INDIAN AGRICULTURE

MODULE 1
MAJOR CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN
In India around 50% of the population earns its livelihood from agriculture. It fulfills
the basic need of human beings and animals. It is an important source of raw material
for many agro based industries. India’s geographical condition is unique for agriculture
because it provides many favorable conditions. There are plain areas, fertile soil, long
growing seasons and wide variation in climatic condition etc. Apart from unique
geographical conditions, India has been consistently making innovative efforts by
using science and technology to increase production.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

 Mostly Subsistence Agriculture (farming for own consumption)
 Pressure of population on Agriculture for employment and sustenance.
 Limited mechanization of farming.
 Dependence upon monsoon mostly and irrigation in lesser percentage.
 Variety of crops found due to diversity of topography, climate and soil.
 Predominance of food crops cultivation.
 Three distinct agricultural/cropping seasons- Kharif, Rabi and Zaid.

TYPES OF FARMING
On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be broadly
classified as irrigated and rainfed (barani). Rainfed farming is further classified on
the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season into dryland and
wetland farming.
 In India, the dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall
less than 75 cm. These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such
as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops) and practise various measures
of soil moisture conservation and rain water harvesting.
 In wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of
plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion
hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute
and sugarcane and practise aquaculture in the fresh water bodies.
Based primarily on nature of land, climatic characteristics and available irrigational
facilities, the farmers in India practice different types of farming.
1. Subsistence Farming: Majority of farmers in India practices subsistence farming.
This means farming for own consumption. In other words, the entire production
is largely consumed by the farmers and their family and they do not have any
surplus to sell in the market. In this type of farming, landholdings are small and
fragmented. Cultivation techniques are primitive and simple. In other words,
there is a total absence of modern equipments like tractor’s and farm inputs like
chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides. In this farming, farmers mostly
cultivate cereals along with oil seeds, pulses, vegetables and sugarcane.
Intensive Subsistence Farming is practised in areas of high population
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 pressure on land. It is labour intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical
inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.
2. Commercial Farming: It is just the opposite of subsistence farming. In this
case, most of the produce is sold in the market for earning money. In this
system, farmers use inputs like irrigation, chemical fertilizers, insecticides,
pesticides and High Yielding Varieties of seeds etc. Some of the major
commercial crops/cash crops grown in different parts of India are cotton, jute,
sugarcane, groundnut etc. Rice farming in Haryana is mainly for commercial
purpose as people of this area are predominantly wheat eaters. However, in East
and North-Eastern states of India, rice cultivation would be largely of subsistence
type.
3. Plantation Farming: Plantation agriculture was introduced in India by the
Britishers in the 19th century. This type of agriculture involves growing and
processing of a single cash crop purely meant for sale. Large capital input,
vast estates, managerial ability, technical know-how, sophisticated farm
machinery, fertilizers, good transport facilities, and a factory for processing the
produce are some of the outstanding features of plantation agriculture. There are
plantations of rubber, tea, coffee, cocoa, banana, spices, coconut, etc. This
type of agriculture is practiced mainly in Assam, sub-Himalayan West Bengal, and
in the Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Cardamom Hills in the south.
4. Shifting Agriculture/Farming: It is also called as primitive subsistence
farming. This is a type of agriculture in which a piece of forest land is cleared
mainly by tribal people by felling and burning of trees and crops are grown.
After 2-3 years when the fertility of the soil in the cleared land decreases, it is
abandoned and the tribe shifts to some other piece of land. The process
continues and the farmers again shift to the first piece of land after a gap of 10-15
years. This type of agriculture is practiced over an area of more than 50 lakh
hectares, around 20 lakh hectares being cleared every year. Dry paddy, buck
wheat, maize, small millets, tobacco and sugarcane are the main crops grown
under this type of agriculture. It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. It is known by
different names in different parts of the country. It is jhumming in north-eastern
states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou in Manipur,
Dipa in Bastar district of Chhattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In India, shifting cultivation is still practised in the hill areas of North-Eastern
Region, Sikkim, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. But among all these states, such practices
are still prevalent in the hill areas of North-Eastern states, Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh. This is a very crude and primitive method of cultivation which results in
large scale deforestation and soil erosion especially on the hill sides causing
devastating floods in the plains below. About one million hectares of land is
degraded every year due to shifting agriculture. Therefore, there is urgent need to
put a check on this practice. For this purpose, the tribal people need to be
educated about the damage caused by this practice to the natural resources like
vegetation and soil.

