Microwave Engineering

UNIT-4

Microwave Vacuum Tube Devices

Interaction of electron beam with electromagnetic field, power transfer condition. Principles of working
of two cavity and Reflex Klystrons, arrival time curve and oscillation conditions in reflex klystrons,
mode- frequency characteristics. Effect of repeller voltage variation on power and frequency of output.
Principle of working of magnetrons. Electron dynamics in planar and cylindrical magnetrons, Cutoff
magnetic field, Resonant cavities in magnetron, Π-mode operation Mode separation techniques, Rising
sun cavity and strapping. Principle of working of TWT amplifier. Slow wave structures, Approximate
gain relationship in forward wave TWT.

Two Cavity Cavity Klystron Oscillator

For the generation and amplification of Microwaves, there is a need of some special tubes called as
Microwave tubes. Of them all, Klystron is an important one.

The essential elements of Klystron are electron beams and cavity resonators. Electron beams are produced
from a source and the cavity klystrons are employed to amplify the signals. A collector is present at the
end to collect the electrons. The whole set up is as shown in the following figure.

The electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated towards the first resonator. The collector at the end is
at the same potential as the resonator. Hence, usually the electrons have a constant speed in the gap
between the cavity resonators.

Initially, the first cavity resonator is supplied with a weak high frequency signal, which has to be
amplified. The signal will initiate an electromagnetic field inside the cavity. This signal is passed through
a coaxial cable as shown in the following figure.

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 Due to this field, the electrons that pass through the cavity resonator are modulated. On arriving at the
second resonator, the electrons are induced with another EMF at the same frequency. This field is strong
enough to extract a large signal from the second cavity.

Working of Klystron

To understand the modulation of the electron beam, entering the first cavity, let's consider the electric
field. The electric field on the resonator keeps on changing its direction of the induced field. Depending
on this, the electrons coming out of the electron gun, get their pace controlled.

As the electrons are negatively charged, they are accelerated if moved opposite to the direction of the
electric field. Also, if the electrons move in the same direction of the electric field, they get decelerated.
This electric field keeps on changing, therefore the electrons are accelerated and decelerated depending
upon the change of the field. The following figure indicates the electron flow when the field is in the
opposite direction.

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 While moving, these electrons enter the field free space called as the drift space between the resonators
with varying speeds, which create electron bunches. These bunches are created due to the variation in the
speed of travel.

These bunches enter the second resonator, with a frequency corresponding to the frequency at which the
first resonator oscillates. As all the cavity resonators are identical, the movement of electrons makes the
second resonator to oscillate. The following figure shows the formation of electron bunches.

The induced magnetic field in the second resonator induces some current in the coaxial cable, initiating
the output signal. The kinetic energy of the electrons in the second cavity is almost equal to the ones in
the first cavity and so no energy is taken from the cavity.

The electrons while passing through the second cavity, few of them are accelerated while bunches of
electrons are decelerated. Hence, all the kinetic energy is converted into electromagnetic energy to
produce the output signal.

Multicavity Klystron Amplifier

Amplification of such two-cavity Klystron is low and hence multi-cavity Klystrons are used.

The following figure depicts an example of multi-cavity Klystron amplifier.

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 With the signal applied in the first cavity, we get weak bunches in the second cavity. These will set up a
field in the third cavity, which produces more concentrated bunches and so on. Hence, the amplification is
larger.

Reflex Klystron

This microwave generator, is a Klystron that works on reflections and oscillations in a single cavity,
which has a variable frequency.

Reflex Klystron consists of an electron gun, a cathode filament, an anode cavity, and an electrode at the
cathode potential. It provides low power and has low efficiency.

Construction of Reflex Klystron

The electron gun emits the electron beam, which passes through the gap in the anode cavity. These
electrons travel towards the Repeller electrode, which is at high negative potential. Due to the high
negative field, the electrons repel back to the anode cavity. In their return journey, the electrons give more
energy to the gap and these oscillations are sustained. The constructional details of this reflex klystron is
as shown in the following figure.

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 It is assumed that oscillations already exist in the tube and they are sustained by its operation. The
electrons while passing through the anode cavity, gain some velocity.

Operation of Reflex Klystron

The operation of Reflex Klystron is understood by some assumptions. The electron beam is accelerated
towards the anode cavity.

Let us assume that a reference electron er crosses the anode cavity but has no extra velocity and it repels
back after reaching the Repeller electrode, with the same velocity. Another electron, let's say ee which has
started earlier than this reference electron, reaches the Repeller first, but returns slowly, reaching at the
same time as the reference electron.

