LESSON 1 | INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION 1) The actual object that the drawing or projection represents

2) The eye of the viewer looking at the object

3) The imaginary projection plane
GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
4) Imaginary lines of sight called Projectors
• It involves using visual materials to relate ideas.
• The two broad types of projections, both with several subclassifications, are parallel
• Drawings, photographs, slides, transparencies, and sketches are all forms of graphic projection and perspective projection.
communication.
• Any medium that uses a graphic image to aid in conveying a message, instructions, or an idea A. PARALLEL PROJECTION
is involved in graphic communication. • It is a type of projection where the line of sight or projectors are parallel and are
perpendicular to the picture planes.
DRAWING • It is subdivided in to the following three categories: Orthographic, Oblique and
• It is a graphic representation of an object, or a part of it, and is the result of creative thought Axonometric Projections.
by an engineer or technician.
• There are two basic types of drawings: Artistic and Technical drawings. (a) Orthographic Projections
• These are drawn as multi view drawings, which show flat representations of
1. Artistic Drawings principal views of the subject.
• Artistic Drawings range in scope from the simplest line drawing to the most famous
paintings.
• Regardless of their complexity, artistic drawings are used to express the feelings, beliefs,
philosophies, and ideas of the artist.
• In order to understand an artistic drawing, it is sometimes necessary to first understand
the artist.

2. Technical Drawings
• The technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle, or abstract.
(b) Oblique Projections
• It does not require an understanding of its creator, only an understanding of technical
drawings.
• These actually show the full size of one view.

• A technical drawing is a means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the

information necessary to transform an idea or a concept into reality. (c)
• Therefore, a technical drawing often contains more than just a graphic representation of
its subject. It also contains dimensions, notes and specifications.

TYPES OF TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

• Technical drawings are based on the fundamental principles of projections.
• A projection is a drawing or representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or planes.
• This projection planes serves the same purpose in technical drawing as is served by the
movie screen.
• A projection involves four components:
 Axonometric Projections engineering and construction.
• These are three-dimensional drawings, and are of three different varieties: LESSON 2 | LINES, LETTERING, AND DIMENSIONS
Isometric, Dimetric and Trimetric.

LINE STYLES AND TYPES

Standard lines have been developed so that every drawing or sketch conveys the same meaning
to everyone. In order to convey that meaning, the lines used in technical drawings have both a
definite pattern and a definite thickness. Some lines are complete and others are broken. Some
lines are thick and others are thin.

1. OBJECT LINES
• These are the most common lines used in drawings.
• These thick, solid lines show the visible edges, corners, and surfaces of a part.
B. PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION • Object lines stand out on the drawing and clearly define the outline and features of the
• Perspective projections are drawings which attempt to replicate what the object.
human eye actually sees when it views an object.
• There are three types of perspective projections: One-point, Two-point and
Three-point Projections.

2. HIDDEN LINES
• These are used to show edges and surfaces that are not visible in a view.
• These lines are drawn as thin, evenly spaced dashes.
PURPOSE OF TECHNICAL DRAWINGS • A surface or edge that is shown in one view with an object line will be shown in another
view with a hidden line.
Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled, constructed, built, or
subjected to any other types of conversion process must first be designed.

For example, a house must be designed before it can be built.

APPLICATION OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

Technical drawings are used in many different applications. They are needed in any
setting, which involves design, and in any subsequent forms of conversion process. The most
common applications of technical drawings can be found in the fields of manufacturing,
3. CENTER LINES 5. LEADER LINES
• These are used in drawings for several different applications. • These show information such as dimensional notes, material specifications, and process
• The meaning of a center line is normally determined by how it is used. notes.

• Center lines are thin, alternating long and short dashes that are generally used to show • These lines are normally drawn as thin, solid lines with an arrowhead at one end.
hole centers and center positions of rounded features, such as arcs and radii. • They are bent or angled at the start but should always end horizontal at the notation.
• Arcs are sections of a circle, and radii are rounded corners or edges of a part. • When leader lines reference a surface, a dot is used instead of an arrowhead.
• Centre lines can also show the symmetry of an object.

4. DIMENSION AND EXTENSION LINES

• These are thin, solid lines that show the direction, length, and limits of the dimensions of a
part. 6. PHANTOM LINES

• Dimension lines are drawn with an arrowhead at both ends. • Like center lines, phantom lines are used for several purposes in blueprints.