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5. Mixed Farming: It is situation in which both raising crops and rearing animals
are carried on simultaneously. Farmers engaged in mixed farming are
economically better than others.
6. Intensive And Extensive Farming: The basic differences between these two
types of farming are the amount of production per unit of land. In comparison
with temperate areas of USA, Canada, and Russia, India does not practice
extensive cultivation. When a large patch of land is used for cultivation, it is called
extensive farming. Here, total production may be high due to larger area but per
unit production is low. In India extensive cultivation can be observed in Punjab,
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. Intensive Farming records high
production per unit of land. Best example of intensive cultivation is in Japan
where availability of land for cultivation is very limited. Similar kind of situation can
be observed in Kerala.
7. Conservation Agriculture: It is a set of soil management practices that minimize
the disruption of the soil's structure, composition and natural biodiversity.
Despite high variability in the types of crops grown and specific management
regimes, all forms of conservation agriculture share three core principles. These
include:
 maintenance of permanent or semi-permanent soil cover (using either a
previous crop residue or specifically growing a cover crop for this purpose);
 minimum soil disturbance through tillage (just enough to get the seed into
the ground) ;
 regular crop rotations to help combat the various biotic constraints;
N.B. All classifications are based on nature and purpose of farming. It may overlap.
For example: Banana is a plantation type of farming. It can also be classified as
commercial farming.

MAJOR CROPS OF INDIA

India grows almost each and every crop. If we consider the varieties of crop grown
from Kashmir to Kanyakumari and western coast of Gujarat to extreme north eastern
states of Arunachal Pradesh, then there would be hundreds of crops.
CROPS
FOOD GRAINS COMMERCIAL /PLANTATION HORTICULTURE
CROPS
CEREALS PULSES OILSEEDS OTHERS VEGETABLES FRUITS
Rice, Coarse Tur, Groundnut, Sugarcane, Potato, Banana,
Wheat Cereals Gram, Caster seed, Cotton, Jute, Sweet Mango,
/ Millets Moong, Niger seed, Mesta, Potato, Apple,
Jowar, Urad, Sesamum, Coconut, Onion, Apricot,
Bajra, Lentil Rapeseed, Tapioca, Chillies, Grapes,
Ragi, Mustard, Tobacco, Tomato, Pineapple
Maize, Linseed, Rubber, Cauliflower Walnut
Barley Safflower, Coffee, Tea, Brinjal
Sunflower, Arecanut,
Soybean Spices