We have another electron, the late electron el, which starts later than both er and ee, however, it moves
with greater velocity while returning back, reaching at the same time as er and ee.

Now, these three electrons, namely er, ee and el reach the gap at the same time, forming an electron bunch.
This travel time is called as transit time, which should have an optimum value. The following figure
illustrates this.

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 The anode cavity accelerates the electrons while going and gains their energy by retarding them during
the return journey. When the gap voltage is at maximum positive, this lets the maximum negative
electrons to retard.

The optimum transit time is represented as

T=n+3/4

Where n is an integer

This transit time depends upon the Repeller and anode voltages.

Applications of Reflex Klystron

Reflex Klystron is used in applications where variable frequency is desirable, such as −

 Radio receivers
 Portable microwave links
 Parametric amplifiers
 Local oscillators of microwave receivers
 As a signal source where variable frequency is desirable in microwave generators.

Travelling Wave Tube

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 Travelling wave tubes are broadband microwave devices which have no cavity resonators like Klystrons.
Amplification is done through the prolonged interaction between an electron beam and Radio Frequency
(RF) field.

Construction of Travelling Wave Tube

Travelling wave tube is a cylindrical structure which contains an electron gun from a cathode tube. It has
anode plates, helix and a collector. RF input is sent to one end of the helix and the output is drawn from
the other end of the helix.

An electron gun focusses an electron beam with the velocity of light. A magnetic field guides the beam to
focus, without scattering. The RF field also propagates with the velocity of light which is retarded by a
helix. Helix acts as a slow wave structure. Applied RF field propagated in helix, produces an electric field
at the center of the helix.

The resultant electric field due to applied RF signal, travels with the velocity of light multiplied by the
ratio of helix pitch to helix circumference. The velocity of electron beam, travelling through the helix,
induces energy to the RF waves on the helix.

The following figure explains the constructional features of a travelling wave tube.

Thus, the amplified output is obtained at the output of TWT. The axial phase velocity Vp is represented as

Vp=Vc(Pitch/2πr)

where r is the radius of the helix. As the helix provides least change in Vp phase velocity, it is preferred
over other slow wave structures for TWT. In TWT, the electron gun focuses the electron beam, in the gap
between the anode plates, to the helix, which is then collected at the collector. The following figure
explains the electrode arrangements in a travelling wave tube.

Electrode Arrangements

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 Operation of Travelling Wave Tube

The anode plates, when at zero potential, which means when the axial electric field is at a node, the
electron beam velocity remains unaffected. When the wave on the axial electric field is at positive
antinode, the electron from the electron beam moves in the opposite direction. This electron being
accelerated, tries to catch up with the late electron, which encounters the node of the RF axial field.

At the point, where the RF axial field is at negative antinode, the electron referred earlier, tries to overtake
due to the negative field effect. The electrons receive modulated velocity. As a cumulative result, a
second wave is induced in the helix. The output becomes larger than the input and results in
amplification.

Applications of Travelling Wave Tube

 There are many applications of a travelling wave tube.

 TWT is used in microwave receivers as a low noise RF amplifier.
 TWTs are also used in wide-band communication links and co-axial cables as repeater amplifiers
or intermediate amplifiers to amplify low signals.
 TWTs have a long tube life, due to which they are used as power output tubes in communication
satellites.
 Continuous wave high power TWTs are used in Troposcatter links, because of large power and
large bandwidths, to scatter to large distances.
 TWTs are used in high power pulsed radars and ground based radars.

Magnetrons

Unlike the tubes discussed so far, Magnetrons are the cross-field tubes in which the electric and magnetic
fields cross, i.e. run perpendicular to each other. In TWT, it was observed that electrons when made to
interact with RF, for a longer time, than in Klystron, resulted in higher efficiency. The same technique is
followed in Magnetrons.

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 Types of Magnetrons

There are three main types of Magnetrons.

Negative Resistance Type

 The negative resistance between two anode segments, is used.

 They have low efficiency.
 They are used at low frequencies (< 500 MHz).

Cyclotron Frequency Magnetrons

 The synchronism between the electric component and oscillating electrons is considered.
 Useful for frequencies higher than 100MHz.

Travelling Wave or Cavity Type

 The interaction between electrons and rotating EM field is taken into account.
 High peak power oscillations are provided.
 Useful in radar applications.