• Extension lines are drawn close to, but never touching, the edges or surface they limit. • These are used to show alternate positions for moving parts and the positions of related
or adjacent parts, and to eliminate repeated details.
• They should be perpendicular, or at right angles, to the dimension line.
• Phantom lines are drawn as thin, alternating long dashes separated by two short dashes.
• The length of extension lines is generally suited to the number of dimensions they limit.
7. CUTTING PLANE LINES 9. BREAK LINES
• These lines show the location and path of imaginary cuts made through parts to show • These lines are drawn to show that a part has been shortened to reduce its size on the
internal details. drawing.
• In most cases, sectional views (or views that show complicated internal details of a part) • The two variations of break lines common to blueprints are the long break line and the
are indicated by using a cutting plane line. short break line.
• These lines are thick, alternating long lines separated by two short dashes. • Long break lines are thin solid lines that have zigzags to indicate a break.
• The arrowheads at each end show the viewing direction of the related sectional view. • Short break lines are thick, wavy solid lines that are drawn freehand.
• The two main types of cutting plane lines are the straight and the offset. • When either of these break lines is used to shorten an object, you can assume that the
section removed from the part is identical to the portions shown on either side of the

8. SECTION LINES OR HATCH PATTERNS

• Section lines, also known as hatch patterns, indicate the surfaces in a sectional view as
break.
they
would appear if the part were actually cut along the cutting plane line.
• These are solid lines that are normally drawn at 45 degree angles.
• Different symbols are used to represent different types of materials.
 Section views  General principles

Sectioning Technique  . A sectional view represents the part of an object remaining after a portion is
The technique called section views is a very important aspect of design and assumed to have been cut and removed.
documentation. It is used to  The exposed cut surface is then indicated by section lines.
 Hidden features behind the cutting plane are omitted, unless required for
 improve the visualization and clarity of new designs, dimensioning or for definition of the part.
 clarify multiview drawings,
 reveal interior features of parts, and
 facilitate the dimensioning of drawings.

Architectural drawings use section views to reveal the interior details of walls, ceilings,
floors, and other elements of the building structure.
Sectional drawings are multi-view technical drawings that contain special views of a
part or parts, which reveal interior features. Sectioning uses a technique that is based on
passing an imaginary cutting plane through a part.

As you can see in the figure here the lines of the edges between surfaces on the rear side
of the part, shown as hidden lines on the non-cut multiview drawing, disappear from the
section view.

 Section lines and symbols

Section lines, or hatching, that represent the cut surface usually consist of thin parallel
lines, as shown below, drawn at an angle of approximately 45° to the principal edges or
axes of the part.
For most purposes, the general use symbol of cast iron is used. When it is desired to
indicate differences in materials, for example on assembly drawings involving a variety of
materials, other symbolic section lines may be used.
In the figure, views a are Standard multiview projections. Views b are Multiview
projection with cutting plane placement and Section view. As you can see, the hidden
features can be explicitly seen after sectioning.
  Section lines should be suitably spaced in relation to the size of the area covered, and for
large areas it is recommended that section lines be shown only along the edges.

If the section lines appear to be parallel, or nearly so, to one of the sides or features of the part, you
should choose other than 450 angle. Section lines should not run parallel or perpendicular to the
visible outline.

 Thin elements should not be sectioned.

Avoid placing dimensions or notes within the section-lined areas. However, where the insertion of
dimensions or lettering in sectional areas is unavoidable, omit the section lines in the area of the
note.

The general purpose or cast iron section line is drawn at a 450 angle and spaced 1/16" (1.5mm) to
1/8" (3mm) or more depending on the size of the drawing.

 In all sections of a single component, section lines should be similar in direction and
spacing, but adjacent parts should be section-lined in different directions, angles, or
spacing.
 Section lines should be thinner than visible lines.
 Do not run section lines beyond the visible outlines or stop them too short.

 Cutting planes
Cutting plane lines which show where the cutting plane passes through the object, represent the
edge view of the cutting plane and are drawn in the view(s) adjacent to the section view.
 In the drawing you must show the cutting plane line either on front view (with the top sectioned
Here the cutting plane is drawn as an edge in the top view, which is adjacent to the sectioned front view) or on top view (with the frontal section view), not on both.
view. This is a frontal cutting plane. Lines of sight should always be directed upwards on the top
view for sectioned front view. Two types of lines are acceptable for cutting plane lines in multi-view drawings. Position of the line-
of-sight arrows also can vary. But it is important to use only one type of cutting plane line in a single
A horizontal cutting plane is one where it is an edge in the front view and the top view is sectioned. drawing.

Cutting plane lines are thick (0.6 mm) dashed lines, that extend past the edge of the object 6mm
(1/4") and have line segments at each end drawn at 90 degrees and terminated with arrows. The
arrows represent the direction of the line of sight for the section view and they point away from the
sectioned view.