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 TYPES
1. FOODGRAINS
The importance of foodgrains in Indian agricultural economy may be gauged from the
fact these crops occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the country.
Agricultural policy focus in India, across decades, has been on self-sufficiency and
self-reliance in foodgrains production. On the basis of the structure of grain the
food grains are classified as cereals and pulses.
 CEREALS
Cereals occupy about 54 percent of total cropped area in India. India produces a
variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse
grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi).
 RICE: It is the most important food crop of India. It is predominantly a Kharif crop.
It covers about one third of total cultivated area of the country and is staple food
of more than half of the Indian population. Maximum population of India is of rice
consumers. Hence many farmers in India cultivate rice round the year that is, it is
also cultivated in rabi season with the use of irrigation. Some of the
geographical conditions are as follows:
a) Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions. The temperature
should be fairly high i.e. 240C mean monthly temperature with average
temperature of 220C to 320C.
b) Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150 and 300 cm is suitable for its growth. In
areas of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh where rainfall is less than
100cm; rice is cultivated with the help of irrigation.
c) Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy soil
provides the ideal conditions. Rice is primarily grown in plain areas like
Gangetic plain, it is also grown below sea level at Kuttanad (Kerala), hill
terraces of north eastern part of India and valleys of Kashmir.
d) Labor: Rice cultivation requires easily available labour because, most of the
activities associated with it are labor oriented and are not very well suited for
mechanization.
e) Distribution: Rice is grown in almost all the states of India.The three largest
rice producing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
The other major rice producing states are Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Orissa, Karnataka, Assam and
Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat
and Kashmir Valley.
 WHEAT: Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a
Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the
beginning of summer. Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins in
the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of March-
April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the northern and
north-western regions of India. Some of the geographical conditions are as
follows:
a) Temperature: It is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grassland. It requires cool
climate. The ideal temperature is between 100C to 150C at the time of sowing
and 210C to 260C at the time of ripening and harvesting.
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 b) Rainfall: Wheat thrives well in areas receiving annual rainfall of about 75cm.
Annual rainfall of about 100 cm is the upper limit for wheat cultivation. Like
rice, wheat can also be grown by irrigation method in areas where rainfall is less
than 75cm. Light drizzles at the time of ripening help in increasing the yield. But
on the other hand, frost at the time of flowering and hailstorm at the time of
ripening can cause heavy damage to the wheat crop.
c) Soil: Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils but well drained fertile
loamy and clayey loamy soil is best suited for wheat cultivation. Plain areas
are very well suited for wheat production.
d) Labour: Wheat is extensive and highly mechanized and requires less labour.
e) Distribution: The largest wheat producing states are U.P, Punjab and Madhya
Pradesh. Other than that the main regions of wheat production in India are
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
 MILLETS: Millets are short duration warm weather crops. These are coarse
grain crops and are used for both food and fodder. These are Kharif crops
though sometimes grown in rabi seasons too. These are sown in May-August and
harvested in October-November. Today millets are mostly consumed by poor
people as their staple food. In India, lots of millet is grown and these are known
by various local names. Some of these are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, Korra, Kodon, Kutki,
Hraka, Bauti and Rajgira. In India, Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are grown on large
areas but unfortunately area under these crops has drastically reduced over the
years. Some of the geographical conditions for growing these crops are as follows:
a) Temperature: These crops are grown where the temperature is high which
ranges between 270C to 320C.
b) Rainfall: As mentioned earlier that millets are ‘dry land crop’, therefore, rainfall
ranging from 50 to 100 cm is ideal for their cultivation. These crops are rain-
fed.
c) Soil: Millets are less sensitive to soil deficiencies. They can be grown in
inferior alluvial or loamy soil.
d) Distribution: Jowar and Bajra are grown both in north and south India
whereas ragi is generally concentrated in the southern India. Jowar and Bajra
are grown in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karanataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Ragi is mostly concentrated
in the southern India i.e. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In total,
coarse cereals can be found in Rajasthan, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Jowar(sorghum), Bajra (Pearl millet/Bull Rush millet) Ragi (Finger millet/Buck
wheat) are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known as coarse
grains, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron,
calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.
Maize is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which
requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. In
some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of modern inputs
such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed to the increasing
production of maize. Major maize-producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Telangana and Madhya Pradesh.
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 PULSES
India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Pulses need less moisture
and survive even in dry conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these crops
except arhar (pigeon pea) helps in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the
air. Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops. Most of these
are green manure crops too. Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
Though gram and tur (arhar or pigeon pea/red gram) are the more important
pulses, several other pulses such as urd (black gram), mung (green gram),
masur (lentil), kulthi (horse gram), matar (peas), khersi, cow pea (black-eyed
gram) and moth are also grown. Pulses are generally fodder crops too.
Gram: It is the most important of all the pulses. It accounts for about 37% of the
production and about 30% of the total area of pulses in India. It is a Rabi crop which
is sown between September and November and is harvested between February and
April. It is either cultivated as a single crop or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed
or mustard. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
a) Temperature: It is grown in a wide range of climatic condition. Mild cool and
comparatively dry climate with 200C -250C temperature.
b) Rainfall: 40-45 cm rainfall is favorable for gram cultivation.
c) Soil: It grows well on loamy soils.
d) Distribution: Although gram is cultivated in several parts of the country,
however, 90% of the total production comes from 5 states. These states are
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana
Green Manure Crops: Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing
the organic matter content in the soil are called Green manure crops. Use of Green
manure crops in cropping system is called 'Green Manuring' where the crop is
grown in situ or brought from outside and incorporated when it is purposely grown.
Green manuring are low cost and effective technology in minimising cost of
fertilizers and safeguarding productivity. Green Leaf Manuring consists of
gathering green biomass from nearby location and adding to the soil. Objectives of
green manuring are to add Nitrogen to the companion or succeeding crop and add
or sustain organic matter in the soil. Examples of leguminous Green Manures
are as follows: Local name- Cowpea, Cluster bean (Guar), Green gram (Mung
bean), Sesbania, Dhaincha, Sunhemp, Wild Indigo, Pillipesara, Berseem,
Madras Indigo etc.
Cluster Bean (guar gum): After 2010, India’s much neglected and little-known
Cluster Bean (guar gum) got a big export market. The new market was due to the
multibillion shale and oil gas drilling business in U.S, which has found the gel or
hydrocolloid produced from cluster beans to be an excellent lubricant for the
‘fracking’ process. Fracking is used to extract gas trapped some 6,000 to 10,000
feet beneath the surface making hard shale rock more porous. Large amounts of
water, typically three to five million gallons, are mixed with small amounts of chemical

