1 CHEMICAL BONDS

A bond is the attractive force that binds atoms (particles) in a molecule.

A chemical bond is the attractive

force that holds atoms, ions or
molecules together
Interatomic bond
It is the attractive force that exists between atoms together in a molecule.

An interatomic bond is formed so that each atom acquires a stable electronic configuration
similar to that of a noble gas.

There are basically three types of interatomic bonds, namely

1. Ionic bond or electrovalent bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Metallic bond

Ionic bonding

Ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed because of the electrostatic attraction between
opposite charge ions as a result of a complete transfer of valence electron(s) from one atom to
the other atom(s) to form ionic compound. It usually occurs between a metal and a non-metal
atoms.

Formation of ionic bonding

Atoms change into ions when they lose or gain electrons. Metal atoms (electropositive atoms)
may lose electron(s). This atom then has more protons than electrons and so will be positively
charged, a cation. Example, a magnesium atom may lose two electrons and become a
magnesium ion, Mg2+.

However, non-metal atoms (electronegative atoms) may gain electron(s) and become
negatively charged. Example, an oxygen atom may gain two electrons and become an oxide
ion, O2-.

Positive and negative ions attract one another and bind together forming a new substance.
This process is called ionic bonding. Examples

MgO i.e. Mg2+ + O2-→ MgO

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 Na+ + Cl- → NaCl

+ -
+

Ionic compound is a compound formed by

the attraction of positive and negative ions

Properties of ionic compounds

Property/ characteristics Reason
1. They are mostly soluble in polar Ions form stable structures with solvent
solvent (e.g. water) molecules
2. They conduct electricity in molten On melting or dissolving, ions are free to
state or in aqueous solution. move and carry an electric current
3. They have high melting and boiling Ions have strong electrostatic forces of
points, and high heat of fusion and attraction between them. So a lot of
vaporisation energy is needed to separate the.
4. They are usually hard, crystalline, Regular arrangement of ions resulting
brittle solid at room temperature from strong electrostatic force of
attraction between opposite charge

Covalent bonding

Covalent bond is a type of chemical bond formed as a result of sharing of one or more pairs
of valence electrons between atoms to attain a noble gas electronic configuration.

Some simple covalent molecules

Chlorine molecule, Cl2
Two chlorine atoms could both achieve stable structures by sharing their single unpaired
electron as follows:

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The two chlorine atoms are said to be joined by covalent bond. The reason that the two
chlorine atoms stick together is that shared pair of electrons is attracted to the nuclei of both
chlorine atoms.

Other examples are

H2O molecule

Ammonia gas, NH3

A single bond is when two electrons, that is one pair of electrons, are shared between two
atoms it is shown by a single line between the two atoms. E.g. H-H, Cl-Cl, and H-Cl

A double bond is when two atoms share two pairs of electrons with each other. It is shown by
two lines between two atoms in a molecule. E.gl O=O, O=C=O

A triple bond is when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule. It
is shown by three lines between two atoms in a molecule. E.g. N≡N, H-C≡C-H

Note that non-metals combine together by sharing electron pairs. The shared pair of electrons
holds the two atoms together. The group of atoms bonded together in this way is called
molecule. E.g. H2, H-H

H2O, O
H H

NH3, H H
N
H

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 A covalent compound is a compound formed by covalent bond
in which the atoms share one or more of valence electrons.

Properties of covalent compounds

Property/ characteristics Reason
1. They are usually insoluble in water Molecular substances dissolve in organic solvents
but soluble in organic solvent because they have similar covalent structures
2. They mostly do not conduct There is absence of ions
electricity either in molten state or in
aqueous solution
3. They have low boiling and melting There is weak inter-molecular forces between the
points, and low heat of fusion and molecules
vaporisation
4. Most are gases or liquid at room They consist of small molecules with weak
temperature attractive forces between them

Trial question
Tabulate two differences between electrovalent bond and covalent bond.

2 NAMING OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

IUPAC stands for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

IUPAC nomenclature is the system of naming substances or compounds according to the

rule of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

Importance of the IUPAC nomenclature

1. It gives one name to one compound
2. It gives information about the oxidation state of atoms combining to form a given
compound
3. It gives information about the number of atoms combining to form a given compound

Oxidation state/ number of an atom is the charge

the atom carries in its pure state or in its compound.