The long dash can be lengthened for large section drawings to save time and create a more
If the cutting plane appears as an edge in the top and front views and the profile view is sectioned, it readable drawing.
is a profile cutting plane.
Multiple sections can be done on a single object.
 The change of plane that occurs when the cutting plane is bent at 90 0 is not represented with lines
in the section view!

 PROJECTION
Introduction

All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two-dimensional surface (paper) be
used to communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. Here projections
have been divided in to two basic categories; pictorial and multi view.
This simple division separates single view projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from
multi view projections (orthographic).

Theoretically, projections can be classified as convergent and parallel, or divided in to three

systems of projection: perspective, oblique, and orthographic. Division of types based on whether
the drawing is a one view or multi view projection sufficiently separate projection types in to those
used for engineering working drawings (orthographic) and those used for display (architectural
rendering, technical illustrations etc).

Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's get a good look at this strange block from
several angles.
To include features that are not in a straight line, the cutting plane may be offset or bent at one or
more 900 angles, to include several planes or curved surfaces. It is called offset section and is used
for complex parts that have several important features that cannot be sectioned using a straight
cutting plane.
 Isometric Drawing
The representation of the object is called an isometric drawing.

Which views should one choose for a multi view drawing? The views that reveal every detail
about the object. Three views are not always necessary; we need only as many views as are
required to describe the object fully. For example, some objects need only two views, while others
Isometric Drawing need four.

This is one of a family of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric The circular object below requires only two views.
drawing, the object's vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width
and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the horizontal. When drawn under these
guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes are at their true (scale) lengths. Lines that are
not parallel to these axes will not be of their true length.

Orthographic or Multi view Projection

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure
shown.

Theory of Multi view Projections

 Multi view orthographic projection is the primary means of graphic communication used
in engineering work. Drawings are used to convey ideas, dimensions, shapes, and
procedures for the manufacture of the object or construction of a system. Orthographic
projection is the basis of all descriptive geometry procedures.
 Multi view projection is a procedure that can be used to completely describe an object’s
shape and dimensions using two or more views that are normally projected at 900 to each
other, or at specified angles.
 In general, engineering work is complete using this method of projection. The finished
drawing is then reproduced and sent to the shop or to the job site.
 To design and communicate every detail to manufacturing groups (Engineers, technicians)
descriptions must be prepared. This description must show every aspect of the shape and
size of each part and of the complete structure. Because of this necessity graphics is the
Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. This shows how the three fundamental method of communication only as a supplement, for notes and
views appear on a piece of paper. Multi view drawing and its explanation. specifications, is the word language used.
  Shape is described by projection that is by the process of causing an image to be formed
by rays of sight taken in a particular direction from an object to a picture plane. Methods
of projection vary according to the direction in which the rays of sight are taken to the
plane. When the rays are perpendicular to the plane, the projective method is
Orthographic.
 If the rays are at an angle to the plane, the projective method is called oblique. Rays taken
to a particular station point result in perspective projection. By the methods of
perspective, the object is represented as it would appear to the eye.
 Theory of projection is the basis of background information necessary to shape
representation in graphics.

Two fundamental methods of shape representation are used.

1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more separate views of an object taken
from different directions, generally at right angles to each other and arranged relative to
each other in a definite way. Each of the views shows the shape of the object for a
particular view direction and collectively the views describe the object completely.
2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and projected up on a single plane.
Either oblique on perspective projection is used.

Orthographic Projection

Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single projection made by dropping
perpendiculars to a plane. In short, orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact
shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to planes,
generally at right angles to each other; collectively, the views on these planes Orthographic Views
describe the object completely.
It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by extending perpendiculars to the
Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic projection in order to solve for advanced plane from all points of the object. This picture, or projection on a frontal plane, shows the
technical data involving the spatial relationship of points, lines, planes, and solid shapes. The most shape of the object when viewed from the front but it does not tell the shape or distance from
common means of understanding these types of orthographic projection is The Glass Box front to real. Accordingly, more than one protection is required to describe the object.
method.