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additives, sand and pressure injected into holes in the well bore forcing cracks in the
surrounding rocks, allowing much more gas to flow back into the well bore. It has also
turned guar into a precious commodity, farmers now call "black gold". In 2011, India
exported guar worth $915 million to the United States, with most of product intended
for oil and gas industry use. It was India's largest agricultural export to the United
States. India accounts for 80% of the total guar produced in the world. 70% of
India's production comes from Rajasthan. The other producers are Gujarat,
Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The cheapest legume,
grown in dry and arid lands by poor farmers was priced low till few years back then.
Growing guar in India is a risky business because the crop must get the proper
amount of monsoon rain that arrives at the proper time in the growing cycle.
The leaves and beans of the guar plant have traditionally been used as an animal
feed and as a vegetable for human consumption. Farmers take advantage of the
nitrogen fixing abilities of the guar plant by using it as a green manure crop. Guar
gum is used in baking as a dough thickener. It is used to thicken dairy products
such as milk, yogurt, cheese, ice cream and sherbet. In processed foods guar gum is
used as a thickener in salad dressing, sauces, ketchup, soup and many other
products. Guar gum has medicinal uses which include: water-soluble fiber, bulk-
forming laxative and creating a feeling of satiety. Industrially it is used in mining,
petroleum drilling and textile manufacturing.
2. COMMERCIAL/CASH CROPS
Cash crops are those crops which are grown for sale either in raw form or semi
processed form. Major of them are as follows:
 SUGARCANE: Sugarcane is a Kharif crop. It is the main source of sugar, gur and
khandsari. It also provides raw material for the manufacturing of alcohol.
Bagasse, the crushed cane residue, has also multiple uses. It is used for
manufacturing of paper. It is also an efficient substitute for petroleum products
and a host of other chemical products. A part of it is also used as fodder. Some
of the geographical conditions for the growth of sugarcane are as follows:
a) Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with an average temperature
of 210C to 270C.
b) Rainfall: 75-150 cm rainfall is favorable for sugarcane cultivation. Irrigation is
required in those areas where rainfall is less than the prescribed limit.
c) Soil: It can grow in a variety of soils. In fact sugarcane can tolerate any kind of
soil that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soil is ideal for its growth.
The soil should be rich in nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous but neither it
should be too acidic nor alkaline. Flat, plain and level pleatue is an
advantage for sugarcane cultivation because it facilitates irrigation and
transportation of cane to the sugar mills. Sugarcane cultivation requires heavy
manures and fertilizers because it exhausts the fertility of soils quickly and
extensively.
d) Labour: It is a labour oriented cultivation and required cheap labour. Ample
human hands are required at every stage, i.e. sowing, hoeing, weeding,
irrigation, cutting and carrying sugarcanes to the factories.

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 e) Distribution: India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the
world and one of the largest producers of sugarcane in the world. As far
as distribution of sugarcane cultivation in India is concerned, there are three
distinct geographical regions in the country. These regions are:
1. The Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar containing 51% of the total
area and 60% of the country’s total production. Uttar Pradesh is the largest
producer of sugar in India.
2. The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu along the eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats.
3. Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley.
 COTTON: Cotton is the most important fibre crop not only of India but also of the
entire world. It not only provides raw material for cotton textile industry but also
its seed is used in Vanaspati oil industry. The cotton seed is also used as part
of fodder for milch cattle for better milk production. Cotton is basically a kharif
crop. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
a) Temperature: Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areas and
requires uniformly high temperature varying between 210C and 300C.
b) Rainfall: It grows mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free days in
a year. It requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100 cm. However,
cotton is successfully grown with the help of irrigation in the areas where
rainfall is less than 50 cm. High amount of rainfall in the beginning and
sunny and dry weather at the time of ripening are very useful for a good
crop.
c) Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils of Deccan
and Malwa plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej
plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region.
d) Labour: As picking of cotton has not been made mechanized till now,
therefore a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required at the time of
picking.
e) Distribution: India has the largest area under cultivation and is one of the
leading producers of cotton along China and the USA. Within the country
two third of total area and production is shared by four states. The main
states for cotton production are Andhra Pradesh, Telegana, Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.
 JUTE is an important natural fibre crop in India next to cotton. It is a kharif crop.
It requires hot and humid climate with 120-150cm rainfall for its growth. Light
sandy or clayey soils is best for its cultivation. It is labour intensive.
With its insignificant coverage of total cultivated area, it plays a predominant role
in the country’s economy by generating employment, earning foreign
exchange, solving many of the socio-economic problems, etc. In earlier years,
Jute was considered as a Golden Fibre but there after it had to pass through
different critical situation. The main problem came in the way with the
introduction of synthetic fibre by the end of sixties/early seventies. After the
development of diversified product of jute fibre and due to growing concern about
the environment pollution, the importance of jute has again revived.