Note, that valency is the combining power of an element or atom. The valency of an atom is
determined by the number of electrons it gains or loses to achieve a noble gas state.

Rules for determining oxidation state/ number

1. The oxidation number of an element in its uncombined or atomic or molecular form is
zero (0). Example H, He, Cl2, O2, and Al all have oxidation number of zero (0).

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 2. The oxidation number of an ion of a single atom is equal to the charge on the ion.
Example Li+ = +1
K+ = +1
Cu2+ = +2
Fe3+ = +3, etc.
3. The oxidation number of an oxygen atom is -2 except in peroxides (example H2O2
and K2O2) and superoxides (examples KO2) where it is -1 and -½ respectively.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen atom is +1 except in metal hydrides. Example in
KH, and CaH2
5. The total of the oxidation numbers of all atoms of a radical is equal to the charge it
carries. Example
The oxidation number of OH- = -1
The oxidation number of CO32- = -2
The oxidation number of NH4+ = +1
6. The total of the oxidation numbers of all atoms of a neutral substance is zero (0).
Example, for
NaCl CO2 KOH
+1 + (-1) = 0 +4 + 2(-2) = 0 +1 + (-2) + (+1) = 0
 Some elements that have more than one oxidation number/ variable valencies show
variable oxidation states/ numbers when they form cation. Examples of such elements
are Cu, Fe, Pb, S, N, C, Mn, and Cr.
 The charge on a substance is written as a right superscript followed by its positive or
negative sign. Example Fe2+ and S2-, and not Fe+2 and S-2
 All metals show a positive oxidation state
 In substances with an oxidation number of +1 or -1, only the sign is written on them

Calculation of Oxidation State/ Number or Valency of a Given Element in a Substance

Find the oxidation number of S in each of the following compounds.
1. CaSO4 2. CaSO3

Solution
1. CaSO4 2. CaSO3
Let X be the oxidation number of S Let X be the oxidation number of S
+2 + X + 4(-2) = 0 +2 + X + 3(-2) = 0
2+X–8=0 2+X–6=0
X=8–2 X=6–2
X=6 X=4
.: X = +6 .: X = +4

Determine the oxidation number for each of the underlined elements.

1. KH 2. CO2 3. CO 4. FeO 5. Al2O3
6. Fe2O3 7. Mn6+ 8. Cr2O72- 9. NO2 10. Au(CN)2-

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 Binary Compounds

A binary compound is a compound containing atoms of two different elements only.

Examples are NaCl, HCl, H2O, CuO, Cu2O, and ZnCl2.
One of the two elements is more electronegative (i.e. it attracts electrons more towards itself
than the other element does). A more electronegative element has a negative oxidation state.

Rules for Naming Binary Compounds

1. Name the first element (which is more electropositive element)
2. If the first element has variable valency or variable oxidation number then indicate
by writing it in bracket in capital Roman numerals immediately after the name of the
first element. Examples, Iron (II), and Copper (I). For those with fixed oxidation
numbers or valencies, their valencies are not indicated in bracket.
3. Replace the last two, three or four letters of the second element which is more
electronegative by the suffix ‘-ide’. Thus Oxygen becomes oxide
Chlorine becomes chloride
Hydrogen becomes hydride, etc.
For example NaCl = Sodium chloride Exceptions: H2O = Water
FeO = Iron (II) oxide NH3 = Ammonia
Fe2O3 = Iron (III) oxide KO2 = Potassium superoxide
CuO = Copper (II) oxide H2O2 = Hydrogen peroxide
Al2O3 = Aluminium oxide Na2O2 = Sodium peroxide

Naming of Ions

Rules for Naming Simple Ions

1. For cations of elements with fixed oxidation states/ valencies, name the element first
then add the word, ‘ion’; the oxidation state/ valency is not shown. Example,
Na+ = sodium ion
2. For cations of elements with variable oxidation states, the oxidation state/ valency is
written in capital Roman numerals, in bracket, immediately after the name of the
element. Example, Cu+ = copper (I) ion
3. For anions, take the suffix ‘-ide’ just like what happens to the more electronegative
elements of a binary compounds, plus the word ‘ion’. Example, O2- = oxide ion

Name the following ions

1. Zn2+ 6. Cl-
2. H+ 7. O2-
3. Cu2+ 8. F-
4. Fe3+ 9. I-
5. Pb2+ 10. S2-

Oxoanions
Oxoanions are radicals or polyatomic ions in which oxygen atom(s) are bonded to a central atom.

