to reduce
electricity consumption at home or at school.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 5. Underline the right answer.

a. Considerable damage is being caused to the ozone by using (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS),
hydrogen; nitrogen).
b. The ozone layer absorbs the majority of (infrared; gamma; ultraviolet) rays.
c. A thinner ozone layer increases the risk of (earthquakes; skin cancer; volcanoes).
d. The ozone layer is found (between 20-30km above the Earth’s surface; on the Earth’s curst;
in the Earth’s core).
e. The gases which cause most damage to the ozone layer are those from the (agricultural;
building; refrigeration and air conditioning) industry.
Ex. 6. a. Write TRUE or FALSE near each sentence.
1 The ozone layer is a thin layer which absorbs the sun’s rays.
2 The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is slowly depleting the ozone layer.
3 A thinner ozone layer increases the risk of bone and heart diseases.
4 The Montreal Protocol has prohibited the use and production of
chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs).
5 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are mostly used by the building industry.
39 |
b. Name three ways by which people can protect themselves from the sun’s ultraviolet rays.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ex. 7. The greenhouse effect is one of the major issues discussed at international level
when is comes to climate change.
a. Describe two activities which are leading to global warming.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b. Mention four effects of global warming.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Read pgs. 39-60 (Climate Change) from the book The World – Our
Home 2
40 |
Tectonic Activity
Tectonic processes are the movements of huge masses of rock caused by movements in the
Earth’s crust. The movement in the Earth’s crust (which is the result of other movement
happening much deeper down) makes the land masses which float on top of it move too. This
causes the rock to stretch, fold, crack and break. Such movement was responsible for the
most spectacular rock formations in the Maltese Islands.
Our planet is a dynamic one and it is changing continuously. There are more than 600 active
volcanoes around the world which erupt from time to time.
Volcanoes usually give warning signs before they erupt. On the other hand, earthquakes
happen abruptly. About 160 strong earthquakes occur every year together with thousands of
weaker ones. Some of them cause widespread material damage and a significant number of
people die.
We can divide the Earth’s structure in 4 main layers: 1 the crust, 2 the mantle, 3 the outer
core and the 4 inner core.
The crust can be divided in two: the continental crust and the oceanic crust which together
form the continents and the ocean beds.
Both the continental and the oceanic crusts sit on a layer of molten rock called the mantle.
This molten rock found in the mantle is known as magma.
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1. The Crust This is the part where we live. It is the thinnest layer, and it is made
up of plates. These are made up of land and sea and they move slowly.
The crust which is made up mostly of sea is called the oceanic crust
(about 5km thick) while that which has mostly land is called the
continental crust (about 7km thick). The deepest anyone has ever dug
is 12 km.
2. The Mantle The mantle is semi liquid (it’s made up of magma which is melted
rocks due to very high temperatures) and therefore the plates which
sit on it are able to move. Minerals found here are magnesium, silicon
and iron. The upper part of the mantle (it is less liquid and close to the
crust) has a temperature of 1,000°C while that of the deeper part is
3,700°C.
3. The Outer This layer surrounds the inner core. It’s the only part of the core which
Core is liquid. Its temperature is similar to that of the inner core (about
5,500°C). It has iron and nickel.
4. The Inner It has the shape of a ball, and it is solid because of the intense
Core pressure found there. It contains iron and nickel. Its temperature is
similar to that of the surface of the sun. Gravity originates here as it
is like a magnet which pulls everything towards it.
Scientists have been able to come to conclusions about the core by studying the movement
of shock waves created by earthquakes and how they travel up to the Earth’s crust. There are
differences in the way these shock waves travel according to the material it is travelling
through (liquid or solid). The substance which comes out of volcanoes has shown us what the
mantle is made of.
High temperatures in the core give rise to circular currents which pass through the mantle
and hit the crust. These convection currents are responsible for the movements in the crust
which cause earthquakes and volcanic activity.
These convection currents have broken the Earth’s crust into huge plates. These massive
pieces of rock crust are called tectonic plates.
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There are 7 huge plates and many smaller ones. All of them lie and float on the mantle and
the intense heat coming out of the core makes them move slowly, usually a few millimetres
every year.
Eurasian Plate
North
American
Plate
Pacific
African Plate Plate
Nazka South Indian Plate