Cavity Magnetron

The Magnetron is called as Cavity Magnetron because the anode is made into resonant cavities and a
permanent magnet is used to produce a strong magnetic field, where the action of both of these make the
device work.

Construction of Cavity Magnetron

A thick cylindrical cathode is present at the center and a cylindrical block of copper, is fixed axially,
which acts as an anode. This anode block is made of a number of slots that acts as resonant anode
cavities.

The space present between the anode and cathode is called as Interaction space. The electric field is
present radially while the magnetic field is present axially in the cavity magnetron. This magnetic field is
produced by a permanent magnet, which is placed such that the magnetic lines are parallel to cathode and
perpendicular to the electric field present between the anode and the cathode.

The following figures show the constructional details of a cavity magnetron and the magnetic lines of flux
present, axially.

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 This Cavity Magnetron has 8 cavities tightly coupled to each other. An N-cavity magnetron has N modes
of operations. These operations depend upon the frequency and the phase of oscillations. The total phase
shift around the ring of this cavity resonators should be 2nπ where n is an integer.

If ϕv represents the relative phase change of the AC electric field across adjacent cavities, then

ϕv=2πn/N

Where n=0,±1,±2,±(N/2−1),±N/2

Which means that N/2 mode of resonance can exist if N is an even number.

If,

n=N/2thenϕv=π

This mode of resonance is called as π−mode.

n=0thenϕv=0

This is called as the Zero mode, because there will be no RF electric field between the anode and the
cathode. This is also called as Fringing Field and this mode is not used in magnetrons.

Operation of Cavity Magnetron

When the Cavity Klystron is under operation, we have different cases to consider. Let us go through them
in detail.

Case 1

If the magnetic field is absent, i.e. B = 0, then the behavior of electrons can be observed in the following
figure. Considering an example, where electron a directly goes to anode under radial electric force.

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 Case 2

If there is an increase in the magnetic field, a lateral force acts on the electrons. This can be observed in
the following figure, considering electron b which takes a curved path, while both forces are acting on it.

Radius of this path is calculated as

R=mv/eB

It varies proportionally with the velocity of the electron and it is inversely proportional to the magnetic
field strength.

Case 3

If the magnetic field B is further increased, the electron follows a path such as the electron c, just grazing
the anode surface and making the anode current zero. This is called as "Critical magnetic field" (B c),
which is the cut-off magnetic field. Refer the following figure for better understanding.

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 Case 4

If the magnetic field is made greater than the critical field,

B>Bc

Then the electrons follow a path as electron d, where the electron jumps back to the cathode, without
going to the anode. This causes "back heating" of the cathode. Refer the following figure.

This is achieved by cutting off the electric supply once the oscillation begins. If this is continued, the
emitting efficiency of the cathode gets affected.

Operation of Cavity Magnetron with Active RF Field

We have discussed so far the operation of cavity magnetron where the RF field is absent in the cavities of
the magnetron (static case). Let us now discuss its operation when we have an active RF field.

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 As in TWT, let us assume that initial RF oscillations are present, due to some noise transient. The
oscillations are sustained by the operation of the device. There are three kinds of electrons emitted in this
process, whose actions are understood as electrons a, b and c, in three different cases.

Case 1

When oscillations are present, an electron a, slows down transferring energy to oscillate. Such electrons
that transfer their energy to the oscillations are called as favored electrons. These electrons are responsible
for bunching effect.

Case 2

In this case, another electron, say b, takes energy from the oscillations and increases its velocity. As and
when this is done,

 It bends more sharply.

 It spends little time in interaction space.
 It returns to the cathode.

These electrons are called as unfavored electrons. They don't participate in the bunching effect. Also,
these electrons are harmful as they cause "back heating".

Case 3

In this case, electron c, which is emitted a little later, moves faster. It tries to catch up with electron a. The
next emitted electron d, tries to step with a. As a result, the favored electrons a, c and d form electron
bunches or electron clouds. It called as "Phase focusing effect".

This whole process is understood better by taking a look at the following figure.

Phase Focusing Effect

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 Figure A shows the electron movements in different cases while figure B shows the electron clouds
formed. These electron clouds occur while the device is in operation. The charges present on the internal
surface of these anode segments, follow the oscillations in the cavities. This creates an electric field
rotating clockwise, which can be actually seen while performing a practical experiment.

While the electric field is rotating, the magnetic flux lines are formed in parallel to the cathode, under
whose combined effect, the electron bunches are formed with four spokes, directed in regular intervals, to
the nearest positive anode segment, in spiral trajectories.

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