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Rules for Naming Oxoanions
1. The suffix, ‘-ate’ replaces the last two, three or four letters in the name of the central atom
(as it is so named). Example, CO32- becomes carbonate etc.
2. The oxidation number/ valency of the central atom is written in capital Roman numerals, in
brackets, after its name. Example, CO32- becomes carbonate (IV), etc.
3. The number of oxygen atoms is placed before the name of the central atom as
‘oxo-‘ for one oxygen
‘dioxo-‘ for two oxygen
‘trioxo-‘ for three oxygen
‘tetraoxo-‘ for four oxygen
‘pentaoxo-‘ for five oxygen
Etc.
2-
For example, CO3 becomes trioxocarbonate (IV)
4. The word ‘ion’ is added to the name. Thus CO32- becomes trioxocarbonate (IV) ion.

Names of some oxoanions

Formula Name
NO3- trioxonitrate (V) ion
SO42- tetraoxosulphate (VI) ion
SO32- trioxosulphate (IV) ion
ClO- oxochlorate (I) ion
HCO3- hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV) ion
MnO4- tetraoxomanganate (VII) ion
Exception:
OH- hydroxide ion

Oxoacids
Oxoacids are compounds containing one or more hydrogen atom(s) and an oxoanion.
Rules for Naming Oxoacides
1. First break the compound into two parts; that is the hydrogen component and the
oxoanion component. Example, HNO3 becomes H+ + NO3-
2. The oxoanion component is named and the last word ‘ion’ is replaced with the word
‘acid’. Example,
HNO3 becomes trioxonitrate (V) acid
H3PO4 becomes tetraoxophosphate (V) acid

Bases
Bases may be conveniently divided into two:
i. Oxides
ii. Hydroxides

The oxides are named in the same way as the naming of binary compounds. Examples,
CaO for calcium oxide

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 MgO for magnesium oxide
ZnO for zinc oxide

An hydroxide is made up of a cation and an hydroxide ion, OH-. Hydroxides are also named
in the same way as the naming of binary compounds. Examples,
NaOH for sodium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 for calcium hydroxide
Fe(OH)2 for iron (II) hydroxide

Salts
Salts are formed when a metal (or ammonium) ion completely or partially replaces the
hydrogen atom(s) of an acid.
Salts may be divided into binary salts and oxoacid salts.
The name of a binary salt is a combination of the names of the cation and the anion.
Examples, CaCO3 = calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
MgSO4 = magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI)
CuSO4 = copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
Pb(NO3)2 = lead (II) trioxonitrate (V)
NaHSO4 = sodium hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI)

Write the IUPAC names for the following substances

i. CuO vi. CuSO4
ii. KNO3 vii. MgCl2
iii. Fe(OH)3 viii. Fe2(SO4)3
iv. H2SO4 ix. AlPO4
v. NH4OH x. H3PO4

3 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (RAM), Ar

The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element
compared to the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of its isotopes.
The relative atomic mass of an atom is the mass of the atom divided by the mass of one
atom of carbon-12.
Mathematically,

Ar =

Relative atomic mass has no unit. When the relative atomic mass is given the unit ‘u’ it is
called the atomic mass. Thus, the relative atomic mass of sodium is 23 and its atomic mass is
23u.

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 In calculating for the relative atomic mass of an element, the atomic mass of the isotopes and
their relative abundance are used. The relative abundance is given either in percentages or
decimal fractions which should sum up to 100% or 1 respectively.

For instance, if an element X has two isotopes and , then the relative atomic mass of X
is given by

Ar(X) = ,

Where, the percentage abundance of atom = m, then,

the percentage abundance of atom = (100-m)
Examples:
1. Chlorine has two main isotopes and with relative abundance of 76% and 24%
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Solution

Ar(Cl) =
= 35.48
≈ 35.5 (1 d.p)
2. The relative abundance of two main isotopes of carbon 12C and 13C are 98.89% and 1.11%
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of carbon.
Solution

Ar(C) =
= 12.011
≈ 12 (1 d.p)
3. Copper has two isotopes 63Cu and 65Cu. 63Cu has relative isotopic mass of 62.9 and that of
65
Cu is 64.9. The relative atomic mass of the naturally occurring copper is 63.55. Calculate
the percentage abundance of each isotope.