American
Plate
Antarctic
Plate
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Ex. 1. Fill in this exercise about the super continent.
1. Millions of years ago the Earth was made up of one continent called ________________.
2. About 100 million years ago this continent broke up in 2 pieces, __________________,in
the Northern hemisphere and _________________, in the Southern hemisphere.
3. The_______________ Sea, today called the Mediterranean Sea, shrank when the
continents moved towards each other.
4. Eventually, the continents broke up into 7 pieces and this theory is known as the
_________________________.
5. Scientists believe that the continents moved away from each other because of currents
which are found in the interior of the Earth and which are called _____________________.
Ex. 2. The study of plate movement is called Plate Tectonics. Fill in with the right answer.
1. Tectonic plates are made up of ____________________ or ________________________.

2. Tectonic plates which are mainly found under the sea are called ____________________
___________________; like ________________________ and _______________________.
3. Tectonic plates which are mainly made of land are called _____________________; like
____________________ and _______________________.
4. The Maltese Islands are found in the north of the _______________________________.
Tectonic Plates
Tectonic plates can move in 4 different ways:
1. Destructive A→Continental plates move towards each other (destructive margin)
When the continental plate and the

oceanic plate move towards each other,
the oceanic plate is subducted (it sinks)
because it is denser (heavier). Since it is
subducted it encounters very high
temperatures and therefore the rock
melts. This melted rock (magma) is then
pushed up by gases and pressure causing
volcanoes to arise.
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2. Destructive B (Collision)→ Continental plates move towards each other and the
land is folded and pushed up.
Another type of destructive margin is

when 2 continental plates move towards
each other causing the land to fold and
rise upwards forming mountains. In fact,
the Alps formed when the Eurasian Plate
and the African Plate moved towards each
other. The same happened when the
Himalayas were formed. In this case the
Eurasian Plate moved towards the Indian
Plate.
3. Constructive→Continental plates move away from each other (constructive

margin)
The American Plates to the west and the

European and African Plates to the east
are moving away from each other thus
widening the Atlantic Ocean by 3cm
every year. When this happens the space
which is opened up in between them is
filled up by magma which solidifies and a
ridge (mountain chain) forms. Iceland is
the tip of such a mountainous ridge in
the Atlantic.
4. Conservative→Continental plates move past each other (conservative margin)
Continental plates like the Pacific and the

North American Plate are moving past
each other, in opposite directions and this
causes a high number of earthquakes in
areas like California in the USA.
45 |
Fold Mountains
Tectonic activity has formed the mountains

around the Mediterranean.
This happened because 2 continental plates

moved towards each other, in this case the
Eurasian plate and the African plate. This causes
the land to be compressed and to rise up. These
mountains are called fold mountains like the Alps
and the Himalayas.
The lithosphere is the lower part of the crust and

the top part of the mantle.
46 |
47 |
Ex. 3. a. There are 4 types of tectonic plate margins. Fill in the first column of the below grid
by choosing the right type of margin from the list provided:
(constructive margin, destructive margin, conservative margin, collision margin)
Plate margin type Tectonic plate movement Diagram
Two plates move towards each other

causing the land to rise.
Two plates move away from each

other.
Two plates move towards each other.

One of the plates sinks beneath the
other.
Two plates move past each other in

opposite directions.
b. In the third column draw a simple diagram showing the movement of the plates.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a hole or special mountain from

which magma flows outwards. Magma is very
hot molten rock. It is found in the layer of the
mantle where the temperatures reach 4,000°C.
When magma comes out of a volcano we call it
lava. Ash, rocks and dust also come out of
volcanoes.
Most volcanoes are found at the edges of