The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive geometry problems, requires that the user The Six Principal Views
imagine that the object, points, lines, planes etc are enclosed in a transparent “box”.
Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each at sight angles to each other. On
these planes, views of the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, and right side, left
side, bottom and rear.
In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed on one drawing.
All these views are principal views. Each of the six views shows two of the three dimensions of
height, width and depth.
The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views. Each is vertical. The top and bottom
planes are in the horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right sides are required.
COMBINATION OF VIEWS
A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces
The most usual combination selected from the six possible views consists of the top, front, and right
-side views sometimes the left- side view helps to describe an object more clearly then the light side The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be in a simple position or inclined
view. to the planes of projection depending up on the shape or position, the surface takes is name
The six principal views of an object or the glass box have previously been presented in the type of from the plane of projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a line in a horizontal plane; a frontal line
orthographic projection known as Third Angle Orthographic Projection. is a line in a frontal plane; and a profile line is a line in a profile plane. When a line is parallel to
two planes, the line takes the name of both planes as horizontal frontal, horizontal- profile, or
frontal profile.

In this form of projection, the object is assumed to be in front of the image plane. Each view is B. Inclined Surfaces
formed by projecting through the object and on to the image plane.
An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a point
when it is perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is inclined to
the plane.

Classification of surfaces and Lines in Orthographic Projections

Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may or may not have some surfaces
parallel or perpendicular to the planes of projection.

Surfaces are classified according to their space relationship with the planes of projection i.e. C. Oblique Surfaces
horizontal, frontal and profile surfaces. When a surface is inclined to two of the planes of projection
A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line and it
(but perpendicular to the third, the surface is said to be auxiliary or inclined. It the surface is at
does not show in true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding edges shows
angle to all three planes, the term oblique or skew is used.
interval length in one view and is fore shortened in the other two views.
D. Hidden Surfaces Precedence of lines

To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing should In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden portions of the object may project
contain lines representing all the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects in to coincide with visible portions Center lines may occur where there is a visible or hidden out line of
any view there will be some parts of the object that can not be seen from the position of some part of the object.
the observer, as they will be covered by station of the object closer to the observer’s eye. Precedence of Lines. The following are rules that govern line precedence in sketches and
The edges, intersections, and surface limits of these hidden parts are indicated by a technical drawings. Object lines take precedence over hidden and center lines. Hidden lines take
discontinuous line called a dashed line. precedence over center lines. Cutting plane lines take precedence over all others.

The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.

1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.

Pictorial Projections

Pictorial projection is a method of drawing an object by projecting its features onto a single
plane, usually at an oblique or isometric angle. The plane is tilted to show more than one face of the
E. Curved Surfaces object at once, creating a three-dimensional impression.

To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections, center lines are commonly As we have seen in the previous chapters, the four principal types of projection are:
utilized. All the center lines, which are the axes of symmetry, for all symmetrical views are ♦ Multi view projection
a part of views. ♦ Axonometric projection
1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the axis drawn as center line before ♦ Oblique projection
the part is drawn. ♦ Perspective projection
2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two mutually perpendicular center
lines. • Multi view drawing/projection combines several orthographic projections into a single
The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a fine line made up of document.
alternate long and short dashes. • Axonometric projection is a type of orthographic projection used for creating a pictorial
drawing of an object, where the object is rotated around one or more of its axes to reveal
 multiple sides.
• An oblique projection is a parallel projection in which the lines of sight are not
perpendicular to the projection plane.
• Perspective Projection is the graphic representation of an object on a single plane called
Picture Plane (PP).

 Isometric drawing, also called isometric projection, method of graphic representation of three-
dimensional objects, used by engineers, technical illustrators, and, occasionally, architects.
 An isometric projection results if the plane is oriented so that it makes equal angles (hence
“isometric,” or “equal measure”) with the three principal planes of the object.
 In an isometric drawing of a cube, the three visible faces appear as equilateral parallelograms.

Box Construction
Axonometric projections are classified as
Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by means of box construction, which
a) Isometric projection
consists simply in imagining the object to be enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides coincide
b) Dimetric Projection
with the main faces of the object.
c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of scales of reduction required.

Lines in Isometric Drawing

 Hidden Lines
The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in all other types of
Isometric Projection projection: Hidden lines are omitted unless they are needed to make the drawing clear. If a
projecting part cannot be clearly shown without the use of hidden lines, then hidden lines are
To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal measure”), it is necessary to place needed.
the object so that its principal edges or axes, make equal angles with the plane of projection, and  Center Lines
are therefore foreshortened equally. The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in multi view drawing:
center lines are drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry, or if they are needed for
Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional objects in two dimensioning. In general, center lines should be used sparingly, and omitted in cases of doubt. The
dimensions in technical and engineering drawings. It is an axonometric projection in which the three use of too many center lines may produce a confusion of lines, which diminishes the clearness of
coordinate axes appear equally foreshortened and the angle between any two of them is 120 the drawing.
degrees.