4 MOLE CONCEPT

Mole is the unit of measurement of an amount of substance.

A mole or one mole of any substance is the amount of that substance which contains the
same number of entities as there are carbon atoms in 12g of pure carbon-12 isotopes.

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Note, a mole of any substance contains 602000000000000000000000 (i.e. 6.02 x 1023)
particles/ entities of that substance.

The Avogadro’s constant/ number is the number of elementary particles in one mole of any
substance.

The elementary particles or entities can be atoms, ions, molecules, etc.

The Avogadro’s constant has the unit, per mol (mol-1).

Note, that the Avogadro’s constant, L = 6.02 x 1023entities mol-1

i.e. 1mole = L entities

5mole = 5 x L entities

.: the number of entities (N) = amount of substance (n) x Avogadro’s constant (L)

i.e. N=nxL

n=

Examples

1. Find the number of molecules in 2.5mol of hydrogen gas.

Solution

From, n = ,

N=nxL
N = 2.5 x 6.02 x 1023
= 15.05 x 1023molecules.

2. 30.10 x 1023 atom of aluminium is equal to what moles.

Solution

From, n =

= 30.10 x 1023atom
6.02 x 1023atom/mol

= 30.10 x 1023atom
6.02 x 1023atom/mol

= 5mol

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3. Given, that Avogadro’s constant is 6.02 x 1023, calculate the number of atoms in 0.01mol
of carbon element.

Solution

From, N = n x L

= 0.01mol x 6.02 x 1023atoms/mol

= 0.0602 x 1023atoms
= 6.02 x 1021atoms

4. There are 0.2mol of hydrogen gas. Calculate the following in the gas.
i. Hydrogen molecule
ii. Hydrogen atoms

Solution

i. From, N(NH3) = n x L
= 0.2mol x 6.02 x1023molecules/mol
= 1.204 x 1023molecules
ii. Hydrogen atom in the gas, H2 = 2H
But , N(H) 2 OR
N(NH3) 1 2H = 2 x 0.2mol x 6.02 x 1023atom/mol
N(H) x 1 = 2 x N(NH3) = 2 x 1.204 x 1023
N(H) = 2 x 1.204 x 1023 = 2.408 x 1023atoms
= 2.408x1023atoms
5. You are given 12.04 x 1023 molecules of ammonia gas, NH3. Calculate the amount of the
following:
i. Ammonia molecules
ii. Hydrogen atoms

Solution
ii. NH3 → N + 3H
i. From, n =
n(H) 3
n(NH3) 1
= 12.04 x 1023
n(H) x 1 = 3 x n(NH3)
6.02 x 1023
n(H) = 3 x 2mol
= 2mol = 6mol
6. Calculate the amount and number oxygen atoms in 1.5mol ozone, O3, gas.
Solution
O3 → 3O
n(O) 3
n(O3) 1
n(O) = 3 x n(O3)
= 3 x 1.5mol
= 4.5mol

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 But, N = n x L
N = 4.5mol x 6.02 x 1023mol-1
= 27.09 x 1023
= 2.709 x 1024atoms

Molar mass/ Molecular mass/ Formula mass

It is the mass of one mole of any substance.
It has the unit gmol-1 or g/mol.
The molar mass of any substance contains the Avogadro’s constant of that substance.

Relative molecular mass

It is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in a molecule. It has no unit.
Relative molecular mass is numerically equal to the molecular mass of a substance.
Examples:
Calculate the molar mass of each of the following substances:
i. NaCl
ii. CO2
iii. Na2CO3
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)

Solution

i. Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5gmol-1

ii. Molar mass of CO2 = 12 + 2(16) = 44gmol-1
iii. Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) = 106gmol-1

Trial
Calculate the molar mass of each of the following substances:

i. NaOH ii. PbSO4 iii. C17H35COONa (Relative atomic masses: H = 1,

C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23, S = 32, Pb = 52)

The molar mass can also be said to be the mass of a given substance divided by its amount
of substances.

i.e. Molar mass (M) =

n=

Examples

1. What is the amount of substance in 2.7g of aluminium? (relative atomic mass, Al =

27)

