LLB “Second Semester”

History of south asia

Topic : Early Islamic Invasions: Ghaznavids and Ghurids

Early Islamic Invasions

The early Islamic invasions refer to the military expeditions and conquests
initiated by Muslim rulers and armies in the 7th and 8th centuries to expand
Islamic rule and spread Islam. These invasions started after the rise of Islam
under Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and continued under the leadership of the
Rashidun Caliphs, the Umayyads, and later Muslim dynasties. Key regions
targeted included the Middle East, North Africa, Persia, and parts of the
Indian subcontinent.

Religions in South Asia Before Islam

Before the advent of Islam in South Asia, the region was predominantly
influenced by:

1. Hinduism - The dominant religion, centered on polytheistic beliefs, sacred texts

like the Vedas, and the caste system.
2. Buddhism - A major religion in South Asia, flourishing due to its emphasis on
equality and spiritual enlightenment.
3. Jainism - Focused on non-violence and ascetic practices.
4. Zoroastrianism - Practiced in small communities, especially in western India.
5. Animism - Indigenous tribal beliefs involving worship of nature and spirits.

These religions coexisted with some degree of conflict and harmony, but the
society was largely structured around caste and social hierarchies.

The Earliest Muslim Indians

Even before the life of Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) in the 600s, Arab
traders were in contact with India. Merchants would regularly sail to the west coast of
India to trade goods such as spices, gold, and African goods. Naturally, when the Arabs
began to convert to Islam, they carried their new religion to the shores of India. The first
mosque of India, the Cheraman Juma Masjid, was built in 629 (during the life of Prophet
Muhammad) in Kerala, by the first Muslim from India, Cheraman Perumal Bhaskara
Ravi Varma. Through continued trade between Arab Muslims and Indians, Islam
continued to spread in coastal Indian cities and towns, both through immigration and
conversion.
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History of south asia

Umayyad

Umayyad dynasty, (661–750) First Muslim dynasty. It was founded by Muʿāwiyah I, He moved
the capital from Medina to Damascus and used the Syrian army to extend the Arab empire.

Prominent Caliphs of Umayyad Empire

There were fourteen caliphs ruling the Islamic empire under the Umayyad dynasty:
 Caliph Muawiya I (661-680)
 Caliph Yazid I (680-683)
 Caliph Muawiya II (683-684)
 Caliph Marwan I (684-685)
 Caliph Abd al-Malik (685-705)
 Caliph Al-Walid I (705-715)
 Caliph Sulayman (715-717)
 Caliph Umar (717-720)

Muhammad Bin Qasim

Islam spread quickly worldwide after its emergence, but it firmly took root in the Indo-Pak
Subcontinent in the early 8th century. During the reign of the sixth Umayyad Caliph, Walid bin
Abdul Malik (705–715 AD), a significant incident occurred. Ships carrying widows and children
of deceased Arab soldiers, sent by the King of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka) to the Umayyad
Governor Hajjaj bin Yusuf in Baghdad, were looted near Debal (a port city) by pirates.

When Hajjaj demanded justice from Raja Dahir, the ruler of Sindh, under whose territory the
pirates operated, Dahir refused to take responsibility. In response, Hajjaj sent a young
commander, Muhammad bin Qasim, to confront Raja Dahir and free the captives. Muhammad
bin Qasim (The full name of Muhammad bin Qasim was Imad-ud-Din Muhammad bin Qasim
Al-Thaqafi) a young general of the Umayyad Caliphate and a key figure in the early Islamic
conquest of Sindh., who ruled Faris at the time, led an army to Sindh in 712 AD. During his
campaign, he gained the support of local Jats who were oppressed by Raja Dahir. In the decisive
battle, Raja Dahir was killed, and his army retreated. Muhammad bin Qasim freed the prisoners,
reclaimed the looted ships, and established Islamic governance in Sindh. He also expanded
Muslim rule up to Multan, defeating Raja Gor Singh.

Raja Dahir:- Raja Dahir was the last Hindu ruler of Sindh, Son of raja Chach of Alor, reigning
during the early 8th century. He belonged to the Brahman dynasty and ruled from his capital,
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History of south asia
Alor (modern-day Rohri, Pakistan). Raja Dahir's reign is remembered for his conflict with the
Umayyad Caliphate during the time of Caliph Walid bin Abdul Malik

The Battle of Aror:- took place in 711 AD between the Umayyad forces under Muhammad bin -
Qasim and the army of the Brahmin dynasty of Sindh under Raja Dahir. It was the last military
conflict of Raja Dahir, in which the Umayyads defeated his army near the Indus River and
resulted in the death of Dahir.

Death of Muhammad Bin Qasim:

However, political changes slowed his progress. After the death of Hajjaj in 714 AD and the rise
of a new Caliph, Suleman bin Abdul Malik, Muhammad bin Qasim was recalled and later
executed unjustly at the age of 22. Despite his short rule, historians praise Muhammad bin
Qasim for his administration, which brought justice, prosperity, and harmony to the region.
Italian scholar F. Gabrieli described him as a founding figure of South Asian Islam.