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Jute cultivation is mainly concentrated in the eastern and north eastern India
especially in Gangetic Plain while that of mesta cultivation is spread almost
throughout the country. The crop can be grown in low, medium and high land
situation, both moisture stress and water stagnating condition. White Jute
(Corchorus capsularis) can be grown comparatively in low land situation while
that of Tossa Jute prefers medium and high land situation. Mesta is grown in
almost all over the country. It being a hardy crop and can tolerate moisture
stress; its cultivation is spread in different agro-climatic situations unlike jute which
is concentrated only in eastern and north eastern States. Major jute and mesta
producing states are West Bengal, Bihar and Assam. In a major part of Jute area,
particularly in North Bengal, Bihar and North-Eastern States, the soil is acidic
in nature. However, the Jute crop is growing in these areas in existing situation
adjusting the crop sequence. It is a water intensive crop-not only for growth but for
processing as well.
3. OILSEEDS: It is one of the important groups of commercial crops in India.
Oil extracted from oilseeds not only forms an important item of our diet but also
serves as raw material for the manufacturing of hydrogenated oils, paints,
varnishes, soaps, lubricants etc. Oil-cake (the residue after the oil is extracted
from the oilseeds) form an important cattle feed and manure.
Drylands of Malwa plateau (Madhya Pradesh), Marathwada (Maharashtra),
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka plateau are oilseeds growing regions of India. These crops
together occupy about 14 percent of total cropped area in the country. Groundnut,
rapeseed and mustard, sesamum, linseed, castor seed, soyabean and sunflower
are the main oilseed crops grown in India.
Groundnut: It is the most important oilseed of India. Groundnut is grown both
as kharif and Rabi crop but 90-95% of the total area is devoted to kharif crop.
It is a rainfed crop. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
a) Temperature: It thrives best in the tropical climate and requires 200C to 300C
temperature.
b) Rainfall: 50-75 cm rainfall is favorable for groundnut cultivation. It is highly
susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant
water. Therefore, dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
c) Soil: Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black soils are well
suited for its cultivation.
d) Distribution: It is the most important oilseed of India and accounts for about
half of the major oilseeds produced in the country. India is one of the largest
producers of groundnut in the world. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Rajasthan and Gujarat are the main producer of groundnut in India and
account for about 60% of the total production. Another 30% of the total
production comes from Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa.
Soybean: Soybean is known as the “Golden Bean” of the 20th Century. Though,
Soybean is a legume crop, yet it is widely used as oilseed. Due to very poor
cookability on account of inherent presence of trypsin inhibitor, it cannot be

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utilized as a pulse. It is now the second largest oilseed in India after groundnut.
It grows in varied agro-climatic conditions but it is best crop in Kharif season. It
has emerged as one of the important commercial crop in many countries. Due
to its worldwide popularity, the international trade of Soybean is spread globally.
Several countries such as Japan, China, Indonesia, Philippines, and European
countries are importing Soybean to supplement their domestic requirement for
human consumption and cattle feed.
Sunflower: Sunflower as an oilseed is a newly introduced crop in the country.
Due to source of high quality edible oil, sunflower oil is used as cooking oil in
different recipes. Its importance increases as sunflower oil is considered as a heart
friendly oil. Besides oil, almost every part of sunflower has commercial value.
This crop has gained importance due to its short duration of maturity,
containing of excellent quality of oil, photo-insensitivity, wide adaptability
into different kinds of cropping pattern, high-energy hull and drought
tolerance. It is a short duration crop and completes its life cycle in about three
months. Hence can be incorporated in different type of cropping pattern. Since
it is a photo-insensitive crop, it can be grown throughout the year. Sunflower is
cultivated as both kharif and rabi seasons but, two-thirds of production comes
from rabi season crop. In addition, sunflower is also cultivated as summer crop in
Punjab and West Bengal. Oil cake is rich in high quality protein (40 – 44 percent)
and used as cattle and poultry feed. This crop is considered valuable from
economic as well as ornamental point of view. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Odisha are the major sunflower producing states.
Sesamum (Til): Sesamum is a rainfed crop and requires 45-50 cm rainfall. It
thrives well in areas having 21o-23oC temperature. Frost, prolonged drought and
heavy rains for a longer duration are harmful to this crop. Well-drained light loamy
soils are best suited to sesamum. It is cultivated in plains as well as on elevations
upto 1,300 metres. It is grown as a kharif crop in the north and as a rabi crop
in the south.
Rapeseed and Mustard: Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climate
of the Satluj-Ganga plain and very small quantity is grown in the peninsular India.
They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or mixed form with wheat, gram and
barley.
Linseed: Although this crop can be grown under varied geographical conditions, it
prefers cool, moist climate with about 20oC temperature and 75 cm rainfall. Clay
loams, deep black soils and alluvial soils are best suited for its cultivation. It
can be cultivated upto a height of 800 metres above sea level. It is a rabi-crop
which is sown in October-November and harvested in March-April.
Castor Seed: Castor seed plant grows into a small tree and is generally raised as
a mixed crop in tropical and sub-tropical climates. It thrives well in areas of
200C-250C temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall. It is grown on red sandy loams in
the peninsular India and on light alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain. Almost the