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Solution

From,

Amount of substance (n) =

But, m = 2.7g
M = 27g/mol

n=

= 0.1mol

2. How many moles are there in 4.2g of NaHCO3? [H = 1, C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23]

Solution

From,

Amount of substance (n) =

But, m(NaHCO3) = 4.2g

M(NaHCO3) = 23 + 1 + 12 + 3(16)
= 84g/mol
n(NaHCO3) =

= 0.05mol

Concentration Of Solutions

spoon
solute

large quantity
+ small quantity
more solute of solute
of solute

pure solvent dilute solution concentrated solution

The concentration of a solution is the quantity of solute contained in a given volume of the
solution. It has the symbol, c.

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That is, concentration (c) =

The volume is measured in decimetre cube (dm3)

Also, 1dm3 = 1000cm3 = 1litre

Molarity or amount of substance concentration is the amount of substance dissolved in

1dm3 of solution. Its unit is M or mol/dm3

That is, c =
A concentrated solution is a solution which
contains a large quantity of solute in
But, n= comparison with a given volume of solution.

A dilute solution is a solution which contains

c=
a small amount of solute in comparison with
a given volume of water/ solution.

Examples

1. Calculate the concentration of 30.5g common salt dissolved to produce 500cm3 salt
solution. [Na = 23, Cl = 35.5]

Solution
From, c =

But, n=
m(NaCl) = 30.5g

M(NaCl) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5gmol-1

V = 500cm3 = = 0.5dm3

Therefore, n = = 0.52136752mol

c= = 1.04273504

= 1M (1 d.p)

Molar concentration is the concentration of 1M of a solution.

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Mass concentration is the mass of a substance dissolved in 1dm3 of a solution. It has the
symbol . It has the unit gdm-3.

i.e.  =
Example
1. Calculate the mass concentration of 35g H2SO4 dissolve in 300cm3 solution.
Solution

From,  =

m(H2SO4) = 35g

V = 300cm3 = = 0.3dm3

 = = 116.666667

= 116.7g/dm3 (1 d.p)
Note that, c =
c= x
c= x

c=
Example
29.25g of common salt dissolved to make 500cm3 of solution. Calculate the concentration of
the solution in
i. g/dm3
ii. mol/dm3 [Na = 23, Cl = 35.5]

Solution

i. From,  =

m(NaCl) = 29.25g

V = 500cm3 = = 0.5dm3

 = = 58.5gdm-3

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 
ii. From, c =
(NaCl) = 58.5gdm-3
M(NaCl) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5gmol-1

c= = 1M

Trial questions
1. Calculate the mass concentration of 14.6g of hydrochloric acid in 1dm3
2. Calculate the concentration in g/dm3 of solution of NaOH containing 0.25mol in
1dm3.
3. Calculate the mass of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV), Na2CO3, to be weighed to prepare
250cm3 of a 1M solution.
4. a) A solution of soap (formula C17H35COONa) is prepared by dissolving 60g of soap
to make 200cm3 solution. Calculate the concentration of the soap solution in:
i. moles
ii. grams per litre

b) 50cm3 of the soap solution prepared was left to dry out. Calculate the mass of solid
soap recovered.

5. The molar mass of NaOH is 40gmol-1. 20g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is dissolved
completely in distilled water.

Copy and complete the following statement

a. If the volume of sodium hydroxide solution is made up to 1dm3, the

concentration will be ….moldm-3, or ….M.
b. If the volume of sodium hydroxide solution is made up to 2dm3, ….the
concentration will be …. or …..

Preparation of a standard solution

A stock solution is the concentrated solution

from which dilute solutions are prepared.

A standard solution is a solution

whose exact concentration is known.

The steps involved in the preparation of a standard solution are as follows:

1. The mass of the substance is calculated from the chemical formula of the substance.
2. The calculated mass is weighed in a clean dry beaker.

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 3. The weighed mass is carefully transferred into a standard volumetric flask with
distilled water.
4. The beaker and funnel are rinsed well into the flask. The flask is stoppered and shaken
well to dissolve all the solute.
5. Distilled water is added up to the point where the liquid level is near the graduated
mark on the flask.
6. A teat pipette is used to add distilled water drop wise until the bottom of the meniscus
is at the horizontal eye level.
7. The flask is then labelled with the name and concentration of the solution and date of
preparation.