tectonic plates. The edges of the Eurasian Plate
and the African Plate meet in the
Mediterranean. That is why we find a number
of volcanoes like Etna, Vesuvius, Stromboli and
Volcano.
48 |
Ex. 4. Insert the word or phrase in the right space.
Volcanic cinder, lapilli and bombs / main crater / layers of ash and lava / magma chamber /
smoke, steam and toxic gases / main vent / lava flow / secondary cone.
49 |
The map below shows us that the majority of volcanoes are found on the edges of tectonic
plates.
The formation of volcanoes
Some volcanoes form when 2 oceanic plates Other volcanoes form when an oceanic
move away from each other. This allows magma plate and a continental plate meet and
push towards each other. This causes
to rise up through the crust. This action formed
the mid-Atlantic Ridge and Iceland, a country the oceanic plate to sink (subduct)
famous for its volcanic activity. because it is denser and heavier. Since
it sinks downwards it encounters very
Many think that the Hawaiian Islands are found high temperatures and so it melts
in the Pacific Ring of Fire but they are an becoming magma. This magma is then
exception since they formed on an area known pushed upwards because of intense
as a hot spot. pressure and gases and forms
volcanoes like Mount St Helens in the
US.
50 |
A volcano can be in one of 3 states:
Active→Volcanoes which are active for a short time or a few weeks or months and which
erupt every so often. In between eruptions they are dormant. Examples: Mt Etna in Sicily,
Cotapaxi in Ecuador and Paricutin in Mexico.
Dormant→It is a volcano which can be inactive for hundreds of years. In this period of
inactivity the vent and the crater are blocked by solidified lava. When the pressure builds an
explosion occurs which blows up the crater so that magma can flow out. Examples: Mt. Ranier
in the US and Mt Fuji in Japan.
Extinct→A volcano is considered as extinct when it hasn’t shown any sign of activity for the
last two or three thousand years. There have been cases when volcanoes which were
considered as extinct erupted unexpectedly and caused widespread damage. Examples: Mt
Asthitaka in Japan and Mt Hohentwiel in Germany.
Mediterranean Volcanoes
In Italy, Sicily and in the surrounding

sea we find a number of volcanoes.
Vesuvius (near Naples): notorious for

the eruption of 79 A.D. which
destroyed Pompeii and
Herculaneum.
Etna (near Catania, Sicily): the largest

and most active volcano in Europe. It
erupts frequently and its ash
sometimes moves southwards to
Malta. This volcano is made up of
layers of lava and ash.
Stromboli, Volcano and Panarea are

volcanic islands found between Sicily
and Italy.
Ex. 5. Fill in the blanks by choosing your answer from the list below.
tectonic earthquakes Vesuvius volcanoes mountain
collision Pyrenees seismic millions Greece
51 |
The Mediterranean region is a _________________________ zone and therefore a number
of earthquakes occur together with the eruption of ___________________________. In the
Mediterranean two __________________________ plates are moving towards each other
and they have been doing this for _________________________________ of years. This
movement causes _________________________ especially in
__________________________________ and Italy and volcanoes like
____________________ , Etna and Santorini.
The ____________________________ of the two tectonic plates in the Mediterranean has

created a ____________________________ chain spread around the whole region which
include the ______________________________, the Alps and the Taurus.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of the ground. The plates are moving constantly
and sometimes these movements are stronger than usual. These movements are called
earthquakes. Until now no instrument can predict when and where an earthquake may occur.
They can happen anywhere and anytime. However there are areas where they are more
frequent like Italy, Greece, Turkey, Japan, New Zealand and North America (California). All
these places are found on the edges of tectonic plates and earthquakes occur when these
plates move towards each other.
Tsunami – an enormous wave caused by movements in the sea bed. On December 26ᵗʰ, 2004
a deadly tsunami occurred close to Indonesia (Indian Ocean) which caused widespread
damage in various countries and about 200,000 people died. Waves reached a height of 30
metres and the earthquake which caused it was one of the 3 strongest ever recorded.
Submarine earthquake (maremot) – an earthquake that occurs under the ocean floor.
The focus - in an earthquake the focus is the point inside the crust where the pressure is
released.
The epicentre - the point on the Earth’s surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
Seismic waves - earthquake energy is released in seismic waves. These waves spread out from
the focus. The waves are felt most strongly at the epicentre, becoming less strong as they
travel further away. So, the closer a place is to the epicentre of an earthquake the greater the
damage it will suffer. The further away it is from the epicentre, the less the damage caused.
An earthquake is measured by a seismograph, which records and measures the seismic waves
made by an earthquake and the time when it happened.
52 |
Epicentre
Seismic waves
Focus
Ex. 6. Fill in the blanks
1. The study of earthquakes is called _____________.