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 whole area of castor seed production is rainfed. It is a Kharif crop in the north
and a rabi crop in the south.
4. PLANTATION CROP
Plantation agriculture is an export-oriented agriculture. Most of the crops grown in
plantation agriculture have a life cycle of more than two years.
 TEA: India is famous for its tea gardens. Tea plantation in India was started by the
Britishers in 1923 when wild tea plants were discovered by them in the hilly
and forest areas of Assam. Tea is made from tender sprouts of tea plants by
drying them. India is one of the leading tea producing country in the world.
China and Sri Lanka are other leading producers of tea. Some of the geographical
conditions for the growth of tea are as follows:
a) Temperature: It requires hot and wet climate. The ideal temperature for the
growth of tea bushes and leaf varies between 200C to 300C. If temperature
either rises above 350C or goes below 100C, it would be harmful for the
growth of tea bushes and leaves.
b) Rainfall: As mentioned above tea requires a good amount of rainfall ranging
between 150-300 cm and the annual rainfall should be well distributed
throughout the year. Long dry spell is harmful for tea.
c) Soil: Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loamy soil. However,
virgin forest soil rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the
best soils for the tea plantation. Tea is a shade loving plant and grows better
when planted along with shady trees.
d) Labour: Cheap and efficient labour is required for tea production.
e) Distribution: Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50%
of tea production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes
bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second
largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling,
Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest
producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.
 COFFEE: It is the indigenous crop of Ethiopia (Abysinia Plateau). From Ethiopia,
it was taken to Arabia in 11th Century. From Arabia, the seeds were brought by
Baba Budan in 17th Century and were raised in Baba Budan hills of Karnataka.
But it was British planters who took keen interest and large coffee estates were
established in the hills of Western Ghats. Some of the geographical conditions for
the growth of coffee are as follows:
a) Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying
between 150C and 280C. it is generally grown under shady trees. Therefore,
strong sun shine, high temperature above 300C, frost and snowfall are
harmful for coffee cultivation. Dry weather is necessary at the time of
ripening of berried.
b) Rainfall: Rainfall between 150 and 250 cm is favorable for coffee cultivation.
c) Soil: Well drained, rich friable loamy soil containing good deal of humus and
minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee to increase productivity.

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 d) Labour: Like tea, coffee cultivation also requires plenty of cheap and skilled
labour for various purposes like sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking,
drying, grading and packaging of coffee.
e) Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the main states of coffee
production in India.
5. HORTICULTURE CROPS
In simple terms, horticulture can be defined as the science of growing fruits,
vegetables, and flowers. Presently in India, horticulture has established its credibility
in improving income through increased productivity, generating employment
and in enhancing exports. Resultantly, horticulture has moved from rural confines
to becoming a commercial venture. For instance, foodgrains production rose
from 212.85 million tonnes in 2001-02 to 257.07 million tonnes in 2014-15, whereas
during this period horticulture production increased from 145.79 million tonnes
to 283.47 million tonnes i.e. 1.94 times increase has been seen in horticultural
production, whereas foodgrains registered only 1.21 times increase.
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Mangoes of
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, oranges
of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in great
demand the world over. Major flower growing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh in South, West Bengal in East, Maharashtra in West and Rajasthan,
Delhi and Haryana in North. Major exporting flower like orchid covers the entire
region of North-Eastern region especially in the state of Arunanchal Pradesh which
is also known as Orchid State of India. India produces about 13 per cent of the
world’s vegetables. It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion,
cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.
After China, India ranks among the largest producers and leading exporters of
flowers, fruits and vegetables in the world and has an immense scope for
improvement in the forthcoming years. Horticulture has become an answer for the
economic development of various states in our country. It contributes more than
34% GDP of agriculture, which calls for technology-led progress.