After the Umayyads, :- the Abbasids took control in 750 AD and occasionally sent governors to
the Subcontinent. During the rule of Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur (754–775 AD), Sindhi scholars
were welcomed in Baghdad. Islam also spread in the north through missionaries and Afghan
pathways. By the end of the 9th century, weak Abbasid rule over the Subcontinent waned.

In the 10th century, Turks entered the region through the Khyber Pass. Among them was
Mahmud of Ghazni, who ruled from 997 to 1030 AD. Known for his military campaigns, he
attacked India 17 times, weakened the Hindu Shahi Kingdom, and gained fame as the "Idol
Breaker" after destroying the Somnath temple. Mahmud's rule ended in 1030, and his
successors were eventually overthrown by Muhammad Ghori in 1185 AD. Ghori defeated
Prithvi Raj Chauhan in 1192 AD and established Muslim rule in North India, laying the
foundation for the Delhi Sultanate.

Mahmud of Ghazni, ( Ghaznavid Dynasty)

Early Life

Mahmud of Ghazni, was born on November 2, 971, in Ghazna (now Ghazni) in southeastern
Afghanistan. His full name was Abd al-Qasim Mahmud and his official title was sultan, while his
unofficial title was "Yeminü'd Devle" (the right hand of the state) and his family name, or surname, was
Ibn Sebük Tegin His father, Abu Mansur Sabuktegin, was a Turkic warrior who had been enslaved
but rose to prominence. Sabuktegin took control of Ghazni in 977 when the Samanid dynasty
began to weaken and established the Ghaznavid Empire. Mahmud had two younger brothers,
including Ismail, who was born to Sabuktegin’s noble wife. This distinction in lineage would
later play a crucial role in the succession struggle after Sabuktegin’s death.
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History of south asia
Rise to Power

When Sabuktegin died in 997, he chose Ismail, the second son, to succeed him. This decision
likely stemmed from Ismail’s noble maternal lineage, unlike Mahmud, whose mother had been
enslaved. However, Mahmud, who was 27 years old and stationed in Nishapur, did not accept
this decision. He quickly marched to Ghazni, defeated his brother's supporters, and deposed
Ismail in 998. Mahmud became the ruler and imprisoned Ismail for the rest of his life. Mahmud
ruled the Ghaznavid Empire until his death in 1030.

Expanding the Empire

Mahmud focused on expanding his empire, using a well-trained cavalry skilled in Central Asian
warfare. By 1001, he turned his attention to the Punjab region in India, which was ruled by
Rajput kings. These kings were known for their strong armies but lacked unity, making them
vulnerable. Mahmud’s horse-mounted cavalry proved superior to the slower infantry and
elephant-mounted forces of the Rajputs. Over the next 30 years, Mahmud conducted more
than a dozen military campaigns into India, conquering vast territories and extending his
empire to the Arabian Sea in southern Gujarat.

Ruling a Vast Empire

To manage his large empire, Mahmud appointed local rulers as vassals to govern in his name,
which helped maintain stability. He also welcomed Hindu and Ismaili soldiers into his army.
However, as the empire grew and resources were strained, Mahmud began targeting Hindu
temples for their wealth. His troops looted vast amounts of gold from these temples to support
his campaigns and treasury.

Idol Breaker

Mahmud of Ghazni earned the title "Idol Breaker" due to his repeated campaigns against
Hindu temples and his deliberate destruction of religious idols during his invasions of the Indian
subcontinent. These actions were driven by a combination of political, religious, and economic
motives, and they have become a defining feature of his historical legacy.

 Somnath Temple (1025): One of the most famous events associated with Mahmud's title
occurred during his campaign against the Somnath temple in Gujarat. This temple was a
major pilgrimage site for Hindus and was reputed to house a large idol of Lord Shiva and
immense wealth. Mahmud's army sacked the temple, destroyed the idol, and carried
away its treasures.
 Repeated Raids: Over his 17 invasions of India, Mahmud targeted other prominent
temples, such as those in Mathura and Kannauj, breaking idols and looting wealth.
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Domestic Policies

Mahmud was a patron of learning and culture. He built a grand library in Ghazni, rivaling the
famous Abbasid library in Baghdad. He also sponsored the construction of universities, palaces,
and mosques, turning Ghazni into a cultural hub of Central Asia. Scholars and poets from across
the Islamic world were drawn to his court.

Final Campaign and Death

In 1026, Mahmud launched a campaign to conquer Kathiawar, a region on India’s western

coast. His army captured and looted the famous Somnath temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
However, troubles were brewing in his empire. Turkic tribes, including the Seljuks, began to
challenge Ghaznavid rule, capturing key cities like Merv and Nishapur. These challenges marked
the beginning of the empire's decline. Mahmud died on April 30, 1030, at the age of 59.

Legacy

Mahmud left behind a mixed legacy. While his empire survived until 1187, it began to decline
even before his death. By 1151, the Ghaznavids had lost Ghazni and retreated to Lahore.
Mahmud is remembered for his relentless campaigns against Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and
Ismaili Muslims, whom he viewed as heretics. Despite his aggressive military campaigns,
Mahmud tolerated non-Muslims who did not oppose him militarily, a policy that later Muslim
empires in India, like the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, would continue.