3
1&2

5&6
7

Preparation of a molar solution of sodium chloride (NaCl)

(Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
1. The mass of the sodium chloride is calculated.
i.e. formula mass of sodium chloride, NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g
2. Exactly 58.5g of the sodium chloride is weighed by means of an appropriate balance.
3. All the 58.5g weighed is dissolved in distilled water in 600cm3 flask or beaker.
4. The sodium chloride solution is introduced into a 1000cm3 or 1dm3 volumetric flask.
5. More distilled water is added to the sodium chloride solution in the volumetric flask
and stirred until the level of the solution it reaches the 1dm3.
The solution so obtained is exactly a one molar (1M) aqueous solution of sodium
chloride.
Trial question
Describe the preparation of 1M glucose (C6H12O6) in the laboratory.

17
Preparation of 1000cm3 of 0.5M NaCl solution.
(Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
1. The mass of the NaCl is calculated as follows:
Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g/mol
1mol NaCl = 58.5g
But 1M NaCl = 1mol NaCl

Therefore, 0.5M NaCl = x 1mol = 0.5mol

But, 1mol NaCl = 58.5g

0.5mol NaCl = x 58.5g = 29.25g

2. Exactly 29.25g of the sodium chloride is weighed by means of an appropriate balance.
3. All the 29.25g weighed is dissolved in distilled water in 600cm3 flask or beaker.
4. The sodium chloride solution is introduced into a 1000cm3 or 1dm3 volumetric flask.
5. More distilled water is added to the sodium chloride solution in the volumetric flask
and stirred until the level of the solution it reaches the 1000cm3 or 1dm3.

Preparation of 500cm3 of 1M C6H12O6

(H = 1, O = 16, C = 12)

1. The mass of glucose is calculated as follows:

Molar mass of C6H12O6 = 6(12) + 12(1) + 6(16) = 180gmol-1

But, 1000cm3 of 1M contains 1mol C6H12O6 which is 180g.

Therefore, 500cm3 of 1M contains x 1mol = 0.5mol

But, 1mol C6H12O6 = 180g

Therefore, 0.5mol C6H12O6 = x 180g = 90g

2. Exactly 90g of the glucose is weighed by means of an appropriate balance.

3. All the 90g weighed is dissolved in distilled water in 300cm3 flask or beaker.
4. The glucose solution is introduced into a 500cm3 or 0.5dm3 volumetric flask.
5. More distilled water is added to the glucose solution in the volumetric flask and
stirred until the level of the solution it reaches the 500cm3.

Dilution of solutions
Dilution of a solution is the addition of more solvent to the solution.
When a solution is diluted, the amount of substance (the moles) remains the same; only the
volume of the solvent increases.

Therefore, nconcentrated solution = ndiluted solution

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but, n =cxv

cconc. x vconc. = cdil..x vdil. or c1 x v1 = c2.x v2

where, vdil. = vconc. + vwater
Example 1.

100cm3 of 0.2M HCl was diluted to 250cm3. What will be the concentration of the diluted
solution?

Solution

c1 x v1 = c2.x v2
c1 = 0.2M
v1 = 100cm3
c2 = ?
v2 = 250cm3
0.2M x 100cm3 = c2 x 250cm3

= c2

c2 = 0.08M

Example 2.

What volume of water should be added to 100cm3 of 0.2M HCl to produce 0.1M solution?

Solution
c1 x v1 = c2.x v2 0.2M x 100cm3 =(0.1M x 100cm3)+(0.1M x vw)
but, c1 = 0.2M
20 – 10 = 0.1M x vw
v1 = 100cm3
c2.= 0.1M
v2 = ? = vw
but, v2 = v1+ vwater
c1 x v1 = c2.x (v1+ vw) 100cm3 = vw
0.2M x 100cm3 = 0.1M x (100cm3 + vw)

Dilution factor is the number of times the

volume of a more concentrated solution is
diluted to obtain the less concentrated solution.

Dilution factor = or

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Application of dilution

1. Diluting concentrated orange juice

2. Diluting liquid medicines
3. Diluting windscreen washing liquid for different temperatures.

Solubility is the amount of substance that dissolves

in 100cm3 or 100g of water at a given temperature.

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