INDIAN CROPPING SEASONS

There are three distinct crop seasons in the northern and interior parts of country,
namely kharif, rabi, and zaid.
 The kharif season largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under which the
cultivation of tropical crops such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is
possible.
 The rabi season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends
in March-April. The low temperature conditions during this season facilitate the
cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram and
mustard.

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 Zaid is a short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of
rabi crops, the cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder
crops during this season is done on irrigated lands.
However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern
parts of the country. Here, the temperature is high enough to grow tropical crops
during any period in the year provided the soil moisture is available. Therefore, in this
region same crops can be grown thrice in an agricultural year provided there is
sufficient soil moisture.
Cropping season Major crops cultivated
Northern States Southern States
Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar,
June-September Jowar, Tur Groundnut
Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds Rice, Maize, Ragi
October-March and Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar
Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder Rice, Vegetables, Fodder
April-June
These crops are grown sole or mixed (mixed-cropping), or in a definite sequence
(rotational cropping). The land may be occupied by one crop during one season
(mono-cropping), or by two crops (double-cropping) which may be grown in a year in
sequence. Of late, the trend is even more than two crops (multiple-cropping) in a
year. These intensive cropping may be done either in sequence or even there may be
relay-cropping - one crop under-sown in a standing crop. With wide-rowed slow
growing cropping patterns, companion crops may be grown.

CROPPING PATTERNS
Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of
time. This is, however, a dynamic concept as it changes over space and time.

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 CROP COMBINATIONS
The study of crop combinations constitutes an important aspect of agricultural
geography. In fact, it provides a good basis for agricultural regionalization and
helps in the formulation of strategy for agricultural development. Crops are
generally grown in combinations and it is rarely that a particular crop occupies a
position of total isolation. The distribution maps of and their concentration are
interesting and helps in knowing the density and concentration of individual
crops, but it is even more important to view the integrated assemblage of the
various crops in a region.
On the basis of some homogeneity and commonness, major crop regions in India
may be divides as follows:
1. Rice Region
2. Wheat Region
3. Jowar-Bajra Region
4. Cotton Region
5. Millet and Maize Region
6. Fruit and Spice Region
THE RICE REGION
Rice is considered as the first-ranking crop in the vast region stretching from lower
Gangetic Plain to Brahmaputra Valley in the east and the circum-coastal alluvial
tracts of the peninsula region. Rice cultivation is done around Bay of Bengal,
barring isolated pockets bordering the Arabian Sea. The isohyets line (a line on a map
connecting points having the same amount of rainfall in a given period) 150 cm
demarcates the lower boundary of rice, except in some edges where rice grows even
in 100 cm of annual rainfall. Though rice displays overall dominance, considering the
secondary importance of other crops, this region may be subdivides into following
zones:
1. Rice-Jute-Tea: This association of crops occurs in farthest east, near Assam
Valley northern West Bengal and lower Gangetic plains.
2. Rice-Pulses-Millets-: This association occurs in the western section of the
former zone, covering central Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh and eastern
Uttar Pradesh.
3. Rice-Millets: This zone comprises the entire Andhra Pradesh, south Orissa
and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
4. Rice-Coffee-Spices: This zone is found in the southern extremity of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
THE JOWAR-BAJRA REGION
This crop combination occurs relatively in less rainfall region of 50-100 cm in red
soil region. As the region is drought prone, Jowar-Bajra is more popular.
1. Jowar-Cotton in Maharashtra.
2. Jowar-Cotton-Oilseeds-Millets in Karnataka and Maharashtra.
3. Jowar-Wheat in entire Rajasthan, Haryana and some parts of Uttar Pradesh.
4. Bajra-Jowar-Pulses in Rajasthan desert and semi-desert areas.