2. People who study earthquakes are called _______________.
3. The point where a seismic wave starts is called the ______________ .
4. The ____________ of an earthquake is found directly on top of the focus .
5. The strength of an earthquake is measured by a ______________.
6. The _________________ scale is the most widely used to measure the strength of
earthquakes.
The seismograph
This is an instrument which measures

earthquakes. Earthquakes near Malta are
measured by a seismograph at Wied Dalam in
Birżebbuġa.
By clicking on this website, you can observe the

earthquakes happening now in the
Mediterranean:
http://www.emsc-csem.org/#2
53 |
The Richter Scale and the Mercalli Scale
The Richter and the Mercalli scales describe the strength of an earthquake from different
perspectives.
The Richter scale measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake. This is
calculated from the information gathered by the seismograph. Each magnitude is 10 times
stronger than the previous one. A magnitude 7 earthquake is 10 times stronger than a
magnitude 6 earthquake. Some earthquakes are weak and not perceptible while others are
strong and destructive. The Richter scale ranges from magnitude 1 till 10.
The Mercalli scale is more commonly used in Italy and it describes the intensity of an
earthquake based on its observed effects. The scale ranges from 1 till 12 in Roman numbers.
Tectonic Activity in the Maltese Islands
The Maltese Islands rose above the sea about 7 million years ago due to very strong tectonic
movements. Malta is 200km away from the collision margin between the Eurasian and the
African plates and so we are not usually affected by strong earthquakes.
Malta is divided by two systems of faults, which represent the effects of two episodes of
rifting. The oldest of the two is the Victoria Lines Fault (Great Fault), which runs SW to NE,
54 |
because it cuts Malta in half, from Fomm ir-riħ to Madliena. Here the ground collapsed 100
meters down and thus the ground looks like a huge step.
While the Magħalaq Fault system trends roughly NW to SE along the south coast of the
island. The tectonic shift raised the south-west side and thus on this side we find high places
such as the cliffs of Had-Dingli and Ta’ Cenc in Gozo. The opposite side, that of the North-East,
is further down, and therefore on this side we find the beaches of Tas-Sliema and Marsalforn.
In Matla we find systems of structures called Horst and Graben, meaning small hills and
valleys formed by earthquakes. An example of valleys we have Pwales and when you go up
the hill from Pwales you will find yourself on a ridge, called Bajda ridge.
However, both strong earthquakes in Sicily and volcanoes like Etna affect us too.
In 1693 a very strong earthquake in Catania, Sicily caused the destruction of the Ċittadella in
Gozo and the Mdina Cathedral. There was also a tsunami.
Sometimes ash from eruptions of the Etna is carried over to Malta causing health problems.
The volcanic island of Graham (Fernandea), which is not far from Malta, is only 8 metres below
sea level. Sometimes it surfaces again when it erupts.
Great Fault
Magħlaq Fault
The impact of volcanoes and earthquakes
Negative impacts
• Volcanoes cause a lot of destruction when they erupt suddenly. These eruptions have
a devastating effect on people and the region. In these last 500 years more than
200,000 people died due to volcanic eruptions. These eruptions cause an estimated
yearly average of 850 deaths.
• During a volcanic eruption large amounts of ash and dust are ejected violently. Most
of the finer particles remain in the atmosphere for years, even affecting global climate.
In 1991 the Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines reduced world temperatures for the
next year.
55 |
• If ash and mud from a volcanic eruption is mixed with rain or snow, lahars can form.
These are violent mudflows which can destroy bridges, roads and agricultural land and
kill people.
Positive impacts
• Volcanic activity can also be beneficial. The soil which is derived from eroded lava and
ash is very fertile because it is rich in nutrients and minerals. The areas around
volcanoes are ideal for agriculture. That is why large numbers of people live in such
dangerous areas. The farmers around Etna grow olives, citrus fruit, vines, walnuts and
a wide variety of vegetables.
• Volcanic activity also produces precious stones, metals and minerals. These include
copper, magnesium, silver, gold, lead, uranium, mercury and titanium.
• In some countries like New Zealand, the United States and Iceland hot water coming
out of volcanic areas is supplied to households and also used to heat homes.
• Volcanic regions attract tourism. Vesuvius, Pompeii, Etna in Italy, the geysers in
Iceland and Yellowstone Park in the United States are visited by millions of tourists
each year.
Ex. 7. Write TRUE or FALSE.
1 No earthquakes every occurred in Malta

