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2- External Forced Convection

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16 views31 pages

2- External Forced Convection

Uploaded by

eng.elnakeeb145
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Heat Transfer

MPE 312
(Part 2)
By

Dr./ Gamal Helmy Badawy


External Forced Convection
Drag and Heat Transfer in External Flow
Fluid flow over solid bodies often occurs in many practical applications,
and it is responsible for many physical phenomena such as the drag
force acting on automobiles, power lines, and pipelines; the lift
developed by airplane wings, steam and hot water pipes, and extruded
wires
Therefore, developing a good understanding of external flow and
external forced convection is important in the mechanical and thermal
design of many engineering systems such as aircraft, automobiles,
buildings, electronic components, and turbine blades.
The flow fields and geometries for most external flow problems are too
complicated to be solved analytically, and thus we have to rely on
correlations based on experimental data.
Friction and Pressure Drag

The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on a body in


the direction of flow due to the combined effects of wall shear
(skin friction) and pressure forces.
The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the
normal direction to flow tend to move the body in that
direction, and their sum is called lift force.

In general, both the skin friction (wall shear) and pressure


contribute to the drag and the lift.
FD= Ffriction+ Fpressure
In the special case of a thin, flat plate aligned parallel to the flow
direction, the drag force depends on the wall shear only and is
independent of pressure.
When the flat plate is placed normal to the flow direction, however, the
drag force depends on the pressure only and is independent of the
wall shear since the shear stress in this case acts in the direction
normal to flow (Fig).

FIGURE, Drag force acting on a flat plate parallel to the flow


depends on wall shear only. (b) Drag force acting on a flat
plate normal to the flow depends on the pressure only.
The drag force FD depends on the density ρ of the fluid, the upstream
velocity V, and the size, shape, and orientation of the body, among
other things.
The drag characteristics of a body are represented by the
dimensionless drag coefficient CD defined as

where A is the frontal area (the area projected on a plane normal to the
direction of flow) for blunt bodies (bodies that tend to block the flow).
The frontal area of a cylinder of diameter D and length L, for example,
is A = LD.
For parallel flow over flat plates or thin airfoils, A is the surface area.
The drag coefficient is primarily a function of the shape of the body,
but it may also depend on the Reynolds number and the surface
roughness.
The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress τw is called
the skin friction drag (or just friction drag) since it is caused by
frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure P is
called the pressure drag (also called the form drag because of its
strong dependence on the form or shape of the body).
When the friction and pressure drag coefficients are available, the
total drag coefficient is determined by simply adding them,
The friction drag is the component of the
wall shear force in the direction of flow,
and thus it depends on the orientation of
the body as well as the magnitude of the
wall shear stress τw .
The friction drag is zero for a surface
normal to flow and maximum for a surface
parallel to flow since the friction drag in
this case equals the total shear force on
the surface.
Therefore, for parallel flow over a flat
plate, the drag coefficient is equal to the
friction drag coefficient, or simply the
friction coefficient. That is, Flat plate:
Once the average friction coefficient Cf is available, the drag (or
friction) force over the surface can be determined. In this case, A is
the surface area of the plate exposed to fluid flow.
When both sides of a thin plate are subjected to flow, A becomes the
total area of the top and bottom surfaces.
Note that the friction coefficient, in general, varies with location
along the surface.
The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to the
difference between the pressures acting on the front and back of the
immersed body.
Therefore, the pressure drag is usually dominant for blunt bodies,
negligible for streamlined bodies such as airfoils, and zero for thin,
flat plates parallel to the flow.
The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to the
difference between the pressures acting on the front and back of the
immersed body.
Therefore, the pressure drag is usually dominant for blunt bodies,
negligible for streamlined bodies such as airfoils, and zero for thin,
flat plates parallel to the flow.

When a fluid separates from a


body, it forms a separated region
between the body and the fluid
stream. This low-pressure region
behind the body where
recirculating and backflows occur
is called the separated region
Heat Transfer
The phenomena that affect drag force also affect heat transfer, and
this effect appears in the Nusselt number. By nondimensionalizing the
boundary layer equations, it was shown that the local and average
Nusselt numbers have the functional form

The experimental data for heat transfer are often represented conveniently
with reasonable accuracy by a simple power-law relation of the form

The fluid temperature in the thermal boundary layer varies from Ts at the
surface to about T∞ at the outer edge of the boundary. The fluid properties
also vary with temperature, and thus with position across the boundary
layer.
In order to account for the variation of the properties with temperature, the
fluid properties are usually evaluated at the so-called film temperature,
defined as

When relations for local friction and convection coefficients are available,
the average friction and convection coefficients for the entire surface can
be determined by integration from

the rate of heat transfer to or from an isothermal surface can be


determined from
1- PARALLEL FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of length L in the flow
direction, as shown in the Figure. The x-coordinate is measured along the
plate surface from the leading edge in the direction of the flow.

The fluid approaches the plate in the


x-direction with a uniform velocity V
and temperature T∞ . The flow in the
velocity boundary layers starts out as
laminar, but if the plate is sufficiently
long, the flow becomes turbulent at a
distance xcr from the leading edge
where the Reynolds number reaches
its critical value for transition.
The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat
plate is expressed as

For flow over a flat plate, the transition from laminar to turbulent begins at
about Re ≅ 1 × 105 , but it does not become fully turbulent before the
Reynolds number reaches much higher values, typically around 3 × 106 .
In engineering analysis, a generally accepted value for the critical Reynolds
number is
❖ Friction Coefficient
Based on analysis, the boundary layer thickness and the local friction
coefficient at location x for laminar flow over a flat plate were
determined to be

Laminar:

Turbulent:
The average friction coefficient over the entire plate is determined by
performing the integrations. We get
Laminar:

Turbulent:

▪ Combined laminar and turbulent flow over a flat plate;

▪ Rough surface, turbulent flow:

where ε is the surface roughness and L is the length of the plate in the flow
direction.
❖ Heat Transfer Coefficient
Constant wall temperature:
The local Nusselt number at a location x for laminar flow over a flat plate for the case of
constant wall temperature was determined by solving the differential energy equation
to be
Laminar:

Turbulent:

The variation of the boundary layer


thickness δ and the friction and heat
transfer coefficients along an isothermal
flat plate are shown in Fig.
The average Nusselt number over the entire plate is determined by
performing the integrations. We get
Laminar:

Turbulent:

▪ Combined laminar and turbulent flow over a flat plate;


Liquid metals have very small Prandtl numbers

where Pex = Rex Pr is the dimensionless Peclet number

For all fluids:

Churchill and Ozoe (1973) proposed the following relation for laminar flow
over an isothermal flat plate which is applicable for all Prandtl numbers
Uniform Heat Flux:
When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux instead of uniform
temperature, the local Nusselt number is given by

Laminar:

Turbulent:

To obtain the average Nusselt number for a flat plate subjected to


uniform heat flux, it is sufficiently accurate to use the average Nusselt
number equations developed for the case of isothermal surfaces for
laminar flow and turbulent flow.
When heat flux q•s is prescribed, the rate of heat transfer to or
from the plate and the surface temperature at a distance x are
determined from
❖ Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length

many practical applications involve


surfaces with an unheated starting
section of length ξ, shown in Fig., and
thus there is no heat transfer for
0 < x < ξ.

In such cases, the velocity boundary


layer starts to develop at the leading
edge (x = 0), but the thermal
boundary layer starts to develop Flow over a flat plate with an unheated
where heating starts (x = ξ). starting length.
Constant wall temperature and uniform heat flux condition (for x > ξ ):

Laminar:

Turbulent:
Example1:
Example 2:
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