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 THE WHEAT REGION
This region covers the entire north-western India including the state of Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The major sub-regions are:
1. Wheat-Maize-Sugar Cane: This region comprises a great part of wheat
regions, covering West Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu.
2. Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Indus Plain covering Punjab and Haryana.
3. Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Vindhyan scarp land and Malwa Bundelkhand
plateau.
THE COTTON REGION
In the black cotton soil as regur region in the North West India, cotton cultivation
predominates. The cotton cultivation covers the Deccan trap region and Gujarat
Plain. The Narmada, Tapti, Purna, Sabarmati River Valleys are basically
heartlands of cotton cultivation. As a cash-crop, cotton cultivation is always
associated with one food grain cultivation, preferably Jowar, Bajra or oil seeds.
The different sub-regions are:
1. Cotton-Jowar-Bajra grows in close association with one another in the
Maharashtra and Western Madhya Pradesh.
2. Cotton-Oilseeds-Combination developed in Gujarat.
3. Cotton-Pulses-Rice-Region developed in Narmada banks and eastern
Gujarat.
THE MILLET-MAIZE REGION
The cultivation of millet, maize and ragi are found in close association with other
major cereals like bajra, wheat, rice etc. Maize cultivation dominates in Rajasthan,
Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. In Himachal Pradesh, Maize-Barley-wheat
combination has developed, particularly in the foothills of the Himalayas. Some
parts of the Aravalli have the peculiar crop combination of Maize-Cotton-Oilseeds-
Millets-Wheat. Ragi cultivation predominates in South of Karnataka.
THE FRUIT & SPICE REGION
This is the smallest region among the different crop regions. High-altitude hilly
areas come under the territory of this region. The ‘Duns’ and valleys in Himalayas,
foothills of Nilgiri, Annamalai, Palni and Cardamom hills in Tamil Nadu and
Kerala may be classified as fruit and spice region. Here, the dominant agricultural
activity is fruit orchards and plantations.
PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS (PRELIMS)
1. With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of “Conservation
Agriculture” assumes significance. Which of the following fall under the Conservation
Agriculture? (2018)
1. Avoiding the monoculture practices
2. Adopting minimum tillage
3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops
4. Using crop residues to cover soil surface
5. Adopting spatial and temporal crop sequencing/crop rotations
Selecting the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (c) 2, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 5
2. With reference to agricultural soils, consider the following statements: (2018)
1. A high content of organic matter in soil drastically reduces its water holding capacity.

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 2. Soil does not play any role in the sulphur cycle.
3. Irrigation over a period of time can contribute to the salinization of some agricultural lands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Which of the following practices can help in water conservation in agriculture?
1. Reduced or Zero tillage of the land (2017)
2. Applying gypsum before irrigating the field
3. Allowing crop residue to remain in the field
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
4. Why does the Government of India promote the use of ‘Neem-coated urea’ in agriculture?
(a) Release of neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms
(b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil (2016)
(c) Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all released into atmosphere by crop
fields
(d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops (2015)
5. What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertlizers in agriculture?
1. Proliferation of nitrogen – fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.
2. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place.
3. Leaching of nitrate to the ground-water can occur.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
6. In India, cluster bean (Guar) is traditionally used as a vegetable or animal feed, but recently the
cultivation of this has assumed significance. Which one of the following statements is correct in
this context? (2014)
(a) The oil extracted from seeds is used in the manufacture of biodegradable plastics
(b) The gum made from its seeds is used in the extraction of shale gas
(c) The leaf extract of this plant has the properties of anti-histamines
(d) It is a source of high quality biodiesel
7. Consider the following crops: (2013)
1. Cotton
2. Groundnut
3. Rice
4. Wheat
Which of these are Kharif crops?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
8. Which of the following is the chief characteristic of ‘mixed farming’? (2012)
(a) Cultivation of both cash crops and food crops
(b) Cultivation of two or more crops in the same field
(c) Rearing of animals and cultivation of crops together
(d) None of the above
9. Consider the following crops of India: (2012)
1. Cowpea
2. Green gram
3. Pigeon pea
Which of the above is/are used as pulse, fodder and green manure?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, and 3
10. Consider the following crops of India: (2012)
1. Groundnut
2. Sesamum
3. Pearl millet
Which of the above is/are predominantly rainfed crop/crops?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

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11. The lower Gangetic plain is characterized by humid climate with high temperature throughout
the year. Which one among the following pairs of crops is the most suitable for this region?
(a) Paddy and cotton (b) Wheat and Jute (2011)
(c) Paddy and Jute (d) Wheat and cotton
12. Among the following States, which one has the most suitable climatic conditions for the
cultivation of a large variety of orchids with minimum cost of production, and can develop an
export oriented industry in this field? (2011)
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Arunachal Pradesh
(c) Madhya Pradesh
(d) Uttar Pradesh