2 A force 7.5 earthquake on the Richter Scale is hardly felt.
3 The strength of an earthquake is measured by a seismograph.
4 The epicentre is the place where most damage occurs during an earthquake.
5 Collapsing buildings, fires and interruption of services like water and
electricity are some of the damages caused by an earthquake.
Ex. 8. Give the meaning of:
Active volcano_______________________________________________________________
Dormant volcano_____________________________________________________________
Extinct Volcano______________________________________________________________
Ex. 9. The phrases below show damages caused by volcanic eruptions and advantages linked
to volcanic activity. Write each phrase below in the correct column according to whether it
is a disadvantage or an advantage of volcanic activity.
It forms fertile soil Lava flows destroy houses

They attract Tourists The natural environment is destroyed
56 |
Damages from a volcanic eruption Advantages of volcanic activity
Read pgs. 126-163 (Tectonic Activity) from the book The World –
Our Home 2
THE END
57 |

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Geography Department

St. Theresa College

The Rocks: Raw Materials

The main Rocks that exist in the world

1 Rocks made of magma that came out of the earth. igni

2 Rocks that have changed due to pressure or heat.

3 Rocks made of layers, one on top of each other.

4 Rocks made of magma that cooled slowly underground.

5 Rocks containing many shells and remnants of sea creatures.

3 The Tethys Sea was so salty that no creatures lived in it.

Sedimentary Rocks of the Maltese Islands

2 the oldest layer of rock found in the Maltese islands

4 porous but impermeable rock (waterproof)

5 forms massive foundations and cliffs by the sea

6 is found on the surface of 70% of the Maltese islands

7 impermeable rock on which water is stored

8 a layer of rock made up of many remnants of coral algae

9 it forms large expanses of land filled with holes and cracks

10 soft rock lying on the blue clay

11 this layer contains three secondary layers

The Three layers of Globigerina are:

Rock-cutting work generates

Sustainability of Maltese stone in the building industry and quarries

Methods of how disused quarries can be restored and rehabilitated.

Pieces of limestone left Mixed stones can be

Stones coming from

b. Write down what can be done with this building waste.

1. Tons of hard rock cut from a long tunnel.

2. Old rubble slabs from the roof of an old house.

The physical process (onion skin weathering)

The Biological Process

The Biological and Chemical process in Malta

The environment of each type of rock weathering

a. Describe the damage being done to these statues.

b. Explain why this is happening.

d. Complete the table below by filling in the missing parts.

a. By what means of weathering process is the

a. Look at the picture below and choose which

b. Compare the geological map

Read pgs. 61-125 (The formation of Rocks and Weathering of Rocks)

Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages

Type Source Advantages Disadvantages

Alternative sources of energy which cannot be used in Malta

Alternative sources of energy which can be used in Malta

Carbon dioxide in Malta and other countries

Emissions generated by the burning of fossil fuels

Petroleum (Oil) Coal Gas

ii. Which one of the three is the “cleanest”?

v. How can this type of rain be harmful?

Ex. 2. Answer these questions.

a. Why are oil, coal and gas called fossil fuels?

1 Oil formed millions of years ago causes much environmental harm.

1 Petroleum (oil) and gas are fossil fuels.

The greenhouse effect

Reasons for rise in temperatures

Man and the ozone layer

Consequences of global warming

Decreasing global warming

Reducing global warming in Malta

Ex. 2. Fill in the spaces with the following words.

1. Tectonic plates are made up of or ____.